MODULE 1

What is object oriented modeling and design?

Object-Oriented Modeling and Design (OOMD) is a software design approach
that focuses on creating models based on objects, rather than just functions and
logic. It involves representing real-world objects and their behavior as software
objects and creating relationships between them to model a system.

For example, consider a simple model of a car. In object-oriented design, you

could represent the car as a software object with properties such as make,
model, color, and speed. The car object could also have behaviors such as
accelerating, braking, and changing gears. Similarly, you could have separate
objects for the engine, transmission, and wheels, and define relationships
between them to model how they work together.

In simple words, OOMD is a way of thinking about software design by

considering real-world objects and their behaviors, and representing them as
software objects that interact with each other.
What is object orientation?
Object-Orientation is a programming approach that involves modeling real-world
objects as software objects with properties (attributes) and actions (methods).
Objects interact with each other, making it easier to design and write more
modular, reusable, and maintainable software systems. It's a way of organizing
and writing computer programs that makes them easier to understand, maintain,
and extend.

There are 4 characteristics required by an object oriented approach :

● Identity: Every object in an object-oriented system has a unique identity,

which distinguishes it from all other objects. For example, each person has
 a unique identity, such as their name, social security number, or passport
number.

● Classification: In object-oriented programming, classification refers to the

process of grouping objects based on their shared characteristics or
attributes. These groups of objects are called classes, and they are
defined by a set of properties and behaviors that they share.
Let's say we're building a program that represents different vehicles, such
as cars, trucks, and motorcycles. Each of these vehicles has a unique set
of attributes and behaviors, such as their make, model, and number of
wheels.
(To implement this in object-oriented programming, we might create a
base class called "Vehicle" that defines the shared attributes and behaviors of all
vehicles. Then, we can create subclasses for each specific type of vehicle, such
as "Car", "Truck", and "Motorcycle". Each subclass would inherit the properties
and behaviors defined in the "Vehicle" class, but could also add additional
properties and behaviors specific to that type of vehicle.

For example, the "Car" subclass might have a number of doors property
and a method to start the engine, while the "Truck" subclass might have a
cargo capacity property and a method to load and unload cargo. By using
classification in this way, we can create a simple and flexible system for
representing different types of vehicles in our code.)

● Inheritance: Inheritance is a mechanism that allows new classes to be

created by inheriting attributes and behaviors from existing classes. For
example, a sports car is a type of car that inherits all the attributes and
behaviors of a car, but it also has additional attributes and behaviors, such
as a more powerful engine and the ability to reach higher speeds.

● Polymorphism: Polymorphism refers to the ability of objects to exhibit

different behavior depending on the context in which they are used. For
example, a person can have multiple roles, such as being a student, an
employee, and a parent, and they can exhibit different behaviors in each of
these roles.
What is object oriented development?
Object-oriented development (OOD) is a software development approach that is
based on object orientation, a concept that models real-world objects and their
behavior as software objects. In OOD, software systems are developed by
defining classes that represent objects, and by creating objects that belong to
those classes. The classes define the common attributes and behaviors for all
objects of that type, and objects inherit those attributes and behaviors from the
classes they belong to.

OOD involves several steps, including object-oriented analysis (OOA),

object-oriented design (OOD), and object-oriented programming (OOP). In OOA,
the software system is analyzed to identify the objects and their relationships. In
OOD, the objects and their relationships are designed and documented in a class
diagram. In OOP, the classes and objects are implemented as code in a
programming language.

The goal of OOD is to develop software systems that are organized,

maintainable, and extensible. By modeling real-world objects and their behavior
as software objects, OOD provides a way to capture the complexity of the system
and to manage it more effectively. OOD also enables code reuse and makes it
easier to add new features and functionality to the system over time.

Object oriented methodology

Object-oriented methodology is a software development approach that is based
on the concept of "objects", which are combinations of data and functions. The
approach involves several stages of development, including:

● System conception and analysis: Understanding the requirements and

goals of the software project.

● System design: Creating a high-level plan for the software architecture

and overall design.

● Class design: Designing the individual objects and their interactions.

● Implementation: Writing the code for the objects and bringing the software
to life.
Each stage involves careful consideration of various factors, such as user needs,
data structure, and software architecture, to ensure a successful and effective
final product.

Object oriented theme

The object-oriented theme is a central concept in object-oriented programming
(OOP) and refers to the idea of creating software using objects. The main points
of this theme are:

● Abstraction: Hiding the implementation details of objects and exposing

only the essential features to the rest of the system.

● Encapsulation: Wrapping data and behavior within an object, protecting it

from outside interference and misuse.

● Combining data and behavior: Objects in OOP contain both data and the
functions that manipulate that data, making the relationship between data
and behavior clear and straightforward.

● Sharing: Reusing objects or parts of objects across different parts of a

software system to reduce the amount of code that needs to be written and
maintained.

● Emphasis on the essence of an object: Focusing on the core

characteristics and behavior of an object to define its structure and
functionality.

● Synergy: Objects working together to accomplish a task, with each object

contributing its unique data and behavior to achieve a common goal.

These points are fundamental to OOP and help to make it an effective approach
for software development, as they allow for efficient and modular design, flexible
and reusable code, and improved maintainability.
 Module 2

1. What is object modeling technique? What is the purpose of object

modeling technique and what are the phases of object modeling
technique?

Object modeling technique (OMT) is a software engineering methodology that is

typically used in the early-stage of software development to analyze and design
the requirements of a system using an object-oriented approach. The purpose of
OMT is to create a detailed model of a software system, which can be used to
develop, maintain, and modify the system over time. OMT provides a systematic
approach to modeling complex systems using object-oriented concepts such as
classes, objects, attributes, and relationships. It involves identifying the objects in
the system and the relationships between them. OMT diagrams, such as class
diagrams and object diagrams, are used to represent the objects and their
relationships.

Phases of OMT:

1. Analysis:
The Analysis phase is the first phase of OMT, and it is focused on understanding
the problem domain and requirements of the system. The requirements are then
transformed into a conceptual model, which consists of objects, attributes, and
relationships. The analysis phase helps to identify the main functionalities of the
system and the interactions between its various components. In this phase, the
following three models are created:

● Object Model: This model is used to identify the objects in the system and
their relationships with each other. The object model is created by
analyzing the system requirements and identifying the objects that are
needed to fulfill those requirements.
 ● Dynamic Model: This model is used to describe the behavior of the
system and how the objects interact with each other over time. The
dynamic model is created by identifying the events that trigger changes in
the system and the actions that the objects take in response to those
events. It includes sequence diagrams, activity diagrams, and state
diagrams that show how objects interact with each other to perform the
behaviors of the system.

● Functional Model: This model is used to describe the functions that the
system must perform. The functional model is created by identifying the
tasks that the system must perform and the objects that are involved in
those tasks.

2. System Design:
The System Design phase is the second phase of OMT, and it is focused on
defining the architecture of the system.
In this phase, the conceptual model developed during the analysis phase is
refined and transformed into a system design. The system design specifies how
the system will be implemented and how its components will interact with each
other. This phase involves the identification of subsystems, interfaces, and their
interactions.

3. Object Design:
The Object Design phase is the third phase of OMT, and it is focused on
designing the details of the objects in the system.
In this phase, the system design is further refined to focus on the design of
individual objects and their interactions. The design of the objects is based on the
attributes and behaviors identified during the analysis phase. Object design
involves the creation of class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and state transition
diagrams.

