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UNIT 4 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION BINDU S

BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. This includes genetic diversity within
and between species and of ecosystems. Thus, esserice, biodiversity represents all life, India is one of the mega
biodiversity centers in the world and has two of the world's 18 'biodiversity hotspots' located in the Western Ghats and
in the Easten Himalayas (Myers 1999). The forest cover in these areas is very dense and diverse and of pristine beauty
and incredible biodiversity.
MEANING OF BIODIVERSITY :
Biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems..
DEFINITIONS OF BIODIVERSITY:
According to lan Swingland, "Biological diversity or biodiversity is the term given to the variety of life on Earth. It is
the variety within and between all species of plants, animals and micro- organisms and the ecosystems within which
they live and interact
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY :
The living organisms on earth are of great diversity, living in diverse habitats and possessing diverse qualities and are
vital to human existence providing food, shelter, clothing's, medicines etc. The biodiversity has the following
importance:
1. Productive values : Biodiversity produces a number of products harvested from nature and sold in commercial
markets: Indirectly it provides economic benefits to people which include water quality soil protection equalization of
climate, environmental monitoring, scientific research, recreation etc.
2. Consumptive value : The consumptive value can be assigned to goods such as fuel woods, leaves, forest products
etc. which may be consumed locally and do not figure in national and international market.
3. Social value : The loss of biodiversity directly influences the social life of the country possibly through influencing
ecosystem functions (energy flow and biogeochemical cycle). This be easily understood by observing detrimental effects
of global warming and acid rain which cause an unfavorable alteration in logical processes.
4. Aesthetic value : Aesthetic values such as refreshing fragrance of the flowers, taste of berries, softness of mossed,
melodious songs of birds, etc. compel the human beings to preserve them. The earth's natural beauty with its colour and
hues, thick forest and graceful beasts has inspired the human beings from their date of birth to take necessary steps for
its maintenance. Similarly botanical and zoological gardens are the means of biodiversity conservation and are of
aesthetic values.
5. Legal values : Since earth is homeland of all living organisms, all have equal right to coexist on the surface of earth
with all benefits. Unless some legal value is attached to biodiversity, it will not be possible to protect the rapid extinction
of species.
6. Ethical value : Biodiversity must be seen in the light of holding ethical value. Since man is the most intelligent
amongst the living organisms, it should be prime responsibility and moral obligation of man to preserve and conserve
other organisms which will directly or indirectly favour the existence of the man
7. Ecological value: Biodiversity holds great ecological value because it is indispensable to maintain the ecological
balance. Any disturbance in the delicately fabricated ecological balance maintained by different organisms, will lead to
severe problems, which may threaten the survival of human beings.
8. Economic value : Biodiversity has great economic value because economic development depends upon efficient and
economic management of biotic resources. In the day to day life, human beings are maintaining their lifestyle at the
sacrifice of surrounding species which come from diversity of plants and animals struggling for their existence
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USES OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity has the following uses for the development humanity:
(1) It provides food of all types.
(ii) It provides fibers, sources for the preparation of clothes.
(i) It provides different types of oil seeds for the preparation of oils.
(iv) It provides new varieties of rice, potato etc. through the process of hybridization.
(V) It provides different drugs and medicines which are based on different plant products.
(vi) It is very essential for natural pest control, maintenance of population of various species, pollination by insects and
birds, nutrient cycling, conservation and purification of water, formation of soil etc. All these services together are valued
16.54 trillion dollars per year.
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
The diverse life forms can be measured at different levels such as genetic, species and ecosystem levels. All three interact
and change over time and from place to place.
1. Genetic Diversity : Genetic diversity refers to the variations between individuals of a species, where characteristics
pass down from parents to their offspring. For example, in a family or among a group of people, no two will be exactly
alike through they all belong to single species. Homo sapiens These differences are due to genetic diversity, that is, the
