ORDINARY LEVEL HISTORY

HISTORY OF SOUTHERN AFRICA 4044/1

- The history to be covered is divided into two: pre-colonial (before colonisation) and
post-colonial (after colonisation)
- The pre-colonial period is the period which covers the Early Stone Age to the period
when Zimbabwe was not yet colonised by Europeans.
- The post-colonial period is that time when Zimbabwe became independent (1980
going forward)
- Boundaries of Zimbabwe are artificial
- Before colonisation the term ‘Zimbabwe Plateau’ is more appropriate
- The Zimbabwe plateau stretched into Mozambique
- The pre-colonial history is now known to us through the following methods: oral
traditions, linguistics, archaeology, written documents usually written by foreigners
and also through anthropology
- These historical sources have limitations (disadvantages, problems) in as far as
prehistory is concerned
- They have also strengths (advantages) for they enable us to reconstruct the past.
- Portuguese and Arabic documents mainly concentrate on economic activities of the
Shona of the plateau

New Terms

- Culture – tradition (in this context refers to the materials or objects used by a group of
people)
- Wares – these are materials of a special type e.g., hoes, axes, spears
- Ceramic – it a hard and brittle material made by heating clay to very high temperature
- Cowrie – a brightly coloured or marked sea-shell e.g., ndoro shells
- Pre-colonial [before colonisation] = 1890 and before
- Contemporary – modern times
- Eurocentric – focussing on Europe; focussing on Europe or its people, institutions and
cultures, often in a way that dismisses achievements of others
- Afrocentric – centred on or originating in Africa or appreciating the achievements of
Africa

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 - Radio Carbon dating – a method of dating carbon remains based on their content of
Carbon 14; a method of calculating the age of prehistoric objects by measuring the
decay of radioactive form carbon present in organic materials
- AD means Anno Domini (in the year of our Lord); that is the period after the birth of
our Saviour Jesus Christ. Some books refer to the AD period as the CE (Christian
Era)
- BC means Before Christ; the period before the birth of Jesus Christ.
A century consists of 100 years. There is NO year 0 (Year zero).
1-99 AD = the 1st century AD
100-199 AD = the 2nd Century AD;
200-299 AD = 3rd Century AD
300-399 AD = 4th Century AD
900-999 AD = 10th Century AD
1000-1099 AD = 11th Century AD
1700-1799 AD = 18th Century AD
1800-1899 AD = 19th Century AD
1900-1999 AD = 20th Century
AD 2000-2099 AD = 21st Century AD

Location of sites of the Early Iron Age (EIA) period

-A site is an area where activities took place.
1. Coronation Park in the Salisbury (Harare) area
2. Zhizo in the Matabeleland
3. Malapati in the Lowveld
4. Gokomere in Masvingo
5. Mabveni in Masvingo under Chivi district
6. Ziwa or place of offering in Nyanga at Ziwa Mountains
7. Maxton Farm is near Shamva
8. Leopard’s Kopje I in Matabeleland

SOURCES OF HISTORY

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-Basically, there are two kinds of the sources of history: Primary Sources and Secondary
Sources.

-Examples of primary sources are: reports, letters, diaries, objects which were produced in the
past (artefacts), eye-witnesses and also photographs.

-Secondary sources, such as textbooks, are usually the conclusions reached by historians after
a study of the primary sources.

Oral Evidence
-Oral comes from the word which means ‘mouth’ therefore oral tradition is defined as a
testimony transmitted (passed) from one generation to the next generation through the word
of mouth

-In politically centralised systems (kingdoms) individuals were selected and tasked to
memorise, recite and pass on the oral tradition from one generation to the next generation.

-In West Africa these people were called griots

-These people who became custodians of history became known as ‘moving libraries’

Advantages of Oral Evidence

 it is relatively cheap to collect

 it is an indispensable source for the analysis of pre-literate societies – e.g., pre-

colonial Zimbabwean societies
 it fills the gap left out by written evidence and archaeology

 provides more graphic and vivid descriptions of events and personalities

 Can be used in communities where written documents do not exist

 Gives the local people’s point of view

 Listeners have room to ask questions for clarification

 The illiterate can participate in it

 Gives both the history of poor and ordinary men often neglected by historians
Disadvantages of Oral Traditions

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  It can be polluted or distorted through omission (leaving out) or by adding
unnecessary and incorrect information to please the audience
 Listeners may not know whether the story is being exaggerated or not

 One may die before passing the information to the next generation

 One may lose memory or even totally forget important events or names

 The custodians of the history may forget due to old age

 oral evidence may not provide exact dates or detailed information; this creates the
problem of correct chronology as events might not follow a correct sequence.
 one of the greatest weaknesses of oral tradition is that when giving dates people rely
on events or disasters e.g., droughts, hunger, earthquakes, wars, locust plagues,
outbreak of influenza and regimes
 influence of the historian – the interview may be affected by social relations with
interviewer or by the race, class, age, gender and ethnicity of the historian
 subjectivity – the interviewee’s account may not be shared by others

 Original words may never be known as language may be a barrier

Oral evidence has been very important in covering the history of the Shona societies e.g.
Great Zimbabwe State, Mutapa State, Rozvi State as well as the history of Zimbabweans
from colonisation up to 1980

Oral evidence has played a pivotal role in reconstructing the history of the past societies or
people.

-Therefore, the dates which are not exact can be provided by written records or near exact
dates are provided by archaeologists

-A multi-disciplinary approach to the study of history is required.

-Sources are inter-dependent (rely on one another) – problems of oral evidence must be
resolved by consulting other sources e.g. written documents, archaeology and linguists.

Archaeology
-It is the scientific study of the remains of the past or artefacts e.g. clay pots, broken pottery
(potsherds), bones, stone tools, imports like Persian bowls, glass beads, pumpkin seeds,
spoons etc.

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-Archaeologists study fossils: seeds, bones of animals they kept, bones from animals they
hunted, bones of the people themselves and hut foundations.

-Archaeologists also study artefacts (artefacts) e.g. clay-pots, broken pottery (potsherds),
stone tools, iron tools, imports like Persian bowls and glass beads

-Items examined by archaeology may include carvings, graves, remains of shelter and
monuments.

-Archaeology can provide valuable insights into the material culture e.g. bones, seeds and
potsherds.

-Archaeology gives tangible evidence about the nature of a society’s economy, its
technology, its culture and artistic development.

-Through archaeology the history of an early society’s economy can be easily understood

-Dates can be established by using a scientific system of dating known as Radio Carbon
dating: C-14 System

-Using Radio-Carbon dating it is possible to give with some accuracy artefacts for a period of
up to 60 000 years ago

-Archaeology has helped historians to understand the pre-history of the Zimbabwean societies
e.g. the Early Stone Age, Middle Stone Age, Late Stone Age, Early Iron Age and the Late
Iron Age

 Oral tradition has failed to give exact dating; this can be corrected using archaeology
 Archaeology has provided near exact dates, for example, that Great Zimbabwe rose in
about or during the 13th century AD and that Great Zimbabwe is said to have declined
during the first half of the 15th century
 Archaeology provides details of settlement, architecture and material culture
 Can verify facts provided by other sources
 Archaeology can throw light upon such varied aspects of the site’s inhabitants like
their technology, art, religious and funeral practices, diet and economy

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  It does not leave room for distortion (so it is a silent witness) – unless it is used by an
amateur archaeologist who might destroy or disturb the original context of the
remains
 Where archaeology has failed to provide some information, historians have been
forced to consult some sources e.g. written records or oral tradition
Disadvantages of Archaeology

 One of the limitations of archaeology is that some materials have been subjected to
weathering and have decayed or decomposed e.g. skins, seeds, tools made of wood
 Archaeology has also failed to provide some exact dates

 The dating of beads should be treated with caution: the dating of beads does not give
an accurate date but a broad estimate

 Archaeology produces a lot of information about pots, but relatively few about
people.’

 Archaeology cannot tell us the names or language of historical figures

 It does not tell us whether those communities under study practised polygamy,
quarrels over land or leadership, quarrels over land or other resources

 C-14 dating is more reliable for dates during the last 30 000 years; beyond this date it
becomes unreliable.

 Archaeological materials don’t speak for themselves: they are therefore subject to
various interpretations which may be caused by the presence of some foreign imports.
 In Zimbabwe (as elsewhere in Africa) it is rather an expensive source of getting
historical information
 Needs special training for one to be a qualified and competent archaeologist: amateur
archaeologists may produce findings that are incomplete and inaccurate

 Where C-14 is the only method available, an artefact without carbon cannot be
dated

Written Documents
-This is a great deal of written information on the history of Zimbabwe.

-Written records of the past include published works, books and newspapers and unpublished
works like diaries and letters

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There are two types of written documents:

1.Primary documents: archival material, diaries, treaties, letters mostly by traders,

missionaries and hunters as well as Portuguese and Arabic documents These are original
unprocessed and unedited documents.

2.Secondary documents: are edited, commented on, selected and published documents such as
newspapers, textbooks, articles and magazines

Advantages of written documents

 give exact and accurate dates and even time

 preserve information better and more accurately

 they may provide information in chronological or thematic order

 the records may come from the actual doers like missionaries

 if undisturbed, can survive longer especially in politically stable environments

 are tangible sources and are unaltered (unchanged) through time

 Are the only source which are both messages and artefacts

 they may also be first hand or primary sources of history

 it is a useful source in recovering the history of pre-colonial states

 if the written records are kept well, they can guarantee safety of information

Disadvantages of written documents

 informants may select what to write and what to leave out

 they may also deliberately alter what to write

 the reporter may present a one-sided account e.g. colonial historians only
concentrated on the negative aspects of African history like the raiding activities of
the Ndebele people
 the reporter may only concentrate on certain activities leaving out other activities e.g.
Portuguese and Arab traders only concentrated on the economic aspects particularly
trade and left out political and social activities of the African societies

 it can only be left by literate people who are able to write

 it can only be used by literate people who are able to read

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  some documents were written by untrained historians e.g. most of the Portuguese
records were written by untrained historians

 some documents were for private use e.g. letters, diaries and photographs; such
documents were carried by the owners and hence inaccessible

 the challenge of finance: e.g., having to travel to India or Portugal to find

documents in their archives
 Euro-centric historians who wrote during the conquest of Africa were convinced of
the superiority of the West therefore written sources have been falsified and some
interpretations were biased
 it is a disadvantage to the people who are foreign to the language

 at times the writers may not understand customs of people they are reporting on e.g.
the Portuguese on their reports of the Mutapa or Rozvi

 sources may also distort names for example names of Mutapa rulers

Linguistics
- It is the study of languages.

-Linguistics determines how, when and why certain language underwent changes

Merits of linguistics
-It helps to correct the corruption of names e.g. Gokomere is a corruption of Gukurume

-It complements other historical sources

-It helps to understand the culture of a people

Limitations of linguistics
 Linguistics emphasises on language alone and not on economics or religion or politics.
 It does not give dates and because of these limitations it is recommended that one uses
a multi-disciplinary approach

Anthropology
This is the method of observing and comparing the societies of now and of the previous time
just before colonisation. The assumption is that this gives us a picture of people’s lives a
hundred, five hundred or even a thousand years ago.

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Anthropologists investigate the past and suggest the stages by which the society has
progressed

Advantages
 It is helpful in deducing how unfamiliar artefacts were used
 It helps understand the culture and value systems of societies

Disadvantages
 This method assumes that societies are static; they do not develop. This is a false
assumption
 Anthropologists have their own prejudices and it has been proven on many occasions
that they are likely to misinterpret what they see or hear in the society they are
studying
 Much evidence is obtained by interviews, often through an interpreter. This can lead
to the informant or interpreter deliberately telling the researcher (anthropologist) what
he wants to hear rather than the truth

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THE LATE STONE AGE PERIOD
The Late Stone Age was characterised by the use of bone, wood and stone tools. Tools of the
Late Stone Age included digging sticks, scrappers, clubs, flakes, stone tipped arrows, hand
axes and stone hammers.

Economic activities of the Late Stone Age

-They hunted small animals like hares and teamed up for bigger ones like kudus and impalas.
They used snares to catch rabbits and they used traps to catch big game like buffaloes. They
also used poisoned arrows to kill animals. They extracted poison from reptiles such as snakes
as well as from insects such as spiders and from scorpions.
-They gathered wild fruits, roots, vegetables, and insects.
-They caught fish using hooks made from bones.
-They domesticated dogs

Social system of the Late Stone Age

-They lived in caves.
-They were nomadic, that is, they moved from one place to another in search of animals,
fruits and the like.
-They worked communally.
-There was division of labour, for instance, women and children gathered while men hunted.
-They married a single wife.
-They lived and travelled in small groups.
-They had small families.

Political organisation of the Late Stone Age

-There was no ruling class and subject people.
-There were no states.
-There was no a centra lised political system.

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-They settled their disputes communally.
-They were ruled by a family head.

THE CHANGES FROM LATE STONE AGE TO EARLY IRON AGE

Economic Changes during the Early Iron Age
-People began to make iron tools like hoes, arrow heads, spear heads, axes, knives, iron
swords, fishing hooks and the like. These were more efficient than wood and stone tools of
the Stone Age.
-Iron tools enabled people to cut trees and clear more land for agriculture.
-They began to grow crops like sorghum, rapoko and millet using iron tools.
-Production of food resulted in surplus.
-There was food security.
-Hunting was improved by the use of iron tools which were more efficient than stone tools.
-Fishing was improved by the use of iron fishing hooks. They began to catch fish on a large
scale.
-They began to domesticate animals like cattle, goats and sheep along river valleys.
-They began to mine minerals like gold, copper, iron tin, lead and silver.
-They began to trade in gold, iron and ivory as well as with surplus products.
-They began to raid each other for grain and cattle.
-They began to pay tribute to the chiefs in form of grain, cattle, ivory and iron tools.
-Basketry was introduced. They wove baskets like the winnowing basket.
-Pottery was introduced. They made clay pots to carry and store water and milk.

Animals kept by the Early Iron Age People

-Cattle -Goats
-Sheep -Pigs
-Cats -Chicken
-Donkeys -Dogs

Tools used during the Early Iron Age

-Iron axes -Iron hoes
-Iron spear heads -Iron arrow heads
-Iron mattocks -Iron swords
-Iron knives -Iron fishing hooks

Crops grown by the Early Iron Age people

-Sorghum -Finger millet
-Bulrush millet -Pearl millet
-Gourds -Rapoko - -
Pumpkins

Crafts practised by the Early Iron Agers

-Weaving -Basketry
-Pottery -Blacksmithing

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-Leather work -Stone carving
-Wood carving -Drum making
-Making jewellery

Minerals mined by the Early Iron Agers

-Gold -Copper
-Iron -Lead
-Tin -Silver

Social Changes during the Early Iron Age

-Availability of food resulted in a rise in population.
-They began to build permanent shelters of pole and dagga.
-Polygamy was practiced. This was due to production of surplus.
-They began to pay lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle and iron tools.
-Cattle were a symbol of status.
-There was clear division of labour, women cultivated crops while men hunted and herded.
-There was specialisation in areas such as mining, blacksmithing, weaving, basketry, trade,
fishing and hunting.
-They began to live in large groups of about 200 people.
-Classes emerged as some became rich whilst others remained poor.
-Exploitation of men by men became more apparent, for example, those with many cattle
employed those without as herd boys.
-There was development of cattle loaning system [kuronzera].
-They began to bury the dead in graves.
-There was emergence of religious ceremonies such as rain making ceremony.

Political Changes during the Early Iron Age

-They lived in clans.
-There was emergence of chiefs and headmen.
-Chiefs and headmen made laws.
-Chiefs and headmen distributed land to the people.
-Subjects paid tribute to the chiefs to show loyalty.
-Chiefs controlled trade.
-Stronger chiefs began to raid weaker ones.
-Chiefs and headmen judged cases.
-Chiefs led at religious ceremonies

Benefits of these changes to the communities of Southern Africa

-The iron agers had more food and balanced diet [meat, milk,fish and grain].
-They were able to clear more land for crop cultivation.
-They began to settle at one place.
-They began to build more permanent shelters.
-They were able to kill larger animals due to efficient iron tools.
-Trade developed as a source of foreign goods.

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-They had better weapons.

Negative Effects of these changes to communities of Southern Africa

-There was competition for hunting grounds, pastures and land for cultivation.
-Classes began to emerge.Lower classes were exploited.
-Women were exploited as they were given more arduous tasks like crop cultivation
-They began to raid each other for cattle and grain.
-The manufacture of iron tools promoted warfare and increased killing rate of animals.
-Poor classes in weaker societies began to pay tribute in form of labour, cattle and grain to
stronger and wealthy political units.

Contribution of iron technology to the rise of classes within the societies in Southern
Africa
-Iron technology engendered [resulted in] surplus production and emergence of haves and
have nots.
-Iron technology led to the emergence of miners, blacksmiths and traders as separate classes.
-Surplus production begot [resulted in] polygamy, a source of labour.
-Craft workers such as potters, weavers, basket makers and the like, could concentrate on
their work.

Other factors which led to emergence of classes

-Lineage and clan leaders developed into ruling classes.
-Defeat in wars resulted in vassalage.
-Trade before iron technology also contributed.
-Charisma of people made them candidates for leadership.

Contribution of Iron Age Changes to development of chiefdoms in this period

-Cattle loaning led to extension of political influence.
-Surplus grain led to rise in status and need to control areas with valuable resources such as
gold and ivory.
-The growth of larger communities necessitated the rise of chiefdoms to maintain law and
order in the community.
-Polygamy promoted marriage alliances.
-Desire to control trade routes led to rise of chiefdoms.

Other factors which led to the development of chiefdoms

-Rise of ambitious leaders
-Military prowess led to conquest of other people
-The desire to collect tribute
-The desire for protection from invaders

THE CHANGES FROM EARLY IRON AGE TO LATE IRON AGE

Political Changes during the Late Iron Age
-There was formation of states like Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Rozvi

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-There was emergence of kingship.
-The king was the head of the state.
-Kingship was hereditary.
-The king was the chief judge.
-The king was the religious leader.
-The king controlled trade.
-All subjects began to pay tribute to the king to show loyalty.
-The king kept an army for raiding and for defence.
-The king levied fines to his subjects who misbehaved.
-Wars were arising out of disputes over succession.
-The king appointed chiefs.

Contribution of trade to state formation

-Communities fought to control gold mines and forests with elephants, leading to formation
of large states.
-Communities fought to control trade routes and expanded states.
-Rulers demanded tribute in form of valuable commodities.
-Wealth and power developed from trade.

Other factors which led to formation of states

-The rise of ambitious leaders
-Succession disputes
-State formation resulted from the need to control fertile soils and pastures.
-Loaning of cattle to other communities led to spread of political influence.
-Polygamy was an important source of labour and power.
-Strong armies helped in state formation.

Importance of the king’s role in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age
-The king had overall authority.
-The king appointed chiefs.
-The king provided security to his people.
-The king gave royal fire to the chiefs.
-The king commanded the army.
-The king distributed land to the people.
-The king controlled trade.
-The king was the religious leader.
-The king was the chief judge.

Other factors important in the Shona states during the Late Iron Age
-Spirit mediums chose and installed the kings
-The army defended the state, protected the king and collected tribute
-The army commander was also important
-Council of advisers was also important
-The ordinary people were also important for their allegiance

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Social Changes during the Late Iron Age
-They began to build more permanent settlements.
-During this period there began to appear stone buildings.
-They began to prefer to settle near water sites and hills.
-They preferred good farming lands and defensive sites.
-There was an increase in the size of settled villages.
-They believed in God [Mwari].
-They believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits.

Items used to pay lobola in the Late Iron Age states of Southern Africa
-cattle -grain
-gold -hoes
-hammers -spears
-ivory -axes
-goats -pottery
-animal skins

Advantages of polygamy in the Late Iron Age states of Southern Africa

-labour in the fields -unity
-security for the family -herding cattle
-creation of wealth -political alliance for rulers
-social status

Economic Changes during the Late Iron Age

-They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep on a large scale.
-They cultivated crops like sorghum, millet and rapoko on a large scale.
-They began to store grain for a long time in granaries.
-There was a clear association of wealth, cattle and social status.
-External trade became more pronounced.
-There was an increase in minerals mined.
-Hunting and gathering continued but became less important as people mainly concentrated
on crop cultivation and animal rearing.
-Subjects began to pay tribute to the king in form of cattle, grain and the like.
-They raided weaker states for grain and cattle.

Importance of cattle to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern Africa

-Cattle ownership was a status symbol.
-Cattle were a source of food such as milk and meat.
-Cattle were slaughtered on special occasions such as ritual ceremonies.
-Cattle skins were used for making drums, shields and leather clothes.
-Cattle were used for paying lobola.
-They were loaned so as to establish political influence.
-They were used for paying tribute.

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-For paying fines
-For trade
-For transport
-Draught power
-For inheritance
-Embodiment of spirits
-For paying avenging sprits [Ngozi]
-For manure

Importance of trade to the Late Iron Age communities of Southern Africa

-People of Southern Africa traded locally and externally. Items traded were cattle, grain, iron
tools, ornaments, pottery and the like.
-They imported glass beads, cloth, sea shells, guns and the like.
-Glass beads were a sign of status.
-Powerful rulers conquered new areas to control resources for trade in gold, ivory and trade
routes.
-Rulers demanded tribute in form of trade commodities, grew rich and powerful.
-Trade brought influence of foreigners like Swahili, Arabs and Portuguese.
-The king distributed trade items to reward subjects and lesser chiefs.
-Trade unified people.