4. Implementation:
The Implementation phase is the fourth and final phase of OMT, and it is focused
on actually implementing the system. In this phase, the code is written and tested
to ensure that it meets the requirements of the system. The implementation
phase is not represented by a model, but rather by the actual code that is written
for the system.

The purpose of OMT is to create a detailed model of a software system, which

can be used to develop, maintain, and modify the system over time. OMT helps
to identify the objects in the system and their relationships, and to define the
behavior and functions of the system. This helps to ensure that the system is
designed correctly, and that it meets the needs of its users.

The Three Models

There are three types of models in the object oriented modeling and designing
they are:
● Class Model
● State Model
● Interaction Model

1. Class Model :
A Class Model is an object-oriented model used to represent the structure
and behavior of a software system. It defines the attributes and behaviors
of objects, as well as the relationships between objects. The Class
Diagram is the corresponding diagram used to represent the Class Model.

In a Class Diagram, classes are represented as rectangles with the class

name in the top compartment. The middle compartment lists the attributes
(properties) of the class, while the bottom compartment lists the methods
(behaviors) of the class. Relationships between classes are represented as
lines connecting the classes. There are several types of relationships that
can be represented in a Class Diagram, such as inheritance, composition,
and association.

Example: Consider a banking system, where we can create a Class Model with
classes such as Account, Customer, and Transaction.
● The Account class may have attributes such as account number, balance,
and account type, and methods such as deposit and withdrawal.
● The Customer class may have attributes such as name, address, and
phone number, and methods such as update contact information.
● The Transaction class may have attributes such as transaction ID, amount,
and date, and methods such as record transaction.

+----------------+ +----------------+ +----------------+

| Account | | Customer | | Transaction |
+----------------+ +----------------+ +----------------+
| - account_name | | - name | | - transaction_id|
| - account_num | | - address | | - date |
| - account_type | | - phone_number| | - amount |
| - balance | | | | |
+----------------+ +----------------+ +----------------+
| + withdraw() | | + update_info()| | + record() |
| + deposit() | | | | |
+----------------+ +----------------+ +----------------+

2. State Model :
A State Model is an object-oriented model used to represent the behavior
of an object over time. It shows how an object behaves in different states
and how it transitions from one state to another. The State Diagram is the
corresponding diagram used to represent the State Model.

In a State Diagram, the states of an object are represented as circles, with

the state name inside the circle. Transitions between states are
represented as arrows, with the transition conditions and actions labeled
on the arrows. The initial state is represented by a solid black circle, while
the final state is represented by a solid black circle with a border.
 Example: Consider a simple traffic light system, where we can create a
State Model with states such as Red, Green, and Yellow.

● In the Red state, the traffic light displays a red light and stops traffic.
● In the Green state, the traffic light displays a green light and allows
traffic to move.
● In the Yellow state, the traffic light displays a yellow light to warn
drivers that the light is about to change.

3. Interaction Model :
An Interaction Model is an object-oriented model used to represent the
interactions between objects in a software system. It shows how objects
communicate with each other and how they collaborate to accomplish a
task. The following diagrams are used to show the interaction model :
● Use case Diagram:
A use case diagram is a high-level diagram that shows the
interactions between actors (users or external systems) and the
system being modeled. It provides a graphical overview of the
system's functionality from a user's perspective.
● Sequence Diagram:
Sequence diagrams, on the other hand, show the interactions
between objects in a time-ordered manner, depicting(portraying) the
messages exchanged between objects and the order in which they
occur.
● Activity Diagram:
Activity diagrams represent the flow of activities or actions within a
system, typically showing the sequence of activities, decision points,
and conditional branching.

Module - 3
 Class Modeling

Class modeling is a technique used in object-oriented programming (OOP) to

create a blueprint of the classes that are used to build a software application. In
class modeling, a software system is represented as a collection of classes,
where each class represents a specific entity or object in the system.

The purpose of class modeling is to provide a visual representation of the

classes and their relationships, attributes, and behaviors within the system. This
allows software developers to better understand the system and its requirements,
and to design and implement the system more effectively.

Class modeling typically involves the use of Unified Modeling Language (UML)
notation to create class diagrams that show the classes, their attributes,
methods, and relationships. The class diagram is a type of structural diagram
that provides a high-level view of the system's object-oriented design.

Overall, class modeling is an important step in the software development process

that helps ensure that the resulting software system is well-structured,
maintainable, and meets the requirements of its users.

Object and Class Concept :

In class modeling, an object is an instance of a class that has its own state and
behavior. It can be thought of as a real-world object with its own identity, that
describes it from other objects in a system; state, that determines the properties
of an object as well as the values of the properties that the object holds; and
behavior, that represents externally visible activities performed by an object in
terms of changes in its state. For example, a car is an object that has properties
such as make, model, and year, and actions such as accelerating, braking, and
turning.

A class, on the other hand, is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It

defines the properties and behaviors that objects of that class will have. For
example, a Car class might have properties such as make, model, and year, and
methods such as accelerate, brake, and turn.

The concepts of objects and classes are fundamental to object-oriented

programming, and are used to create complex systems that are easier to
manage and maintain. By breaking down a system into classes and objects,
developers can create code that is modular, reusable, and easier to test and
debug.

Link and Association Concept :

Link:

● A link is a physical or conceptual connection among instances of classes

i.e. objects.
● a link is considered as an instance of an association.
● It is represented by a line connecting two objects in a class diagram.
● A link does not provide any additional information about the relationship
beyond the fact that there is a connection between the objects.

Association:

● An association is a relationship between two or more classes or objects.

● an association is a group of links that relates objects from the same
classes.
● It is a specification about the collection of links.
● It represents a connection between two class types.
● It is represented by a line with additional properties such as multiplicities,
roles, navigability, etc., in a class diagram.
● An association provides additional information about the nature of the
relationship, such as the number of instances involved in the relationship,
the roles played by the instances, and whether the relationship is
navigable in one or both directions.
● Associations can be either unidirectional or bidirectional, meaning that they
can be traversed in one direction or both directions respectively.
To summarize, a link represents a connection between two instances of classes,
while an association represents a connection between two class types and
provides additional information about the nature of the relationship.

Cardinality Ratio of Association

Cardinality ratio of an association is the way of expressing the number of

instances of one class that are related to the number of instances of another
class through the association.

Cardinality ratio is usually represented as a pair of numbers separated by a colon

(:), with the first number representing the minimum number of instances and the
second number representing the maximum number of instances. Here are some
examples:

1. One-to-One (1:1): each instance of one class is related to exactly one

instance of the other class, and vice versa.
2. One-to-Many (1:N): each instance of one class is related to zero or more
instances of the other class, while each instance of the other class is
related to exactly one instance of the first class.
3. Many-to-One (N:1): each instance of one class is related to exactly one
instance of the other class, while each instance of the other class is related
to zero or more instances of the first class.
4. Many-to-Many (N:M): each instance of one class is related to zero or
more instances of the other class, while each instance of the other class is
related to zero or more instances of the first class.

Cardinality ratio provides information about the number of instances involved in

an association and helps to define the constraints of the relationship between
classes. It is often included in a class diagram as a notation on the association
line.

UML
UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a standardized visual modeling language
used to represent software systems. It was created by the Object Management
Group (OMG) to provide a common language for software development.

One of the benefits of using UML is that it can be used to generate code in
various programming languages. While UML is not a programming language
itself, the diagrams and models created using UML can be used as a blueprint to
generate code in languages such as Java, C++, and Python.