variety of genes within a species .
2. Species Diversity : Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of living things on Earth, such as bacteria,
fungi, Insects, mammals, plants and more. A species can be defined as a group or population of similar organisms that
reproduce by interbreeding within the group, Members of a species do not normally reproduce with members of any
other species. Human beings, for example, belong in a single species, Homo sapiens.
3. Ecosystem Diversity : Ecosystem diversity refers to the great variety of ecosystems produced by the interaction of
the living (plants, animals and microorganisms) and non-living surrounding environments (earth forms soil, rocks and
water). There is a great degree of variety among species and habitats. Ecosystems are therefore, the combination of
communities of living things with the physical environment in which they live.
There are many different kinds of ecosystems, from deserts to mountain slopes, the ocean floor to the Antarctic, with
coral reefs and rainforests being amongst the richest of these systems.
IMPORTANT OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:
1. Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients, combating pollution, and stabilizing
climate, protecting water resources, forming and protecting soil and maintaining ecobalance.
2. Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals, food for the human population and
animals, ornamental plants, wood products, breeding stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.
3. Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and research. The role of biodiversity in the
following areas will help make clear the importance of biodiversity in human life:
(a) Biodiversity and food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants. But humans use 40,000 species
for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity provides for variety of foods for the planet.
(b) Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to create a major global crisis.
Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug discovery and medicinal resources. Medicines from nature account for
usage by 80% of the world's population.
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(c) Biodiversity and Industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials. These include fiber, oil, dyes,
rubber, water, timber, paper and food. Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird
watching, fishing. trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists.
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
A measure of biodiversity should quantify a value that is both broadly shared among the people for whom they are acting
and considered as being in need of protection. We all depend upon the natural world to sustain us with food, clothing
and other necessities, establishing a set of use values.
1. Consumptive use of Biodiversity
(a) Biodiversity as food resource: Plants and animals from the food chains. Both plants and animals are the major source
of nutrition to people. About 5000 plant species, 200 of which have been domesticated, and have been used as food
source. However, just 20 of these plants provide more than 80 percent of our food at the present time. Plant parts such
as leaves, roots, tubers, fruits, and mushrooms are valued as highly desirable foods, others are an indispensable source
of vitamins and minerals in the diet of rural populations surviving on subsistence agriculture.
(b) Biodiversity as medicine: For centuries, man is using biological resources to treat the sick. The natural chemical
compounds, which has medicinal value have been identified and extracted plants and animals. Many marine species
also represents a rich potential source of new economically important medicines .
(c) Domestication of Biodiversity: The rise of civilization coincided with the domestication of animals for their services
or food. The first animals to be domesticated for such purposes were the bovines, horses, poultry and dogs.
(d) Extractive products: many industrial materials, such as fibers, resins, dyes, waxes, pesticides large-scale lubricants
and perfumes are derived from plant or animal sources. These products have played an important role in the global
economy and are still largely in use today.
(e) Timber extraction: Tree species that yield timber has long been considered as a staple in the construction industry.
Furniture, fuel, paper productions require timber as raw material. Trees provide more than 3.8 million cubic meters of
wood annually for use as fuel, timber or pulp,
2. Productive use of Biodiversity
(a) Pollination, seed dispersal etc.: The insects, birds and mammals are involved in pollination and dispersing seed for
farer distances.
(b) Protection of water resources: Trees in the forests reduce erosion of topsoil and provide buffering action against
extreme conditions, such as floods. Apart from these vegetation regulates underground water tables and prevents dry
land salinity and siltation of water bodies. Forests also play vital role in hydrological cycle through evapotranspiration.
The forests are the important carbon dioxide sinks.