Minerals mined during the Late Iron Age

-Gold -Copper
-Iron -Lead
-Zinc -Silver
-Tin -Coal
-Salt -Diamonds
-Chrome -Nickel
-Lithium -Platinum
-Asbestos -Emeralds

Uses of gold during the Late Iron Age

-Trade -status symbol
-Payment of tribute -making jewellery like bangles and ear
rings

Problems faced by miners during the Late Iron Age Period

-Flooding of mines in the rain season -loss of lives
-Poor mining tools -they used slow methods of mining
-Collapse of mines

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EARLY STATE FORMATION:
MAPUNGUBWE AD 1075 - 1280
 Mapungubwe is believed to be the capital of southern Africa’s first state system
(Huffman)
 Mapungubwe is interpreted variously:
 ‘a place of stone wisdom’ according to some academics
 ‘hill of the jackal’ according to the traditional Venda
 Mapungubwe was the immediate predecessor of the Great Zimbabwe state
 Mapungubwe was founded by the Leopard’s Kopje people
Origin
 Cattle played an important role in the ideology and economy of the Zimbabwe plateau
during this period.
 Cattle were used to support ritual activities and to reward: soldiers, miners, smiths and
traders
 Those able to amass large cattle herds took important positions in the society.
 Also the role of technology was important in the developments of these societies:
production of iron and copper, manufacture of ceramics and the working of stone and
wood.
 Mapungubwe came after the fall of Bambandyanalo around 1075
 During the 11th century the settlement of Bambandyanalo expanded and the rulers
occupied the top of Mapungubwe Hill
 The main hill top settlement was built around a cattle enclosure.
 The Mapungubwe hill site lies in a dry area with little rainfall
 Because of this dry condition and the settlement on a hill top crop growing was less
important and it was cattle accumulation that was more important.
 However the dry, sandy Limpopo Valley was less marginal as far as the production of
cereal agriculture was concerned: at least they produced something
 The resulting more stable food base was in turn able to support a greater population
and the resulting social elite was able to allocate land and water resources to bolster
their prestige and patronage
 Cattle continued to be of paramount importance in the rise of Mapungubwe state
 During the period of the emergence of Mapungubwe, there was a gradual shift to
increasing socio-political across the region (e.g. the Toutswe community in eastern
Botswana and Leopard’s Kopje communities in south-western Zimbabwe)
 The rise of Mapungubwe was a combination of internal factors – prime cattle grazing,
abundant elephant ivory and regional trade in copper and iron.
 These internal factors accelerated the process of socio-political complexity in this
region and at this time.
Economic organisation
 The main hill top settlement was built around a cattle enclosure.
 Mapungubwe Hill was the commercial centre of the state
 The Mapungubwe hill site lies in a dry area with little rainfall

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 Because of this dry condition crop growing was less important and it was cattle
accumulation that was more important.
 However the dry, sandy Limpopo Valley was less marginal as far as the production of
cereal agriculture was concerned: at least they produced something
 The resulting more stable food base was in turn able to support a greater population and
the resulting social elite was able to allocate land and water resources to bolster their prestige
and patronage
 Terracing increased the area available for cultivation
 They wanted to protect their herds from raids.
 The role of trade must not be undermined for it served to consolidate state formation
 Trade began with Arabs or the Swahili Moors at Sofala (‘great sands’) and Chibuene on
the East Coast.
 By trading with the Arabs the people of Mapungubwe received Persian ceramics,
glass beads, cotton and ornaments from sea-shells.
 In turn they gave them ivory and later gold.
 The Swahili traders indirectly involved the Mapungubwe rulers in inter-continental
trade with India, Egypt, Yemen, China, Arabia etc
 Although the goods they got were of little economic value in economic terms they
determined the real status of the ruling elite or class as the commodities were rare.
 They manufactured cotton, mined gold, hunted for ivory and traded with the East
African Coast. They made iron tools and weapons as well as gold beads and copper
bangles.
 It was an important centre of trade between the gold-producing region to the north and the
Indian Ocean to the east.
 The high volume of external trade has led some archaeologists and historians to
suggest that external trade was a prime mover in state formation
Political organisation
 The rulers of Mapungubwe probably controlled a large area.
 Mapungubwe Hill was the political centre of the state
 The wealth of the rulers is shown by the gold ornaments found in their burials.
 According to Thomas Huffman it was at Mapungubwe that the system of divine
kingship among the Karanga (Shona) originated.
 Mapungubwe is believed to be the earliest centre that shows a spatial expression of a new
social order: the elite physically separated themselves from the ordinary people.
 However some archaeologists say the Leopard’s Kopje and Gumanye sites had long been
located on hilltops for over two centuries before Mapungubwe Hill was occupied
 The elite lived on the top of the steep-sided sandstone hill while the lesser individuals
(servants and associated craft specialists numbering about 5 000) lived down the
valley immediately to the west
 Here at the hill there was also the state’s national space; a national court or dare – an open
space
 On the northern side of the open space stone seat: this may have been used by the
ruler or senior officials to hear court cases and issue decrees
 The dare space was probably linked to the residential area of the divine leader via a

Edited by Eng P.chaurika Page 18

narrow cleft leading to the top: Huffman’s so-called ‘Men’s Path’. Originally this had
some wooden steps of which only the weathered notches on the rock face remain.
 Women would have used a different route which once existed at the north end of
Mapungubwe hill.
 On the hill top were the royal residences for the leader/ruler, his many wives and
children.
 The leaders’ royal ‘place’ lies towards the centre of the hill – it was immediately in
front of what are now thought to be royal burials with their symbols of office: wooden
artefacts covered in gold foil, for example the most famous ‘golden rhino’.
 At Mapungubwe and at Mapela, stone walling expressed the presence of an elite class
living in larger and elaborate houses.
 Rulers lived on hilltops to separate themselves from the lesser commons.
 ‘Political technology’ through ritual and religious icons/symbols (e.g. the ‘golden
rhino’) also played an important role
 Rulers of Mapungubwe were able to maintain religious and secular control over the
state
 The system of cattle-loaning created patron-client relationship and was used as a
political weapon
 The Mapungubwe state was three times larger than that centred at Toutswemogala, and its
influence extended far north onto the Zimbabwean plateau.
Social organisation
 The social differences were also determined by cattle accumulation as well as by the
control of trade in the Indian Ocean Zone.
 The ruler’s houses were large, built of solid daga with decorated walls.
 The Mapungubwe community was stratified: the rich versus the poor; the rulers
versus the subjects
 There were social inequalities at the Mapungubwe community
 According to Thomas Huffman it was at Mapungubwe that the system of divine
kingship among the Karanga (Shona) originated.
 The process of social inequality was further exacerbated/increased by the integration of the
region into wider world economy – ie social inequalities were further caused by the
introduction of external trade with the Swahili of the East African Coast
 South of the hill there was probably a rain making area
Decline
 Mapungubwe state was relatively short-lived
 The town of Mapungubwe was abandoned some-time after AD 1200
 Global climatic changes probably saw the drying out of the area – prolonged drought
 As a result of prolonged droughts and inability to supply food requirements, the
sacred leaders lost their prestige: people left in search of better areas
 There was emergence of competitor states in these better watered areas
 There was a regional shift in Swahili trading centres
 There was the falling demand for ivory, which was replaced by gold
 The people whose ancestors built Mapungubwe headed north across the Limpopo
where the Great Zimbabwe state had already been established

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 It is incorrect to suggest that these people went on to found Great Zimbabwe: Great
Zimbabwe was a competitor and already in existence at the time of Mapungubwe’s
decline: it is more the ideas and the social system rather than the people that came
north
 It is thought that many of the features of Mapungubwe society may have influenced the
development of Great Zimbabwe.

THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

Origin of the Great Zimbabwe State
 The Great Zimbabwe state was one of the late Iron Age states in pre-colonial
Zimbabwe.Its origin is controversial or debatable or unclear.

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  Two theories emerged in trying to explain the origins of this state.
 One school argued that Great Zimbabwe was built by foreigners.According to this
theory Great Zimbabwe was built by more civilised races than Africans.
 Some of these theorists argue that Great Zimbabwe was built by Arabs.Some also
argue that there is a Jewish influence on the origin of Great Zimbabwe.[
 The other theory argues that Great Zimbabwe was built by Africans.According to this
theory Great Zimbabwe was local in origin, thus it was built by local people.
 This theory argues that Great Zimbabwe was built by indigenous Shona speaking
people between 1100AD and 1450AD.
 According to this theory artefacts found at Great Zimbabwe indicated Shona
traditional culture.
 More so, ceramics [pots] found at Great Zimbabwe are local and similar to those of
recent Shona speaking people.
 The few foreign ceramics found at Great Zimbabwe can be attributed to long distance
trade.
 People who built Great Zimbabwe were cattle herders, crop growers, iron smelters
and designers of pottery as well as builders in stone work.
Reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe / Factors which led to the rise of Great
Zimbabwe
*Political reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe state
 A strong army led to the rise of this state.
 The decline of Mapungubwe state led to its rise. Its fall meant that wealth now flowed
into the Great Zimbabwe state in form of tribute and control of trade.
 Peace and stability led to its rise.
 The hill top was probably chosen for defence against enemies and as centre for
religious worship.
 The rise of ambitious leaders who undertook conquest of other lineages to control
trade routes, resources and to levy tribute.
 The place was suitable for taking refuge in war time [Nemanwa Hill].
 Control of religion by rulers led to its rise. Rulers were regarded as divinely appointed
hence commanded universal respect.

*Economic reasons for the rise of Great Zimbabwe

-There was availability of fertile soils in the area around Great Zimbabwe which promoted
crop cultivation.
-Availability of good pastures which promoted livestock production [pastoralism] led to its
rise.
-Abundance of minerals like gold [in the neighbourhood] for trade and iron for tool making
led to its rise.
-Availability of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory in the area led to its rise.
-Favourable climate, that is, good rainfall led to its rise.
-Availability of water from nearby rivers such as Mutirikwi led to its rise.

Edited by Eng P.chaurika Page 21

-The area was accessible to international trade with the Swahili, Arabs, Persians and Chinese
through Sofala.
-Control of surplus production by leaders also contributed.
-The area was free from tsetse flies thereby promoting animal rearing.

*Social factors which led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe

-Polygamy which ensured adequate labour supply and soldiers led to its rise.
-Loaning of cattle [kuronzera] helped to unify people and made the leaders strong and it also
attracted many people to come under their control.
-The increase in population led to the rise of Great Zimbabwe.
-Religion helped in unifying people within the state.
-The hill was regarded as sacred for religious purposes.
-Availability of granite rocks enabled people to build the stone walls.

The Construction [Building] of Great Zimbabwe

-Great Zimbabwe was built by the Shona people.
-It was built between 1100 AD and 1450 AD.
-Granite rocks were used to build Great Zimbabwe.
-The rocks were heated, cooled and split.
-They were shaped into blocks.
-No mortar was used.
-The walls were thick at the base and narrower at the top.
-Slave labour was possibly used.
-The site consists of many areas.
i] The Acropolis for the king and royal family
ii] The Great Enclosure / Conical tower for the king’s wives
iii] The Valley ruins
iv] Villages

Reasons for building Great Zimbabwe / Function / Purpose of Great Zimbabwe

-As a symbol of power -As a religious centre
-For privacy -As an enclosure for animals
-For prestige -As an administrative centre
-As a living place for nobles -As a fortress in times of war
-For shelter -To show unity
-As a centre of trade -As a storage for grain and minerals
-For receiving visitors -Tribute collection
-As a cultural centre -Expression of art
-As a capital -To spot enemies
-As the mambos’ court / headquarters [Muzindawamambo]

Economic Organisation of Great Zimbabwe

-They traded both among themselves and with foreigners.
-They gathered wild fruits, roots, berries, vegetables, wild honey, mushroom and insects.

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-They raided other states for grain, cattle and women.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats, sheep, labour, girls, boys,
gold, ivory, tools, and precious skins.
-They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
-They grew crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, melons, pumpkins, beans, cowpeas and
gourds.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and hides [skins].
-They caught fish to supplement their diet.
-They mined minerals like gold, copper and iron.
-They did art and craft, that is,
a] Pottery. Women made different types of pots for domestic use.
b] Basketry. They made different types of baskets like the winnowing basket.
c] Blacksmithing. They made iron tools like hoes, axes, mattocks and swords.
d] Weaving. They wove cotton into cloth.
e] Stone carving
f] Wood carving
g] Leather work
h] Drum making
i] Jewellery making
j] Building in stone

Groups of foreigners who traded with Great Zimbabwe

-Persians -Arabs
-Swahili [Moors] -Chinese
-Indians -Portuguese

Foreign items imported by Great Zimbabwe

-cloth -beads
-Chinaware -ceramics
-brass wire -sea shells
-jewelery -fine pottery
-alcohol

Uses [Importance] of cattle in the Great Zimbabwe State

-Payment of lobola [bride price] -Symbol of wealth
-Loaning- for political influence -For trade
-Payment of tribute -For ritual ceremonies
-For food, milk, meat and fat -For transport
-For skins [mates, clothes and blankets] -For making shields
-For making drums -Provision of manure
-Cow dung applied on floors -Draught power
-Sacrifice -Ropes
-Strops from skins -Sandals
-Payment of fines -In the blast furnace

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-Paying avenging spirits

Trading Activities of the people of Great Zimbabwe

-The people of Great Zimbabwe traded both internally and externally.
-Locally, they traded among themselves.
-Locally, they exchanged local products, such as iron tools, pottery, baskets, cattle and grain.
-Externally, they traded with foreigners like Arabs, Swahili, Indians, Chinese, Portuguese,
Persians and the Tonga.
-They exported ivory, gold, baskets, ostrich feathers, grain, livestock, iron tools, precious
animal skins and the like.
-They imported glass beads, Chinese bowls, cloth, soapstone bowls, bangles, mirrors, spirits,
wires, copper chains, candles and the like.
-Sofala was the main port of trade.
-Traders paid tribute to the king.
-The king controlled and protected trade routes.

Artefacts [man made remains] discovered at Great Zimbabwe

-Chinese stone wares / porcelain / dishes -A copper box
-Glass beads -Persian bowls
-Mirrors -Iron gongs
-Soapstone bowls -Bangles
-Anklets -Near Eastern glasses
-Copper rings -Iron spoon
-Iron lamp holder -Copper chains
-Figurines -Candles
-Soapstone bird -Ceramics [pots]
-Brass wire -Iron wire
-Sea shells

Social Organisation of Great Zimbabwe

-The society was patrilineal.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-The practiced polygamy where one man married more than one wife
-There was sexual division of labour.
-They practised kuronzera [loaning of cattle].
-They paid lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle.
-They celebrated the birth of a new child.
-They celebrated the coming of a new daughter-in-law.
-They practised the nhimbe system.
-Incest and bestiality were taboos.
-They believed in God, Mwari [Musikavanhu].
-They believed in spirit mediums [Masvikiro] and ancestral spirits [Vadzimu].
-They also believed in national spirit mediums [Mhondoro].
-The king was chosen by spirit mediums.

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-They practised ceremonies like rain making ceremonies [Mukwerera / Mutoro].
-The king led at all religious ceremonies of national importance.
-They believed that some spirits lived in thick forests, pools and mountains.
-They believed in witchcraft.

Importance of religion in the political system of Great Zimbabwe

-Religion unified people.
-Rain making ceremonies brought people together.
-The common belief in God unified people.
-The king commanded universal respect since his position was a divine one.
-Spirit mediums appointed the kings.
-Spirit mediums stayed at the royal court providing advice and guidance to the king.

Other factors important in the political system of Great Zimbabwe

-A strong economy ensured stability.
-A strong army for maintaining law and order and defending the state against external
attacks.
-Tribute made the king wealthy and he distributed part of it to ordinary people.
-Cattle loaning ensured increased support for the king.

Political Organisation of Great Zimbabwe

-The king was the head of the state.
-Kingship was hereditary.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-The king was the judicial leader.
-The king was the chief judge.
-The king led at all religious ceremonies.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king was helped to rule by a council of elders called Dare in Shona.
-The districts were under district chiefs.
-Provinces were under provincial chiefs.
-The chiefs were appointed by the king.
-The posts of chiefs were hereditary.
-Subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
-They raided other states for grain, cattle and the like.
-There were also important officials apart from the king in the state such as the Queen
mother, King’s sons in law, army commanders, spirit mediums, royal doctor, district and
provincial chiefs.

Other factors important in the political system of Great Zimbabwe

-Religion which unified people
-Spirit mediums which chose the king
-The army which defended the state, maintained law and order, discouraged revolts and
collected tribute

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Social groups within the Great Zimbabwe state
-Farmers -Soldiers
-Stone masons -Miners
-Potters -Gatherers
-Traders -Herbalists
-Sculptors -Hunters
-Blacksmiths -Fishermen
-Spirit mediums -War captives [slaves]
Other Madzimbabwe
-Naletale -Khami
-Munekwani -Ruanga
-Nhunguza -Tsindi
-Chipadze
The Decline of Great Zimbabwe State
*Political reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe
-There were civil wars in the state, for example, between Nyatsimba Mutota and Chagwa
[1450] leading to Mutota’s migration.
-Succession disputes in the ruling family forced losers to move.
-The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-The rise of new states like Torwa and Mutapa led to its decline.
-Corruption and disunity in the ruling class led to its decline.
-There was emergence of ambitious people in the royal family like Nyatsimba Mutota who
also wanted to rule.
-Wars and attacks from the Sotho and Tswana to the South West of Great Zimbabwe led to
its decline.
-The Dande region was occupied by weak people such as the Tonga, Tavara and the
Korekore.
-Weaknesses of the army at Great Zimbabwe led to the decline of this state.
-Outdated means of state control led to its decline.
-There was emergence of rivalry in the ruling family.
Economic reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe
-Loss of control of long distance trade to Mutapa led to its decline.
-There was shortage of resources like salt, pastures, wood and the like.
-Exhaustion of soil leading to poor harvests led to the fall of this state.
-Exhaustion of minerals such as gold, copper and iron at Great Zimbabwe and its neighbours
led to its decline.
-Exhaustion of game [fauna] for meat, skins and ivory led to its collapse.
-The Dande area was rich in resources like game, especially elephants for ivory and also gold
and salt led to its decline.
-There were poor harvests due to severe droughts.
-The soil in Dande was rich.
Social reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe
-There was overpopulation which resulted in shortage of land.
-Successive droughts [between 1420 and 1430] led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe.

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-Social instability in the state [social unrest] led to its decline.
-The plague of locusts also contributed to the decline of this state.
Contribution of trade to the decline of Great Zimbabwe
-Trade led to the exhaustion of resources such as gold, ivory, ostrich feathers and the like.
-Trade with foreigners led to unfair trade practices which led to its collapse.
-They received worthless items like jewellery for gold and ivory.
-The opening of the Zambezi trade route [which favoured Mutapa] caused the decline of
Great Zimbabwe.

MUTAPA STATE
Origin of Mutapa State
The state was one of the late Iron Age states. The origin of Mutapa state is not clear [is
debatable].According to oral tradition, Mutapa state was the direct successor of Great
Zimbabwe state.Oral traditions say Nyatsimba Mutota migrated from Great Zimbabwe to the
north in search of salt and settled in the Dande area.The shortage of salt represented a general
shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe.The rapid growth of population at Great Zimbabwe
could have resulted in a critical shortage of such resources as firewood, pastures, fertile land,
game and minerals.There was a decline in trade with the East Coast and this could have
forced people like Mutota to migrate northwards.There was flourishing trade along the
Zambezi River with the Arabs and Swahilis.Perhaps, this forced people to leave Great
Zimbabwe and moved north to control trade routes.Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe
could have forced people to migrate and establish their own state.Mutota had a strong
army.He used his army to conquer the Tonga, Tavara and the Korekore.They gave him the
praise name ‘Munhumutapa’, meaning ‘lord of the conquered people’.He established his
capital at Chitako hills near mount Fura in the Dande area.Archaeologists however, argue that
the direct successor of Great Zimbabwe was the Torwa statewhose capital was at Khami
near Bulawayo.This was evidenced by the type of ruins and the artefacts similar to those of
Great Zimbabwe.But there is no evidence to support when the Torwa state
existed.Documents written by Portuguese suggest that the Mutapa state existed before the
collapse of Great Zimbabwe and these states were inter-related.Despite the failure to find
concrete evidence of Mutapa origins historians agree that that the state grew into one of the
largest and powerful states in pre-colonial Zimbabwe.
Reasons for the rise of Mutapa state
-Overpopulation at Great Zimbabwe led to its rise.
-Civil wars at Great Zimbabwe also contributed.
-Shortage of resources at Great Zimbabwe such as wood, salt, gold and land for cultivation.
-Exhaustion of soil at Great Zimbabwe led people to migrate northwards.
-Inability of Great Zimbabwe to hold different lineages.
-Succession disputes at Great Zimbabwe also contributed.
-Successive droughts at Great Zimbabwe led to the rise of this state.
-Mutota’s military prowess led to the rise of this state.
-Availability of gold deposits in Dande area.

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-The need to start new states by some individuals like Mutota.
-Availability of game, especially elephants for ivory were found in abundance in Dande area.
-Imperial ambitions of leaders also led to its rise.
-Availability of resources like pastures and fertile soils also contributed to its rise.
-The need to control long distance trade at the Zambezi valley.
-The weaknesses of the local people in Dande area played an important part in the rise of this
state.
Chiefdoms conquered by Nyanhewe Matope
-Manyika -Barwe
-Madanda /Sedanda -Teve / Uteve
-Sena -Guruuswa / Butua
-Mbire -Sofala
-Chidima
Role played by the army in the expansion of Mutapa state
-Forces were organised into several battalions under a chain of command and Mutapa as
commander in chief.
-Mutapa armies fought in open using the classic cow horn formation to surround the enemy.
-Because of uncertainty of food, the army could not go on long campaigns.
-Mutapa army fought first Chimurenga when they defeated the Portuguese in the sixteenth
century.
-The army had problems when the empire became over extended.
-It faced many rebellions, for example, by the Rozvi in the South.
-The army had strengths and limitations.
Provinces of Mutapa state
-Dande -Manyika
-Madanda / Sedanda -Barwe
-Chidima -Mbire
-Matavara -Uteve
-Guruuswa / Torwa / Butua -Chikovo
-Pfura -Sango
Names of Mutapa kings
-Nyatsimba Mutota -Nyanhewe Matope
-Chikuyo Chisamarengu -Chivere Nyasoro
-Negomo Mapunzagutu -Gatsi Rusere
-Nyambo Kapararidze -Mavura Mhande
-Mukombwe -Nyahuma Mukombero
-Neshangwe -Chioko
-Kapuratsine -Nyakunembiri
Names of Mutapa rulers who resisted Portuguese control
-Nyambo Kapararidze -Mukombwe
-Nyakunembiri -Kapuratsine
Names of Mutapa rulers who co-operated with the Portuguese
-Mavura Mhande -Gatsi Rusere
-Negomo Mapunzagutu -Chikuyo Chisamarengu

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Economic Organisation of Mutapa
-They grew crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko, beans, melons, pumpkins and later on maize.
Maize were believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese.
-They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep for meat and milk. Cattle were also used for
paying lobola.
-They mined minerals like iron, gold, copper, tin, lead and silver.
-They practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the Swahili,
Arabs and Portuguese. They imported ceramics, jewellery, beads, knives, cloth, cowry shells
and guns.
-The subjects paid tribute to the king in form of gold, ivory, hoes, spears, grain, animal skins,
livestock, baskets and labour. Foreigners paid in form of curva for them to be allowed to
trade and also for their protection whist they were in the state.
-They hunted animals like hares and kudus for meat, elephants and rhinoceros for ivory and
cheetahs and leopards for their precious skins.
-They caught fish to supplement their diet.
-They gathered fruits and vegetables.
-They raided other states for grain, cattle, goats, women and boys.
-They did art and craft, that is,
a] They did basketry, for instance, they made the winnowing basket.
b] Pottery.
c] They did blacksmithing.
d] They wove cotton into cloth.
e] Wood carving
f] Stone carving
g] Leather work
h] Jewellery making
i] Building in stone
j] Drum making
Items used to pay tribute to the king in Mutapa state
-Gold -Ivory
-Hoes -Spears
-Grain -Animal skins
-Cattle -Goats
-Sheep -Labour
-Baskets -Iron tools
Portuguese trading posts / towns / feiras in Mutapa state
-Massapa -Maramuca / Rimuka
-Masekesa -Angoche
-Dambarare -Chitomborwizi
-Tete -Zumbo
-Luanze -Chicoa
-Buccuto / Bukuto -Sena
Social organisation of Mutapa state
-The society was patrilineal.

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-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-There was sexual division of labour.
-They practised loaning of cattle [kuronzera].
-They celebrated the coming of a new daughter in law.
-They celebrated the birth of a new child.
-Polygamy was practised and this was a source of labour.
-They paid lobola to their in-laws in form of cattle.
-They practised the nhimbe system.
-They believed in God [Mwari].
-They believed in spirit mediums and ancestral spirits.
-They believed in family, regional and national spirit mediums.
-They believed that spirits lived in pools, thick forests and mountains.
-The king was chosen by spirit mediums and they therefore believed in divine kingship.
-The king was the link between God and ancestral spirits on one side and ordinary people on
the other side.
-They believed in life after death.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They consulted spirit mediums in times of crisis like wars, drought, epidemics and
succession disputes.
-They also believed in avenging spirits [Ngozi] –so family members were not allowed to
unnecessarily kill people.
-They held ceremonies such as rainmaking ceremonies.
-They had good knowledge of herbs, magic and medicines.
Mutapa religion / Religious system of Mutapa
-The Mutapa people believed in God, Mwari.
-They believed in ancestral spirits.
-They also believed in family, regional and national spirit mediums.
-They consulted spirit mediums in times of crises like wars, droughts, epidemics and
succession disputes.
-Spirit mediums installed the kings.
-They believed in divine kingship, they believed that their kings were God given.
-Spirit mediums could warn a king who misbehaved.
-They held rainmaking ceremonies.
-The king led at all religious ceremonies.
-They brewed beer and slaughtered cattle at ceremonies called Bira.
-They believed in life after death.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They believed in N’angas.
-They believed that some spirits lived in pools, thick forests and mountains.
-They believed in avenging spirits [Ngozi], so family members were not allowed to
unnecessarily kill people.
-Mediums blessed the army before any war and more importantly stood in position of the
king before a new king was installed.
Duties / Importance of spirit mediums

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-Installed the king -Gave advice to the king
-Healed the sick -Led at ceremonies
-Consulted ancestral spirits in times of crisis
Importance of religion in the political system of Mutapa state
-Spirit mediums installed the kings.
-This made the king a divine ruler who was feared and respected.
-This reduced chances of rebellions in the state.
-Spirit mediums were consulted by kings and chiefs during times of crisis such as drought,
wars and epidemics.
-The king led at all religious ceremonies.
-The kings also consulted spirit mediums when they wanted to make any major decisions like
going to war.
-Religion played a role of unifying people.
-Religious ceremonies and rituals such as rainmaking and reincarnation brought people
together.
-The common belief in God unified people.
Other factors important in the political system of Mutapa
-The army-maintained law and order.
-The payment of tribute by vassal chiefs and ordinarypeople ensured loyalty.
-A strong economy ensured stability.
Political organisation of Mutapa
-The king was the head of state.
-The king was called by the title Munhumutapa [Mwenemutapa].
-Kingship was hereditary.
-The king was appointed by spirit mediums.
-The king controlled long distance trade.
-The king was the judicial leader.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king was the chief judge.
-The king was helped to rule by a council of elders, Dare.
-They raided other states for grain, cattle and goats.
-The king appointed lesser chiefs.
-Their posts were hereditary.
-Lesser chiefs were required to collect the royal fire annually to show loyalty.
-District chiefs were in charge of districts.
-Provinces were under provincial chiefs.
-The power of the king rested in the powerful army.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
-The king had final decisions.
-King’s wives played an important role in the state.
-The king kept an army to maintain law and order.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-There were also important officials apart from the king such as the Queen mother, king’s
sons in law, army commander, provincial chiefs and spirit mediums.