UML is not a programming language, but rather a set of tools and diagrams that
can be used to model software systems. UML diagrams can be used to represent
various aspects of a software system, including its structure, behavior, and
interactions with other systems. Some of the most commonly used UML
diagrams include:

● Class diagrams, which represent the structure of a system by showing its

classes, attributes, and relationships.
● Use case diagrams, which represent the interactions between a system
and its users.
● Activity diagrams, which represent the flow of control within a system.
● Sequence diagrams, which represent the interactions between objects in a
system over time.
● State machine diagrams, which represent the behavior of objects in a
system as they transition between different states.

Overall, UML provides a standardized and widely recognized language for

software developers and stakeholders to communicate and collaborate on the
design and documentation of software systems.

Class Diagram :

A class diagram is a type of UML (Unified Modeling Language) diagram. A class

diagram is a visual representation of the classes and their relationships in a
software system. It shows the attributes and behaviors of the classes, as well as
the connections between them. It's a way to understand the structure of the
system and how different components are related to each other.
In a Class Diagram, classes are represented as rectangles with the class name
in the top compartment. The middle compartment lists the attributes (properties)
of the class, while the bottom compartment lists the methods (behaviors) of the
class. Relationships between classes are represented as lines connecting the
classes. There are several types of relationships that can be represented in a
Class Diagram, such as inheritance, composition, and association.

Benefits of class diagram

some key benefits of using a class diagram:

● Provides a visual representation of the system's architecture and structure.

● Helps to identify the relationships between different classes and
components.
● Aids in communication and understanding of the system's design and
functionality.
● Improves reusability by identifying common patterns and components that
can be reused in future projects.
● Provides a blueprint for development efforts, guiding the planning and
design phases of a project.
● Helps in testing and maintenance by identifying the components that need
to be tested and modified.
● Aids in scalability by providing a clear understanding of the system's
structure and relationships between components.

Elements of Class Diagram

● Class Name
The name of the class is only needed in the graphical representation of the
class. It appears on the top most compartment. A class name should
always start with a capital letter. A class name should always be in the
center of the first compartment.
● Attributes
An attribute is a named property of a class that describes the value holded
by each object of the class. A value is a piece of data.
 ● Operations
An operation is a function or procedure that may be applied to or by
objects in a class.

Object Diagram :

An object diagram is a structural diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language)

that depicts a set of objects and their relationships at a specific point in time. It
shows how objects interact with each other within a system or application, and
can be used to illustrate a particular scenario or use case.

An object diagram consists of objects (instances of classes), which are

represented as rectangles with the object name and class name separated by a
colon. The objects are connected with lines to show the relationships between
them. The lines may have labels indicating the type of relationship, such as
association, aggregation, composition, or inheritance.

Object diagrams are useful for visualizing and communicating the structure of a
system, especially when dealing with complex object-oriented systems. They can
help identify potential design flaws or inconsistencies, and can aid in the testing
and debugging process. They are often used in conjunction with other UML
diagrams, such as class diagrams and sequence diagrams, to provide a more
complete view of the system.

Inheritance

Inheritance is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming that allows

a new class to be based on an existing class, inheriting its attributes and
behaviors. It promotes code reuse and creates a hierarchical structure of classes
with increasing levels of specialization. Inheritance is implemented using
keywords such as "extends" in Java and ":" in Python.

There are several types of inheritance in OOP, including:

 1. Single inheritance - one subclass inherits from one superclass
2. Multiple inheritance - one subclass inherits from multiple superclasses
3. Multilevel inheritance - a subclass inherits from a superclass, which in turn
inherits from another superclass
4. Hierarchical inheritance - multiple subclasses inherit from the same
superclass.
5. Hybrid Inheritance - A combination of multiple and multilevel inheritance is
known as hybrid inheritance.

Inheritance simplifies code, promotes efficiency, and enhances modularity and

scalability. It is an essential concept for developers working with object-oriented
programming languages.

@Generalization
Generalization is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming (OOP)
that allows developers to model real-world concepts and relationships between
them. In object modeling, generalization refers to the process of creating a new
class from an existing class or classes, inheriting the attributes and behaviors of
the parent class(es) and adding additional attributes and behaviors specific to the
new class.

Generalization is often used to represent hierarchies of classes, with more

general or abstract classes at the top of the hierarchy and more specific or
concrete classes at the bottom. This is known as an inheritance hierarchy or an
"is-a" relationship. For example, a "Vehicle" class might be a parent class to more
specific classes like "Car," "Truck," and "Motorcycle."

By using generalization in object modeling, developers can reduce code

duplication, increase code reuse, and create more flexible and modular code
structures. It also allows developers to create more expressive and meaningful
class hierarchies that accurately represent the real-world relationships between
objects.

@Aggregation

Aggregation is a relationship between objects in object-oriented modeling where

one object contains or is composed of other objects. It represents a "has-a"
relationship where an object of one class has one or more objects of another
class as its part.
In aggregation, the contained objects can exist independently of the container
object, which means that they can be shared between multiple container objects.
Aggregation is often used to represent the concept of a "part-whole" relationship
between objects, where the container object is the whole and the contained
objects are its parts.

For example, consider a car object that contains four wheel objects. The car
object is the container object, and the wheel objects are the contained objects.
The aggregation relationship between them can be represented as follows:

+-------+ +---------+
| Car |<>--| Wheel |
+-------+ +---------+

In this example, a car has four wheels, but the wheels can exist independently of
the car.

Aggregation is represented in UML (Unified Modeling Language) using a

diamond-shaped arrowhead from the container class to the contained class. The
diamond indicates that the container class aggregates the contained class.

Aggregation is different from composition, which is a stronger form of aggregation

where the contained object is a part of the container object and cannot exist
independently.

Abstract Class
An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated, meaning you cannot
create an object directly from an abstract class. Instead, you can only create
objects from its concrete subclasses. Abstract classes are used to define a
common interface for a group of related classes. It defines the common attributes
and methods that the subclasses will inherit and share.

An abstract class is defined using the "abstract" keyword in the class declaration.
An abstract class can have both abstract and non-abstract methods. An abstract
method is a method that is declared but not defined, meaning it has no
implementation in the abstract class. Instead, the implementation is provided by
its concrete subclasses.

Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance is a feature in some object-oriented programming languages

that allows a class to inherit from more than one base class. In multiple
inheritance, a class can inherit attributes and methods from multiple parent
classes, and it can also define its own attributes and methods.

For example, in a scenario where a class "Student" inherits from two parent
classes "Person" and "Scholarship", the "Student" class would have access to
attributes and methods defined in both parent classes. This allows for more
flexible and modular class design, as different classes with different
functionalities can be combined to create a more complex class.

#Meta Data

Metadata is data that describes other data. In other words, it provides information
about a particular set of data, such as its format, content, structure, or context.
Metadata is used to help manage and organize large amounts of data and make
it easier to search, access, and use.

…
 #Constraints

In object-oriented modeling, constraints refer to the rules and requirements that

must be satisfied by the system being modeled. Constraints can be used to
ensure that the system behaves correctly and meets the desired specifications.

There are several types of constraints in object-oriented modeling, including:

1. Structural constraints: These constraints define the relationships between

objects in the system, such as inheritance relationships between classes or
association relationships between objects.

2. Behavioral constraints: These constraints define the rules that govern the
behavior of the system, such as the order of method calls or the allowed
values for object attributes.

3. Semantic constraints: These constraints define the meaning and

interpretation of the data in the system, such as the units of measurement
or the allowed values for certain fields.

4. Integrity constraints: These constraints define the rules that ensure the
consistency and accuracy of the data in the system, such as constraints on
primary and foreign keys in a database.