(c) Maintenance of soil quality: Vegetation help in soil formation. It adds nutrients (organic material as humus) to soil.
Some microorganism in soil fix atmospheric nitrogen increasing the soil fertility Plants control soil erosion, prevents
landslides etc.)
(d) Nutrient cycling: organisms, which depend on these basic energy sources, participate in food chains that recycle the
fixed carbon and other nutrients taken up by plants through biogeochemical cycles. The biodiversity especially the
decomposers split the complex organic materials into simpler compounds, thereby adding nutrients back to soil. Animals
such as earthworms aerate soil and make nutrients easily available for uptake by plants.
(e) Breakdown of pollutants: Depollution processes constitute a new field of application for biotechnology. Innumerable
plants and microorganisms are capable of reproducing rapidly in polluted soil and degrade potentially toxic chemicals
by a process known as phytodegradation or phytoremediation and rendering then harmless.

3. Social use of Biodiversity

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(a) Research, education and monitoring: Considerable collection of all types of animals occurs for scientific purposes,
especially for taxonomic studies. Biodiversity significantly contributes to human art and literature. Primates are
frequently used in scientific research, usually in biomedical studies.
(b) Cultural values: In various parts of the world, plants and animals are omnipresent in scared rites and rituals. For
example, in India, the Hindus Consider the cow, the cobra (Naja naja) and the Peepal tree (ficus religiosa) as sacred.
Respect for nature is interwoven in all the major religions
4. Ethical Values
Ethical value of biodiversity indicates the value and moral status of the biodiversity. Every life whether plant or animal
have rights to existence on this planet. Every individual has the right to have clean environment. Ethical value supports
for the protection and conservation of biodiversity by protecting their habitat.
5. Aesthetic Values
Throughout the world and human history, people have found biodiversity beautiful and stimulating. Various life forms
are also important from the viewpoints of its aesthetic and recreational value for man. Recreational and enjoyment are
essential to man's health. Natural activities of various colorful birds, taste of wild berries, refreshing fragrance of wild
flowers, melodious singing birds etc. attract people and please the viewers.
6. Option Values
The value of biodiversity lies in its option for the future. Option value measures the willingness to pay for the
preservation of a natural asset with a view to anticipated benefits in the future. the diverse forms of life on this planet,
some species of organism have greater optional value over the other, based richness in the different features expressed
by species. The individual species of greater value is the one contributing more novel features to a given subset. Greater
the value for conserving the present biodiversity, greater will be the chance for future diversity, because of the ensured
continued evolution in a changing and uncertain world.
THREAT TO BIODIVERSITY
According to IUCN, 2000, the Red List of Threatened Animals has listed 44 plant species as crically endangered, 113
are endangered, and 87 vulnerable. Amongst animals, 18 are critically endangered, 54 are endangered and 143 ure
vulnerable. Also, the marine biodiversity is facing threat, especially the coral reefs from human activities as well as
natural. India ranks second in terms of the number of threatened mammals and sixth in threatened birds species.
Losing biodiversity means that species that potentially have great economic and social importance may be lost before
they are even discovered. The immense, unexploited resource of #opical rainforest may have unknown numbers of
species that may be important foe medicine.
The threat to biodiversity stems mainly from habitat loss, over-exploitation (poaching of wife), pollution and
inappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals. Construction of roads major projects such as mining and
construction of dams etc grazing, agriculture, logging, urban and industrial development etc are the main reasons for
the loss of biodiversity. Global warming, acid rain, photochemical smog and climatic changes have significantly
threatened the survival of biodiversity: Man-wildlife conflicts often cause threat to the biodiversity.

Habitat Loss
The most proximate causes of species extinction are habitat loss, globally affecting 89 percent of all threatened birds,
83 percent of mammals and 91 percent of all threatened plats. Habitat loss is characterized by the following three
processes
1. Habitat fragmentation: Habitat fragmentation refers to the reduction in habitat area to form small fragments as
opposed to a large contiguous stretch. Habitat fragmentation can be caused by overexploitation, constructing roads,
clearing for agriculture, commercial and residential development, and timber harvesting habitat fragmentation can
impose devastating and imeversible consequences on the biodiversity of ecosystems. It contributes to loss of migratory
comdors, loss of connectivity and natural communities, which all lead to a loss of biodiversity for a region and ecosystem
imbalance
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2 Habitat alteration: The nature of habitat may change doe to human activities: Alien invasive species are a significant
threat affecting the biodiversity. About 350 (30% of all threatened) birds and 361 (15% of all threatened) plant species
are threatened due to alien species invasion. A forest that is cleared and then planted with timber species is essentially
different in quality from the original forest. For example, in Nagarahole National Park, India, large areas have been
planted with teak trees. Islands are particularly susceptible to invasions of alien species.
3. Habitat degradation: The human activities have degraded the habitats of the biodiversity. Industry and mines are
releasing effluents into river deteriorating the quality of the riverine ecosystem. Use of excessive fertilizers and
pesticides have caused harm to terrestrial and aquatic organisms. The productivity of the lake and land has declines due
to eutrophication and presence of toxic chemical substances. Logging has degraded forest, giving scope for erosion and
further desertification of the area.

Poaching of Wildlife
In India, poaching is another insidious threat that has emerged in recent years as one of the primary reasons for the
decline in numbers of species. Exploitation such as hunting, collecting fisheries and are trade are a major threat to birds
(37%), mammals (37%), plants (8%), reptiles and marine fishes Wildlife species or the illegal Killing of animals and
birds occurs worldwide for their meat, skins and internal organs as well as for sport and accidental killing. Illegal trading
of the useful wildlife products is an important factor driving the poaching activity.
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna) his banned poaching and
trading of products of endangered species to conserved the biodiversity.

