Soldering and brazing:

Definitions:
Soldering: Soldering is a process of uniting two or more metal pieces under heat with the help of a
solder and a flux. There are two types:
Soft soldering
Hard soldering.

Flux: it is cleaning agent used to prevent oxidation of metals at the soldering point. It helps the
solder to melt quickly and allows it to flow freely to unite more firmly.
E.g. zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, borax, rosin, turpentine oil etc.

Solder: generally it is an alloy of lead and tin. It melts at low temperature. For strong joints a
mixture of copper and zinc is used which has high melting point.

Classification of solder:
Soft solder: for high joints using various proportions of lead and tin which has low melting point.
Hard solder: for strong joints using a mixture of copper, zinc etc. which has high melting point.

Soft solder: generally it is composed of lead and tin. They are mixed in various proportions to
solder different metals at different temperatures. The range of melting point for such solder lies
between 150 to 300C. A suitable flux for the particular job is chosen. A small amount of bismuth
and cadmium are frequently added to lower the melting point if necessary. Soft solders are used to
join the wires and sheet metal works of light jobs which are subjected to light loads and slight
shocks. A plain soldering iron is used to heat the metal pieces during the process. Soldering using
soft solder is known as soft soldering.

Hard solder: generally it is composed of copper and zinc in 4:1 ratio. A small amount of silver or
tin and antimony are frequently added to improve the quality. The range of melting point of such
solder are lies between 350 to 900C.the fixtures for such solder will be in paste form. A propane
torch is used to heat the metal pieces during the process. Hard solders are used to make
comparatively strong joints compare to soft solder.
e.g.: plumbing, heavy sheet metal works etc.

Method of soldering:
The step by step general procedure for soldering is as follows:

The metal parts which are to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned.

The type of job whether light or heavy has to be decided.
A good soldering iron has to be selected.
In case of light jobs, the tip of the heating head of the soldering iron has to be heated
sufficiently.
It has to be then cleaned, dipped in flux and the rubbed on the solder to tin the tip.
The molten solder has to be then deposited on the joint.
In case of heavy jobs, the surface must be tinned first by cleaning, the heating using a blow
torch.
The job must be dipped in flux.
Using a solder iron, the solder has to be applied over the parts.
The parts may be then assembled and heated together until the solder melts.
In case corrosive flux is used, the soldered job must be washed with water.

Advantages of soldering:
It is simple and economical.
Base metals are safe against the metallurgical damages due to low operating
temperature.

Brazing:
It is the process of uniting two or more metals of similar or dissimilar type with the help of an alloy
in the form of spelter and flux, like borax, ash etc. these are used in tanks, radiators, carbide tips on
tool holder etc.
Types of brazing:
It is classified on the basis of actual heating as:-
• Torch brazing
• Electric brazing
• Immersion brazing.

Method of brazing:
The step by step procedure for brazing is as follows:
The metal parts which are to be brazed must be thoroughly cleaned.
The flux must be applied to the surface.
The parts are to be clamped in the required position.
The flux ha to be applied on the surfaces.
The job has to be heated using the blow torch or the furnace etc.
The molten spelter has to be allowed to flow by capillary action into the joint.
The job has to be allowed to cool slowly.
Advantages:
Even dissimilar metal pieces can be united.
No metallurgical damage to base metals.
Provides stronger joints than hard soldering.

Difference between soldering and brazing:

 Soldering Brazing
Solder is used in this process. Spelter is used in this process.
Joints are not very strong. Joints are very strong.
Costs less. Costs more.
Chlorides of zinc and rosin are used as flux. Ash or borax is used as flux.
Low temperature is sufficient. High temperature is necessary.
Suitable only for thin similar sheet metals. Suitable even for thicker similar or dissimilar
metal parts.
Soldered parts are to be cleaned with water. Brazed parts are to be allowed to cool slowly.
 TIG WELDING

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is an
arc welding process that produces the weld with a non-consumable tungsten electrode.

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining
magnesium and aluminium. Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect the
weldpool, the process was a highly attractive replacement for gas and manual metal arc
welding. TIG has played a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality welding
and structural applications.