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Resident officials of the Mutapa state
-King -Queen mother
-Army commander [Nengomasha] -Court councillors
-Spirit mediums -King’s sons in law
Non Resident officials of Mutapa state
-Provincial chiefs -District chiefs
-Headmen -Village heads
Importance of tribute in the Mutapa political system
-It ensured loyalty of lesser chiefs to the king.
-It ensured lesser chiefs would not be too rich, powerful and ambitious.
-This helped to reduce chances of rebellions.
-It enhanced the wealth, influence and power of the king.
Military Structure / Military Organisation of Mutapa
-The army was headed by the king as the commander in chief.
-The king was helped by an appointed commander, Nengomasha, who was the second most
powerful official in the state.
-There was a council of war [Dare rehondo].
-The council ratified war decisions and conscripted soldiers.
-The Mutapa had a large army which assembled when need arose.
-However, the Mutapa maintained a small regular force of 200 to 500 soldiers to guard the
state maintain peace and order at the king’s court.
-Drums were beaten and parapanda was sounded to assemble Mutapa soldiers.
-N’angas [Spiritual healers] were consulted by the army before it went to war.
-The Mutapa armies were armed with spears, shields, battle axes and bows and arrows.
Duties / Importance of the army in Mutapa state
-Protected the state from enemies -Collected tribute
-Conquered neighbouring states -Raided other states for wealth
-Punished rebellious chiefs -Maintained law and order in the state
-Herded the king’s cattle -Cultivated the king’s fields
DECLINE OF MUTAPA STATE
Reasons for the decline of Mutapa
Internal reasons for its decline
-Succession disputes led to the decline of this state.
-Civil wars caused the decline of this state.
-The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-Some chiefs broke away, for instance, Barwe, Uteve, Torwa, Mbire and Guruuswa who felt
independent enough to start their own kingdoms.
-Some tributary states refused to pay tribute such a Barwe, Manyika and Uteve.
-There were some weak leaders such as Mavura Mhande, Gatsi Rusere and Nyahuma.
-Exhaustion of gold fields and ivory led to its decline.
-Shortage of salt and other minerals led to decline in trade.
-Outbreak of epidemics killed many people.
-Revolts by vassal chiefs, for example, Changa-ruler of Rozvi.
External reasons for the decline of Mutapa

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-Loss of control of long distance trade to other states like Torwa and Rozvi.
-Influence of Swahili traders
-Growth of Portuguese control undermined the authority of the Mutapa kings.
-The prazo system led to loss of land by the local people.
-The Portuguese promoted civil wars.
-Interference in local politics by the Portuguese by installing puppet rulers.
-Interference from Arabs.
-Chikunda raids for manpower also contributed.
-The spread of Christianity led to division in the state.
-The Portuguese refused to pay tribute.
-Maravi invasion also led to its decline.
-The defeat by the Rozvi led to its decline.
THE ROZVI STATE
Origins of the Rozvi State
The origin of the Rozvi State is controversial. There are two main theories which have been
put forward in explaining the origin of the Rozvi state. [a] Some historians believed that the
Rozvi were once subjects of the Mutapa people. Their leader Dombo
[Dombolakonachimwango Chimuloyichamavengeni] was once a cattle herder under Mutapa
Mukombwe. He was given some cattle and he managed to grow rich and created his army.He
is believed to have revolted against the Mutapa when the state was at its decline.With his
powerful army he was able to conquer and subdue the Torwa people.It wasthe Torwa people
who nicknamed his people the Rozvi, meaning destroyers.He established his capital at
Danangombe [Dhlodhlo] in Matabeleland.The capital was transferred to different places by
different leaders, for example, to Naletale and Manyanga.At its peak the Rozvi is believed to
have covered such areas as Guruuswa, Mbire, Buhera, Bocha, Duma and parts of South
Eastern Highlands.In 1695 the Rozvi helped Mutapa Mukombwe to drive away the
Portuguese from the Zimbabwean Plateau.The Rozvi took over from the Mutapa as a new
force to reckon with in the Zimbabwean plateau. [b] Other historians have a simpler
explanation on the origin of Rozvi.They say that Rozvi was just a new name. They say Rozvi
did not originate from a place outside the Torwa state. They say that the Rozvi and the Torwa
were the same people. They say that it was only the name that changed.In other words, the
Torwa state developed and changed its name to Rozvi. There was no invasion or conquest
which took place. The old Torwa state continued but it was just the name which changed.
Thus Dombo was a descendant of a Torwa Changamire.
Rozvi Towns / Rozvi Capitals
-Danangombe / Dhlodhlo -Naletale
-Manyanga -Khami
-Nhava yaTumbare -Matendere
-Insukamini -Umnukwana [Munekwani
Names of Rozvi kings / Changamires
-Dombo [Changa] -Chirisamhuru I
-Nechadzike -Nechagadzike
-Baswi -Rupandamanhanga
-Gomoremvura -Gumboreshumba

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-Tohwechipi -Chirisamhuru II
-Rupengo -Dlembeu
Shona Chiefdoms conquered by Changamire Dombo
-Torwa -Seke
-Manyika -Uteve
-Madanda / Sedanda -Mutema
-Chikanga -Mutasa
-Marange -Nyashanu
-Bocha -Zvimba
-Barwe -Chiweshe
-Duma -Makoni
-Buhera -Mbire
Expansion of Rozvi state
Changamire Dombo broke away from Mutapa state under Mukombwe .There was a civil war
and Dombo was forced to migrate to the South-western Zimbabwe. He defeated the Torwa
and Kalanga people and established a powerful state in the Butua area. He built his capital at
Danangombe in the 1680s. Dombo embarked on an expansionist policy conquering
surrounding areas. He attacked and reduced the Mutapa state into a very small state in Dande
area. Dombo conquered the kingdoms of Uteve and Manyika in the East in the 1690s. He also
conquered and absorbed the Venda in the south. Dombo also attacked, conquered and
absorbed the people of Buhera, Bocha, Duma and the south eastern highlands. Changamire
Dombo drove away the Portuguese from their feiras at Dambarare, Tete and Manyika in
1693. Dombo forged a military alliance with Mutapa Nyakunembiri and by 1695 the
Portuguese had abandoned their trading stations in the interior. The Rozvi became the
supreme power on the Zimbabwean plateau. After these wars the Portuguese accepted Rozvi
over lordship in the interior. Changamire Dombo died in 1695 leaving behind a very strong
state. Chirisamhuru, his son became the new Mambo and continued to expand the kingdom.
By 1700 the Rozvi kingdom was at its peak covering the whole of the Zimbabwean plateau
from Zambezi to the Limpopo. The Rozvi mambo maintained a very large army and forced
many vassal states to pay tribute from the 1690s until the period of Mfecane. The Rozvi
succeeded to rule the whole of Zimbabwe directly or indirectly through vassal chiefs.
Reasons for the rise and expansion of Rozvi state
-The Rozvi were skilful fighters
-This enabled them to defeat several groups
-The ability of the Rozvi to defeat the Portuguese and drive them to their former settlements
at Masekesa.
-After they were defeated by the Rozvi, the Portuguese agreed to come under the authority of
the Rozvi.
-The chiefs who were defeated by the Rozvi began paying tribute to the Rozvi king.
-The Rozvi extended their rule to non Rozvi people
-The Ndau, Zezuru and Karanga voluntarily joined the Rozvi state for protection against
Portuguese
-The Rozvi were able to amass wealth and power and became the dominant state in the area
-The Rozvi controlled long distance trade along the Zambezi valley

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-The Rozvi defeated the Torwa and subdued theme
Economic Organisation of the Rozvi
-They reared animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
-They cultivated crops like millet, sorghum, maize, melons and so on.
-They mined minerals like gold, copper and iron.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and precious skins.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushroom.
-They raided other states for livestock, grain, boys and girls.
-Subjects paid tribute in form of cattle, goats and grain.
-They practised both internal and external trade.
-They caught fish to supplement their diet.
-They did art and craft, that is,
a] Pottery
b] Weaving
c] Basketry
d] Blacksmithing
e] Wood carving
f] Stone carving
g] Jewellery making
h] Leather work
i] Drum making
Exports from the Rozvi state
-Gold -Ivory
-Cattle -Sheep
-Pigs -Sorghum
-Millet -Ostrich feathers
-Animal skins -Iron tools
-Pots -Baskets
-Goats -Pigs
Imports into the Rozvi state
-Cloth -Glass beads
-Guns -Liquor
-Maize -Fruits
-Tobacco -Mirrors
-Ammunition -Ceramics
Social Organisation of Rozvi
-The society was patrilineal.
-Ownership of cattle was a symbol of status.
-They paid lobola to their in laws in form of cattle.
-They practised loaning of cattle [kuronzera].
-They practised sexual division of labour.
-They practised the nhimbe system.
-They celebrated the birth of a new child.
-They celebrated the coming of a new daughter in law.

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-They were polygamous.
-Incest and bestiality were taboos.
-They lived in villages according to lineages.
-They belonged to the Moyo totem.
-Rozvi marriages were exogenous.
-They lived in pole and dagga houses.
-They believed in God, the Supreme Being and creator of everything on earth.
-They believed in national, regional and family spirit mediums.
-The king was the religious leader and led at all religious ceremonies.
-They brewed beer and slaughtered cattle at ceremonies called Bira.
-They held rainmaking ceremonies.
-They consulted N’angas.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They believed that some spirits lived in larger pools, thick forests and mountains.
-They believed in life after death.
-They consulted their ancestors through spirit mediums in times of crisis like wars, droughts
and other disasters.
-They believed in divine kingship.
Importance of the Social Organisation in the Political System of the Rozvi
-Religion was a unifying force.
-The spirit mediums installed the king.
-Religious leaders could reprimand a Mambo who misbehaved.
-Cattle loaning system helped rulers to maintain influence and peace.
-The king led at religious ceremonies.
-Polygamy was used by the ruling class to maintain alliances and important lineages.
Other factors important in the Political system of the Rozvi
-Tribute ensured loyalty to the king.
-A strong economy ensured stability.
-Good relations with other states.
-The army was important for maintaining law and order and suppressing rebellions.
Duties of females in Rozvi
-Crop cultivation -House hold chores
-Gathering -Looking after children
Duties of males in Rozvi
-Hunting -Herding cattle
-Mining -Thatching huts
-Smelting -Trade
-Fishing
Political Organisation of Rozvi
-The king was the head of state.
-His post was hereditary.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king ruled with the assistance of a Court of officials which included the spirit mediums,
provincial chiefs, Queen mother, army commander and priests.

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-Mambo’s senior wives played an important role in the king’s court.
-The king’s power rested in the powerful army.
-The provinces were under provincial chiefs.
-District chiefs were in charge of districts.
-The chiefs were appointed by the king.
-The posts of chiefs were hereditary.
-Vassal chiefs paid tribute to the king to show loyalty.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-The Tumbare was the military commander and acted as regent when a king died until
another one was installed. In the case of a younger mambo Tumbare also acted as regent until
the younger Mambo is grown enough to rule.
-The Tumbare was the chief tribute collector.
-The king led all religious ceremonies.
-The king was the chief judge.
-The king was the custodian of state property.
-The king controlled long distance trade.
Government officials in the Rozvi state
-King / Mambo / Changamire -Tumbare
-Provincial chiefs -District chiefs
-Queen mother -King’s sons in law
-Spirit mediums -Court councillors
-Headmen -Village heads

Military Organisation of the Rozvi

-The Rozvi had a standing army.
-The mambo was the commander in chief of the army.
-The Tumbare was the commander of the army. So in other words the Mambo was deputised
by the Tumbare.
-The Mambo kept a small bodyguard for his own personal defence.
-These were permanently armed and were called Ngwanangwana [wide awake].
-The bulk of the army was composed of young men and unmarried cadres.
-This army was well equipped with bows, arrows, assegais, shields and battle axes.
-The army underwent specialised training.
-This training involved military exercise and archery [a technique of shooting effectively].
-The army was very strong, efficient and well disciplined and this enabled it to conquer
neighbours and rule them for almost 150 years [1680 to 1850].
-Because of its effectiveness [prowess] in battle, the Portuguese ended up accusing this army
of using supernatural powers against enemies.
Duties / Responsibilities of the Rozvi ruler or King
-Head of state -Distributing land
-Chief Judge -Religious leader
-Defending the state from external attacks -Chief administrator
-Custodian of state property -Signing treaties
-Concluding alliances -Installed chiefs

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-Commander in chief of the army -Had custody over captives
-Receiving and sharing tribute -Distributed food in times of drought
-Controlled trade -Declaring war
-Protecting citizens -Controlled mining grounds
-Appointed army generals -Receiving foreigners
-Controlled hunting grounds -Judicial leader
-Sanctioned ritual ceremonies -Appointed the council of advisers [Dare]
-Punished wrong doers -Sent the army for raiding expeditions
-Received and handled reports from various parts of the kingdom
Reasons for the Decline of Rozvi State
Internal reasons for the Decline
-Some vassal chiefs like Uteve and Madanda broke away and refused to pay tribute.
-Successive droughts in the late eighteenth and nineteenth century.
-Succession disputes within the ruling family
-Civil wars divided the state
-Overall economic decline
-The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-Failure to fully incorporate some chiefdoms like Kalanga
-Disputes with Chikanga and Barwe
-The death of Changamire Dombo
-Dombo’s successors were weak and uncharismatic
-The Rozvi army became weak
-There was depopulation due to Nguni incursions
-Decline in gold production. Gold fields were now exhausted.
-Spirit mediums became too powerful
-Fall in trade
-Tumbare became too powerful
-Exhaustion of soil
-Exhaustion of hunting grounds
-Exhaustion of pastures
External reasons for the decline of Rozvi
-Loss of control of external trade to the Ndebele and later to the British
-The raiding of Portuguese trading posts of Sofala, Tete and Sena by Mfecane groups
-Clashes with the Portuguese left the Rozvi state weakened
-Constant wars with the Hiya of the Dondo area disrupted trade
-Invasion by the Nguni groups [Nguni incursions] such as the Tswana in 1800

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MFECANE
 This was a period of plunder and destruction among the Nguni and the surrounding
tribes.
 It was a time of crushing wars accompanied by much suffering among the northern
Nguni.
 The Nguni called it mfecane, meaning time of trouble.
 The Sotho called it defeqane, meaning time of crushing.
 Mfecane began towards the end of the eighteenth century.
 During mfecane tribes like the Ndwandwe, Mthethwa and Ngwane were fighting
against each other.
 Mfecane continued even during the time of Tshaka.
 During the time of Tshaka, Zululand had become a storm centre.
 A number of people fled from Tshaka and these included the Jere- Ngoni under
Zwangendaba, Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane, Khumalo under Mzilikazi, Kololo
under Sebetwane and the Ngoni under Nxaba.
 The people who fled from Tshaka knew his military tactics so they were able to
defeat people in other areas.
 Soshangane settled in Southern Mozambique and created the Gaza state.
 Zwangendaba destroyed the Rozvi capital and crossed the Zambezi River into
present day Malawi.
 Mzilikazi and the Khumalo fled north and settled in the south-western part of
Zimbabwe.
 Sebetwane and the Kololo settled in Zambia.
 All these groups introduced their way of life and culture to the people they
conquered.
Groups that existed in Nguniland before Mfecane
-Zulu -Khumalo
-Qwabe -Ndwandwe
-Mthethwa -Swazi / Ngwane
-Hlubi -Mpondo
Northern Nguni leaders and their respective chiefdoms involved in Mfecane

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-Dingiswayo of Mthethwa -Sobhuza of the Ngwane
-Zwide of the Ndwandwe -Tshaka of the Zulu
-Dingane of the Zulu -Mzilikazi of the Ndebele
-Matshobane of the Khumalo -Soshangane of the Gaza-Nguni
-Zwangendaba of the Ngoni -Matiwane of the Nganeni
-Phakatwayo of the Qwabe
Groups that fled from Nguniland during Mfecane
Group Leader Destination
-Ndebele Mzilikazi Zimbabwe
-Ngwane Sobhuza Swaziland
-Sotho Moshoeshoe Lesotho
-Kololo Sebetwane Zambia
-Gaza-Nguni Soshangane Mozambique
-Jere-Ngoni Zwangendaba Malawi
-Tlokwa Mantantis Botswana
-Ngoni Nyamazana Zimbabwe
-Msene-Ngoni Nxaba Zambia
Groups and their respective leaders which Tshaka fought during Mfecane
-Ndwandwe under Zwide -Ngwane under Sobhuza
-Ngoni under Zwangendaba -Ngoni under Nxaba
-Khumalo under Mzilikazi -Gaza-Nguni under Soshangane
-Qwabe under Phakatwayo
Causes of Mfecane
-The desire by some individuals like Dingiswayo, Zwide, Ngwane and Tshaka to dominate
others.
-Development of advanced military tactics promoted aggression.
-Overpopulation which resulted in pressure over arable land caused Mfecane.
-Powerful groups wanted to control some hunting grounds.
-Madhlatule drought of 1795 caused Mfecane.
-The desire to acquire more cattle through conquest
-The desire by some individuals to control trade with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay.
-Shortage of grazing land
-The need for creation of large states
-The rise of Tshaka also caused Mfecane.
-Emergence of power hungry men like Mzilikazi
-Bigger powerful states like Ndwandwe, Ngwane and Mthethwa wanted to control economic
and political activities of the people of Nguniland.
-Trade in ivory necessitated the creation of standing armies to hunt elephants and guard the
trade route.
-There was also need to control rivers.
-Boer expansion and Boer slave raids
Results / Effects of Mfecane
-There was reduction of population in Nguniland.
-Homes were destroyed.

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-There was great loss of lives in Nguniland.
-There was destruction of property.
-Many people fled from Nguniland, for example, the Ngoni, Hlubi, Tlokwa and the Sotho.
-Cases of cannibalism increased due to shortage of food.
-Nguni religion such as inxwala spread throughout the region.
-Nguni language spread widely.
-Many people lost their cattle and grain through raids.
-Many people lost their farming land.
-Tshaka became dominant in Nguniland.
-Wars disturbed farming resulting in food shortage, hunger and starvation.
-There was spread of Nguni culture.
-Trade with Portuguese at Delagoa Bay was disrupted.
-Some people lost their political independence.
-Under populated areas left by Mfecane victims attracted European settlers like Boers and the
British.
-Some states were completely destroyed.
-It led to the creation of refugee problem.
-There was great loss of lives as warfare was the order of the day.
-There was emergence of defensive kingdoms such as Swazi, Bapedi and Basotho.
-It brought out high quality leaders like Mzilikazi, Soshangane, Zwangendaba and
Sebetwane.
-There was emergence of powerful states like Ndebele and Gaza.
-New political kingdoms were created, for example, Kololo and Ndebele.
-There was adoption of new fighting methods and weapons

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THE ZULU STATE UNDER TSHAKA
Origins of the Zulu State
 Tshaka came from a small Zulu chiefdom which had been absorbed into
Dingiswayo’s Mthethwa
 .Tshaka was born in 1787 and he was the son of Senzangakhona and a Langeni
woman, Nandi and Senzangakhona was a Zulu chief.
 Tshaka was disowned by his father, so he grew up among the Langeni.
 At the age of 16, Tshaka was taken to the Mthethwa to stay with his father’s relatives.
 He became a herd boy, at the age of 23 [in 1810] he was recruited into Dingiswayo’s
army.
 He proved to be a brave soldier and was promoted to commander of a regiment
 .He introduced his own military innovations.
 He advised Dingiswayo on military matters.Senzangakhona [Tshaka’s father], died in
1816 and his son Sigujana inherited the Zulu leadership.
 Dingiswayo killed Sigujana and made Tshaka the chief of the Zulu.Dingiswayo thus
assisted Tshaka to takeover power.
 Tshaka was chief of the Zulu as well as commander of the Zulu army.
 Dingiswayo died in 1818 and Tshaka became the leader of the entire Mthethwa
state.Dingiswayo was executed by the Ndwandwe.
 Tshaka conquered Mthethwa and then combined Mthethwa, Zulu and other tribes to
form the Zulu state.
 Tshaka united about 100 chiefdoms under his rule, he continued Dingiswayo’s
expansionist policy.
 He conquered the Ndwandwe under Zwide and took over a large state extending from
Pongola River to Tugela River in the South.
 He also defeated the Ngwane under Sobhuza.
Reasons for the rise of Tshaka
-Main Nguni Kingdoms fought and destroyed each other giving a chance to Tshaka.
-Tshaka’s able leadership

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-Perenial warfare
-Madlatule famine
-Tshaka was a brave soldier.
-Tshaka was a courageous and innovative fighter.
-Tshaka became an effective army commander who advised the king.
-Tshaka’s ability to develop new fighting skills which enabled him to defeat others.
-Tshaka defeated and conquered the Mthethwa.
-Senzangakhona’s death created a vacuum for his rise.
-Dingiswayo’s support on Tshaka.
-The death of Sigujana [He was killed by Dingiswayo].
-The death of Dingiswayo made him to combine Mthethwa and Zulu.
-There was weak opposition from local chiefdoms.
-Mfecane led to the rise of Tshaka.
-Raiding other states ensured him to create a powerful and secure state.
-Betrayal of Dingiswayo by Tshaka led to the rise of Tshaka. When Dingiswayo attacked
Zwide, Tshaka delayed to join him till he was killed.
-The defeat of the Ndwandwe by the combined Mthethwa / Zulu armies [now called the
Zulu].
-Population pressure
Social Organisation of the Zulu
-There was sexual division of labour.
-They practised loaning of cattle.
-They lived in dome shaped huts arranged in a circular manner with a cattle kraal inside the
circle.
-They believed in God.
-They did rain making ceremonies.
-The king led at ceremonies.
-Marriage was allowed to men after retiring from the army.
-Females were also organised into regiments.
-Regiments of women were used to cultivate land and for ceremonial dances and displays.
-The king officiated at the annual inxwala ceremony.
-The king’s spiritual power was renewed through traditional mediums.
-Zulu was made the official language.
-They practised polygamy.
Economic Organisation of the Zulu
-They did external and internal trade. Externally they traded with ivory at Delagoa Bay.
-They raided other states for women, children, grain and cattle.
-They grew crops.
-They kept animals like cattle, goats and sheep.
-They smelted iron to make iron tools.
-They mined minerals like iron, copper and gold.
-They hunted wild animals.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of cattle, goats, sheep and grain.
-They caught fish to supplement their diet.

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-They did gathering.
-They did blacksmithing.
Political Organisation of the Zulu under Tshaka
-The king was the supreme ruler.
-The state was highly centralised.
-Defeated chiefs were often deposed and replaced by Tshaka’s appointees.
-The defeated were forced to speak Zulu language.
-Tributary states were left in peace as long as they paid tribute to the king.
-The king was assisted by chiefs and councillors most of whom were relatives and those the
king trusted.
-The Council of advisers was rendered irrelevant as Tshaka became an autocratic ruler.
-Traditional chiefs were reduced to administration of local affairs.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-The king had a standing army.
-The army went on annual raids.
-The king used the army to control the state.
-Vassal chiefs were rewarded to remain loyal.
-The state was divided into regimental towns under Izindunas who were helped by a female
member of the royal family.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king controlled long distance trade.
-The king was the chief judge.
-The king was the religious leader.
Importance of the army in the Zulu political system
-It was used to raid other states.
-It was used to expand the state.
-It protected both the king and the state.
-It was used to collect tribute.
-It was used to protect trade routes and hunting grounds.
-It was used to maintain law and order in the state.
-It was use to punish rebellious chiefs.
Other factors important in the Zulu political system
-Chiefs, councillors and the king’s relatives helped to administer the state.
-Tribute payment ensured loyalty to the king.
-Religion was a unifying factor.
-The cattle loaning system unified people.
Benefits of Tshaka’s political system to the Zulu
-Organisation along military lines strengthened the state against external aggression.
-Vassal chiefs obtained rewards.
-There was peace and security due to a standing army.
-Age regimental system fostered unity amongst people of the same age.
-Tribute payment ensured loyalty.
-Raids provided wealth in form of cattle and grain.
-It incapacitated vassal chiefs from rebelling thereby thwarting civil wars.