Constraints can be represented in object-oriented modeling using various

techniques, such as UML diagrams or formal modeling languages like Object
Constraint Language (OCL). By incorporating constraints into the modeling
process, developers can ensure that the resulting system meets the desired
specifications and behaves correctly.

Constraints on Objects

Constraints on objects refer to the rules and requirements that must be satisfied
by the objects in an object-oriented system. These constraints are used to
ensure that the objects behave correctly and meet the desired specifications.
There are several types of constraints that can be applied to objects, including:

1. Attribute constraints: These constraints define the rules that govern the
values that can be assigned to an object's attributes. For example, an
object representing a person's age may have an attribute constraint that
requires the age to be a positive integer.

2. Relationship constraints: These constraints define the rules that govern the
relationships between objects. For example, an object representing a book
may have a relationship constraint that requires it to be associated with
one or more objects representing authors.

3. Behavior constraints: These constraints define the rules that govern the
behavior of objects. For example, an object representing a bank account
may have a behavior constraint that requires the balance to be updated
whenever a deposit or withdrawal is made.

4. Integrity constraints: These constraints define the rules that ensure the
consistency and accuracy of the data in the system. For example, an
object representing a database record may have an integrity constraint that
requires a certain field to be unique.

Constraints on objects can be represented in object-oriented modeling using

various techniques, such as UML diagrams or formal modeling languages like
Object Constraint Language (OCL). By incorporating constraints into the
modeling process, developers can ensure that the resulting system meets the
desired specifications and behaves correctly.

Constraints on Generalization Sets

Constraints on generalization sets are used to specify additional rules or

requirements that must be satisfied by the objects in the set. A generalization set
is a grouping of related classes in a class hierarchy, where the classes share
common characteristics and can be treated as a group. Constraints on
generalization sets can be used to ensure that the objects in the set behave
correctly and meet the desired specifications.
There are several types of constraints that can be applied to generalization sets,
including:

1. Cardinality constraints: These constraints specify the number of objects

that can be included in the generalization set. For example, a
generalization set representing different types of vehicles may have a
cardinality constraint that requires at least one object representing a car or
a truck.

2. Disjointness constraints: These constraints specify whether the objects in

the generalization set can overlap with objects in other generalization sets.
For example, a generalization set representing different types of animals
may have a disjointness constraint that requires the objects to be either
mammals or reptiles, but not both.

3. Completeness constraints: These constraints specify whether all possible

objects that can be modeled by the generalization set are included in the
set. For example, a generalization set representing different types of
vehicles may have a completeness constraint that requires all objects to be
either cars or trucks, with no other types of vehicles allowed.

Constraints on generalization sets can be represented in object-oriented

modeling using various techniques, such as UML diagrams or formal modeling
languages like Object Constraint Language (OCL). By incorporating constraints
into the modeling process, developers can ensure that the resulting system
meets the desired specifications and behaves correctly.

Module - 4

State Modeling
In the context of object-oriented programming (OOP), state modeling is a
technique used to represent the different states that an object can be in during its
lifecycle. It involves defining a set of attributes that describe the state of the
object, and a set of operations that can be performed on the object to change its
state.

In OOP, an object is an instance of a class, which is a blueprint that defines the

attributes and behaviors of objects of that type. State modeling is used to define
the attributes that describe the state of an object, and the behaviors that can be
performed on that object to change its state.

For example, let's say we have a class called "Car" that represents a car object.
The state of a car object can be described by attributes such as its speed, fuel
level, and gear. The behaviors that can be performed on the car object to change
its state might include accelerating, braking, and shifting gears.

By modeling the different states of an object and the transitions between those
states, we can better understand how the object behaves and can design more
effective and efficient software systems. State modeling is a powerful tool for
designing complex software systems, especially those that involve many objects
and interactions between those objects.

Event

In state modeling, an event is a trigger that causes a transition between two

states in a state machine. Events represent external stimuli or inputs that can
change the state of the system being modeled. They are typically represented as
arrows connecting states in a state machine diagram.

For example, consider a vending machine that dispenses beverages. The

vending machine can be modeled as a state machine, with states such as "idle",
"waiting for payment", "dispensing", and "out of order". An event in this context
might be a user inserting coins into the machine to make a payment, or selecting
a beverage from the available options.
When an event occurs, it triggers a transition from one state to another in the
state machine. For example, if a user inserts coins into the vending machine, it
might transition from the "waiting for payment" state to the "dispensing" state,
where it dispenses the selected beverage.

Events can also have associated conditions or actions that are executed when
the event occurs. For example, in the vending machine example, an event might
have a condition that checks whether the user has inserted enough coins to
make a payment, and an action that deducts the payment from the user's
account.

Overall, events play a critical role in state modeling, as they represent the
external inputs that drive state transitions and enable the system to respond to
changes in its environment or user interactions.

Types of events : (nicely explained in college notebook)

States

In state modeling, a state represents a condition or mode of a system at a

particular point in time. It is a snapshot of the system's behavior, describing the
values of its variables, attributes, or properties at a given moment. States are
often depicted as nodes or circles in a state diagram or state machine.

For example, consider a traffic light system at an intersection. The traffic light
system can be modeled as a state machine, with states such as "green",
"yellow", and "red", representing the different states of the traffic lights. At any
given time, the traffic light system is in one of these states, and the state
determines the behavior of the traffic lights, such as which lights are illuminated
and for how long.

States can also have associated actions or behaviors that are performed when
the system enters or exits the state. For example, when the traffic light system
transitions from the "green" state to the "yellow" state, it might activate a warning
signal to alert drivers to prepare to stop.
Overall, states play a fundamental role in state modeling, as they enable us to
represent the different modes or conditions of a system and how it behaves
under different circumstances. By defining states and the transitions between
them, we can create a model of a system that accurately reflects its behavior and
can be used to analyze, design, and simulate the system's behavior under
different scenarios.

State Diagram

A state diagram is a graphical representation of a state machine or finite

automaton that shows the different states that a system can be in and the
transitions between those states. State diagrams are commonly used in state
modeling, which is a technique used to model the behavior of systems that
change state in response to events or inputs.

In a state diagram, states are represented as nodes or circles, and transitions

between states are represented as directed edges or arrows. Each transition
represents a possible change in the state of the system in response to an event
or input. Transitions may have labels that specify the event or input that triggers
the transition, as well as any conditions or actions that must be met or performed
in order for the transition to occur.

For example, consider a simple vending machine that accepts coins and
dispenses candy. The state diagram for the vending machine might have states
such as "idle", "waiting for payment", "dispensing", and "out of order", and
transitions between these states that are triggered by events such as "coin
inserted" or "candy dispensed".

State diagrams can be used to model the behavior of a wide variety of systems,
from simple machines like vending machines to complex software systems with
many interacting components. They are a powerful tool for visualizing and
understanding the behavior of systems, and can help to identify potential errors,
inefficiencies, or improvements in the design of a system.

Parts of states
A state model represents the behavior of a system as a sequence of states,
where each state corresponds to a specific condition or situation in the system. A
state consists of a set of attributes that describe the system's behavior,
characteristics, and values at a particular point in time.

The parts of a state in a state model can vary depending on the specific system
being modeled, but typically include:

● State name: A unique identifier for the state that is easy to understand and
remember.

● Attributes: The set of variables or properties that describe the state of the
system, such as temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.

● Events: The actions or stimuli that cause the system to transition from one
state to another, such as user input, sensor readings, or time-based
triggers.

● Actions: The operations or behaviors that are performed when a system

transitions to a particular state, such as sending a notification, updating a
database, or changing a physical setting.