Process characteristics

In the TIG welding process the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the
work piece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by the
pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding. Because the electrode is
not consumed during welding, the TIG welder does not have to balance the heat input from
the arc as the metal is deposited from the melting electrode. When filler metal is required, it
must be added separately to the weld pool.
Power source

TIG welding must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC
or AC. A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being
drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the work piece surface. This could happen
either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently during welding. If, as in MIG welding,
a flat characteristic power source is used, any contact with the work piece surface would
damage the electrode tip or fuse the electrode to the work piece surface. In DC, because arc
heat is distributed approximately one-third at the cathode (negative) and two-thirds at the
anode (positive), the electrode is always negative polarity to prevent overheating and
melting. However, the alternative power source connection of DC electrode positive polarity
has the advantage in that when the cathode is on the work piece, the surface is cleaned of
oxide contamination. For this reason, AC is used when welding materials with a tenacious
surface oxide film, such as aluminium.

Arc starting

The welding arc can be started by scratching the surface, forming a short-circuit. It is only
when the short-circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow. However, there is a
risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a tungsten inclusion in the weld.
This risk can be minimised using the 'lift arc' technique where the short-circuit is formed at a
very low current level. The most common way of starting the TIG arc is to use HF (High
Frequency). HF consists of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts which last for a few
microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - work piece gap to break down or
ionise. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from the power source.

HF is also important in stabilising the AC arc; in AC, electrode polarity is reversed at a

frequency of about 50 times per second, causing the arc to be extinguished at each polarity
change. To ensure that the arc is reignited at each reversal of polarity, HF sparks are
generated across the electrode/work piece gap to coincide with the beginning of each half-
cycle.
Electrodes

Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thorium to improve arc
ignition. Alternative additives are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide which are claimed to
give superior performance (arc starting and lower electrode consumption). It is important to
select the correct electrode diameter and tip angle for the level of welding current. As a
rule, the lower the current the smaller the electrode diameter and tip angle. In AC welding,
as the electrode will be operating at a much higher temperature, tungsten with a zirconium
addition is used to reduce electrode erosion. It should be noted that because of the large
amount of heat generated at the electrode, it is difficult to maintain a pointed tip and the
end of the electrode assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.

MIG WEDLING
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding is a gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process that uses a
continuous solid wire electrode which is heated and fed into the weld pool from a welding
gun. The two base materials are melted together which causes them to join. The welding
gun also feeds an inert shielding gas alongside the wire electrode, which helps protect the
process from airborne contaminants.

MIG welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding aluminium. The arc and weld
pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by helium gas, readily available at
that time. From about 1952, the process became popular in the UK for welding aluminium
using argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO 2. CO2 and argon-
CO2 mixtures are known as metal active gas (MAG) processes. MIG is an attractive
alternative to MMA, offering high deposition rates and high productivity.
Process Characteristics

MIG/MAG welding is a versatile technique suitable for both thin sheet and thick section
components. An arc is struck between the end of a wire electrode and the work piece,
melting both of them to form a weld pool. The wire serves as both heat source (via the arc
at the wire tip) and filler metal for the welding joint. The wire is fed through a copper
contact tube (contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is
protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a nozzle
surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends on the material being welded and the
application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive, and the welder moves the welding
torch along the joint line. Wires may be solid (simple drawn wires), or cored (composites
formed from a metal sheath with a powdered flux or metal filling). Consumables are
generally competitively priced compared with those for other processes. The process offers
high productivity, as the wire is continuously fed.

Manual MIG/MAG welding is often referred as a semi-automatic process, as the wire feed
rate and arc length are controlled by the power source, but the travel speed and wire
position are under manual control. The process can also be mechanised when all the
process parameters are not directly controlled by a welder, but might still require manual
adjustment during welding. When no manual intervention is needed during welding, the
process can be referred to as automatic.
The process usually operates with the wire positively charged and connected to a power
source delivering a constant voltage. Selection of wire diameter (usually between 0.6 and
1.6mm) and wire feed speed determine the welding current, as the burn-off rate of the wire
will form an equilibrium with the feed speed.
 HEAT TRANSFER
According to thermodynamic systems, heat transfer is defined as

The movement of heat across the border of the system due to a difference in temperature
between the system and its surroundings

Interestingly, the difference in temperature is said to be a ‘potential’ that causes the transfer
of heat from one point to another. Besides, heat is also known as flux.