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Disadvantages of Tshaka’s political organisation to the Zulu
-All power was centred on the king.
-The regimental system was resented by young men for delaying marriage and for perennial
warfare.
-The political system made the king an absolute ruler who ignored Indunas and traditional
chiefs.
-People lived in fear due to king’s harsh policies.
-There was loss of independence by the conquered.
Military reforms introduced by Tshaka
-Use of long shields
-Use of short stabbing spears [assegais]
-Absorption of defeated tribes
-Going to war barefooted for greater speed
-Introduction of baggage boys
-He created a standing army
-He introduced the cow horn formation.
-All men under the age of 40 were conscripted into the army.
-He introduced age regiments.
-He introduced female regiments [Fasimba].
-He banned circumcision which he viewed as wastage of time.
-He used spies so as to catch enemies by surprise.
-He used smoke signals for communication.
-He introduced mock battles in training.
-Cowardice was punished for. Tshaka’s soldiers were not allowed to be wounded at the back.
Those who were stabbed at the back were killed.
-He made use of witch doctors.
-His soldiers wore head gears [uniforms].
-Tshaka’s soldiers were allowed to marry at the age of 40 when they retired from the army.
-He introduced the idea of total warfare, that is, total destruction of the enemy, killing the
ruling families of defeated tribes and incorporating the defeated tribes.
-He introduced the scorched earth policy.
-Tshaka introduced strict discipline in the army.
-Tshaka’s soldiers had a war cry.
How effective was Tshaka in his use of these military reforms
The tactics brought successes
-Tshaka succeeded in building a very strong / powerful Zulu kingdom-feared throughout
Southern Africa.
-He conquered and controlled many other states for his own personal glory.
-He managed to become the king of the Zulu state the status of a small chiefdom at the
beginning of Mfecane.
-He managed to build a very strong economy based on cattle.
-The Zulu culture and tactics of survival were adopted in the area and other regions in
Southern Africa.
The reforms had negative effects

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-He created a very big state which he failed to keep together.
-His dictatorial tendencies created more enemies.Tshaka’s half brother and sister plotted his
downfall.
-The military reforms led to massive exodus of experienced and skilled personel.
-He maintained a cruel system when it was no longer necessary as a result of the
effectiveness of the reforms.
-The army no longer enjoyed military campaigns.
-The reforms resulted in the death of many people.
-There was destruction of property.
Was Tshaka responsible for all the military reforms made in Zululand?
Tshaka’s initiatives
-He used spies
-He introduced the idea of total warfare
-He introduced a highly trained army
-He introduced female regiments
-He introduced assegais
-He introduced headgears
Initiatives of others
-Dingiswayo, Zwide and Sobhuza had initiated some of Tshaka’s innovations.
-The regimental system was already in use in the states.
-Long shields were adopted from Dingiswayo.
-The cow horn formation was borrowed from Dingiswayo.
-Banning circumcision was borrowed from Dingiswayo.
-Creation of a standing army was adopted from Dingiswayo.
Tshaka’s Generals / Military Indunas / Commanders
-Dingane -Mhlangana
-Mgobozi -Mzilikazi
-Mdlaka
Zulu Leaders
- Senzangakona
- Sigujana
- Tshaka
- Dingane
- Mpande
- Cetshwayo
- Dinuzulu
Features of Tshaka’s policy of total warfare
-Burning of homesteads
-Absorption of enemy women and children
-Capturing of enemy livestock
-Killing of enemy royal family members
-Destruction of enemy food reserves
-Poisoning of water sources
Weapons used by Tshaka’s soldiers

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-Long shields -Assegais
-Knobkerries -Knives
-Guns -Battle axes
Methods used by Tshaka to control the Zulu state
-Use of spies
-Idea of total warfare
-Use of a standing army
-He set up military settlements all over Zululand
-Fasimba army was always at the king’s court.
-Practice of autocracy.
-Tshaka appointed chiefs and headmen who were loyal to him.
-He encouraged rivalry amongst his subjects so as to exploit such conflicts.
-Full absorption of lineages closer to the centre of the Zulu state.
-Exploitation of lineages in the periphery
-Holding of ceremonies like inxwala ceremonies
-Use of national symbols like inkatha
-Speaking Zulu language was made compulsory.
-Tshaka personified the kingdom.
-The king led at all religious ceremonies.
-He subjugated all independent rainmakers.
-Rewarding warriors [they were given beef].
-Maintaining a tight discipline of Amabutho [soldiers]
-Control of religion
-Punishment by death
-Perennial warfare
-Demanding tribute
-Marriage at 40 years
-Displacement of conquered chiefs
Cruelty of Tshaka’s methods
-Killing as a punishment was extreme cruelty.
-Strict discipline denied freedom.
-He infringed on people’s rights by prohibiting soldiers to marry before the age of 40.
-Tshaka was a dictator. He solely made decisions.
-The idea of total warfare was an extreme exercise where there was complete destruction.
-Forcing people to speak Zulu
Mfecane period demanded a strong leader like Tshaka
-Tshaka was a product of Mfecane.
-A period of warfare need to constantly fight.
-There was need for unity.
-He wanted to create more space for the Zulu [expansionist policy].
-He wanted to gain cattle, grain and boys [booty].
-For defence of the state
Benefits of Tshaka’s Rule
-They defeated the Ndwandwe.

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-This enabled the Zulu state to survive.
-He created a strong and superior army.
-The Zulu became dominant in Natal.
-They obtained cattle and grain through raids.
-Tshaka managed to unite the Zulu nation.
-The Zulu had more land for cultivation after Mfecane.
-The Zulu had access to trade.
-Zulu became politically stable.
Non benefits
-Perennial warfare led to dissatisfaction.
-Soldiers were keen to marry early.
-The Zulu lived in constant fear of Tshaka.
-Tshaka ruled as a dictator.
Problems faced by Tshaka as the Zulu king
-Tshaka’s expansion characterised by violent warfare, plundering and raiding other states
created enemies for himself.
-Death of Nandi [Tshaka’s mother] created problems for him as he killed many people. This
created enemies for him. Even his sister suspected that he was responsible for the death of
Nandi.
-Tshaka had jealous relatives who ultimately killed him.
-High rates of executions created enemies for him.
-Mzilikazi rebelled against him in 1822.
-Tshaka had fear of further rebellions after Mzilikazi broke away.
-There were threats from expansionist Boers and the British who wanted to colonise the Zulu
kingdom.
-Tshaka battled to control the Delagoa Bay trade route.
-There was shortage of resources such as land.
-Tshaka was not trusted by his commanders.
-Tshaka’s incessant imperialism [wars] created hatred from soldiers and generals though they
could not show it for fear of being killed.
-Scarcity of land resulted in wars against the Boers and the British.
-Tshaka’s soldiers were tired of his military campaigns.
The death of Tshaka
-Tshaka died in 1828.
-He survived the first attempt on his life in 1824 but was killed 4 years later.
-Tshaka’s death was plotted by Dingane, Mbopha, Mhlangana and Mkabayi.
-Dingane and Mhlangana were Tshaka’s brothers.
-Mkabayi was Tshaka’s father’s sister.
-After Tshaka’s death Dingane became the king of the Zulu state, but he was not as strong as
Tshaka. During his reign, Europeans began to enter Zululand.
People who plotted the death of Tshaka
-Dingane -Mhlangana
-Mkabayi -Mbopha
-Mfokazana

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Reasons for the assassination of Tshaka
-Killing of subjects for minor disputes or petty offences
-Tshaka’s autocratic rule [he was a dictator]
-Tshaka’s endless warfare
-He maintained a cruel system even when it was no longer justified.
-Tshaka’s strict discipline
-Execution of people for not mourning his mother.
-People were jealous of Tshaka’s power.
-Tshaka had jealousy brothers and sisters
-There were ambitious people in the Zulu kingdom who wanted to rule, for example, Dingane
and Mhlangana.
-His ruthless military reforms
-Tshaka was an illegitimate son.
-Tshaka was too cruel.
-Tshaka ignored traditional chiefs.
-Tshaka’s failure to work with his brothers and sisters who should have assisted him.
-Frequent raids exposed him.
- Use of throne usurper
Tshaka’s downfall
-He was a dictator
-He ignored traditional chiefs
-He failed to work with his brothers and sisters
-He was too cruel
-He embarked on endless campaigns
-He killed subjects for minor offences
Other factors responsible for his death
-He had jealous relatives
-He was an illegitimate son
-Use of throne usurper
-Soldiers were tired of continuous wars

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THE NDEBELE STATE
Origins
Mzilikazi was the founder of the Ndebele state.The state was born out of Mfecane and
originated from Nguniland.Mzilikazi was the son of Matshobane. His mother Nompethu was
Zwide’s daughter.Mzilikazi was of the Khumalo clan which was under Zwide’s
Ndwandwe.Zwide was Mzilikazi’s grandfather.Zwide killed Matshobane [Mzilikazi’s father]
accusing him of allegedly plotting against him in the Ndwandwe-Mthethwa wars of
1818.Mzilikazi succeeded his father in 1818. Mzilikazi was helped by Zwide to become chief
of the Khumalo.Mzilikazi quickly joined Tshaka’s Zulu state and Tshaka was pleased and left
Mzilikazi in charge of his Khumalo.The possible reasons for Mzilikazi’s change of masters
were that he was not happy that Zwide killed his father, Matshobane.He had also foreseen the
potential military strength of the Zulu under Tshaka.Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka in 1822 to
go and raid a certain Sotho chief and capture him.Due to greediness he decided to keep the
loot for himself. When Mzilikazi denied submitting the loot, Tshaka sent a small force
[Izimpondo] to punish the Khumalo but was defeated by Mzilikazi.Tshaka then sent the
fierce Umbelebele to destroy Mzilikazi’s tribe.Both sides experienced heavy losses in the
fight.Mzilikazi escaped with about 300 men, a few women and children.They established
their state in Western Zimbabwe [1840].
Mzilikazi’s Journey from Nguniland to Western Zimbabwe
-When the Ndebele escaped from Tshaka they crossed the Drankensburg Mountains and
settled in the Transvaal area in 1823.
-They raided the Pedi and Tswana.
-Mzilikazi established his capital Ekhupumuleni [resting place] near Oliphant river.
-This area was not suitable for grazing and they also experienced raids from the Pedi, Rolong,
Griqua and the Hurutshe.
-In 1825-1826 Mzilikazi went on to settle near present day Pretoria and established his capital
at Emhlahlandela. It is from here that Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat of the London
Missionary Society in 1829.
-In 1830 the Khumalo were attacked by Dingane’s Zulu, the Kora and the Khoisan forces, the
Rolong and the Griqua forces.

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-Mzilikazi attacked the Kwena.
-Mzilikazi abandoned Emhlahlandela because it was too close to Zululand.
-In 1832 the Ndebele settled at Egabeni.
-They left Egabeni because of attacks from the Kora and Griqua.
-Between 1833 and 1837 they settled at Mosega.
-In 1836 the Ndebele were again attacked by Dingane’s Zulu while his Mzilikazi’s army was
away in Sotho land.
-In the same year, Mzilikazi was attacked by the Boers of Portgieter.
-In 1837, a combined force of the Griqua, Kora, Tlokwa, Rolong and Boer warriors attacked
the Khumalo.
-Mzilikazi met Robert Moffat who advised him to move further north.
-Mzilikazi felt insecure and decided to abandon Mosega so as to protect his people.
-Before crossing the Limpopo, Mzilikazi split his group into two, one was led by Gundwane
Ndiweni Khalipi.
-This group consisted of old people, Mzilikazi’s wives, women, children and livestock.
-Nkulumane, the eldest son of Mzilikazi was also part of this group as well as Lobengula
[Mzilikazi’s son].
-The group took a direct route towards Zimbabwe and crossed the Limpopo River [1838].
-They followed the Umzingwane River and settled not far away from Matopo hills.
-The second group which was led by Mzilikazi himself crossed Limpopo River into
Botswana.
-They travelled through Ngwato territory.
-They turned northwards to the Zambezi in pursuit of the Kololo led by Sebetwane.
-They failed to defeat the Kololo and turned southwards in order to meet the main group.
-Mzilikazi heard of the installation of Nkulumane as king.
-After two years of separation, Gundwane’s group thought Mzilikazi would not come back so
he decided to choose another king. Nkulumane was made king.
-Mzilikazi quickly rushed to Matopo hills.
-When he rejoined the group in 1840, he regarded the act of installing Nkulumane as treason.
-He killed all those responsible. He summoned all chiefs and indunas who were involved in
the installation of Nkulumane and executed them at a place called Thabayezinduna.
-No one knows what happened to Nkulumane. Some say he was secretly executed while
others say he was exiled to Nguniland.
-Mzilikazi settled at Inyati, near modern Bulawayo.
-He went on to subdue and absorb members of the already crumbling Rozvi kingdom who
offered less resistance.
-He was able to build up the most powerful kingdom north of the Limpopo River.
-Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had broken away from Zwangendaba.
Settlements established by the Ndebele South of the Limpopo on their way to Western
Zimbabwe
-Ekhupumuleni -Mhlahlandela
-Endinaneni -Egabeni
-Enkunqwini -Mosega
-Tshwenyane

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Reasons for the Ndebele settlement in western Zimbabwe
Pull factors
-The area was free from tsetse flies.
-The inhabitants of the area were weak.
-The area had good pastures.
-The Rozvi capital had available infrastructure.
-The Ndebele were exhausted by previous wars.
Push factors
-The area was far away from traditional enemies, that is, the Zulu, Boers, Kora and Griqua.
-They were advised by Robert Moffat.
Groups which clashed with the Ndebele during their migration south of the Limpopo
-Zulu -Hurutshe
-Sotho -Khoisan
-Boers -Kora
-Pedi -Tswana
-Taung -Tlokwa
-Thlapin -Rolong
-Griqua -Kgabo
-Kwena -Ngwaketse
-Ndzundza
Ethnic groups that the Ndebele met in Western Zimbabwe
-Shona [Rozvi] -Kalanga
-Leya -Tonga
-Venda -Nanzwa
-Hlengwe
Factors that contributed to the Ndebele migration
-Mzilikazi left Zululand during Mfecane.
-He left Zululand after he was defeated by Tshaka.
-He abandoned settlements near Zululand.
-He was forced to cross Limpopo River due to attacks from Boers and other groups.
-Mzilikazi’s greediness
-Mzilikazi’s desire to form his own state
-Weaknesses of the Rozvi
-Moffat’s advise
-Fertile soils
-Availability of pastures
-Availability of gold
-Western Zimbabwe was free from tsetse flies
Problems faced by the Ndebele during their migration from Nguniland to Western
Zimbabwe
-Lack of grazing areas -Lack of food
-Droughts -Loss of livestock like cattle
-Loss of lives as many were killed during wars -Ndebele homes were burnt
-Succession disputes -Diseases like malaria

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-Tsetse fly problem -Attacks from wild animals
-Disruption of trade and farming activities -Constant attacks
-Loss of women to other groups -Crossing flooded rivers
-Fatigue due to walking long distances -Crossing Mountains
-Mixing of people of different cultures -Family separation
-Language barrier -Constant fear of attacks
-Wars with the Pedi, Zulu, Griqua, Rolong, Boers and the like
Unification of the Ndebele
Unity as a result of war
-Mzilikazi created a formidable defence
-They protected their people
-He created a strong raiding army
-They had fear of attacks from the Zulu
-They established a strong nation
Unity caused by other factors
-Religion unified people
-Fear of Mzilikazi unified people
-Speaking one language unified people
-Able leadership of Mzilikazi unified people
-Age regiments-
-Trade
-Mafisa system unified people
Why Mzilikazi abandoned various settlements south of the Limpopo
-Failure to pay booty to Tshaka and defeat by Tshaka led Mzilikazi to flee Zululand.
-Ekhupumuleni was too close to Zululandand at this place there were threats from the Pedi.
-Ekhupumuleni was also meant to be a resting place.
-Ekhupumuleni lacked enough pastures especially during the drought of 1823.
-They abandoned Endinaneni because it was still too close to Zululand.
-Zulu warriors attacked the Ndebele in 1830.
-Other Ndebele enemies included the Kora, Griqua and Rolong who had guns and horses.
-They left Emhlahlandela because they were attacked the Zulu under Dingane, the Griqua,
Kwena, Khoisan, Boers and the Rolong.
-They left Mosega because they were attacked by the Griqua and Kora as well as by the
Boers under Portgieter in 1837.
-Finally they were attacked by the Boers, Griqua, Tlokwa, Kora and Rolong.
-Mzilikazi was forced to cross the Limpopo into Zimbabwe.
Importance of settlements in the building of the Ndebele nation
-Mzilikazi Mzilikazi defeated local inhabitants like the Hurutshe, Kwena, Sotho and
Ndzundza and absorbed them to swell up the numbers of his group.
-The Khumalo were given the name Ndebele by the Sotho-Tswana.
-Raids on neighbours yielded cattle and grain for Ndebeleeconomy.
-He also raided for boys of military age for his regiments.
-Mzilikazi’s wisdom and military genius
-Weaknesses of groups encountered

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-Continuous movement together led to unity
-Adoption of religious practices of conquered people like Mlimo cult encouraged unity and
harmony with absorbed groups.
Did the Ndebele settlement in Western Zimbabwe bring security to the Ndebele state?
Security
-They settled in the Rozvi country where there was little resistance.
-Mzilikazi married Nyamazana, a Ngoni leader who had killed the Rozvi king, Chirisamhuru
II.
-The area was rich in resources.
-The neighbouring Tswana were weak.
-The area was far away from Boers, Griquas and the Zulu.
-The area was free from tsetse flies.
-The climate as good and the area had good fertile soils which produced good pastures.
Insecurity
-The Rozvi resisted the Ndebele intrusion, though the resistance was not stiff and some
moved away.
-Independent Shona chiefdoms to the East resisted Ndebele raids.
-The area was drought prone.
-Traders, hunters, explorers and concession seekers infiltrated the area.
-BSAP infiltrated the Zimbabwe plateau.
Measures taken by Mzilikazi to establish his rule in Western Zimbabwe
-He dealt with the rebellion of 1840 to 1842, killing Gundwane Ndiweni and other indunas
who had installed Nkulumane as king.
-He forced Nkulumane into exile
-He married Nyamazana whom he thought to be a threat
-As the Ndebele needed peace and rest, Mzilikazi incorporated Shona chiefs who accepted
Ndebele rule as vassal chiefs.
-He entrusted vassal chiefs the task of collecting tribute on his behalf.
-Mzilikazi in turn loaned cattle to vassal chiefs to buy their allegiance.
-Mzilikazi conscripted young men and women from the Shona vassal chiefdoms into his
regiments to deny the chiefs an opportunity to build their armies.
-At the same time Shona chiefs who resisted his rule were raided for cattle, grain, boys and
girls.
-Ndebele influence extended as far as Gwanda and Gweru Rivers.
Measures taken by Mzilikazi to consolidate his rule in Western Zimbabwe
-Mzilikazi was a dictator [absolute ruler].
-He was the chief judge.
-He again was the commander in chief of the army.
-He appointed all state officials.
-Ndebele homesteads were built close to one another as a security measure and the furthest
was not more than 80km from the king’s capital.
-Mzilikazi also paid regular visits to the provinces to ascertain problems there.
-The state was organised along military lines, with military towns scattered throughout the
state.

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-He also stationed female members of the royal family in every military town as his
informers.
-Some of these women were his wives.
-All regiments were required to attend the annual inxwala ceremony for unity.
-Also Ndebele was made the official language.
Economic Organisation of the Ndebele
-They reared animals like cattle, sheep and goats.
-They grew crops like bulrush millet, finger millet, pearl millet, maize, pumpkins and water
melons.
-They hunted animals for meat, ivory and precious skins.
-They raided the Shona, Tswana and Kololo for cattle, grain and women.
-They gathered fruits, vegetables and mushroom.
-They caught fish to supplement their diet.
-They did internal and external trade. Internally they traded among themselves. Externally
they traded with the Portuguese and later with the British. They mined minerals like gold for
trade, iron and copper for making tools.
-All subjects paid tribute to the king in form of grain, cattle, goats, sheep, skins, iron tools
and gold.
-They did art and craft, that is,
a] Pottery
b] Weaving
c] Basketry
d] Blacksmithing
e] Wood carving
f] Stone carving
g] Leather work
h] Jewellery making
i] Drum making
Importance of Ndebele economic system to the survival of the state
-Blacksmiths smelted iron and forged iron tools and weapons.
-Fishing supplemented their diet.
-Raiding brought wealth and manpower.
-Raiding was important because the area was dry.
-Tribute ensured loyalty of chiefs to the king and ensured that the chiefs would not be too
rich, powerful and ambitious.
-Crop cultivation was a source of food.
-Cattle were a symbol of status [wealth].
-Trade with the Shona.
Other activities important to the survival of the state
-Mafisa system unified people.
-Religion was a unifying factor.
-A strong army led to the survival of the state.
-Strong leadership led to its survival.
-The caste system

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-Military tactics
Items the Ndebele received as tribute
-Cattle -Goats
-Sheep -Grain
-Gold -Skins
-Iron tools -Guns
-Cloth -Sea shells
-Boys -Girls
-Jewellery -Copper
-Ivory -Meat
Social Organisation of the Ndebele
-The Ndebele society was divided into 3 castes [classes], the Zansi, Enhla and Hole.
-Zansi was the highest class of the original Khumalo from Nguniland.
-Zansi was about 15% of the total population.
-Enhla consisted of the Sotho, Tswana, Pedi and Griqua captured on the way from
Nguniland.
-This was the second class.
-Enhla consisted of about 25% of the total population.
-The Hole was the lower class.
-The Hole consisted of the San, Kalanga and the Shona captured in Zimbabwe.
-They were about 60% of the total population.
-Marriage across castes was discouraged. However intermarriage took place.
-They were polygamous.
-Cattle were used to pay lobola.
-The society was patrilineal.
-They practised loaning of cattle [Mafisa system].
-Ndebele was made the official language.
-Ownership of cattle was a status symbol.
-Women pierced their ears.
-The Ndebele believed in the High God [Unkulunkulu].
-They also began to worship the Sotho God, Mlimo and their ancestors Amadhlozi.
-They adopted the Shona Mhondoro rain making ceremonies.
-They practised the inxwala ceremony [first fruit ceremony].
-The Ndebele respected the mediums of the great Shona spirits.
-They believed in ancestral spirits.
Contribution of Ndebele religious practices to the unity of the state
-The common belief in Mlimo brought the Ndebele and the Sotho together.
-The common belief in God unified people.
-Inxwala ceremonies brought people together.
-The adoption of the Shona Mhondoro rainmaking ceremonies united the Ndebele and the
Shona.
-The Ndebele and the Shona worked together as a result of common beliefs and respect for
the great Shona spirits.
-Use of Ndebele language unified people.

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Other factors which contributed to unity in the state
-Age regiments unified people.
-Distribution of tribute and raided items [booty] by the king unified people.
-Able leadership unified people.
Political organisation of the Ndebele
-The king was the head of state.
-Kingship was hereditary.
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-He created age regiments.
-The king was the religious leader.
-The king ruled with the assistance of two advisory councils, Umphakati and Izikhulu.
Umphakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of royal family. They made all
important decisions. The Izikhulu were all other chiefs in the state including elders who were
needed for their wisdom in traditional issues. Izikhulu discussed national issues and after the
discussion they referred them to the Umphakati and the king.
-The state was more centralised.
-The king was an absolute ruler.
-The king made all major decisions.
-The king had power of life and death over subjects.
-The state was organised into regimental towns under Izindunas [territorial chiefs].
-Conquered people were encouraged to speak Ndebele.
-They raided the Shona, Tswana and the Kololo.
-The king was the judicial leader.
-The king was the chief distributer of land.
-The king was the chief judge.
Military Organisation of the Ndebele
-The king was the commander in chief of the army.
-The king raised the Amabutho
-There were age regiments.
-The state was organised into regimental towns.
-Each regimental town was under an induna.
-Regimental towns joined to form provinces under a senior induna.
-Captives were included in the army.
-Warriors could marry after being successful in battle.
-Women were drafted into the army as prostitutes and cooks and for intelligence.
-Warriors were provided with wives from captives.
-Amabutho could also marry women from disbanded regiments.
-There were reserve troops.
-The Ndebele embarked on surprise attacks.
-The army was used for raiding.
-The army had a war cry.
-The Ndebele army war uniforms.
-Mzilikazi made use of spies so as to catch the enemies by surprise.
Duties or importance of the army in the Ndebele state

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-It collected tribute -It defended the state
-It raided neighbours for wealth -It protected the people
-The king was the military commander -It protected property
-It herded cattle during time of peace -The army worked in the king’s fields
-They helped during harvests -The army hunted elephants
-The army could punish offenders -The army protected trade routes
-The army protected the king -The soldiers were miners
-To suppress internal revolts
Why Mzilikazi was able to lead the Ndebele for so long
-Mzilikazi had superior military tactics than those of most of his opponents.
-Military leadership of Mzilikazi also contributed.
-A strong military set up that emphasised loyalty to Mzilikazi.
-Defeated groups were incorporated into the Ndebele society.
-Mzilikazi was an absolute ruler who never tolerated any nonsense in his state.
-Most of the people trusted Mzilikazi as their leader.
-Shona chiefdoms had been weakened by Nguni incursions.
-The long trek forged unity in the state.
-Mzilikazi had migrated to beyond his main enemies in South Africa.
-Mzilikazi’s strong leadership also ensured his long stay in power.
-Mzilikazi prevented rebellions from Shona chiefs by incorporating young men and women
into regiments so as to prevent the Shona chiefs from forming their own armies.
-He loaned cattle to Shona vassal chiefs so as to win their support.
-Payment of tribute ensured loyalty of vassal chiefs.
-Organising the state along military lines was meant to deal with external aggression.
-He was well informed of what happened in provinces by female members of the royal family
who included his wives.
-Mzilikazi had superior weapons
-Mzilikazi was trusted by people he had led for many years and experienced problems
together
-Threats from external enemies kept them together
The reasons for the decline of the Ndebele state
-Failure to install the king after the death of Lobengula in 1894
-Failure by the Ndebele to defeat the settlers in 1893.
-Use of superior weapons by the whites
-Introduction of suppressive laws by the settlers which undermined the authority of the
chiefs.
-Bribery of the Ndebele indunas who attended the Matopo Indaba.
-Lobengula made a grave mistake in his life by accepting to deal with whites.
-Between 1870 and 1891 Lobengula signed several treaties and concessions which eventually
led to the decline of the state.