● Guards: The conditions or constraints that must be met in order for a

transition to occur, such as certain inputs or states being present or absent,
or specific values being within a certain range.

● Transitions: The pathways that connect states, indicating the conditions

and events that trigger a change in the system's behavior. Transitions are
often represented as arrows between states in a state diagram or
flowchart.

Together, these parts of a state help to create a clear and comprehensive model
of a system's behavior, allowing designers, developers, and other stakeholders to
better understand how the system operates and how it can be improved or
optimized.
 Module - 5

A use case diagram is a type of UML (Unified Modeling Language) diagram that
describes the behavior of a system or application from the point of view of its
users. It consists of several components, including:

Actors: Actors are the external users, systems, or entities that interact with the
system being modeled. Actors are represented by stick figures and are usually
located on the left side of the diagram.

Use cases: Use cases are the actions or tasks that a user or actor can perform
within the system. Use cases are represented by ovals and are usually located
on the right side of the diagram.

Relationships: Relationships are the connections between actors and use

cases. There are several types of relationships that can be used in a use case
diagram, including:

● Association: An association is a simple relationship between an actor and

a use case. It shows that the actor is involved in the use case.

● Extend: An extend relationship indicates that a use case can be extended

to include additional functionality.
 ● Include: An include relationship indicates that a use case includes another
use case as a part of its behavior.

System boundary: The system boundary is a rectangle that encloses all the
actors and use cases that are part of the system being modeled. It represents the
boundaries of the system and the interactions that take place within it.

# symbols used in use case diagrams are important to remember. See in the
college pdf notes. #

College Registration system use case diagram:

 SEQUENCE MODEL

In object-oriented modeling and designing, a sequence model is a type of

diagram that illustrates the interactions between different objects or
components in a system. It shows the order of events or messages
exchanged between the objects or components, and how they collaborate
to achieve a specific task or behavior.

A sequence model can be used to model and analyze the behavior of a

system, and facilitate communication and collaboration between
developers and stakeholders.

In a sequence model, objects are represented as lifelines, which are vertical

lines that show the lifespan of an object during the sequence. Messages
between objects are represented by arrows, and the order of messages is
indicated by their position along the lifelines.
Sequence models can be used in different stages of the software
development life cycle, such as during requirements analysis, design,
implementation, and testing. They can also be used to document and
communicate the behavior of an existing system, and to help identify
opportunities for improvement or optimization.

Overall, sequence models are an important tool in object-oriented modeling

and designing, as they provide a visual representation of the interactions
between different objects or components in a system, and help to identify
potential issues or inefficiencies in the system's design.

SCENARIO :
A scenario in sequence modeling refers to a specific sequence of events or
actions that occur in a system or process. It describes how different
objects or components interact with each other to accomplish a particular
task or achieve a specific goal. In essence, a scenario outlines a story of
how a system or process behaves in response to certain events or actions.

A scenario is an essential part of sequence modeling as it helps to capture

the dynamic behavior of the system or process being modeled. It serves as
a blueprint for developing sequence diagrams, which illustrate the
interactions between objects or components in a system over time. By
modeling different scenarios, designers can identify potential problems or
inefficiencies in a system and develop solutions to address them.

Here's a simple example of a scenario in sequence modeling:

Let's say we're modeling a simple online ordering system for a pizza
restaurant. One scenario we might consider is the "Place Order" scenario. It
could involve the following steps:

1. The customer selects the desired pizza and adds it to their order.
 2. The customer enters their delivery address and payment information.
3. The system verifies the payment and delivery information and
displays a confirmation message to the customer.
4. The system sends the order to the restaurant's kitchen for
preparation.
5. The system updates the customer's order status to "Preparing" and
displays an estimated delivery time.
6. The delivery driver is notified of the order and begins the delivery
process.
7. The system updates the customer's order status to "Out for Delivery."
8. The driver delivers the pizza to the customer and marks the order as
complete.

This scenario outlines a specific sequence of events that must occur in the
system for a customer to successfully place an order and receive their
pizza. By modeling this scenario, we can identify any potential issues or
bottlenecks in the ordering process and optimize the system accordingly.

SEQUENCE DIAGRAM :
A sequence diagram is a type of UML (Unified Modeling Language) diagram
used in software engineering and system design. It represents the
interactions between objects or components in a system over time.

A sequence diagram shows the messages exchanged between different

objects or components in a system, along with the sequence in which they
occur. The vertical axis represents time, with messages sent from top to
bottom. The horizontal axis represents the different objects or components
involved in the interaction.

A sequence diagram typically consists of lifelines, which represent the

different objects or components in the system, and messages, which
represent the interactions between those objects or components.
Messages can be synchronous or asynchronous, and can have parameters
and return values.

Sequence diagrams are useful for visualizing the dynamic behavior of a

system and for identifying potential issues or inefficiencies in the system's
design. They can be used to model different scenarios and to communicate
the system's behavior to stakeholders and other members of the
development team.

BENEFITS OF SEQUENCE DIAGRAM :

1. Visualize system behavior: Sequence diagrams provide a visual

representation of the interactions between objects or components in
a system over time. This allows designers and developers to better
understand the system's behavior and to identify potential issues or
inefficiencies.
2. Improve system design: By modeling different scenarios using
sequence diagrams, designers can refine and optimize the system's
design to improve performance, reliability, and scalability.
3. Communicate system behavior: Sequence diagrams are a powerful
tool for communicating the system's behavior to stakeholders,
including business analysts, project managers, and developers. They
can help ensure that everyone involved in the project has a clear
understanding of how the system works.
4. Aid in testing and debugging: Sequence diagrams can be used to
identify potential issues or bugs in the system's design before it is
implemented. They can also be used to aid in testing and debugging
by providing a clear understanding of the system's behavior and
expected outcomes.
5. Facilitate collaboration: Sequence diagrams can be used to facilitate
collaboration between different members of the development team.
They can help ensure that everyone is on the same page when it
 comes to the system's behavior and can help identify areas where
further collaboration is needed.

Overall, sequence diagrams are a valuable tool for software engineering

and system design, and can help ensure that systems are designed and

developed in a clear and efficient manner.

ACTIVITY MODEL

An activity model is a representation or a description of a process, system

or workflow that shows how different activities are connected and how
information flows between them. It is typically used to understand and
analyze complex systems, identify areas for improvement, and make
changes to optimize efficiency and effectiveness.

Activity models can take many forms, such as flowcharts, diagrams,

process maps, or any other visual representation that clearly depicts the
activities involved in a process or system. They can also include
information such as inputs, outputs, resources, and decision points,
depending on the level of detail required.

Activity models are used in a variety of fields, including business,

engineering, software development, and project management. They can be
created using various tools, such as Microsoft Visio, BPMN (Business
Process Model and Notation), UML (Unified Modeling Language), or other
specialized software.

Data Flow Diagram

Levels in Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)
In Software engineering DFD(data flow diagram) can be drawn to represent
the system of different levels of abstraction. Higher-level DFDs are
partitioned into low levels-hacking more information and functional
elements. Levels in DFD are numbered 0, 1, 2 or beyond. Here, we will see
mainly 3 levels in the data flow diagram, which are: 0-level DFD, 1-level DFD,
and 2-level DFD.

0-level DFD:
It is also known as a context diagram. It’s designed to be an abstraction
view, showing the system as a single process with its relationship to
external entities. It represents the entire system as a single bubble with
input and output data indicated by incoming/outgoing arrows.