How is Heat Transferred?

Heat can travel from one place to another in several ways. The different modes of heat
transfer include:

 Conduction

 Convection

 Radiation

Meanwhile, if the temperature difference exists between the two systems, heat will find a way
to transfer from the higher to the lower system
What is Conduction?

Conduction is defined as

The process in which heat flows from objects with higher temperature to objects with lower
temperature

An area of higher kinetic energy transfers thermal energy towards the lower kinetic energy
area. High-speed particles clash with particles moving at a slow speed, as a result, slow
speed particles increase their kinetic energy. This is a typical form of heat transfer and takes
place through physical contact. Conduction is also known as thermal conduction or heat
conduction.

Conduction Examples

Following are the examples of conduction:

 Ironing of clothes is an example of conduction where the heat is conducted from the
iron to the clothes.

 Heat is transferred from hands to ice cube resulting in the melting of an ice cube when
held in hands.

 Heat conduction through the sand at the beaches. This can be experienced during
summers. Sand is a good conductor of heat.

What is Convection?

Convection is defined as

The movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature regions to lower temperature
regions

Convection Examples
Examples of convection include:

 Boiling of water, that is molecules that are denser move at the bottom while the
molecules which are less dense move upwards resulting in the circular motion of the
molecules so that water gets heated.

 Warm water around the equator moves towards the poles while cooler water at the
poles moves towards the equator.

 Blood circulation in warm-blooded animals takes place with the help of convection,
thereby regulating the body temperature.

What is Radiation?

Radiant heat is present in some or other form in our daily lives. Thermal radiations are
referred to as radiant heat. Thermal radiation is generated by the emission of electromagnetic
waves. These waves carry away the energy from the emitting body. Radiation takes place
through a vacuum or transparent medium which can be either solid or liquid. Thermal
radiation is the result of the random motion of molecules in the matter. The movement of
charged electrons and protons is responsible for the emission of electromagnetic
radiation. Let us know more about radiation heat transfer.

Radiation heat transfer is measured by the device known as thermocouple. Thermocouple is

used for measuring the temperature. In this device sometimes, error takes place while
measuring the temperature through radiation heat transfer.

Radiation Example

Following are the examples of radiation:

 Microwave radiation emitted in the oven is an example of radiation.

 UV rays coming from the sun is an example of radiation.

 The release of alpha particles during the decaying of Uranium-238 into Thorium-234 is
an example of radiation.
Radiators are heat exchangers used for cooling internal combustion engines, mainly
in automobiles .

Internal combustion engines are often cooled by circulating a liquid called engine coolant through
the engine block, and cylinder head where it is heated, then through a radiator where it loses heat to
the atmosphere, and then returned to the engine. Engine coolant is usually water-based, but may
also be oil. It is common to employ a water pump to force the engine coolant to circulate, and also
for an axial fan to force air through the radiator.

Radiator construction
Automobile radiators are constructed of a pair of metal or plastic header tanks, linked by a core with
many narrow passageways, giving a high surface area relative to volume. This core is usually made
of stacked layers of metal sheet, pressed to form channels and soldered or brazed together. For
many years radiators were made from brass or copper cores soldered to brass headers. Modern
radiators have aluminum cores, and often save money and weight by using plastic headers with
gaskets. This construction is more prone to failure and less easily repaired than traditional materials.

The sole purpose of a condenser is to continuously condense the vapors generated during the
drying process back into water
The evaporator coil is the part of an air-conditioning system that removes heat and moisture from
indoor air to cool it. The condenser coil takes that heat and releases it outside.