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THE PORTUGUESE PENETRATION INTO THE MUTAPA STATE
Aims of the Portuguese in Mutapa / Reasons for Portuguese penetration in Mutapa
-Initially the Portuguese wanted to trade with The Mutapa people.
-They wanted to drive the Swahili and Arabs away for they had become competitors.
-They wanted to spread Christianity.
-They wanted to take control of the gold mines in Mutapa.
-They wanted to control trade routes in the interior.
-They wanted land from the Shona.
-They wanted to fulfil the ambitions of the king of Portugal who was imperialistic.
-They wanted to civilise Africans.
-They wanted to prepare Africa for Portuguese domination.
-They wanted to build trading posts [feiras].
-They also wanted to politically and economically control Mutapa.
-The Portuguese were searching for the legendary Prester John.
-They wanted to avenge the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira.
-They were invited by Gatsi Rusere.
How the Portuguese got in touch with the Mutapa / Portuguese penetration into the
Zambezi Valley
-The Portuguese arrived at Sofala in 1506.
-They took over the port of Sofala from the Arabs and Swahilis.
-They were able to use them as middlemen.
-They built military fortresses.
-In 1513 Antonio Fernandes visited the Mutapa, visited Chegutu and saw gold mines.
-In 1530’s many Portuguese spies, most of them degradadoes went into the interior [Mutapa].
-The Portuguese established feiras [Trading posts] at Sena and Tete in 1530’s.
-In 1560 father Goncalo da Silveira came to Mutapa to spread christianity.
-Goncalo was the first Jesuit Missionary to visit Mutapa.
-Goncalo converted Mutapa Negomo and his royal family.
-In 1561 Goncalo da Silveira was murdered.

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-Negomo was influenced by Shona traditionalists and Muslims to kill Goncalo da Silveira.
-They told him that he wanted to take over the state.
-His body was dumped in Msengezi river.
-His death created tension between the Portuguese and Mutapas.
-After the murder of Silveira the Portuguese pressurised Mutapas to drive out Arab-Swahili
traders.
-The Portuguese decided to gain direct entry into Mutapa .
-They were now using the army to force their way into Mutapa.
-The Portuguese began to interfere in affairs of Mutapa state.
-Mutapa gave land to the Portuguese and allowed them to build feiras like Bukuto, Luanze
and Massapa.
-These stations were headed by Officers called Captain of the gates.
-Military expeditions were sent to avenge / revenge the death of Silveira.
-In 1569 Francisco Barreto was sent with 1000 soldiers to avenge the death of Silveira and to
drive the Swahili out of Mutapa.This expedition was wiped out by fever.
- In 1574 another expedition under Homen was sent.
-After Negomo’s death the Portuguese helped Gatsi Rusere to put down any rebellion
against his rule.
-The Portuguese signed treaties / alliances with Rusere and Mavura Mhande.
-They acquired prazos and used Africans as labourers.
-They demended tribute from the Mutapas.
Duties of the Captain of the gates in the Mutapa state
-They ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa king.
-They made sure that Portuguese paid tribute.
-They supervised paying of taxes on Portuguese goods.
-They advised the Mutapa king on matters concerning the Portuguese.
-They informed the Portuguese government on activities in Mutapa.
-They controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state.
-They linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa.
-They served as an interpreter.
-They represented the Portuguese government in Mutapa.
-They settled disputes between Portuguese and Africans.
-They handled complaints from the Mutapas against Portuguese.
-They handled complaints from Portuguese against Mutapa people.
Portuguese-Mutapa relations up to 1700
-Initially the relations between the Portuguese and Mutapas were good [cordial].
-Later on the relations became sour.
-The Portuguese and Mutapas traded with each other.
-The Portuguese brought maize, guns, beads wines, tobacco, cloth, fruits, rice, spirits,
ceramics in return of gold, ivory, iron tools and precious animal skin.
-They did the credit system.
-The Portuguese converted some Mutapa people to Christianity.
-The Portuguese fought wars with the Mutapas to avenge the death of Goncalo.The
Portuguese sent expedtions.

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-The Portuguese interfered in internal politics of the Mutapa.
-The Portuguese installed puppet Mutapas like Mavura Mhande and Gatsi Rusere.
-The Portuguese were given land and introduced the prazo system.
-They used Africans as slaves in prazos.
-The Portuguese married African women and gave birth to a race called Mulattos.
-The Portuguese exploited Africans and abused them.
-The Portuguese educated some of the princes of the Munhumutapa at Goa in India.
-Initially the Portuguese paid tribute [curva] to the Mutapas.
-Later on, the Mutapas were forced to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
-The Portuguese armies [Chikunda] raided the people of Mutapa.
-The Portuguese [Prazeros] tried cases in Mutapa.
-The Portuguese no longer respected the Mutapas.
-In 1663 Mukombwe made an effort to revive the power of the Mutapa with the help of the
Rozvi.They managed to drive the Portuguese from the high veld.
Methods used by the Portuguese to gain control of the Mutapa state
-They forced the Mutapa king to expel the Swahili.
-They established trading posts in Mutapa state.
-They took control of trade in Mutapa state.
-They controlled mining in Mutapa.
-They used Africans as forced labourers.
-They introduced the credit system.
-They converted Gatsi Rusere and some of his subjects.
-They encouraged and intervened in civil wars.
-They helped to install vassal chiefs.
-They signed treaties and concessions with Mutapas [treaties of vassalage].
-They created private armies, that is, chikunda.
-They established private prisons.
-They took large areas of land from Africans and introduced prazos.
-They took over administrative duties in Mutapa state.
-They took over the role of the king.
-Later on, they refused to pay tribute.
-They began to force Mutapas and their subjects to pay tribute.
-They adopted Mutapa traditional religion, for instance, they adopted the role of spirit
mediums
-They gave Africans Portuguese names.
-They married Mutapa women.
-They enslaved Africans.
-They used brutality.
-Mutapa sons were sent to Goa in India for education.
-They sent Barreto’s army. They also sent Homen’s army.
Contribution of these methods to the fall of Mutapa state
-They left the Shona without enough land.
-They caused decline in gold trade.
-These methods led to the decline of Mutapa’s wealth.

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-They encouraged civil wars which led to divisions and deaths.
-They created puppet leaders [like Mavura and Rusere] who were not respected by most of
their subjects.
-Slavery prohibited Africans from engaging in their own economic activities to create wealth.
-Christianity caused divisions in Mutapa.
Other factors which led to the fall of Mutapa
-Succession disputes
-Disunity among the people led to its decline.
-Droughts
-Weaknesses of Mutapa leaders
-The rise of Rozvi state
-The state became too big to be ruled by one ruler.
-Nguni incursions
Portuguese interference in the economic and political organisations of the Mutapa state
Interference in economic organisation
-The Portuguese took control of external trade.
-They put to an end the Mutapa-Swahili trade.
-They took large areas of land [prazos] from Africans.
-They mined minerals like gold in Mutapa.
-They were involved in hunting for ivory.
-They forced Africans to be slaves.
-They introduced the credit system.
-They raided the local people using chikunda armies.
-They sold Africans into slavery.
-They refused to pay tribute [curva] to the Mutapa.
-They demanded curva [tribute] from chiefs and locals.
-They did unfair trade practices.
Interference in political organisation
-They intervened in succession disputes.
-They supervised selection of headmen and chiefs.
-They recruited private armies [Achikundas].
-They demanded tribute from the local people.
-They installed vassal chiefs.
-Some Mutapa kings became puppets of Portuguese.
-They encouraged civil wars.
-They supplied weapons to rivalcchiefs.
-They refused to pay tribute to the local chiefs.
Puppet Mutapas
-The Portuguese sponsored puppet Mutapas.
-The Mutapas of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were puppets.
-Between 1590 and 1607 there were several rebellions within the state and this created
political instability and the Portuguese found this an opportune moment to interfere in
Mutapa politics.

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-Gatsi Rusere sought the support of Portuguese by signing a treaty of military assistance
with the Portuguese.
-The Portuguese helped Rusere to achieve the throne in 1596.
-The Portuguese were to help Rusere against attacks from Maravi kingdom and to suppress
rebellions within his state.
-Rusere agreed to cede all his gold, copper, iron, lead and tin mines to Portuguese.
-Rusere was forced to give his child and his heir to the Portuguese who turned to bring him
up as a Christian so that he will be loyal to Portuguese when he had come to Mutapa. This
son was sent to Goa, India where he became a catholic priest and he never returned to Africa.
-Rusere gave the Portuguese the right to hunt.
-Portuguese were allowed to trade freely.
-He agreed to ban Muslim traders.
-In 1624 Rusere died and his death was followed by a civil war between his sons.
-Rusere was succeeded by his son Nyambo Kapararidze in 1627.
-In 1629, Mavura Mhande sought and got the support of Portuguese to overthrow Nyambo
Kapararidze.
-Kapararidze was killed in 1629 by the Portuguese who installed Mavura.
-Following his installation, Mavura was forced to sign a treaty of vassalage with the
Portuguese [1629].
-Mavura made land grants to the Portuguese.
-The Portuguese were allowed to build churches and to preach wherever they liked freely.
-The Portuguese were allowed to build schools.
-The captain of Massapa was given authority over everyone in the area [black and white].
-The Portuguese would maintain Mavura on throne in the name of the king of Portugal whose
sovereignty he now acknowledged. Mutapa was made a vassal of Portugal.
-He agreed to cede all his silver and gold mines to the Portuguese.
-He agreed to allow complete freedom of passage throughout his empire to all Portuguese
traders.
-He agreed to expel all Swahili-Arab traders from the empire.
-Mavura was to stop the curva system and instead he was to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
-He was to show great respect to the captain of the gate who was to stay at the king’s palace
and not at Massapa.
-The king was to consult the captain of the gate in matters of war and peace.
-Mavura depended on Portuguese until his death in 1652.
-Portuguese power continued until Mukombwe became Mutapa in 1663.
-Mukombwe allied himself with the powerful Rozvi Changamire and drove the Portuguese
out of the state in 1690s.
-A joint Mutapa and Rozvi army attacked the Portuguese at Dambarare and Massapa and
drove them out of Mutapa and Manyika.
-The Portuguese were now restricted to Sena and Tete.
Benefits of these treaties to the people of Mutapa
-They got protection from external attacks and internal attacks.
-There was temporary peace.
-They got Portuguese goods from trade.

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-Literacy was spread.
Negative Effects of the treaties to the people of Mutapa
-Loss of land and cattle.
-Loss of resources like gold.
-Erosion of culture through spread of Christianity.
-Forced labour and slavery.
-Forced payment of tribute to the Portuguese.
-Loss of political independence.
Names of Portuguese nationals [people] who penetrated the Zimbabwean Plateau
between the sixteenth and seventeenth century
-Antonio Fernandez -Goncalo da Silveira
-Francisco Barreto -Vasco Fernandez
-Diego Simeos Madeira -Miguel Bernandes
-Vasco Homen -Antonio Caiado
-Gasper Boccaro -Joao dos Santos
-Diego da Menes -M Alveres Pereira
-S Bayao -Dona Katarina
Problems faced by Portuguese armies during their invasion of Mutapa state in the 1570s
-Diseases -Hunger
-Resistance from local people -Loss of lives
-Some soldiers were wounded -Heavy armour
-Failure to find gold -Attacks from hostile wild animals
-Crossing difficult rivers

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ThePrazo System
-The Prazo system was introduced by the Portuguese.
-Prazos [Mapurazi] were large farms largely owned by Portuguese in Mutapa.
-Prazeros were owners of Prazos.
-The system began during the reign of Negomo Mapunzagutu when he gave land to Francisco
Barreto.
-Some of these Prazeros were given land as rewards for their military service.
-They gained control of the lower Zambezi through signing treaties with African chiefs or
through military force.
-In 1607 Gatsi Rusere gave land to a Tete trader, Diego Simeos Madeira. He became a
powerful settler with 4000 Chikunda army.
-More land was given to Portuguese conquerors by Mavura. It is said that he was forced to
cede the whole of his kingdom to the Portuguese crown as part of the price for Portuguese
aid.
-Rulers of Uteve gave large tracts of land to Dias Bayao. The area stretched from Pungwe to
Zambezi.
-The Portuguese confirmed the Prazo system by giving official land titles to individual
Prazeros.
-The Portuguese government wanted Prazos to be centres of Portuguese civilisation and
commercial agriculture.
-The Portuguese grew crops like dagga / mbanje, tobacco, rice, maize, sorghum, millet,
watermelons, sugar cane, coffee, cassava, squash, groundnuts, pumpkins, guavas, mangoes,
cow peas, sweet potatoes, paw paws and potatoes.
-Slavery began on Prazos and mines.
-The Prazeros used African chiefs and their subjects as labourers.
-Trusted slaves were recruited into personal armies of Prazeros.
-The Chikunda armies ill-treated the local people.

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-Female slaves were used as cultivators.
-Armies were used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals.
-The Prazeros spoke African language.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They practised polygamy just like Africans.
-They traded with and raided Africans.
-Prazeros became African chiefs demanding tribute from Africans on their land.
-They stripped African chiefs off their role.
-The Portuguese used old feudal laws to govern the Prazeros.
-The Portuguese lived in luxury.
-They controlled trade through vashambadzi.
-Mining of gold, silver and copper was done.
-Prazos were a source of slaves who were exported to Brazil.
-Shifting cultivation was practised.
-There was sexual co-habitation between Portuguese and African women which resulted in
the birth of a race called mulattos [coloureds].
-The Portuguese surrounded themselves with advisers, including religious leaders who helped
them in such ceremonies as rainmaking.
-The Prazeros were responsible for deciding on all judicial cases and settling all disputes.
Contribution of the Prazo system to the growth of slavery in the Zambezi valley
-Growth of plantations such as Zambezi Prazos demanded increasing numbers of slave
labourers.
-Mining activities in the Prazos required slave labour.
-There was need for slave armies.
Other factors which led to the growth of slavery
-War captives became domestic slaves.
-Criminals and witches were also treated as domestic slaves.
-Ivory trade required slave labour to ferry ivory to the posts and to the coast.
Names of Portuguese Prazeros
-Diego Simeos Madeira -Vicente Jose Ribeiro
-Manuel Antonio de Sousa [Kuvheya] -Sisuando Dias Bayao
-Rodrigo Lobo -Matakenya
Economic Activities carried out in Prazos
-They forced the Mutapa to expel the Swahili traders, then controlled the external trade.
-They set up trading posts like Dambarare, Massapa, Rimuka and Masekesa.
-They set up estates [prazos] after grabbing large pieces of land.
-They grew different types of crops like maize, rice, rapoko, cassava and fruits like bananas,
mangoes and guavas.
-They practised shifting cultivation and crop rotation.
-They kept livestock like cattle, goats and sheep.
-They hunted animals for meat, skins and ivory.
-They caught fish.
-They mined minerals like gold, silver and iron and exported them.
-They traded with the Shona people.

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-They brought beads, bangles, rings, cloth, sea shells and guns in exchange of cattle, copper,
gold and ivory.
-They forced Africans to work for them in their mines and farms.
-They practised slavery and slave trade.
-They raided Mutapa people for cattle and grain.
-They later on demanded tributefrom Mutapa people.
-They introduced the credit system which impoverished the Mutapa.
-They did blacksmithing.
Social Activities carried out in Prazos
-Preaching -Abuse of African women
-Acculturation of locals -Intermarriage
-Witchcraft -Polygamy
-Practice of slavery -Lived in mud plastered and thatched huts
-They spoke African language -Birth of Mulattos
-Rain making ceremonies -Adoption of local culture
Political Activities carried out on Prazos
-The Prazeros exercised judicial powers.
-Prazeros controlled Prazos like African chiefs.
-They raised Chikunda armies [Private armies].
-They demanded tribute from Africans.
-They used Chikunda to interfere in succession disputes.
-They forged Alliances with vassal Mutapas.
-Mutapasbecame their puppets.
-Prazos were independent.
-Prazeros appointed vassal chiefs.
Positive Effects of the Prazo system on Mutapa
-New crops were introduced, for example, maize.
-Modern civilisation was introduced, for example, clothing.
-Improvement of communication, for example, roads were constructed.
-Africans received foreign goods such as guns.
-Manyika copied Portuguese words such as Prazo [Purazi].
-Spread of Christianity reduced barbarism and paganism.
-Trade improved
-They were taught new farming methods.
-They were taught new mining methods.
-They were protected against foreign forces.
Negative Effects of the Prazo system on Mutapa
-Spreading of diseases
-Abuse of African women
-A vast amount of minerals like gold was taken away from the Zambezi valley.
-Numerous deaths were incurred.
-African culture was destroyed.
-Mutapa kings were forced to pay tribute.
-African chiefs were forced to supply slave labour.

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-The Portuguese interfered too much in Mutapa politics.
-Christianity brought division among Africans.
-Africans lost their land.
-Slavery was rampant.
-Prostitution was rampant.
-Africans were raided and oppressed.
-The Portuguese promoted civil wars.
-Africans lost control of trade.
Successes of the Portuguese in achieving their aims
-They monopolised trade.
-They converted some Africans into Christianity.
-They managed to expel Swahili traders.
-They established trading posts in the interior and outside.
-They located the source of gold.
Failures of Portuguese in achieving their aims
-They failed to avenge the death of Goncalo da Silveira.
-They failed to convert many Africans into Christianity.
-They failed to permanently colonise Zimbabwe.
-They failed to locate and get the news of the Legendary Prester John.
Importance of Portuguese military power in controlling the state
-They used guns to instil fear.
-Military power weakened the Mutapa state in the 1570s.
-They were able to control chiefs in the Zambezi valley.
-Military power was used to control trade.
-Military power was used to support rebels.
-Military power was used to raid for manpower.
-Military power was used for protection from attacks.
Other factors which helped the Portuguese to control Mutapa state
-Christianity was used to gain influence on the Mutapa.
-Weak leaders asked for Portuguese help during succession disputes and became puppets.
-The state was too big, so the Portuguese were able to control distant chiefdoms.
-The Portuguese monopolised trade.
-The prazo system where Chikunda armies were kept.
-The Portuguese now got tribute [Curva]

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MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE FROM 1850 TO 1900
Aims of Missionaries in Zimbabwe
-To civilise Africans
-To spread Christianity
-To educate Africans.
-To introduce medical technology
-To replace barbaric African customs, for instance, the killing of twins, raiding, polygamy,
witchcraft and even names of people
-To end slave trade
-To promote legitimate trade
-To develop an indigenous middle class to maintain church staff.
-To convert heathens
-To introduce new agricultural methods
-To introduce new crops
-To treat the sick people and to inoculate cattle
-To end African vices like human sacrifices
-To open up mission stations and schools as well as health centres
-To introduce new skills such as carpentry and needle work
-The need for land for settlement
-The need to end civil wars
Early missionary societies / organisations which worked in Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900
Missionary Society Mission Stations Missionaries
-London Missionary Society [LMS] Inyati / Hope Fountain R Moffat / J
Moffat
-Dutch Reformed Church Morgenster Michael Buys

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-Anglican Church St Augustine Knight Bruce
-Roman Catholic Church Empandeni/Mashayamombe Batholomew Kroot
-Berlin Missionary Society Matibi/Thorn Hill Madzima/Samuel
-American Board of Foreign Missions Mt Selinda
-Paris Evangelical Church Coillard/ Sehahabane
-Methodist Church
Mission Stations established in Zimbabwe 1850 and 1900
-Hope Fountain -Mashayamombe
-Matibi -Inyati
-Torn Hill -Mt Selinda
-Empandeni -Chivi
-Mudavanhu -Chingoma
-Nyamhondo -Chilimanzi
-Dzike -Matobo
-Chishawasha -Howard
-Hartzel -St Dominics
-Old Mutare -Mugabe
-Zimuto -Gokomere
-Mposi -Mzila
-Pedamatenka -St Augustine
Mission stations in Zimbabwe where African Evangelists operated in the 19th century
-Matibi -Mposi
-Mudavanhu -Chingoma
-Nyamhondo -Zimuto
-Mugabe -Chilimanzi / Chirumhanzu
-Dzike
Names of missionaries who worked in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
-Robert Moffat -John Smith Moffat
-Charles Helm -Bernard Muzeki
-Francois Coillard -William Sykes
-Thomas Morgan Thomas -Father Batholomew Kroot
-Father Robert Laws -Knight Bruce
-David Carnegie -Sehahabane
-Madzima -Prestage
-Samuel -Schellnus
-Knoth -William Buys
-Thomson -Makgatho
Missionaries of the London missionary societies
-Robert Moffat -John Smith Moffat
-William Sykes -Charles Helm
-David Carnegie -Thomas Morgan Thomas
-Thomson
Missionaries who operated in Matabeleland from 1850 to 1900
-Robert Law -Charles Helm

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-Thomas Sykes -William Sykes
-Batholomew Kroot -Thomas Morgan Thomas
-Father Prestage -David Carnegie
-Hartman -Robert Moffat
-Thomson
Mission stations established in Matabeleland between 1850 and 1900
-Inyati -Hope Fountain
-Empandeni -Matobo
Mission hospitals established in Zimbabwe by 1900
-Inyati -Empandeni
-Zimuto -Morgenster
-Hope Fountain -Chishawasha
-St Augustine -Chirinda / Mt Selinda
-Matibi -Mzila
-Mposi -Chibi
-Nyamhondo -Hartzel / Old Mutare

Missionary work or activities in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900

-They established mission stations such as Inyati and Hope Fountain.
-They grew their own crops for food on land given by the king.
-They encouraged trade between the Africans and whites.
-They built mission stations.
-They established schools.
-They established clinics and hospitals.
-They established churches.
-They converted Africans into Christianity.
-They acted as agents of imperialism.
-They performed technical work such as carpentry.
-They printed books in vernacular language.
-They discouraged and undermined African Traditional Religion.
-They treated the sick and inoculated cattle.
-They taught new skills such as building, metal work and carpentry.
-They acted as mediators between Africans and Europeans.
-They acted as interpreters.
-They wrote diplomatic letters for the king.
-They taught Africans to read and write.
-They repaired guns for the king.
-They established friendly relations with Africans.
-They made roads.
-They accommodated colonisers.
-They signed treaties.
Skills taught by early missionaries in Zimbabwe
-Carpentry / Woodwork -Building
-Farming -Repairing guns

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-Repairing wagons -Hunting
-Reading -Writing
-Cattle inoculation -Metal work
-Cooking -Legitimate trade
-Sewing
Work of Catholic Missionaries in Zimbabwe up to 1906
-They established mission stations.
-In 1879, the pioneer Roman Catholic missionary, Father Robert Law tried to establish a
station at chief Mzila’s place on the border between Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
-In 1882, Batholomew Kroot led a team of Jesuit missionaries into Matabeleland.
-Jesuits led by Batholomew Kroot opened a station at Empandeni and another near
Bulawayo.
-In 1892 Chishawasha station was opened near Salisbury.
-Depelchin led Jesuits to the Zambezi valley and set up a station Pandamatenka. He built the
‘Residence of the Holy Cross’. Missionaries at Pandamatenka faced problems of deaths
because the area was unhealthy.
-The Catholic missionaries inoculated cattle.
-The Catholic missionaries reduced African language to written form [IsiNdebele and Shona].
They printed IsiNdebele books for children to read.
-They built numerous churches and many converts were made after colonisation.
-They translated educational and religious books.
-Catholic missionaries taught skills like carpentry.
-They introduced new crops and vegetables.
-They built schools that taught reading and writing.
-They were allowed to preach to the people.
-They repaired Ndebele guns.
-They treated the sick.
-They wrote the king’s letters.
Successes of the Catholic missionaries in Zimbabwe
-They established mission stations.
-They inoculated cattle.
-They reduced African language to written form [IsiNdebele and Shona].
-They translated religious and educational books.
-They introduced new crops and vegetables.
-New crafts and skills were introduced.
-They taught Africans to use ploughs.
Failures
-Before colonisation [1890] they made little impact to convert the Shona and Ndebele.
-Slave raiding and class system among the Ndebele influenced Ndebele kings to discourage
conversion.
-They faced the problem of diseases.
-There was poor communication.
Work of African Evangelists in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1906

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-Missionary groups such as the Dutch Reformed Church [DRC] of South Africa, Paris
Evangelical Mission [PEM] of Lesotho and Berlin Missionary Society [BMS] employed
African catechists and evangelists to reach on the Shona.
-PEM opened stations at Chivi, Mposi and Matibi.
-Expeditions were sent to Mudavanhu, Chivi, Chingoma, Zimuto, Chilimanzi, Mugabe,
Nyamhondo and Dzike.
- They made some converts but were chased away by Lobengula.
-BMS missionaries like Madzima and Samuel opened stations at Mposi and Matibi.
-Knoth and Schellnus joined them and they preached the gospel.
-They taught skills such as agriculture, reading, carpentry and writing.
-DRC Evangelist, Michael Buys opened a station at chief Zimuto and Mugabe [Morgenster].
--They opened another at Chivi and a resident missionary was appointed for chief Chivi.
Work of the London Missionary Society in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
-In 1859 J.S Moffat established Inyati Mission Station.
-LMS opened Hope Fountain 1870.
-Other missionaries who operated in Matabeleland included Thomas Sykes, Rev C Helm and
David Carnegie.
-At the stations the missionaries taught and preached.
-They grew their own crops for food.
-J.S Moffat signed the Moffat treaty with Lobengula in February 1888.
-Rev C Helm persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession in October 1888.
-Missionaries in Matabeleland encouraged trade between Ndebele and whites.
-They established schools’
-They built hospitals.
-They built churches.
-They converted one Ndebele into Christianity.
-They repaired the king’s guns.
-They wrote king’s letters.
-They treated the sick.
-They discouraged and undermined African religion and tradition.
-They taught the Ndebele new skills such as carpentry, building, and metal work.
-They acted as interpreters [translators].
-They promoted literacy. The Ndebele were taught to read and write
Problems faced by missionaries in Zimbabwe between 1850 and 1900
-Delay in granting permission to operate by the king.
-There were cultural differences.
-They were distrusted as they preached against customs such as killing of twins, polygamy,
caste system and raiding.
-There were communication problems due to differences in language.
-There was lack of supplies of European goods, medicine, tools and clothes.
-They were affected by tropical diseases such as malaria.
-There were climatic problems.
-There was hostility of the local people.
-There was killing of missionaries.