1-level DFD:
In 1-level DFD, the context diagram is decomposed into multiple
bubbles/processes. In this level, we highlight the main functions of the
system and breakdown the high-level process of 0-level DFD into
subprocesses.
2-level DFD:
2-level DFD goes one step deeper into parts of 1-level DFD. It can be used to
plan or record the specific/necessary detail about the system’s functioning.
 Module - 6

Development Stages in Object Orientation

In object-oriented modeling and designing, the development process can be

broadly divided into the following stages:

1. System Conception: This is the initial stage where the idea for the system
is conceived. At this stage, the goals and objectives of the system are
defined, and a feasibility study is conducted to determine if the system is
viable.

2. Analysis: This stage involves gathering and analyzing requirements for the
system. Requirements are typically gathered from stakeholders and
end-users of the system. The analysis phase aims to identify the objects,
classes, and relationships that will form the system's architecture.

3. System Design: In this stage, the high-level system architecture is

designed. The system design includes the overall structure and behavior of
the system, as well as the various subsystems and modules that will make
up the system.

4. Class Design: In this stage, the detailed design of each class is created.
The class design includes defining the attributes, methods, and
relationships of each class. The design is typically represented using UML
class diagrams.

5. Implementation: This stage involves writing code based on the design

specifications. The code is organized into classes and objects based on
the design. Object-oriented programming languages such as Java, C++,
and Python are commonly used for implementation.
 6. Testing: In this stage, the system is tested to ensure that it meets the
requirements and functions as expected. Testing can be done at various
levels, including unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.

7. Training: Once the system is developed, end-users and stakeholders need

to be trained on how to use it. This stage involves developing user
manuals, training materials, and conducting training sessions.

8. Deployment: This stage involves deploying the system in the production

environment. The system is installed, configured, and made available to
end-users. This stage also involves creating a maintenance plan and
providing ongoing support.

9. Management: After deployment, the system needs to be managed and

maintained. This stage involves monitoring the system, fixing bugs, making
updates, and enhancing the system to meet changing user requirements.

Throughout these stages, object-oriented design principles such as

encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism are applied to create a system that
is modular, maintainable, and scalable. Additionally, design patterns can be used
to solve common design problems and improve the overall design of the system.

Development Lifecycle

Requirements
gathering
|
v
System Analysis
|
v
System Design
|
v
Detailed Design
|
 v
Implementation
|
v
Testing
|
v
Deployment
|
v
Maintenance

The development life cycle in object-oriented modeling and designing is a series

of steps that are followed to design, develop, and deploy software systems using
object-oriented principles. The typical development life cycle for object-oriented
systems includes the following stages:

1. Requirements gathering and analysis: In this stage, the requirements for

the system are gathered and analyzed. This involves understanding the
needs of the stakeholders and identifying the objects, classes, and
relationships that will form the system's architecture.

2. System design: In this stage, the high-level system architecture is

designed. The system design includes the overall structure and behavior of
the system, as well as the various subsystems and modules that will make
up the system.

3. Detailed design: In this stage, the detailed design of each class is created.
The class design includes defining the attributes, methods, and
relationships of each class. The design is typically represented using UML
class diagrams.

4. Implementation: In this stage, the code is written based on the design

specifications. The code is organized into classes and objects based on
the design. Object-oriented programming languages such as Java, C++,
and Python are commonly used for implementation.
 5. Testing: In this stage, the system is tested to ensure that it meets the
requirements and functions as expected. Testing can be done at various
levels, including unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.

6. Deployment: In this stage, the system is deployed in the production

environment. The system is installed, configured, and made available to
end-users. This stage also involves creating a maintenance plan and
providing ongoing support.

7. Maintenance: After deployment, the system needs to be managed and

maintained. This stage involves monitoring the system, fixing bugs, making
updates, and enhancing the system to meet changing user requirements.

Throughout these stages, object-oriented design principles such as

encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism are applied to create a system that
is modular, maintainable, and scalable. Additionally, design patterns can be used
to solve common design problems and improve the overall design of the system.
The development life cycle is iterative, and each stage may involve revisiting
previous stages to make adjustments based on feedback and new requirements.

Module - 7

Overview of System Design

System design in object-oriented modeling and designing involves defining the

overall architecture, structure, and behavior of a software system using
object-oriented concepts such as classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism,
and encapsulation.
During system design, the software requirements are translated into a high-level
design specification that outlines how the various components of the system will
work together. This typically involves identifying the classes and objects that will
be needed, defining their attributes and behaviors, and determining how they will
interact with each other to achieve the desired functionality.

The following points are considered to design a system efficiently:

1. Breaking a system into subsystems

Breaking a system into subsystems in system design is a process of dividing a
large and complex system into smaller and more manageable parts, each of
which can be developed, tested, and maintained independently. A subsystem is a
self-contained module of a larger system that performs a specific set of functions
or services.

Breaking a system into subsystems has several benefits. It makes the system
easier to understand, design, and implement, as the complexity is reduced by
dividing the system into smaller, more manageable pieces. It also allows for
greater flexibility, as each subsystem can be developed and tested
independently, making it easier to add new features or modify existing ones.

In system design, the process of breaking a system into subsystems typically

involves identifying the functional requirements of the system and grouping them
into related sets of functions. Each set of functions is then allocated to a
subsystem that is responsible for providing those functions. The subsystems are
designed to interact with each other through well-defined interfaces, ensuring
that they work together seamlessly.

For example, in a software application, a system may be broken down into

subsystems such as the user interface, the database subsystem, the
communication subsystem, and the processing subsystem. Each of these
subsystems may be developed by a separate team of developers, each with their
own set of requirements and constraints, but they must all work together to
provide the functionality of the system as a whole.

Overall, breaking a system into subsystems in system design is an important

step in creating a well-designed, modular, and scalable system. It allows for
greater flexibility, ease of maintenance, and improved performance, and can
make the system easier to understand and use.

2. Identity Concurrency
In the context of system design, identifying concurrency refers to the process of
identifying areas of a system where multiple tasks or processes can be executed
simultaneously or in parallel. Concurrency is an important aspect of system
design because it can significantly improve the performance, scalability, and
responsiveness of a system.

Concurrency can be achieved through various techniques, such as

multithreading, multiprocessing, and distributed processing. Multithreading
involves dividing a single process into multiple threads of execution that can run
concurrently, while multiprocessing involves running multiple processes in
parallel on different processors or cores. Distributed processing involves
distributing tasks across multiple computers or nodes in a network to achieve
parallelism.

Identifying concurrency in a system typically involves analyzing the tasks and

processes that the system must perform and identifying those that can be
executed concurrently. For example, in a web application, multiple users may be
accessing the system simultaneously, so concurrency can be achieved by
processing each user's request in a separate thread or process.

Concurrency can also be used to improve the performance of resource-intensive

tasks, such as data processing or image rendering. By dividing these tasks into
smaller subtasks that can be executed in parallel, the overall time required to
complete the task can be reduced, resulting in improved performance and
responsiveness.

Overall, identifying concurrency in system design is an important step in creating

a high-performance and scalable system. By analyzing the system requirements
and identifying areas where concurrency can be used, designers can ensure that
the system can handle large volumes of data and multiple users without
sacrificing performance or responsiveness.
 3. Allocation of Subsystems

In system design, allocation of subsystems refers to the process of assigning

different functions or tasks to different subsystems that will work together to
achieve the overall system objective. This involves breaking down the system
into smaller parts or subsystems, identifying their specific functions, and
allocating the resources required to fulfill those functions.

The allocation of subsystems is an important step in system design because it

helps to ensure that the system is optimized for its intended purpose. By
breaking the system down into smaller parts, designers can focus on specific
aspects of the system and ensure that each subsystem is designed to perform its
function efficiently and effectively.