HOW DO THE EVAPORATOR COIL AND CONDENSER COIL WORK

TOGETHER?
Refrigerant enters the evaporator coil from through copper tubing that is connected to your
outdoor unit. Once inside, it absorbs the heat from the air blowing over it. Moisture in the air is
condensed into water on the coils, which then empties into the drain pan. Removing this
moisture lowers the temperature of the air blown into your home, creating a more comfortable
environment.

The now-warm refrigerant flows to the outdoor unit. The refrigerant then runs through the
condenser coil, where the heat is expelled to the outdoor air. The refrigerant then travels back
inside to the evaporator coil to repeat the process.

Throughout the cooling cycle, refrigerant (coolant) cycles through the air conditioner
components, absorbing heat from the house and releasing that heat outside. The evaporator coil
contains cold refrigerant that absorbs heat from your air. The condenser coil is where the
refrigerant goes to get rid of this heat so it can can come back to absorb more.
All electronic devices and circuitry generate excess heat and thus require thermal
management to improve reliability and prevent premature failure. The amount of heat output is
equal to the power input, if there are no other energy interactions.[1] There are several techniques
for cooling including various styles of heat sinks, thermoelectric coolers, forced air systems
and fans, heat pipes, and others. In cases of extreme low environmental temperatures, it may
actually be necessary to heat the electronic components to achieve satisfactory operation

A thermal interface material or mastic (aka TIM) is used to fill the gaps between thermal
transfer surfaces, such as between microprocessors and heatsinks, in order to increase thermal
transfer efficiency. It has a higher thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction.

Applications

Personal computers

Due to recent technological developments and public interest, the retail heat sink market has
reached an all-time high. In the early 2000s, CPUs were produced that emitted more and more
heat than earlier, escalating requirements for quality cooling systems.

Overclocking has always meant greater cooling needs, and the inherently hotter chips meant
more concerns for the enthusiast. Efficient heat sinks are vital to overclocked computer systems
because the higher a microprocessor's cooling rate, the faster the computer can operate without
instability; generally, faster operation leads to higher performance. Many companies now
compete to offer the best heat sink for PC overclocking enthusiasts. Prominent aftermarket heat
sink manufacturers include: Aero Cool, Foxconn, Thermalright, Thermaltake, Swiftech,
[citation needed]
and Zalman.

Soldering

Temporary heat sinks were sometimes used while soldering circuit boards, preventing excessive
heat from damaging sensitive nearby electronics. In the simplest case, this means partially
gripping a component using a heavy metal crocodile clip or similar clamp. Modern
semiconductor devices, which are designed to be assembled by reflow soldering, can usually
tolerate soldering temperatures without damage. On the other hand, electrical components such
as magnetic reed switches can malfunction if exposed to higher powered soldering irons, so this
practice is still very much in use.[5]

Batteries

In the battery used for electric vehicles, Nominal battery performance is usually specified for
working temperatures somewhere in the +20 °C to +30 °C range; however, the actual
performance can deviate substantially from this if the battery is operated at higher or, in
particular, lower temperatures, so some electric cars have heating and cooling for their batteries.[

Methodologies

Heat sinks
Main article: Heat sink

Heat sinks are widely used in electronics and have become essential to modern microelectronics.
In common use, it is a metal object brought into contact with an electronic component's hot
surface—though in most cases, a thin thermal interface material mediates between the two
surfaces. Microprocessors and power handling semiconductors are examples of electronics that
need a heat sink to reduce their temperature through increased thermal mass and heat dissipation
(primarily by conduction and convection and to a lesser extent by radiation). Heat sinks have
become almost essential to modern integrated circuits like microprocessors, DSPs, GPUs, and
more.

A heat sink usually consists of a metal structure with one or more flat surfaces to ensure good
thermal contact with the components to be cooled, and an array of comb or fin like protrusions to
increase the surface contact with the air, and thus the rate of heat dissipation.

A heat sink is sometimes used in conjunction with a fan to increase the rate of airflow over the
heat sink. This maintains a larger temperature gradient by replacing warmed air faster than
convection would. This is known as a forced air system.