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-Converts were killed by fellow Africans.
-Some converts were exiled.
-They were attacked by wild animals.
-Warfare and raiding created fear among the missionaries.
-There was lack of roads which restricted movements.
-There were literacy problems since the natives could not read and write.
-They were being embroiled in local politics such as succession disputes.
-There was competition with other religions.
There was shortage of food they were used to.
-There was pressure from political leaders who wanted them to be involved in colonialism.
-They were caught up in the competition among the European countries.
-They had shortage of human resources.
-There was poor accommodation.
Methods to solve problems / Solution to the problems
-They used sign language and interpreters from South Africa.
-Thy built clinics for curing tropical diseases.
-They set up schools to educate the Africans.
-They assisted in colonialism so that their work to spread Christianity was made easy.
-They crated roads for easy movements.
-They grew their own crops for food.
-They built mission stations.
-They used catechists and evangelists.
-Friendship with African chiefs was another solution.
-They cheated some local chiefs such as Lobengula.
-They taught native children to read and write.
-They learnt native languages which aided communication and preaching.
Failures in solving problems
-Few people were converted to Christians.
-Not many roads were created.
-There was shortage of drugs for curing dideases.
-Some missionaries were chased out of the country, for example, Coillard.
-Some missions were abandoned, for example, Pandamatenka.
-Some missionaries were killed, for example, Bernard Muzeki.
-Africans were still attached to their traditional religion and culture.
-The Ndebele still cherished the caste and raiding system.
-Roads and telephones were still rare.
-Africans were suspicious of Europeans.
To what extent were African rulers to blame for the problems of the early missionaries?
-Blameworthiness of African rulers
-Mzilikazi did not allow the Ndebele to be converted.
-Lobengula arrested Coillard.
-African rulers were the custodians of culture and found it difficult to change, so they resisted
the preaching of missionaries.
-They killed missionaries.

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-Some converts were punished by African rulers.
-Some converts were exiled by African rulers.
-Raiding which was done by African rulers hampered missionary work.
Other factors
-Language barrier
-Missionaries were attacked by diseases.
-Lack of medicine was another problem.
-Lack of food they were used to.
-Poor transport and communication networks.
Ways used by Africans to resist missionary influence in Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900
-They moved far away from missionary settlements.
-They continued to practise their traditional religions.
-Raids continued to take place in Zimbabwe.
-They refused to attend schools.
-Thy killed some missionaries.
-They refused to give missionaries food.
-They accused missionaries of being spies.
-They punished or killed some converts.
-They accused missionaries of using forbidden routes.
-They refused to work for missionaries.
-They refused to accept some gifts from missionaries.
-African leaders like Lobengula restricted missionary activities.
-Some Africans continued to practise Islam and trade with Moslems.
-African leaders discouraged Africans from attending church services.
-They expelled some missionaries
Were Africans successful in resisting missionary influence at that time?
Successes
-Many people were not converted.
-Very few people attended schools.
-They killed some missionaries.
-Some converts were killed.
-They refused to learn the new language.
-Missionary activities were restricted.
Failures
-Some people were converted.
-Other people were educated.
-Mission stations were established.
-Schools were built.
-Hospitals were built.
Why African people resisted missionary influence in Zimbabwe between 1850 and
1900?
-They did not want to abandon their traditional religion.
-They feared that their trade would be disturbed.

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-They did not want to learn a new language.
-Christianity denounced aspects such as raiding.
-Missionaries attacked African administrative systems.
-They suspected missionaries of having colonial aims.
-There was influence from traditional leaders.
-Missionaries were accused of natural disasters like cattle diseases and drought.
-Christianity denounced polygamy.
-Missionary teaching was meaningless to African traditional life.
-Learning was difficult.
Successes of missionaries in Zimbabwe in their work
-They succeeded in converting some Africans, for example, in Mashonaland.
-They managed to establish mission stations.
-Schools were built.
-They introduced literacy.
-They introduced new crops which were adopted by Africans.
-They were welcomed by some Shona, for example, Govera, Mposi and Mugabe.
-They taught skills such as carpentry.
-They promoted trade between Africans and whites.
Failures of missionaries in their work in Zimbabwe
-They managed to establish few permanent mission stations.
-Converts continued with their African traditional beliefs.
-They made very few converts in Matabeleland.
-Some missionaries died and some were arrested.
-Raiding hampered their work.
-Some were expelled by Lobengula.
Positive effects of missionary work on Africans
-They produced educated African elite.
-They cultivated a sense of equality in all people.
-They introduced better farming methods like irrigation and crop rotation.
-They improved medical facilities.
-They brought about social harmony.
-There was development of vernacular language.
-There was an improvement of infrastructure.
Negative effects of missionary work on Africans
-They paved way for colonisation.
-They cheated and lied to African leaders into signing treaties.
-They supported the crushing of kingdoms, for instance, John Smith Moffat was happy with
the crushing of the Ndebele kingdom.
-They supported land grabbing.
-They spied for their mother countries.
-Western medicine undermined indigenous herbs.
-Their preaching made African minds docile.
Contribution of missionaries to the colonisation of Zimbabwe

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-Robert Moffat’s friendship to Mzilikazi paved way for missionaries, like J.S Moffat, C Helm
and other whites.
-The Moffat treaty of 1888 renewed the friendship between the Ndebele and the British
paving way for British colonisation.
-This treaty led to the cancellation of the Grobler treaty.
-The Moffat treaty led to the signing of the Rudd Concession which was used to occupy
Zimbabwe.
-Reverend Charles Helm persuaded the king to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Missionaries published economic prospects to their countries thereby generating interest in
colonial conquest.
-They invited their governments to end slavery.
-They published pagan practices by Africans which needed the attention of European
governments.
-Missionaries invited their governments to destroy African states after failing to get converts.
-Missionaries were interpreters and also wrote letters for the king falsifying some details.
-They were used as agents of imperialism in treaty making.
-They established mission stations which later helped to accommodate other whites like
concession seekers.
-Missionaries gave false, exaggerated reports about the wealth in the country to lure other
whites.
-They bribed Africans to persuade them to sign treaties.
Contribution of failure by missionaries to win converts to the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Missionaries wished the destruction of states like Ndebele.
-Missionaries gave false information to their home governments.
-Missionaries wanted colonisation for protection.

Role played by the London Missionary Society in the colonisation of Zimbabwe

-In February 1888, J.S Moffat signed the Moffat Treaty on behalf of Rhodes. Lobengula
agreed to cancel the Grobler Treaty.
-In October 1888, Rev C Helm influenced Lobengula into signing the Rudd Concession.
-C Helm recommended the destruction of the Ndebele state.
-Missionaries hosted European visitors from Europe.
-The Missionary road became the gateway into the interior of Southern Africa.
Other factors which led to the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Hope for the Second Rand
-Ndebele state was strategically positioned.
-Rhodes’s Cape to Cairo dream
-Need for raw materials
-Fertile soils.

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THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
-Scramble was the rush for colonies.
-Partition refers to the division of Southern African colonies by European powers.
-In the Scramble and partition of Southern Africa the most powerful countries were able to
get more colonies and vice versa.
-European countries involved in the Scramble for Africa included Britain, Germany,
Portugal, Belgium and Holland / Netherlands.
European country Colonies
-Germany -Namibia [South West Africa]
-Portugal -Mozambique [Portuguese East Africa], Angola [Portuguese West
Africa]
-Britain -Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Malawi, Lesotho, Swaziland
and Zambia
-Holland -Transvaal
-Belgium -Congo
Reasons for the Scramble and partition of Southern Africa
Economic reasons
-The need for raw materials by Europeans
-The need for markets in Southern Africa
-The need for cheap labour for greater profits
-The need for areas to invest surplus capital in Southern Africa

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-The need for fertile land for agriculture
-There was improved transport which facilitated travel overseas
-Good climatic conditions in Southern Africa
-The need acquire protectorate for trade
-The discovery of minerals like gold and diamonds in South Africa
-The need for wild life [game]
-The need for ivory
-The need to acquire colonies for resources
-The need for pastures
Social reasons
-The need to settle population pressure
-Availability of quinine and tablets gave whites the confidence to venture into the interior of
Africa.
-There were good climatic conditions in Southern Africa which were favourable to the health
of some European nationals like Rhodes.
-The need to civilise Africans
-The need to educate Africans
-The need to spread Christianity
-The need to end slave trade
-Racial superiority of Europeans
Political reasons
-The upset of balance of power led to the Scramble for Southern Africa.
-Southern Africa was colonised for prestige reasons.
-Southern Africa was colonised for strategic reasons.
-Diplomatic reasons also led to the scramble.
-The Berlin Conference also contributed.
-Influence of European agents
-The whites had superior weapons than Africans.
-Explorers encouraged colonisation.
-Public opinion and pressure
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
-Encouraging reports from hunters and traders
-The need to spread political influence
-The Boers wanted to extend their territory beyond the Limpopo River to avoid being
encircled by the British.
Political factors in Africa
-Disunity of local people
-Wars amongst Africans
-Africans had inferior weapons
Political aims of Britain in the Scramble for Southern Africa
-To fulfil the Cape to Cairo dream
-To establish a crown colony in Botswana and secure the missionary road
-To carry on the white men’s burden of civilising the African barbarian-Social Darwinism
-Pressure from the electorate

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 -To create a British empire of colonies stretching from South Africa to Egypt
-To stop Portuguese expansion
-To gain prestige
-To encircle the Boers
Political aims of Germany in the Scramble for Southern Africa
-Germany wanted to make enemies with France by forcing Britain to move next to her
-To gain prestige
-To civilise Africans
-Pressure from the electorate
Economic aims of Britain and Germany in the Scramble for Southern Africa
-Markets -Raw materials
-Cheap labour -Investment opportunities
-Fertile land -Hunting grounds
-Minerals -Need for cattle
-Pastures
To what extent had Britain achieved her aims in Southern Africa by 1900?
Achievements
-She occupied Bechuanaland, frustrated Germany and the Boers
-She occupied Zimbabwe, frustrated the Boers and Portuguese
-The missionary road was kept open
-She managed to take the gold and diamond producing areas
Failures
-She failed to completely dislodge the Boers in South Africa
-She failed to have access to the Indian Ocean via Mozambique
-She failed to create a federation of whites in South Africa
The Berlin Conference [1884-85]
This conference was convened by Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany from 1871
to 1890 to chart ways of partitioning Africa peacefully. It was held in Berlin, in Germany. It
was also meant to curb the increasing conflicts over colonies. Africans were not invited.
Countries which were represented were Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal and
Belgium.
Terms of the Berlin Conference / Agreements made at Berlin Conference of 1884-5
which speeded up the partition of Southern Africa
-Africa was divided into 20 spheres of influence
-There was to be effective occupation of spheres of influence
-Each country was to make sure that there was a marked development in its sphere of
influence
-There was to be freedom of navigation on major rivers like Niger, Zambezi, Nile and Congo
-Slave trade and slavery were to be abolished where they still existed
-All countries were to recognise king Leopold’s occupation of Congo and Britain’s
occupation of Egypt. There was to be recognition of existing spheres of influence by
European powers
-They agreed to notify each other of new spheres of influence
-Any intending country was to sign treaties with local rulers as legal right to occupy that area

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-They were to respect the rights of the indigenous people
-They were to develop infrastructure in areas colonised
-They were to create new political structures
-They were to draw boundaries
-They were to settle disputes peacefully
-They were to hoist national flags in areas colonised
Contribution of the Berlin Conference in stimulating the Scramble and partition of
Southern Africa
-It legalised the partition of Africa. It set rules of the game of partition. It legitimised the
occupation of Southern Africa
-Many treaties were signed with African chiefs leading to the eventual occupation of their
territories
-Chiefs were cheated or deceived
-European powers competed for unoccupied areas of Southern Africa
-There was also scramble to define and extend boundaries of existing spheres of influence by
the British, Portuguese, Boers and Germans.
Other factors
-The industrial revolution
-Weaknesses of Africans
-The discovery on minerals in South Africa
-Work of European agents like traders, missionaries, concession seekers, hunters and
individuals like Rhodes
-Strategic reasons
-Humanitarian reasons
British protectorates in Southern Africa and their respective cheiefs
Protectorates Chiefs
-Botswana -Khama
-Barotseland -Lewanika
-Swaziland -Sobhuza
-Lesotho -Moshoeshoe
African leaders who sought protection from Europeans
-Moshoeshoe -Lewanika
-Mswati -Maherero
-Khama
African leaders who resisted colonisation
-Lobengula -Dinizulu
-Ngungunyana -Witbooi
-Cetshwayo -Mapondera
African chiefdoms colonised by Europeans in Southern Africa
-Ndebele -Zvimba
-Gaza -Makoni
-Mugabe -Pedi
-Mashayamombe -Zulu
-Lozi -Chinamhora

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-Xhosa -Chihota
-Ngwato -Mangwende
-Swazi
Ethnic groups that fought wars of resistance in Southern Africa between 1870 and 1900
-Zulu -Shona
-Ndebele -Herero
-Nama/Herero -Ngwato
-Gaza/Shangani -Pedi
-Swazi -Xhosa
-Sotho
Wars of resistance to colonisation in Southern Africa between 1870 and 1900
-Anglo-Zulu War [1879] -Anglo-Ndebele War [1893-4]
-Ndebele-Shona risings/First Chimurenga [1896-7] -Sotho rising
-Griqua-Thlapin rising -British-Pedi War
-Portuguese-Gaza War [1895] -Bambata rebellion
-Nama rising -Herero rising
-The gun war
Methods used by Europeans to colonise chiefdoms in Southern Africa / Ways used by
Europeans to destroy African independence
- Warfare, for example, the 1893 Anglo-Ndebele wa r, the 1896 Ndebele-Shone uprisings and
the Anglo-Zulu war
-Treaty making, for example, The Moffat treaty of 1888 and the Rudd Concession of 1888
-Use of agents like Rhodes
-Divide and rule tactic
-Use of Chartered companies such as BSAC, NIASA
-Granting of charter
-Conquest
-Trickery, for example, Lobengula was given verbal promises that were never fulfilled
-Use of gifts to African leaders to persuade people to accept colonial rule
-Buying concessions, for example, Edward Lippert sold the Lippert concession to Rhodes in
1891
-Bribery, for example, Lotshe was bribed by Thompson to influence Lobengula to sign the
Rudd Concession
-Through the influence of hunters like Henry Hartley and Frederick Courtney Selous
-Offering protection, for example, the Sotho, Tswana and Swazi got protection from the
British
-Use of ambitious wealth men like Rhodes and Luderitz
-Using missionary influence
Why Europeans were successful in colonising the African chiefdoms during this period
Advantages of Europeans
-They had superior weapons
-They had better communication
-They used tricks
-They used bribery

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-They used dynamites
Disadvantages of Africans
-They had inferior weapons
-They had poor communication
-They had poor methods of fighting
-They were illiterate
-There was disunity among Africans
To what extent were Africans to blame for the colonisation of Southern Africa
Why Africans were to blame
-They were not united
-Some African chiefs collaborated with colonial agents
-Their military weaknesses invited Europeans
-Some asked for colonial power protection from raids by neighbours, for example, the
Ngwato got protection from the Ndebele raids.
-Tribal wars, for example, Tswana and Korana
Other factors
-Illiteracy made Africans vulnerable during treaty making
-Forces of industrial capitalism were too strong, for example, Britain and Germany
-Europeans were very determined to colonise Africans
Methods used by Africans to resist colonisation in Southern Africa
-Wars [armed resistance], for example, Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, the Zulu wars
-Diplomacy. They engaged in diplomatic engagements to postpone their down fall
-Friendship
-Protectorate status [Collaboration with Europeans], Lewanika collaborated with the British
-Migration
-Delegations-giving part of one’s power, rights, for a certain time
-Treaties and agreements
-Concessions, for example, Rudd Concession, Lippert concession and the like
-Killed whites in farms and mines
-Use of Christianity to resist colonisation, for example, Moshoeshoe against the Boers
The competition for the colonisation of Southern Africa by Europeans
-Britain and Boers-competed for the colonisation of the Ndebele state as shown by the
signing of the Grobler and Moffat treaty. The British ended up as winners after the signing of
the Rudd Concession.
-Britain and Boers-competed for control of the diamond wealth in Kimberly. This led to the
British annexation of Orange Free State.
-The British desire to access Nguni labour force and to encircle Boers led to the annexation of
Natal and to declare a protectorate over Bechuanaland so as to preserve the missionary road
and thwart [stop] Boer expansion westwards. Boers had declared two republics of Stella land
and Goshen.
-The Second Anglo-Boer war was part of the struggle to control the gold wealth at the
Witwatersrand.
-Britain and Portugal-competed for the control of Mashonaland which the Ndebele claimed
to control. The Portuguese intended to join Portuguese East Africa [Mozambique] with

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Portuguese West Africa whilst Rhodes had the Cape to Cairo dream. The Anglo-Portuguese
treaty of 1891 resolved boundaries between Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa.
-Germany and Britain-British influence was spreading from the South to the North whilst
Germany was expanding eastwards from the area she had, that is, South West Africa
[Namibia]. Britain declared a protectorate in Bechuanaland in 1885 to thwart German
expansion and preserve the missionary road.
To what extent were the people of Southern Africa affected by this competition up to
1900?
Positive effects
-Some states gained protection and remained intact, for example, the Lozi of Lewanika and
Khama’s Ngwato.
-Some chiefs retained their power, for example, Lewanika.
-Many missionaries visited the state to convert people to Christianity.
-Trade with foreigners increased
-There was an end of ethnic wars, for example, the Ndebele versus the Shona or Ngwato; the
Zulu-Pedi clashes and so on.
-The Ndebele state remained intact up to 1893.
Disadvantages
-Loss of independence
-Erosion of African culture
-Lots of wealth, for example, raw materials was exploited
-It led to colonial wars and wars of dispossession
-There were high death rates due to the use of maxim guns
-Africans were cheated in treaties
-The Ndebele kings spent time dealing with concession seekers
Why Britain was able to obtain more colonies in the region
Strengths of Britain
-The role of Lord Salisbury and others. Salisbury was the British Prime Minister.
-The British South Africa company [BSAC] got support from the rich.
-Britain was fully prepared for a war’
-Rhodes’ wealth
-Influence of missionaries
-Influence of traders, hunters and concession seekers
Other factors
-Germany was a late comer into the scramble for Africa
-Boers were militarily weak
-The Portuguese were weak
-Weaknesses of Africans
-Other countries lacked foreign support
European agents [colonialist representatives] who participated in the Scramble for
Southern Africa
-Cecil John Rhodes -Herr Luderitz
-John Smith Moffat -Piet Grobler
-Charles Dunnel Rudd -Francis Thompson

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-Rochford Maguire -Sir Sydney Shippard
-Edward Lippert -Thomas Baines
-Charles Helm
Colonial agents [whites] and their European countries who were involved in the
scramble for Africa
-Cecil John Rhodes -Britain
-Karl Peters -Germany
-Paul Krugger -Boers
Describe the contribution made by Paul Krugger in the colonisation of Southern Africa
-Paul Krugger was the president of Transvaal [South African Boer Repulic]
-He was eager to expand Boer territory.
-He annexed Stellaland and Goshen.
-He organised the construction of a railway line-Delagoa
-He sent the Grobler brothers to sign the Grobler treaty.
-He tried to link up with Germans in South West Africa [Namibia]
-He blocked the missionary road to the north.
-He facilitated the protection of Botswana by the British.
-Negotiations between Krugger and Rhodes failed, so competition continued.
-Krugger foiled the Jameson raid
-Rhodes resigned as prime minister after the failure of the Jameson raid.
-He wanted to promote Afrikaner nationalism.
To what extent did Paul Krugger contribute to the colonisation of Zimbabwe?
Paul Krugger’s contribution
-He signed the Grobler treaty which led to the singing of the Moffat treaty which also led to
the signing of the Rudd concession.
-He motivated Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe by blocking the missionary road.
-He wanted to expand his territory towards Zimbabwe.
Others factors
-Influence of Germans and Portuguese
-Rhodes believed that there was a second rand in Zimbabwe.
-The need for minerals, fertile soils, markerts, raw materials and areas of investment
-The need to end slavery and slave trade
-The need to spread 3cs, civilisation, Christianity and commerce

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THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
-Zimbabwe was colonised by the British in 1890.
Reasons for the colonisation of Zimbabwe
Economic reasons
-The need for markets
-The need for raw materials
-The need for pastures
-The need for cheap labour
-The need to invest surplus capital
-The need for fertile land for agriculture
-The need to bail the BSAC out of bankruptcy
-The whites wanted Ndebele cattle in Zimbabwe
-Favourable climatic conditions in Zimbabwe for people like Rhodes who had health
problems.
-Rhodes believed that there was a second rand in Zimbabwe
-The discovery of gold and diamond in the Transvaal made many whites to think that the gold
belt in South Africa stretched into Zimbabwe.
Political reasons
-Rhodes wanted to promote British imperialism by having more colonies.
-Rhodes wanted to prevent other countries such as Portugal from colonising Zimbabwe.
-Rhodes wanted to stop Germany expansion from the west [Namibia].

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-Rhodes was determined to encircle the Transvaal [Boers].
-Rhodes wanted to prevent Boers from expanding northwards.
-Zimbabwe was colonised for prestigious reasons.
-Influence of hunters, traders, explorers and missionaries
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream. He wanted to colonise Africa from Cape [South Africa] to
Egypt [Cairo].
-Rhodes wanted to construct a railway line past Matabeleland
-Rhodes believed in British superiority. His purpose was therefore to spread liberty, peace
and justice to other parts of the world.
-Zimbabwe was colonised for strategic reasons
Social reasons
-The British wanted to civilise Africans
-The British wanted to spread Christianity
-The British wanted to spread education
-Favourable climatic conditions
-Population expansion. There was need to settle population pressure.
Importance of economic factors in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Attraction of mineral wealth
-Opportunities to invest surplus capital by the DeBeers Company
-Attractive soils and cattle
-Market opportunities
-Availability of raw materials in Zimbabwe
Describe the part played by Africans in bringing about the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Some Ndebele court officials collaborated with colonial agents, for example, Lotshe and
Sikombo persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-Lobengula, king of the Ndebele, signed treaties and concessions, whose contents he did not
understand, for example, Moffat treaty, Rudd Concession and Lippert Concession.
-Lobengula claimed to be the king of both the Ndebele and the Shona thus facilitating
colonisation.
-Weaknesses of the Ndebele were exploited by the Europeans who had the maxim guns.
-The Shona did not resist the coming of the colonisers in 1890.
-Rivalry between the Ndebele and the Shona undermined the possibility of a united
resistance.
-Some Shona collaborated with the whites in the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-4.
-Khama provided the auxiliary forces to assist the BSAC.
-Khama advised Lobengula to seek British protection like him.
-Some Africans accompanied the pioneer column from South Africa into Mashonaland.
-The Fingo people, also from South Africa accompanied Rhodes.
-Some Shona chiefs also signed treaties with the whites.
-Some Africans hosted colonial agents.
Importance of the part played by Africans in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Influence of court officials helped in influencing the signing of treaties.
-They cleared the road to facilitate the penetration of the pioneer column.
-They hosted European agents of colonisation.