The allocation of subsystems involves several steps, including:

● Defining the overall system requirements and objectives

● Identifying the different subsystems required to achieve those objectives
● Defining the functions of each subsystem
● Allocating resources, such as hardware, software, and personnel, to each
subsystem
● Ensuring that each subsystem is designed and integrated to work together
with the other subsystems to achieve the overall system objective.

Effective allocation of subsystems is essential to ensure that the system functions

as intended and meets the needs of its users. It helps to ensure that the system
is reliable, efficient, and cost-effective, and that it can be easily maintained and
upgraded over time.

4. Management of data storage

The management of data storage in system designing refers to the process of
determining the storage requirements of a system and designing an efficient and
effective storage solution that can meet those requirements. This involves
analyzing the types and amounts of data that the system will generate and/or
process, and determining how that data will be stored, accessed, and managed.
There are several factors that need to be considered when managing data
storage in system design, including:

● Data volume and velocity: The amount of data that the system generates
and the rate at which it is generated.

● Data structure: The way data is organized and structured, including its
format, schema, and metadata.

● Access patterns: The frequency and manner in which the data will be
accessed, including read and write operations.

● Security and compliance: The need to protect sensitive data, comply with
relevant regulations, and ensure data privacy.

● Scalability: The ability to expand storage capacity as the system grows and
more data is generated.

To manage data storage effectively, system designers must choose an

appropriate storage architecture, such as file-based storage, database storage,
object-based storage, or cloud-based storage. They must also determine the
most appropriate storage media, such as hard disk drives, solid-state drives, tape
drives, or cloud storage services.

Additionally, system designers must consider data backup and recovery

strategies to ensure that data is not lost in case of system failures, disasters, or
cyber-attacks. This involves creating data backups and replication schemes, and
designing data recovery procedures.

Overall, effective management of data storage is crucial for system designers to

ensure that the system can handle large volumes of data efficiently, securely, and
reliably, while meeting the performance, availability, and scalability requirements
of its users.

5. Handling Global Resources

Handling global resources in system designing refers to the process of managing
resources that are shared across different components or subsystems of a
system. These resources may include hardware resources such as memory,
network bandwidth, and processing power, as well as software resources such
as libraries, modules, and databases.

Global resources are often critical to the performance and availability of a

system, and therefore, they must be managed effectively to ensure optimal
system performance. Some of the key considerations for handling global
resources in system design include:

● Resource allocation: This involves determining how much of a resource is

required by each component or subsystem of the system and allocating
resources accordingly.

● Resource sharing: This involves ensuring that resources are shared

effectively among different components or subsystems of the system. This
may involve implementing resource sharing protocols or techniques such
as caching, load balancing, and distributed computing.

● Resource optimization: This involves optimizing the use of global

resources to minimize waste and maximize efficiency. This may involve
techniques such as resource pooling, dynamic resource allocation, and
auto-scaling.

● Resource monitoring: This involves monitoring the usage and performance

of global resources to detect and address performance bottlenecks or
issues. This may involve implementing monitoring tools or techniques such
as performance metrics, logging, and tracing.

● Resource management: This involves managing the lifecycle of global

resources, including their creation, modification, and destruction. This may
involve implementing resource management processes or techniques such
as resource tagging, resource recycling, and resource retirement.

Overall, effective handling of global resources is essential for system designers

to ensure that the system can meet its performance, availability, and scalability
requirements while minimizing resource waste and maximizing resource
utilization.

6. Choosing a software control strategy

Choosing a software control strategy in system design refers to the process of
selecting the appropriate software control mechanisms and algorithms to
manage the behavior and performance of the system. This involves identifying
the system's control requirements and selecting the most effective control
strategy to achieve the desired system behavior.

There are various software control strategies that can be used in system design,
including:

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control: This is a common feedback

control technique that adjusts the system's behavior by analyzing the difference
between the desired output and the actual output of the system.

Model Predictive Control (MPC): This is a control strategy that uses a

predictive model of the system to optimize the system's behavior by anticipating
future behavior.

Fuzzy Logic Control: This is a control strategy that uses fuzzy logic rules to
manage the system's behavior based on a set of linguistic rules.

State Space Control: This is a control strategy that represents the system's
behavior using a set of state variables, and adjusts the system's behavior based
on the current state of the system.

Artificial Intelligence-based Control: This is a control strategy that uses

machine learning techniques, such as neural networks or decision trees, to
optimize the system's behavior based on past behavior and expected future
behavior.

Choosing the appropriate software control strategy involves considering the

system's requirements, constraints, and expected performance. The system
designer must also consider the complexity and feasibility of implementing the
chosen control strategy within the system's hardware and software architecture.

Overall, selecting an appropriate software control strategy is essential for system

designers to ensure that the system can achieve the desired behavior,
performance, and efficiency, while maintaining stability and reliability.

7. Handling Boundary Conditions

Handling boundary conditions in system designing refers to the process of
identifying and managing the constraints and limitations that arise at the
interfaces between different components or subsystems of a system, or between
the system and its external environment.

Boundary conditions may include physical, logical, or operational constraints that

affect the behavior or performance of the system. Examples of boundary
conditions in system design may include limitations on memory, bandwidth,
latency, or input/output data rates, as well as constraints on data formats,
protocols, or communication channels.

Some of the key considerations for handling boundary conditions in system

design include:

Boundary Identification: This involves identifying the boundaries between

different components or subsystems of the system, or between the system and
its external environment.

Boundary Analysis: This involves analyzing the constraints and limitations that
arise at each boundary, and determining the impact of these boundary conditions
on the behavior and performance of the system.

Boundary Management: This involves managing the boundary conditions to

ensure that they are handled effectively by the system. This may involve
implementing protocols or techniques such as buffering, error handling, or data
compression.
Boundary Testing: This involves testing the system's ability to handle boundary
conditions, and verifying that the system behaves correctly and reliably under
different boundary conditions.

Boundary Optimization: This involves optimizing the system's behavior and

performance under different boundary conditions, and identifying ways to
minimize the impact of boundary conditions on system performance.

Overall, effective handling of boundary conditions is essential for system

designers to ensure that the system can operate efficiently and reliably under
different operating conditions and constraints. By identifying and managing
boundary conditions effectively, system designers can improve the overall
performance, stability, and reliability of the system.

8. Setting Trade off priorities

Setting trade-off priorities means making decisions about what is most
important or valuable in a situation where there are limited resources or
conflicting goals. It involves determining which goals or objectives should be
prioritized over others, and accepting that in some cases, achieving one goal may
come at the expense of another. Trade-off priorities can be based on factors
such as cost, time, quality, risk, or the preferences and needs of stakeholders.
Essentially, it's about finding the best possible compromise or balance between
different factors or goals.

Some of the key considerations for setting trade-offs and priorities in system
design include:

Requirement Analysis: This involves analyzing the system's requirements and

constraints to determine the most important and critical aspects of the system.

Risk Analysis: This involves identifying potential risks and uncertainties in the
system design, and assessing their impact on the system's performance and
behavior.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: This involves analyzing the costs and benefits
associated with different design options and making informed decisions about the
most effective use of resources.

Performance Optimization: This involves optimizing the system's performance

and behavior to meet the most critical and important requirements while
minimizing the impact of trade-offs and constraints.

Iterative Design: This involves iterating and refining the system design based on
feedback from stakeholders and users, and making adjustments to priorities and
trade-offs as necessary.