Cold plate

Placing a conductive thick metal plate, referred to as a cold plate,[7] as a heat transfer interface
between a heat source and a cold flowing fluid (or any other heat sink) may improve the cooling
performance. In such arrangement, the heat source is cooled under the thick plate instead of
being cooled in direct contact with the cooling fluid. It is shown that the thick plate can
significantly improve the heat transfer between the heat source and the cooling fluid by way of
conducting the heat current in an optimal manner. The two most attractive advantages of this
method are that no additional pumping power and no extra heat transfer surface area, that is quite
different from fins (extended surfaces).

Principle

Heat sinks function by efficiently transferring thermal energy ("heat") from an object at high
temperature to a second object at a lower temperature with a much greater heat capacity. This
rapid transfer of thermal energy quickly brings the first object into thermal equilibrium with the
second, lowering the temperature of the first object, fulfilling the heat sink's role as a cooling
device. Efficient function of a heat sink relies on rapid transfer of thermal energy from the first
object to the heat sink, and the heat sink to the second object.

The most common design of a heat sink is a metal device with many fins. The high thermal
conductivity of the metal combined with its large surface area result in the rapid transfer of
thermal energy to the surrounding, cooler, air. This cools the heat sink and whatever it is in direct
thermal contact with. Use of fluids (for example coolants in refrigeration) and thermal interface
material (in cooling electronic devices) ensures good transfer of thermal energy to the heat sink.
Similarly, a fan may improve the transfer of thermal energy from the heat sink to the air.

A common problem in product design—particularly in electronics cooling—is

managing thermal conditions for optimal efficiency. The core of the challenge is
designing energy-efficient microprocessors and printed circuit boards (PCBs) that will
not overheat.

To tackle and alleviate the difficulties and inefficiencies that arise as a result of heat,
engineers employ different cooling systems to manage conditions. These systems
can be divided into two main categories: those with active and with passive cooling
techniques. But what is the difference between them?

Passive Cooling
The advantages of passive cooling techniques lie in the energy efficiency and lower financial
cost, making it an astute systems design choice for the thermal management of both buildings
and electronic products.
Passive cooling achieves high levels of natural convection and heat dissipation by utilizing a heat
spreader or a heat sink to maximize the radiation and convection heat transfer modes. In
architectural design, natural resources like wind or soil are used as heat sinks to absorb or
dissipate heat. This leads to proper cooling of electronic products and thermal comfort in homes
or office buildings by keeping them under the maximum allowed operating temperature. A
growing trend in this regards can be witnessed in what is commonly known in the industry
as passive houses.
To sum it up—passive thermal management is a cost-effective and energy-efficient solution that
relies on heat sinks, heat spreaders, heat pipes or thermal interface materials (TIM) to maintain
optimal operating temperatures.
Active Cooling
Active cooling, on the other hand, refers to cooling technologies that rely on an external device
to enhance heat transfer. Through active cooling technologies, the rate of fluid flow increases
during convection, which dramatically increases the rate of heat removal.

Active cooling solutions include forced air through a fan or blower, forced liquid, and
thermoelectric coolers (TECs), which can be used to optimize thermal management on all levels.
Fans are used when natural convection is insufficient to remove heat. They are commonly
integrated into electronics, such as computer cases, or are attached to CPUs, hard drives

or chipsets to maintain thermal conditions and reduce failure risk.The main

disadvantage of active thermal management is that it requires the use of electricity and
therefore results in higher costs, compared to passive cooling.

Hybrid cooling combines dry and evaporative cooling to provide heat rejection and reduce
water and energy consumption.Globally, we are all becoming more conscious of our water
consumption as freshwater is recognized as a critical natural resource; utilizing hybrid
cooling solutions where applicable can dramatically reduce annual water consumption.

The hybrid cooling system has proved to be an energy saving technology for building air
conditioning. Numerous systems combining different cooling processes or cooling
machines have been proposed and investigated in the literature. A properly selected
hybrid cooling system offers a great reduction in energy consumption and a coefficient
of performance improvement varying according to different climates and system
designs.