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-Collaborators boosted the number of invaders.
Other factors
-Rhodes financed the whole process of colonisation; secured the treaties and royal charter.
-Selous guided the pioneer column.
-Activities of Grobler sparked the scramble for Zimbabwe.
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream.
Whites who helped in the colonisation of Southern Africa
-Cecil John Rhodes -Duke of Fife
-Duke of Abercorn -Paul Krugger
-Lord Grey -Baroness Burdette Coutts
-Queen Victoria -Otto von Bismarck
-Lord Salisbury -Robinson
-Leander Starr Jameson -Prince of Wales
-E Maund -Edward Lippert
-Sir Sydney Shippard -J.S Moffat
-Penne father -Charles Helm
-Frederick Courtney Selous -Piet Grobler
-Charles Rudd
Treaties signed between Lobengula and the whites
1] London-Limpopo treaty [1870]
2] Baines treaty [1871]
3] Grobler treaty [1887]
4] Moffat treaty [1888]
5] Rudd Concession [1888]
6] Lippert Concession [1891]
1] London Limpopo Treaty [1870]
-This was a mineral concession to the London and Limpopo Company in the Tati area
Terms of this treaty
-There was to be erection of buildings and operation of machines by the company.
-The company was to make roads.
-The company was given mining rights.
-Lobengula was to get 120 pounds per month.
2] The Baines Treaty [1871]
-It was a verbal agreement made between Lobengula and Thomas Baines.
Terms of this treaty
-Baines was given the right to exploit minerals in the area between Gweru and Hunyani
rivers.
*However, Baines died before registering his treaty.
3] Grobler Treaty [1887]
-It was signed between Lobengula and the Boers. It was negotiated between Piet Grobler,
Frederick Grobler and Lobengula.
Terms of this treaty
-There was to be everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the Boers.

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-A Boer permanent representative [a council] was to be stationed in Bulawayo to administer
justice to Boers who might violate Lobengula’s law.
-Boers carrying passports from the Transvaal were to be allowed entry into Zimbabwe.
-Boers were to prospect for minerals.
-Lobengula was to catch and extradite all criminals from who escaped from the South African
Boer Republic [Transvaal].
-Hunters and prospectors from South African Boer Republic would be allowed to operate in
Lobengula’s kingdom.
-Lobengula was to protect Transvaal citizens who visited his country.
-The Ndebele were committed to providing military assistance to Transvaal if and when
asked to do so.
-Lobengula was to be recognised as a paramount chief.
Did the Grobler treaty protect the Ndebele state from colonisation?
Protection
-The Grobler treaty protected the Ndebele state from invasion by the Boers or other
Europeans
-It delayed the occupation of the Ndebele state by other groups
-The treaty created friendship between the Ndebele and the Boers
Limitations
-Lobengula faced threats from the Portuguese and the British
-The treaty could not prevent the British from entering into treaties with Lobengula
-Lobengula had to sign the Moffat treaty and the Rudd Concession which led to the
colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Military assistance was one sided
-It increased the scramble for Zimbabwe
4] The Moffat Treaty [February 1888]
-It was signed between Lobengula and John Smith Moffat representing Cecil John Rhodes.
-It was meant to repudiate [cancel] the Grobler treaty.
-Moffat enjoyed an advantage when he negotiated for this treaty with Lobengula because he
had worked among the Ndebele for long, Lobengula trusted him as an honest man, his father,
Robert Moffat was a close friend of Lobengula’s father, Mzilikazi and their fathers had
signed a treaty, so Lobengula thought he was renewing the old treaty.
Terms of this treaty
-There was to be everlasting peace and friendship between Lobengula and the British.
-Lobengula was not to enter into any other agreement without the consent / permission of the
British.
-Lobengula was to get British protection.
-The Grobler treaty was to be cancelled.
-Lobengula was not to give any part of the country to any other country.
-Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen.
5] Rudd Concession [October 1888]
-It was signed between Lobengula and the British. Rhodes used the Moffat treaty to keep the
Germans, Boers and the Portuguese out of Matabeleland and Mashonaland. Rhodes sent

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Charles Rudd, Francis Thompson and Rochfort Maguire to persuade Lobengula to grant them
a concession.
Signatories of the Rudd Concession
-Lobengula-was the king of the Ndebele who claimed to be having control over the area
between Zambezi and Limpopo [Zimbabwe].
-Charles Dunnel Rudd-was Rhodes’ business partner who came from South Africa in 1866
on medical grounds. He was a diamond dealer who could trick anyone into submission. He
was Rhodes’ best friend and head of Rhodes’ delegation to Lobengula.
-Francis ‘Matabele’ Thompson-was fluent in native languages. He was therefore
responsible for interpreting.
-Rochfort Maguire-was a lawyer by profession and was with Rhodes at Oxford University.
-John Dreyer-was the wagon driver who was also a signatory.
Other people who were present
-Charles Helm-was a missionary who interpreted and was also a trusted friend of Lobengula.
He was an agent of imperialism and he persuaded Lobengula to sign the Rudd Concession.
-John Smith Moffat-was a missionary and Lobengula friend.
-Sir Sydney Shippard
-Lotshe-was a trusted induna of Lobengula and was bribed by Thompson to urge Lobengula
to sign.
-Sikombo
Terms of the Rudd Concession
Written terms / written agreements
-The BSAC was granted the right to exploit minerals.
-The BSAC was granted the authority ‘to do all things they might deem necessary’ in order to
promote their mining activities.
-Lobengula was to be given 100 pounds per month.
-Lobengula was to be given 1000 rifles and 100000 rounds of ammunition.
-A gun boat was to be stationed on the Zambezi valley or he was to be given 500 pounds.
Verbal agreements / Verbal terms
-Not more than 10 men were to enter into the kingdom and dig only one hole.
-The few whites would not mine near towns.
-The men were to surrender their weapons on arrival into Zimbabwe.
-All whites who came to Matabeleland were to be under Lobengula’s jurisdiction
-The whites to come to Matabeleland were to fight in defence of the Ndebele state
-Rhodes would advertise the concession in South African newspapers.
-Whites were not to stay permanently
People who were involved in the negotiations [signing] of the Rudd Concession
-Charles Rudd -Francis Thompson
-Rochford Maguire -Sir Sydney Shippard
- Charles Helm -Dreyer
-John Smith Moffat -Lobengula
-Lotshe -Sikombo
Did the Ndebele king benefit from the Rudd Concession?
Benefits of the king

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- Other European agents were kept out of Lobengula’s country
-The treaty controlled the influx of whites into the Ndebele state
-Lobengula received the first monthly salary of 100 pounds and some old guns.
Non-benefits
-Loss of land
-Loss of independence
-Loss of cattle
-Exploitation of minerals increased
-The treaty led to the invasion of the country
-The treaty legalised the occupation of Zimbabwe.
-It caused disunity in the state
-It led to the execution of Lotshe
-Lobengula stopped trusting his indunas
-Lobengula lost his life
-He never received the gun boats
Is it fair to blame Lobengula for signing the Rudd Concession? Explain your answer.
Blame on Lobengula
-He was too soft and blunt unlike his father, Mzilikazi who was diplomatic and cunning.
-He was supposed to take military action before white population increased.
-He restrained Amajaha when they wanted to resort to military action to drive out the whites.
-He should have delayed in signing to consider all possibilities and implications.
Blame on other factors
-The Rudd delegation played a scapegoat to Lobengula.
-The Rudd delegation used bribery to have the document signed.
-Missionaries like Moffat and Helm lied to Lobengula and misinterpreted the document.
-Lotshe and Sikombo, senior indunas were bribed into selling out the country.
To what extent did the Rudd Concession contribute to the colonisation of Zimbabwe?
-It was used to obtain the charter which was used to colonise Zimbabwe.
-It excluded other competing powers
-It met the requirements of the Berlin West African Conference
-It gave unlimited powers to the BSAC
-It led to the creation of the pioneer column
Other factors
-The charter which was written permission to colonise
-Rhodes and British financiers financed the occupation
-Other treaties like Grobler treaty also paved the way
-Assistance of collaborators
Reasons why Lobengula agreed to sign the Rudd Concession
-He was attracted by the promises of receiving a monthly payment of 100pounds and guns as
well as ammunition.
-He thought that this could deter other foreign powers who were rather molesting him for
land and mining concessions.
-He thought that he could get British protection during the attacks from the Zulu and other
tribes.

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-He was persuaded by his indunas like Lotshe.
-He was also persuaded by Charles Helm [a missionary].
Lobengula’s reaction after signing the Rudd Concession
Evidence to show that Lobengula was cheated in the signing of the Rudd Concession
-Instead of 10 men agreed, a column came and Lobengula was surprised.
-Lobengula was illiterate so he could not understand the legal language used.
-The Rudd team was made up of intellectual giants who had ventured into various works of
life, battle hardened men and economic heavy weights who could trick anyone.
-Bribes were common during the signing of the treaty.
-Items promised were never delivered.
-The Rudd team used Queen of England’s name.
-Sending of Babejane and Umshete to London to have the Rudd Concession clarified.
-The document given to the Queen was different from the one which Lobengula possessed
-Execution of all people who persuaded Lobengula to sign the treaty, for example, Lotshe.
-The Rudd team quickly rode off after signing the treaty leaving Thompson behind who
sneaked during the night.
Evidence to show that Lobengula was not cheated
-Lobengula wanted to please his subjects by signing the treaty after getting goods like money
and guns.
-The desire to be protected by the British drove him into signing the treaty.
-He changed his mind afterwards, as a result of influence from other parties like the Germans,
Boers and Portuguese.
-Lobengula had a natural weakness for luxury goods.
-Lobengula claimed to be cheated after his diplomacy failed.
Problems faced by Lobengula in dealing with concession seekers
-Whites came in large numbers.
-Language barrier
-Poor advise from white acquaintances like missionaries such as Helm and J.S Moffat and
hunters like Selous.
-Opposition from Amajaha [warriors]. They wanted direct confrontation with the whites.
-Difficulty in judging the best group to deal with
-Sometimes concession seekers pretended to be working against each other to influence
Lobengula’s decision, for example, Lippert who sold his concession to Rhodes.
-Poor education levels which prevented him from fully understanding the implications of
what he was required to sign.
-He had a natural weakness for luxury goods like receiving gifts of no lasting value.
-He was afraid of what might happen if he did not sign.
Concession seekers who visited Matabeleland between 1870 and 1900
-Swinburne -Thomas Baines
-Piet Grobler -Frederick Grobler
-J.S Moffat -Charles Rudd
-Francis Thompson -Rochfort Maguire
-Edward Lippert -E Maund
Hunters who operated in Zimbabwe [1850-1893]

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-Jan Viljoen -Henry Hartley
-Martinus Swartz -John Lee
-F.C Selous
Traders who operated in Zimbabwe [1850-1893]
-Sam Edwards -Joseph McCabe
-George Phillips -George West beech
-Fairburn -Dawson
-Thomas Meicles
Whites who were involved in the signing of treaties and concessions in Zimbabwe
between 1850 and 1891
-Thomas Baines -Sydney Shippard
-Piet Grobler -Frederick Grobler
-Charles Helm -Rochfort Maguire
-W Graham -Dreyer
-J.S Moffat -Charles Rudd
-F Thompson -E Lippert
-Van Wyk -E Maund
-C.J Rhodes -Paul Krugger
-J Swinburne
Measures taken by Rhodes after obtaining the Rudd Concession to prepare for the
occupation of Zimbabwe up to 1893
-He published the Rudd Concession in South African, Canada and New Zealand.
-He held a meeting with the Parliamentarians
-He obtained the royal Charter from the Queen [1889]
-He formed the BSAC
-He obtained money from the rich of Britain to finance the occupation
-He planned the delay of Lobengula’s emissaries namely, Umshete and Babejane in South
Africa
-He advertised the occupation of Zimbabwe
-He recruited the Pioneer column
-He bought the Lippert Concession
-Rhodes sought aid from Khama
-Rhodes sent Jameson to cure Lobengula so as to entice him for his support
-Invasion of Mashonaland [1890]
-Planned to fight the Anglo-Ndebele war [1893]
Importance of these measures to the occupation of Zimbabwe
-The Charter gave Rhodes the authority to occupy Zimbabwe.
-The Charter assured him of protection.
-He obtained support from Rothschild and DeBeers companies.
-Advertising protected him.
-Fighting the Ndebele led to the completion of the process of occupation
Other factors which facilitated the occupation of Zimbabwe
-Role of hunters
-Role of missionaries like Helm

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-Role of traders
-Weaknesses of the Boers
-Weaknesses of the Shona
-Weaknesses of the Ndebele
-Role of concession seekers
Role played by Rhodes in the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-He sent representatives to trick Lobengula into signing the Rudd Concession
-He bought the Lippert concession
-He was very rich and used his personal wealth to finance the occupation
-He obtained the royal charter
-He formed the BSAC and recruited pioneers
- He financed the Anglo-Ndebele war
-He devised the Cape to Cairo plan which engulfed Zimbabwe.
Other factors
-The British supported the move by Rhodes
-British financiers like Duke of Fife and Duke of Abercorn
-Missionaries helped, for example, Charles Helm and John Smith Moffat.
-Initial lack of resistance by the Shona
-Ndebele indunas like Lotshe and Sikombo who were bribed to persuade Lobengula to sign
the Rudd concession
-Role of hunters and traders
-The need for civilisation
-The need for markets, raw materials and investment opportunities.
-The discovery of minerals was also important.

Provisions of the Royal Charter

-To promote good governance
-To preserve peace and order
-To issue mining concessions
-To grant plots of land
-To establish banks
-To make roads, railways, telegraphs and harbours
-To promote trade and commerce
-To promote civilisation
-To respect local customs, laws and religion
-To ban the sale of liquor to locals
-To abolish slave trade
-To establish police force
-To monetise the economy
People who assisted Rhodes to get the British South Africa Royal Charter in 1889
-Duke of Fife -Duke of Abercorn
-Lord Grey -Lord Salisbury
-Baroness Burdette Coutts -Prince of Wales
-Queen Victoria

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Companies which sponsored the colonisation of Zimbabwe
-BSAC -DeBeers Company
-Rothschild
Lobengula’s reaction after discovering that he had been cheated in the Rudd concession
-E.A Maund informed Lobengula that he had been cheated.
-Lobengula demanded the immediate return of the original document which he claimed did
not contain any of his words.
-Lobengula wrote a letter to Rhodes complaining about the Rudd concession.
-He also wrote a letter to the High Commissioner in Botswana.
-He sent two emissaries [Babiyane and Umshete] to the Queen accompanied by E.A Maund.
-He executed Lotshe and his family.
-He invited a few explorers to explain the Rudd concession to him.
-Lobengula continued to emphasise on the verbal agreements of the Rudd concession to those
at his court.
-He signed the Lippert concession.
-He publicly renounced the Rudd Concession
-He sent a search part after Maguire.
-He refused to accept the payment in form of arms and ammunition.
Why did Lobengula’s efforts fail to stop the colonisation of Zimbabwe
Lobengula’s weaknesses
-He cancelled the Grobler treaty.
-He depended on white interpreters.
-Illiteracy
-He did not have direct access to the queen or Rhodes.
-He put too much trust in missionaries.
-He trusted Lotshe and Sikombo too much.
-He was greedy for natural benefits like weapons
-He had a desire to keep out many whites
Other factors
-Rhodes was financially powerful
-Cheating by Lippert
-The Boers were unable to help Lobengula militarily
-The Shona and the British collaborated against the Ndebele
The recruitment of the pioneer column
-The recruiting and equipping of pioneer corps was delegated to Frank Johnson and he was
assisted by Maurice and Heany.
-The pioneer corps men were about 25 years.
-They were carefully chosen from several thousand applicants [about 2000 applicants].
-The pioneers included English and Afrikaner elements and had South African experience.
-Only 200 were needed.
-Pioneers came from many different occupations , for example, blacksmiths, carpenters,
builders, printers, bakers, miners, farmers and traders.
-Each pioneer was promised 3000 acres of land and 15 gold claims.
-Some Ngwato auxiliaries were also hired.

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-500 mounted policemen were also recruited.
To what extent did the recruitment of the pioneer column contribute to the success of
their settlement in Mashonaland
-Recruitment policy helped to create the nucleus of a complete society.
-Economic activities were promoted by presence of skilled personnel, for example,
miners,farmers, blacksmiths, carpenters, bakers and traders.
-Pioneers with South African experience could withstand hardships experienced in the
interior.
-The police provided security to Forts.
-The Ngwato helped to make roads and to herd the horses and cattle.
Other factors
-Lobengula restricted Amajaha from attacking.
-The Shona did not resist.They expected pioneers to go back first like the Portguese.

The Pioneer Column [1890]

-After obtaining the charter, Rhodes recruited the pioneer column to occupy Zimbabwe.
-The pioneer column consisted of 200 pioneer men [settlers], most of which were below 30
years and 500 British South Africa Police [BSAP].
-The pioneer column set out from Macloutsie River in Botswana on 27 June 1890.
-Pennefather was in command of the BSAP assisted by Borrow and Henry.
-Frederick Courtney Selous, the hunter was the guide.
-The first stop was at Shashe River where they built Fort Tuli.
-The pioneers thus established Forts as they travelled.
-The pioneers avoided the Ndebele state for fear of attacks.
-Lobengula protested at the pioneer invasion.
-Lobengula did not allow regiments to attack the pioneers.
-200 Ngwato people accompanied the pioneers.
-The Ngwato helped to make roads.
-They used ox-drawn wagons [117 wagons] to transport women, children and supplies.
-Scouts patrolled the areas ahead
-They travelled 12 miles per day and built a laager at the place of rest during the night.
-Pioneers often met small groups of Ndebele warriors.

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-In August 1890 the pioneer column was in Masvingo where they built fort Victoria.
-Part of the pioneers branched to Melsetter while the other continued northwards and built
Fort Charter.
-They reached Fort Salisbury on 21 September 1890 where they hoisted the Union Jack.
Forts built by the British South Africa Company in Zimbabwe [1890-96]
-Fort Tuli -Fort Victoria
-Fort Charter -Fort Salisbury
-Fort Martin -Fort Usher
-Fort Rixon
Security arrangements made by the pioneer column during its movement into
Mashonaland in 1890
-Pioneers were given military training.
-Each pioneer member was armed.
-500 policemen accompanied the column.
-Military discipline was enforced to all pioneers.
-They established forts on their way.
-They had heavy guns-maxim guns and two seven pounders.
-Movement was done during the day.
-They used laagers when they camped for the night.
-They kept a big lamp burning when they camped night.
-They maintained patrols on horse backs.
-They had doctors to treat the sick.
-They used Selous as the guide.
-They avoided the Ndebele state.
-They were advised not to attack anyone.
-Movement was fairly slow to avoid fatigue [16 km / 12 miles a day].
-They were accompanied by the Ngwato auxiliaries [1 000].
-They built forts
-Scouting parties were sent in advance.
-The march was undertaken during the dry season.
-Powerful search light beams were used to scare away wild animals.
-They left some police guarding the established forts.
How successful were these measures
Successes
-They managed to cross big rivers since the march was undertaken during the dry season.
-Pioneers did not encounter any conflicts from Ndebele warriors.
-The local Shona people did not put up any resistance.
-Laagers also protected the pioneers during the night.
-Doctors which were part of the pioneers treated the sick.
-Incentives [rewards] which Rhodes promised the pioneers motivated them to accomplish the
mission.
-Leaders whom Rhodes chose completed the task.
-Military training given to each pioneer made them to complete the task.
-Use of advance parties made the journey successful.

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Challenges / Problems
-There was the problem of terrain
-There was breakdown of some wagons.
-Some pioneers were attacked by diseases such as black water.
-Some lost their lives.
- Desertion by recruits
- Fear of attack from Lobengula thus taking a longer route
-They lost some livestock.
- Difficulties in crossing rivers
People who were tasked to recruit the pioneers
-F Johnson -Heaney
-Borrow
Leaders of the pioneer column
-F Johnson -Pennefather
-Maurice -F C Selous
-Borrow -Heaney
-Captain John Willoughby -Archbold Colquhoun
-Francis Thompson
Three promises made to the pioneers
-Cash -Gold
-Land
Rivers crossed by the pioneer column on the way to Mashonaland
-Macloutsie River -Tuli River
-Bubi River -Runde River
-Manyame River -Shashe River
-Mzingwane River -Nuanetsi River
-Tokwe River
Did the pioneers find it easy to reach their destination?
Yes they found it easy to reach their destination because
-They were led by F.C Selous who knew the country
-They were well equipped with provisions
-They were accompanied by the police
-They had reliable means of transport
-They met no resistance from the Ndebele and the Shona
-The Shona were disunited
-The Shona were weakened by years of Ndebele raids
*However, they took too long a route to avoid the Ndebele
-The faced diseases
-They crossed larger rivers
-Clearing land was laborious
-They failed to settle at their intended destination
How far can the occupation of Mashonaland be attributed to the pioneers?
-They physically travelled to Mashonaland and pegged out farms
-The pioneers were trained for the war; they fought in the 1893-4 war of dispossession.

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-The pioneers included all trades such as farmers and bankers
-Their different skills made the new colony self-sustaining
-They built settlements and developed infrastructure on their farms
-Selous, Lendy and Penne father led the pioneer column
-Khama contributed manpower to make roads
Other factors
-Rhodes financed the occupation
-Rhodes’s company recruited the settlers
-Lobengula prevented his soldiers from attacking pioneers
-The Shona did not resist colonisation
-Missionaries like Charles Helm and J.S Moffat also facilitated colonisation
Activities of the pioneer settlers in Mashonaland between 1890 and 1893
-After hoisting the Union Jack, pioneers set out to peg farms
-There was widespread search for gold
-They pegged gold claims
-They signed a treaty with chief Mutasa in the east to thwart Portuguese penetration.
-They divided Mashonaland into districts each under a magistrate.
-Selling land
-Setting towns, post offices, newspapers, bakeries and so on.
-They employed Africans in farms and mines.
-They laid roads and streets.
-They formed the police force.
-They established churches
-Hunting
-Farming
-Abuse of Africans
-They set up boundaries
-They introduced money
-They set up health centres
How were Africans affected by these activities?
Positive effects
-Opening roads eased transport
-The Shona got protection from the Ndebele
-They were able to buy new manufactured goods
-They got markets for their grain
-The learnt new farming skills
-Employment was created
Negative effects
-Loss of land
-Los of livestock
-Ill-treatment of Africans
-Abuse of African women
-Loss of power by African chiefs
-Dilution of culture

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-Lucrative trade with the Portuguese was disrupted
Steps taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe between 1887 and 1890
-Rhodes acted as a British agent of imperialism.
-He signed the Moffat treaty.
-This treaty was to reverse the Grobler treaty.
-In October 1888, he sent Maguire, Thompson and Rudd to sign the Rudd Concession.
-In October 1889, Rhodes was granted the Royal Charter and permission to colonise and
administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain.
-He used his personal fortune to finance the occupation.
-He formed the BSAC.
-He recruited the pioneer column.
-Rhodes sought and got support from British financiers like Duke of Fife and Duke of
Abercorn.
-The pioneers moved into Zimbabwe and established forts namely Fort Tuli, Fort Victoria,
Fort Charter and Fort Salisbury.
-In September 1890 the Union Jack was raised / hoisted.
-Rhodes signed treaties with Portuguese and Shona chiefs.
-He delayed Lobengula’s indunas to see the queen.
Effects of colonialism on Zimbabwe
Positive effects
- There was creation of law and order by ending tribal wars.
-Infrastructure was improved by construction of roads, bridges and railways.
-Better means of transport were introduced, for example, vehicles, trains and aeroplanes.
-Improvement of communication, for example, radios and televisions.
-Provision of better water resources like taps
-There was creation of employment [industries]
-There was provision of the cash economy. Money was introduced.
-New and better methods of agriculture were introduced, for example, irrigation, crop
rotation and intercropping.
-Advanced methods of mining were introduced.
-Better weapons for defence were introduced, for example, guns and bombs.
-New languages were introduced, for example, Portuguese, English, Swahili and Chiraparapa
which improved communication between people.
-A few urbanised class of Africans emerged
-New crops were introduced, for example, wheat.
Negative effects of colonialism in Zimbabwe
Negative political effects
-Loss of political power by chiefs
-Boundaries were fixed without regard to tribal affiliations.
-There was loss of lives during wars of resistance
Negative social effects
-African traditional religion was undermined
-There was emergence of social ills such as prostitution
-Women were raped

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-Africans were detribalised
-New epidemics were brought to Africa, for example, AIDS.
-Africans were oppressed and used as a source of cheap labour [chibharo].
Negative economic effects
-Africa was under developed
-Raw materials from Zimbabwe were used to promote and develop Britain at her expense.
-Africans were underpaid and heavily taxed
-Loss of productive land and cattle by Africans
-African industries were undermined as Africans favoured European manufactured goods at
the expense of African goods.