Overall, setting trade-offs and priorities in system design is a critical aspect of the
design process, and requires careful consideration of the system's
requirements, constraints, and priorities. By making informed decisions about the
allocation of resources and functionality, system designers can develop systems
that meet the most critical and important requirements, while minimizing the
impact of constraints and trade-offs.

9. Common Architecture Styles

There are several common architecture styles in system design, including:

Client-server architecture: This architecture involves a client application that

communicates with a server to request services or resources. The server then
provides the requested services or resources to the client. This architecture is
often used for web applications, where the client is a web browser and the server
is a web server.

Microservices architecture: In this architecture, a system is broken down into a

collection of small, independent services that communicate with each other to
perform tasks. Each microservice is responsible for a specific function, and can
be developed, deployed, and scaled independently.

Event-driven architecture: This architecture is based on the idea of events and

messages. Applications send and receive messages, and events trigger actions
within the system. This architecture is often used for real-time applications, such
as stock trading or IoT systems.

Layered architecture: This architecture involves breaking down a system into

layers, with each layer providing a specific set of services or functionality. The
layers communicate with each other through defined interfaces, and each layer
only interacts with the layer directly below it.

Monolithic architecture: In this architecture, the entire system is developed and

deployed as a single unit. This architecture is simple and easy to develop, but
can be difficult to scale and maintain over time.

These are just a few examples of common architecture styles in system design.
The choice of architecture will depend on the specific requirements of the system
and the preferences of the development team.

Architecture of ATM system

The architecture of an ATM (Automated Teller Machine) system can be designed

using object-oriented class designing principles. Here is a sample architecture of
an ATM system:

User Interface Class: This class handles the user interface of the ATM, including
displaying options and messages to the user and receiving input from the user.

Account Class: This class represents the user's account information, including
account number, PIN, and balance. It also provides methods to access and
modify the account information, such as checking the balance, depositing funds,
and withdrawing funds.

Bank Class: This class represents the bank that operates the ATM. It provides
methods to authenticate user accounts and validate transactions, such as
checking if the user's PIN is correct and if the account has sufficient funds.

Transaction Class: This class represents a single transaction that a user

performs on the ATM, such as withdrawing cash or checking the account
balance. It includes information such as the type of transaction, the amount of
funds involved, and the time and date of the transaction.

Cash Dispenser Class: This class represents the cash dispenser mechanism of
the ATM. It provides methods to dispense cash to the user, based on the user's
requested amount and the availability of funds in the ATM.

Receipt Printer Class: This class represents the receipt printer mechanism of
the ATM. It provides methods to print receipts for each transaction that the user
performs, including the transaction type, amount, and time.

These classes can be organized into a hierarchy, with the User Interface class at
the top level and the other classes as sub-levels. The Bank class can also be
further subdivided into more specific classes, such as the Authorization Class for
authenticating user accounts, and the Transaction Validation Class for validating
transactions.

Overall, this architecture provides a clear separation of concerns, allowing for

easy maintenance and modification of the ATM system.
 Module - 8

Programming styles

Object oriented style

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that is based on
the concept of "objects", which can contain data and code to manipulate that
data. In OOP, software is organized around objects that interact with each other
to perform tasks.

1. Reusability :
Reusability is an important concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that
refers to the ability to reuse existing code in new contexts or projects. In OOP,
reusability is achieved through the use of classes and objects.

By creating classes with well-defined properties and methods, developers can

create code that can be used again and again in different parts of an application
or in different applications altogether. This can save time and effort in
development, as well as make code easier to maintain and update.

One way that OOP achieves reusability is through inheritance. Inheritance allows
new classes to be created that inherit properties and methods from existing
classes. This can save time and effort in development by allowing developers to
reuse existing code, rather than starting from scratch.

Another way that OOP achieves reusability is through the use of interfaces.
Interfaces define a set of methods that a class must implement in order to be
considered compatible with the interface. By implementing an interface, a class
can be used in different contexts where that interface is required, regardless of its
specific implementation.

Overall, reusability is an important concept in OOP that allows developers to

write code that can be used and reused in different contexts. By creating
well-defined classes and interfaces, developers can create code that is easier to
maintain, update, and reuse in the future.

2. Extensibility :
Extensibility is another important concept in object-oriented programming (OOP)
that refers to the ability to easily extend and modify existing code to
accommodate new requirements or functionality.
In OOP, extensibility is achieved through the use of inheritance, interfaces, and
polymorphism. By creating well-designed classes and interfaces, developers can
create code that can be easily extended and modified without affecting the
existing code.p

Inheritance allows new classes to be created that inherit properties and methods
from existing classes, which can then be extended or overridden as needed. This
allows for the creation of new functionality without modifying the existing code,
making it easier to maintain and update.

Interfaces provide a way to define a set of methods that a class must implement
in order to be considered compatible with the interface. This allows for the
creation of new classes that can be used in place of existing classes, as long as
they implement the required interface.

Polymorphism allows for the use of objects of different types in the same way,
which can make code more flexible and adaptable. By defining methods with the
same signature in different classes, those methods can be used interchangeably,
regardless of the specific class of the object.

Overall, extensibility is an important concept in OOP that allows developers to

create code that can be easily extended and modified to meet changing
requirements or functionality. By creating well-designed classes and interfaces,
developers can create code that is easier to maintain, update, and extend in the
future.

3. Robustness :
Robustness is an important concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that
refers to the ability of a program to handle unexpected or erroneous inputs and
situations without crashing or producing incorrect results.

In OOP, robustness is achieved through a combination of techniques and best

practices. One important technique is exception handling, which allows programs
to detect and handle errors in a structured way. By using try-catch blocks, for
example, developers can catch exceptions and take appropriate action, such as
displaying an error message or retrying an operation.
Another important technique for achieving robustness is defensive programming,
which involves anticipating and handling potential errors and unexpected inputs.
For example, validating user inputs and checking for null values can help prevent
errors from occurring.

In addition, OOP provides several features that can help improve the robustness
of a program. Encapsulation, for example, can help prevent unintended
modifications to the state of an object, while inheritance and polymorphism can
make code more flexible and adaptable.

Overall, robustness is an important concept in OOP that allows programs to

handle unexpected inputs and situations without crashing or producing incorrect
results. By using techniques like exception handling and defensive programming,
as well as leveraging the features of OOP, developers can create code that is
more robust and resilient to errors.

4. Programming-in-the-large :
Programming in the large is a concept in object-oriented programming (OOP)
that refers to the development of large-scale software systems. In large-scale
systems, OOP can be used to create modular and maintainable code that is
easier to develop, test, and maintain.

In OOP, programming in the large typically involves the use of design patterns,
which are standardized solutions to common programming problems. Design
patterns can help developers create code that is reusable, extensible, and
maintainable.

Another important aspect of programming in the large is software architecture,

which refers to the overall structure of a software system. In OOP, software
architecture can be designed using patterns like the Model-View-Controller
(MVC) pattern, which separates the user interface, business logic, and data
storage components of a system into separate modules. This can make it easier
to develop and maintain large-scale systems by allowing developers to focus on
specific parts of the system without worrying about the rest.
Programming in the large also involves techniques for managing complexity,
such as abstraction and encapsulation. Abstraction allows developers to hide the
details of a component's implementation from the rest of the system, while
encapsulation allows developers to define the interface for a component and hide
its internal workings.

Overall, programming in the large is an important aspect of OOP that involves

designing and developing large-scale software systems using techniques like
design patterns, software architecture, and managing complexity. By using these
techniques, developers can create software systems that are modular,
maintainable, and easy to develop and test.