THE 1893-4 ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR / THE 1893-4 WAR OF DISPOSSESSION

-This war was fought between the Ndebele and the British
Causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war
-Failure to find the second rand in Mashonaland resulted in the whites anticipating that the
second rand was in Matabeleland.
-The desire to acquire a hero status in Britain after the fall of the Ndebele state.
-The quarrel over the ownership of the Shona between the Ndebele and the whites.
-Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo dream
-The shifting of the boundary between Matabeleland and Mashonaland
-The fall of the BSAC share prices
-The desire to seize Ndebele cattle by the whites
-Rhodes wanted to facilitate the construction of a railway line cutting across Matabeleland
-The defeat of the Ndebele would herald the total colonisation of Zimbabwe
-Influence of missionaries
-Jameson’s warlike mood
-The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys [emissaries]
-The need for cheap labour in Matabeleland
-Fear of a strong Ndebele state by the whites
-Ndebele raids disrupted farming and mining

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-The Victoria incidents which are---
a] The cutting of telegraph wire which belonged to the whites by chief Gomora / Gomala
b] The death of chief Chivi [1891] who is said to have been skinned alive by Lobengula for
refusing to pay tribute
c] The death of chief Nemakonde / Lomagundi [1891] who also had refused to pay tribute to
Lobengula
d] Raiding of Lobengula’s cattle by chief Bere
-Umgandani-Lendy clashes led to the 1893 war
Why Lobengula was to blame for the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war?
-He failed to control the regiments
-Raiding Mashonaland disrupted white farms and mines
-He refused to accept the shifting boundary
-He mobilised for war after the Victoria incident
-He killed chief Chivi and chief Nemakonde
Other factors
-The BSAC was determined to annex Matabeleland as in the 1889 charter
-The BSAC wanted to boost the value of its shares
-The by the BSAC to deal with the Ndebele once and for all
-The whites kept shifting the boundary
-The killing of Lobengula’s peace envoys
-The desire for the second rand
-The whites wanted political control of the Shona
British nationals who participated in the 1893-4 war
-Leander Starr Jameson -Captain Allan Wilson
-Major Forbes -Major Johnson
-Captain Heaney -Captain Lendy
-Captain Borrow -Goold Adams
-Captain Raaf -Sir Henry Lock
-Colquhoun
Military leaders of the BSAC forces during the 1893-4 war
-Major Forbes -Captain Lendy
-Lt Colonel Goold Adams -Captain Raaf
-Allan Wilson -Captain Lendy
-Captain H.T Borrow -Heaney
Leaders of the BSAC forces who fought in the Anglo-Ndebele war and the respetive
forces they led
Leaders Forces
-Major Patrick Forbes Salisbury Force
-Captain Allan Wilson Fort Victoria Force
-Captain Raaf South African Force
-Lt Colonel Goold Adams Bechuanaland Force / South African force
Course of the Anglo-Ndebele war
-This war broke out in 1893.

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-The white volunteers formed 3 columns to fight a war of dispossession. These 3 columns
included
a] The Salisbury column under Major Forbes
b] Fort Victoria column under Captain Allan Wilson
c] The Tuli column under Captain Raaf and Goold Adams
-There were 18000 Ndebele warriors versus 3500 opponents [1100 whites and 2000
auxiliaries and about 400 Shona and Cape auxiliaries.
-The 3 columns met at Iron Hill Mine.
-The first major battle took place at Shangani River on 24 October. The Ndebele were
defeated because of the superiority of the Maxim gun. About 500 Ndebele warriors were
killed. The BSAC suffered few casualties.
-The Ndebele were also defeated at Lalapanzi battle
-The second major battle took place at Mbembesi River. Again the Ndebele were defeated
with heavy losses.
-The Ndebele regiment of Inqabo, Imbizo and Ugukamini clashed with company soldiers.
-7 pounder guns cost many Ndebele lives.
-On 3 November, the Southern column [Tuli column] laagered at Singuesi River near
Empandeni.
-The Ndebele under Gumbo attacked but were defeated due to heavy gun fire.
-Khama’s men returned to Botswana due to outbreak of small pox
-Jameson and the company troops entered Bulawayo but found the town burnt down and
deserted.
-Lobengula fled northwards.
-Jameson assigned Forbes and Raaf to pursue and capture Lobengula.
-When Forbes and his forces reached Shangani River they found the trace of Lobengula.
-When Lobengula realised that he could not continue to fight he sent a bag of gold and
message offering surrender.
-The message was given to an ordinary trooper who did not convey the message to their
leaders, Forbes and Raaf.
-The whites continued searching for Lobengula’s part.
-Allan Wilson was asked to continue with the search but the Shangani River was in flood.
-Wilson’s forces caught up with Lobengula’s fleeing part on the western side of the river.
-Wilson requested for reinforcements but Forbes did not comply.
-Instead he dispatched Captain H.J Borrow with 20 men without instructing them whether
they were a support unit or another attacking force.
-Borrow’s force joined Wilson’s group on 4 December.
-Together, Wilson’s group and that of Burrow attacked Lobengula’s group.
-Lobengula’s group defended itself well and they defeated the combined forces of Burrow
and Wilson.
-Burrow and Wilson and a majority of other men were killed by Lobengula, except 3 scouts
who escaped.
-Forbes could not assist them because Shangani River was flooded.
-They never captured Lobengula.
-Forbes’ group retreated.

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-Lobengula is said to have died of small pox on escape to the north.
-Lobengula’s forces surrendered and the war came to an end.
-The BSAC took over the burning city and raised a Union Jack.
Did the pursuit of Lobengula by the BSAC forces after the fall of Bulawayo benefit the
BSAC?
Benefits to the BSAC
-They completed the occupation of Zimbabwe
-The whites gained total control of Matabeleland
-They gained Lobengula’s cattle
-It united the settlers than ever before
-It drove Lobengula to death
Disadvantages to the BSAC
-The expedition was costly
-BSAC lost men
-Company horses and cattle were killed
-Company lost ammunition
-Settlers failed to capture Lobengula
-The company received criticism from Britain
Reasons for the defeat of the Ndebele
Strengths of the whites
-The whites had better transport. They fought on horse backs and they also used wagons.
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
-The whites got support from the Shona and Tswana fighters.
-Total determination on the part of the whites.
-The whites were better prepared for the war.
-The whites had better organisation and strategy
-The whites were supplied from South Africa through the Mafeking rail way line.
-The British used laagers which were difficult to penetrate.
Weaknesses of the Ndebele
-The Ndebele used conventional warfare rather than guerrilla warfare.
-News of Lobengula’s flight demoralised Ndebele warriors.
-Most Ndebele warriors were raiding across the Zambezi.
-The Ndebele lacked unity of purpose.
-Not all Ndebele took part in the war.
-The Ndebele had poor communication
-Outbreak of small pox which killed the Ndebele king
-Lack of cooperation by the Ndebele and the Shona to attack the common enemy.
-The Ndebele had inferior weapons.
To what extent did external support contribute to the defeat of the Ndebele in the
Anglo-Ndebele war?
-Externl support
-Khama provided a force that fought alongside the whites
-The British supplied 200 imperial forces led by Lt Colonel Goold Adams
-Ammunition and horses were brought from South Africa

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-Captain Raaf led a South African force into Matabeleland
Other factors
-Use of laagers by company forces
-Whites had bettre fighting methods
-Whites had better means of communication
-Whites had better transport
-There was disunity among the Ndebele
-The Ndebele army used inferior weapons
-Over 6 000 Ndebele warriors did not participate in the war.They had contracted small pox.
-Betrayal by Nyenyezi.Nyenyezi of the the Umhlaba house guided the company forces.
Results of the Anglo-Ndebele war
-The Ndebele surrendered, agreed to peace negotiations
-The land commission was set up to divide land between the BSAC and the Ndebele.
-There was construction of a railway line from South Africa to Matabeleland.
-Ndebele fertile land was taken by the whites.
-There was creation of Gwai and Shangani reserves.
-The Ndebele lost their independence.
-Numerous deaths were incurred.
-Lobengula’s cattle were taken.
-Lobengula’s capital was taken.
-There was introduction of forced labour.
-The Ndebele were denied from choosing a new king.
-Mashonaland and Matabeleland were merged into Southern Rhodesia.
-Most of the Ndebele remained on their traditional lands as squatters on white owned farms.
-The local people were required to pay tax on their land.
-There was creation of Matabeleland order in council of 1894 with Dr Leander Starr Jameson
as the administrator.

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THE FIRST CHIMURENGA / THE NBEBELE-SHONA UPRISING / UMVUKELA
[1896-7]
-This war was fought by the Ndebele and the Shona versus the British
Causes of Chimurenga in Matabeleland / Ndebele grievances
-Loss of land to the whites by the Ndebele after the Anglo-Ndebele war.
-Loss of independence by the Ndebele after the 1893 war.
-Loss of cattle by the Ndebele after the 1893 war.
-The Ndebele were forced to work in settler mines and farms [forced labour].
-The Ndebele were forced to pay taxes like hut tax, dog tax and dip tax by the whites.
-Hatred of Shona police who ill-treated the Africans.
-The justice system favoured the whites.
-Oppressive administration
-Abuse of African women by the whites
-The Ndebele were not allowed to choose a new king after the death of Lobengula.
-Influence of spirit mediums who assured them that they would win the war.
-Natural disasters like rinderpest, drought and outbreak of locusts.
-The Jameson raid failure also contributed.
Causes of Chimurenga in Mashonaland / Shona grievances
-Loss of land to the whites by the Shona

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-The Shona were forced to pay taxes like hut tax, dog tax and dip tax to the whites.
-The Shona were forced to work in settler farms and mines.
-Loss of cattle to the whites by the Shona.
-The system of justice favoured the whites.
-Oppressive administration
-Abuse of Shona women by the whites
-Police brutality especially during tax collection
-Chiefs lost their powers
-Ill-treatment of Shona workers by the whites. They were given heavy punishments for
simple offences.
-Loss of independence by the Shona since 1890
-End of Shona-Portuguese trade links angered the Shona.
-Influence of spirit mediums who assured them that they would win the war.
-Natural disasters like drought, rinderpest and outbreak of locusts
Role or religious leaders in causing the war
-They blamed natural disasters on the coming of whites.
-They promised that the disasters could disappear if they drove out whites.
-They promised immunity from bullets to fighters.
-They prophesied that the blacks would win the war.
Course of Chimurenga in Matabeleland / Events of the war in Matabeleland
-The Ndebele uprising began in March 1896.
-The Ndebele took advantage of the Jameson raid fiasco / failure.
-Many of the BSAP had gone to South Africa to fight the Boers but unfortunately the British
were defeated and Jameson and his platoon were captured.
-Thus there was not enough police to protect whites in Zimbabwe.
-The Ndebele warriors targeted those whites on farms, mines, missions, stores, police posts
and traders.
-During the first week of the war about 130 whites had been killed.
-Those who escaped were surrounded in Bulawayo by the Amabutho.
-The Ndebele were joined by the Shona in June 1896.
-The British settlers asked the British government to stop the uprising.
-The British instead reinforced 1000 soldiers to Southern Rhodesia.
-The whites attacked Ndebele Amabutho one by one.
-The Ndebele Amabutho withdrew to Matopo Hill where they were able to defend
themselves.
-The British constructed laagers in Bulawayo, Gweru and Mberengwa.
-They organised mounted patrols to rescue survivors.
-They destroyed Ndebele grain stores and any food items.
-They blew up caves using dynamites.
-They brought reinforcements from outside, that is, from South Africa, Bechuanaland,
Johannesburg and Natal.
-They burnt villages.
-They used the route which the Ndebele left open to bring reinforcements from South Africa.
-They fought the Ndebele under the command of Frederick Carrington.

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-They captured Ntabazikamambo in July 1896.
-The settlers also burnt Ndebele crops.
-Rhodes held a meeting with Ndebele so as to stop the war.
-During the negotiations with the Ndebele senior indunas, Rhodes used bribery to get the
indunas to negotiate for peace.
-He promised indunas jobs in the BSAC, pensions and the indunas were to retain their
regional powers.
-The Ndebele senior indunas made peace with Rhodes in October 1896 at Matopos.
-The war came to an end.
Military reaction of the white settlers in colonial Zimbabwe to the Ndebele uprising
-They constructed laagers in Bulawayo, Gweru and Mberengwa.
-They organised mounted patrols to rescue survivors and bury the dead.
-They destroyed Ndebele grain stores and any food items.
-They blew up the caves.
-They brought reinforcements from outside, that is, from South Africa and Bechuanaland.
-They burnt villages.
-They used the route left open-to South Africa to bring in reinforcements.
-They fought the Ndebele under the command of Frederick Carrington.
-They captured Ntabazikamambo in July 1896.
-They used horses and foot soldiers.
-They sought and solicited assistance from Khama.
-They bribed some Shona to fight on their side.
White officials who attended the Matopo Indaba
-Cecil John Rhodes -Dr Sauer
-V Stent -Johan Colenbrander
Ndebele leaders who attended the Matopo Indaba
-Umlugulu -Sikombo Mguni
Terms of the agreement made at Matopo Indaba
-The Ndebele agreed to suspend fighting the settlers and even raiding them.
-Mwari cult officials were to be punished for their role in the uprising.
-The Ndebele officials and people who murdered or committed other crimes during the
uprising should be tried.
-Ndebele assegais and guns should be submitted to the settler government.
-Rhodes would withdraw white forces from Matabeleland.
-A permanent BSAP would be deployed in Matabeleland to replace white forces and
maintain peace after the uprising.
-No African police, especially the Shona would work in Matabeleland without Ndebele
approval.
-The settler government would recognise Ndebele chiefs and headmen.
-Rhodes’ government would give the Ndebele grain and food.
-The Indaba also promised that the government would give seeds to the Ndebele in the
planting season.
Did Matopo Indaba or the uprising benefit the Ndebele?
Ndebele benefits

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-There was re-establishment of peace in Matabeleland.
-They received grain, food and planting seeds.
-The settler government recognised Ndebele chiefs and headmen.
-They were assured that no Shona police would work in Matabeleland without Ndebele
approval.
Ndebele losses at Matopo Indaba
-Loss of freedom and independence.
-They lost a lot of their spears [13000] and guns [2500].
-Some of their leaders were tried, sentenced to death and executed.
-Lost land to settlers
-Were to pay taxes
-Nyamanda was not recognised as king of the Ndebele
-There was destruction of traditional institutions like age regiments.
Were the terms of Matopo Indaba fairbto the Ndebele people?Explain your answer.
Fairness of Matopo Hills Indaba
-The Ndebele received grain and food
-There was recognition of some Ndebele chiefs and headmen
-There was payment of a regular salary to Ndebele chiefs
-The Ndebele gained seds
-There was removal of Shona policemen from Matabeleland
Unfairness of the Matopo Hills Indaba
-The Ndebele continued paying taxes
-The Ndebele lost their assegais and guns
-There was punishment of Mwari cult officials for the their role in the uprising
-There was deployment of BSAC police in Matabeleland
-People who committed crimes and murder were punished
Why Rhodes negotiated with the Ndebele
-The Ndebele were brave and were known to be good fighters and warlike, so to continue
fighting the Ndebele would take a long time.
-The fighting was costly to the BSAC in terms of money.
-The mines and farms were not working during the uprising and the BSAC was losing its
profits.
-The British government was unwilling to bear the cost of sending troops to crush the
uprising.
-There were growing demands in the British parliament to withdraw the BSAC charter to rule
the territory and this drove Rhodes to make talks with the Ndebele.
-The guerrilla tactics used by the Ndebele were difficult to deal with.
-The whites were losing both in terms of manpower and material resources.
Ndebele chiefs / Indunas who took part in the 1896 war
-Sikombo Mguni -Ndiweni
-Somabulana Dhlodhlo -Mahlahleni
-Gumbo -Nyamanda
-Mathafeni
Ndebele religious leaders who took part in the 1896 war

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-Umlugulu -Mwabeni
-Siginyamatshe -Mkwati
-Tengera / Tenkela -Tshiwa
Why the Ndebele were defeated
Weaknesses of the Ndebele
-They had inferior weapons.
-They had poor strategies.
-They had poor communication networks.
-There was disunity among the Ndebele.
-The Ndebele had poor transport.
-Not all the Ndebele took part in the war.
Strengths of whites
-The whites had better transport
-The whites got external support from South Africa.
-The whites had superior weapons like maxim guns.
-The whites used a lot of brutality that frightened the Ndebele.
-The whites used dynamites.
Reasons for blaming religious leaders for defeat of the Ndebele
-Their prophecy was misleading
-They suggested poor strategies
-They could not give ready solutions to problems
-They aligned themselves to one group
-Their propaganda was misleading
Course of Chimurenga in Mashonaland / Events of the war in Mashonaland
-In Mashonaland the war started in June 1896 after harvesting crops.
-It began with the killing of whites in Mashayamombe area.
-Two Indian traders were killed by Mashayamombe people who also killed the native
commissioner for Chegutu.
-By the end of June, over 10 whites had been killed.
-The whites were taken by surprise because they considered the Shona as a peaceful group.
-The whites responded by setting up laagers in places like Gweru, Bulawayo, Mberengwa,
Mutare, Harare and Charter.
-The Shona fighters blocked roads using trees.
-The Shona used guerrilla warfare tactics.
-Some Shona did not join the war.
-Chiefdoms in Masvingo, Chikomba, Buhera, extreme Eastern Zimbabwe and Northern
Zimbabwe stayed out of the war.
-The Shona chiefs fought the whites as separate entities.
-Some Shona fought on the side of whites.
-The Shona hid in caves
-The whites used dynamites to attack the Shona in caves.
-The spread of Chimurenga to other areas was done through spirit mediums and fire signals
[on top of mountains].

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-Nehanda and Kaguvi were important spirit mediums who encouraged the Shona to fight,
especially in Mazoe and Chishawasha areas.
-The uprising rapidly spread to Harare, Mazoe, Charter, Marondera, Makonde and other
eastern districts of Zimbabwe.
-The settlers mounted patrols to rescue survivors and ferrying them to laagers in Harare,
Mutare and Charter.
-The whites were assisted by reinforcements from South Africa. British imperial forces were
brought in from South Africa under Lieutenant Colonel Alderson.
-The BSA forces under Alderson attacked and defeated Makoni’s Gwindingwifortress.
-They also defeated Mangwende’s Maope fortress.
-Defeated Shona chiefs were executed, for example, Makoni.
-The whites adopted the scorched earth policy, destroying Shona grain stores, homes and
water sources to starve the Shona into submission.
-The white settlers attacked and defeated Shona chiefdoms separately.
-Nehanda was captured and executed in April 1897.
-She had ordered the killing of Pullard, the Native commissioner for Mazoe.
-Shona resistance collapsed following the capture of their leaders like Mashayamombe in
July 1897 and Kaguvi who was an inspirational medium of the Harare area in October 1897.
-This capture of inspirational leaders brought the war to an end.
-Mapondera however, continued to fight until 1903.
Areas where the first Chimurenga was fought in Mashonaland
-Chinamhora -Makoni
-Mashayamombe -Chihota
-Nemakonde -Mangwende
-Mazoe -Svosve
-Chiweshe -Mutekedza
-Nyandoro -Mapondera
Shona chiefs who fought on the side of the whites during the First Chimurenga / Shona
chiefs who collaborated with the whites during the First Chimurenga
-Zimuto -Gutu
-Chirimuhanzu -Matibi
-Mutasa -Njanja
Shona chiefs who fought against the whites during the First Chimurenga
-Mashayamombe -Nyamweda
-Mangwende -Mapondera
-Mutekedza -Makoni
-Mashonganyika -Kunzvi
Shona chiefs who took part in the 1896-7 war
-Mashayamombe -Makoni -Mangwende
-Nyamweda -Mapondera -Chihota
-Zvimba -Kunzvi Nyandoro -Rusike
-Chinamhora -Sango -Nyachuru
-Seke -Hwata -Chiweshe
-Maromo -Mutekedza -Mashonganyika

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-Chikwaka -Zhanda
Religious leaders who were active in Mashonaland during the first Chimurenga
-Kaguvi [Gumboreshumba] -Nehanda [Chagwe]
-Zhanda -Mponga
-Chaminuka -Bonda
Role played by religious leaders in the uprising
-They planned and organised the uprising.
-They prophesied on the war and assured Africans that they would win the war.
-They encouraged people to fight.
-They advised on strategies to be used.
-They communicated with ancestral spirits.
-They commanded the soldiers.
-They relayed information from God and ancestors to chiefs and people.
-They provided medical herbs
-They led at war discussions and presided over war crimes.
-They coordinated the war.
-They mobilised the people and taught people political education.
-They provided spiritual guidance.
-They gave moral support to the fighters.
-Some trained soldiers
-They were the chief propagandists.
Was the extension of the Uprising to 1897 a result of the effectiveness of the Shona
tactics? Explain your answer.
Shona tactics
-The Shona used guerrilla warfare
-The Shona fought in small groups, it was a series of Zvimurenga.
-Spirit mediums coordinated the war and encouraged individual chiefs to keep on fighting.
-The Shona mobilised faster than the whites.
-The Shona had guns acquired from the Portuguese.
-The Shona were familiar with terrain
-They used nocturnal [night] attacks
-Shona fighters disguised themselves as ordinary innocent hunters
-War was not restricted to soldiers only
-They embarked on surprise attacks.
Weaknesses of the whites [Other factors]
-Whites underestimated the Shona
-The whites initially had fewer troops.
-The BSAC had fincncial problems.
-Whites as enemies were easily identified because of their colour.
-Whites were not familiar with the terrain.
-Whites had been stretched in terms of resources by the war in Matabeleland.
Why the Shona took so long to be defeated in the 1896-7 uprising
-They had stored a lot of food in caves.

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-The Shona chiefs fought separately in small groups and this made it difficult for the whites
to defeat them easily.
-The Shona used guerrilla warfare tactics such as night attacks, hit and run and surprise
attacks.
-Spirit mediums coordinated the war and encouraged the individual chiefs to keep on
fighting.
-Shona chiefs such as Makoni and Mangwende used fortified mountains.
-They had guns obtained from the Portuguese through trade and a few modern rifles they
captured.
-The Shona were familiar with the terrain than the whites.
-The war in Mashonaland was not limited to professional fighters but it included everyone
including women.
-There were many hills in Mashonaland and these provided cover for the Shona fighters.
*However, the whites initially had fewer soldiers because some had been taken to South
Africa in the Jameson raid.
-The BSAC had financial problems.
-The whites were not prepared for war with the Shona and they took too long to mobilise.
-The resources of the whites had been overstretched due to the war in Matabeleland.
-The whites were not familiar with the terrain.
Why the Shona were defeated by the British
Weaknesses of the Shona
-The Shona lacked coordination.
-They had no common military strategy.
-The Shona were not united.
-Some Shona fought on the side of the whites.
-Some Shona did not join the war, for example, Mutasa.
-They had inferior weapons like spears.
-They had inferior training as they were not regular soldiers.
-They had poor communication.
-They had poor transport.
-The spirit mediums misled the people by telling them that bullets won’t work against them.
Strengths of the whites
-The whites had better transport.
-The whites were better organised.
-The whites had superior weapons.
-The surrender of the Ndebele made the whites to concentrate on the Shona only.
-The scorched earth policy adopted by the whites starved the Shona into submission.
-The whites captured inspirational leaders like Makoni, Mashayamombe, Kaguvi and
Nehanda.
-Use of torture and cruel interrogation methods by the whites forced the captives to reveal the
whereabouts of their leaders and strongholds.
-The whites used explosives and dynamites.
-The settlers bribed some Shona to fight on their side.
Contribution of the execution of Nehanda and Kaguvi to the defeat of the Shona

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-They were a source of motivation and courage of the Shona.
-They were leaders hence their death resulted in lack of leadership.
-They were coordinators during the war.
Their death demoralised the Shona fighters.
To what extent did lack of unity contribute to the defeat of the Shona?
-There was lack of coordination among the Shona.
-Some Shona chiefs did not join the war, for example, Mutasa.
-Some Shona chiefs assisted the whites.
-They had no common military strategy
Other factors
-The Shona had inferior weapons
-Whites were better organised
-Whites had faster transport
-The surrender of the Ndebele
Weapons used by the whites against the Ndebele and Shona
-Dynamites -Maxim guns
-2, 5 inch screw guns -Henry Martin rifles
-Seven pounder guns -Wagons
-Scorched earth policy -Horses
-Weapons used by the Africans
-Old muskets obtained from Portuguese -Few captured rifles
-Spears -Clubs and knobkerries
-Fortified Mountains and caves -bows and arrows
-Guerrilla warfare
Results of the First Chimurenga
-Africans were defeated.
-Africans lost their independence.
-African traditional politics was destroyed.
-Nehanda, Makoni and Kaguvi were executed.
-Mashonaland was divided into districts, each under a native Commissioner.
-The BSAC introduced formal government through the Rhodesia-Order-Council of 1898.
-The British introduced a resident Commissioner to monitor the administration of the BSAC.
-Those who defied settler authority were substituted by collaborators.
-The Ndebele could not choose a new king and this led to the collapse of the Ndebele state.
-Most African leaders were either imprisoned or killed.
-More reserves were created, especially in Mashonaland and Africans became desperate for
land and some became squatters.
-Most African men worked for low wages in mines and farms.
-Africans became economically dependent on whites as labourers.
-Payment of taxes by Africans continued.
-Kunzvi and Mapondera continued with resistance but were later defeated.
-Many Africans were turned into Christianity.
-The Shona were forbidden to build houses in mountains.
How were the settlers affected by the results of the First Chimurenga?

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-Cheap labour was obtained from both Matabeleland and Mashonaland.
-They appropriated more land and cattle
-They now had more revenue base
-Security was enhanced
-The settlers were united
Negative effects of the results to the whites
-There was international condemnation especially by Britain.
-They were blamed for various acts of oppression.
-Hatred between blacks and whites intensified.
-BSAC shares dropped.
-Rhodes’ image was tarnished.
-Africans wanted revenge.

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