Man-wildlife Conflicts
Wildlife often finds themselves in conflict with man. Some animals are harvested for their fur, feathers, or other parts.
Other animals are killed because they conflict with human uses of land. The reasons for the wildlife to attack man are
when the animal is disturbed and teased or when they are afraid for themselves or their young ones or when man and
livestock are seen as food. Predators, which hunt animas as prey for meat, are potentially dangerous. People who keep
livestock in proximity to wildlife experience multiple problems. Carnivores including lion, hyena, cheetah, leopard and
smaller animals frequently prey upon their stock. Diseases transmitted from wild herbivores and camivores to domestic
stock include malignant catarrh fever, East Coast Fever, foot and mouth disease, anaplasmosis and rabies. Wild
herbivore's competition with live stock for grass is a frequent cause of overgrazing, and they also deplete scarce water
supplies. Finally, animals often damage or destroy such infrastructural installations as fences and pipes.
Conflicts also arise when wild herbivorous animals such as elephants and wild boars Invade standing crop for food and
destroy crop. Crop damage is the most common debilitating wildlife- human conflict. Wild animals make it difficult for
people to freely move around while collecting firewood and water or walk to nearby town,
BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS
Biological invasion is the process by which species (or genetically historical record in an area, breach biogeography
barriers and extend their range.
The need for a clearly defined and consistent invasion biology terminology has been acknowledged by many sources.
Invasive species, or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for
specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats.
Defining biological invasions is challenging due in part to the proliferation of terms, especially among biological
disciplines, that usually describe a set of ranging and different concepts Depending on the author, a species in the
invasion might be referred to as: alien, exotic, invasive, non-indigenous, Imported, weedy, introduced, nonnative versus
naturalized, endemic or indigenous. Some of the terms employed evoke anthropocentric concepts such as aggression,
assault, and attack, which have normative implications. These implications and the lack of consistent uses of terms
contribute to confusion
Biological invasion, also known as invasive species or biological invasions, refers to the process by which non-native
species (organisms) are introduced and establish themselves in a new environment where they are not naturally found.
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These introduced species can have negative ecological, economic, and/or social impacts on the new ecosystem they
invade.
Key characteristics of biological invasions include:
1. Non-Native Species: Invasive species are species that have been introduced to an area outside of their native range.
They may be intentionally or unintentionally introduced by human activities, such as trade, travel, or horticulture.
2. Establishment: For a biological invasion to occur, the introduced species must successfully establish and reproduce
in the new environment. This can lead to the formation of self-sustaining populations.
3. Ecological Impact: Invasive species can disrupt the balance of the recipient ecosystem. They might outcompete
native species for resources like food, water, and habitat, which can lead to declines in native populations. In some cases,
invasive species might not have natural predators in the new environment, allowing their populations to grow unchecked.
4. Economic Impact: Biological invasions can have substantial economic effects, particularly in industries such as
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Invasive species can damage crops, destroy infrastructure, and lead to increased
management costs.
5. Biodiversity Loss: One of the major concerns with invasive species is the potential for biodiversity loss. Native
species that are unable to compete with invasive species may face population declines or even extinction. This can have
cascading effects on the entire ecosystem.
6. Human Health and Social Impact: Some invasive species can also impact human health, either directly through
disease transmission or indirectly by altering ecosystem services that humans rely on.
Efforts to manage and mitigate the impacts of biological invasions often involve monitoring and early detection of
invasive species, implementing control measures to manage their populations, and raising awareness about the potential
risks of introducing non-native species. International cooperation is also important, as invasive species can spread across
borders and impact multiple countries.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
The direct impacts (over-exploitation, destruction of habitats etc) and indirect effects on human activities upon natural
environments constitute a threat to the future of biodiversity. (Human activities are the immediate causes for the loss of
biodiversity. In other words, the conservation of biodiversity is dependent upon choices made in economic development
issues at both national and international levels
Conservation of biodiversity must include all levels of diversity: genetic, species and ecosystem. The ultimate aim is to
ensure the preservation of biodiversity over entire ecosystems, not merely in their components Conservation strategies
are urgently needed, involving a mix of in situ and ex situ strategies.

1. In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation, involves maintaining living organisms in their natural environment. Good management of the
extent population in the wild is essential for their survival. Conservation of a species within its habitat requires both
protection of the habitat and protection of individuals.. This kind of conservation enables plant and animal community
to adapt to changes in their environment and pursue their evolution. To conserve individual species, some effective
approaches are
1. (Enacting legal protection for the endangered species.
2 Assign priority to protecting lines of evolution that are in danger of disappearing from the face of the Earth
3. Improving management plans to select, establish and manage protected areas, where special measures need to be
taken to conserve biodiversity.
4. Establishing reserves to protect particular species or unique genetic resources.
5 Prevent introduction of control or eradicate those alien species that threaten ecosystems, or species.
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6. Designate areas where biodiversity is highly endemic and at the same time at risk as 'hotspots', to conserve al the
world's species.
The Important point in situ conservation is that all forest trees, wild plants, wild animals and microorganisms occur
together in a given ecosystem . However, in situ conservation is not always possible, because many habitats are already
seriously disturbed, and some have even disappeared entirely. In such cases, the alternative is ex situ conservation. The
whales and dolphins have been the focus of much conservation effort and where amongst the first species to cause
widespread public involvement in conservation.

II. Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation, consists in preserving species outside their natural habitats. The living collections are found in
botanical gardens and zoos, conservatories, public and private arboreta. They play a fundamental role in the conservation
of disappearing species and in programmes for reintroducing them into the natural world. They are an essential tool for
the genetic resource management of useful plants and domestic animals. Ex-situ conservation may also include captive
rearing of species to take pressure off wild populations. Farming of butterflies, aquarium fish, primates, succulents and
medicinal plants can help meet demand. Ex situ conserved (captive-bred) animals species are reintroduced back into the
wild into an area where they historically inhabited. thus re-populating it. In India, ex situ conservation of crop, forest
trees, microorganisms, livestock, poultry and fish genetic resources has been undertaken and is working commendably
well. Botanic Gardens
Botanic gardens
It can help to protect many species. Including those with recalcitrant seeds. Plants are grown in climate similar to the
wild, either in the country of origin of the species, or in a country with a similar climate or in green houses. Around,
1,600 botanic gardens exist around the world. The largest botanical gardens are situated in the developed countries.
Botanical gardens assemble flora from cosquests, commercial trade and exploratory expeditions. The plants were earlier
collected for traditional pharamacology. Latter, they served as acclimatization gardens for alien species, used to develop
new cultures for economic or decorative purposes. In recent times, botanical gardens are viewed towards developing
conservation environment and enducating the public. Botanical gardens are working on refining methods for cultivating,
propagating and conserving plant species and communicating this expertise to nurseries and the public. The Botanic
Gardens Conservation International helps co-ordinate the effort of conserving plants ex-situ
Zoological Parks
Zoological parks that are often centered around spectacular species, such as, fish, snakes birds, mammals etc. have
similar missions and activities to those of botanical gardens. Many of the world's zoos now help maintain threatened
species. A database called the International Species Information System (ISIS) registers animals held in zoos and
aquariums around the world Maintaining species in captivity requires knowledge of their feeding and reproductive
biology and veterinary expertise. Zoos provide other valuable research opportunities.

STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The following strategies should be undertaken in order to con-serve biodiversity:
(1) All the possible varieties (old or new) of food, forage and timber plants, live stock, agriculture animals and microbes
should be conserved.
(2) All the economically important organisms in protected areas should be identified and conserved.
(3) Critical habitats for each species should be identified and safeguarded.
(4) Priority should be given to preserve unique ecosystems.
(5) There should be sustainable utilisation of resources.
(6) International trade in wild life should be highly regulated.
(7) The poaching and hunting of wildlife should be prevented as far as practicable.
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(8) Care should be taken for the development of reserves and protected areas.
(9) Efforts should be made to reduce the level of pollutants in the environment.
(10) Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity and its importance for the living organisms.
(11) Priority should be given in wildlife conservation programme to endangered species over vulnerable species and to
vulnerable species over rare species.
(12) The habitats of migratory birds should be protected by bilateral and multilateral agreement.
(13) The over exploitation of useful products of wild life should be prevented. (14) The useful animals, plants and their
wild relatives should be protected both in their natural habitat
ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY SERVICES

Ecosystem services are defined as "the benefits provided by ecosystems to humans". Many key ecosystem services
provided by biodiversity, such as nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, pest regulation and pollination, sustain
agricultural productivity. Promoting the healthy functioning of ecosystems ensures the resilience of agriculture as it
intensifies to meet growing demands for food production. Climate change and other stresses have the potential to make
major impacts on key functions, such as pollination and pest regulation services. Learning to strengthen the ecosystem
linkages that promote resilience and to mitigate the forces that impede the ability of agro-ecosystems to deliver goods
and services remains an important challenge.
Ecological Values
Ecological service is the beneficial natural process arising from healthy ecosystems, such as punification of water and
air, pollination of plants and decomposition of waste. Ecological goods include clean air and abundant fresh water.
Examples of ecological services include purification of air and water, maintenance of biodiversity, decomposition of
wastes, soil and vegetation generation and renewal, pollination of crops and natural vegetation, groundwater recharge
through wetlands, seed dispersal, greenhouse gas mitigation and aesthetically pleasing landscapes. The products and
processes of ecological goods and services are complex and occur over long periods of time. They are a sub-category
of public goods.
Economic Value
Economic value is a measure of the benefit provided by a good or service to an economic agent. It is generally measured
relative to units of currency, and the interpretation is therefore "what is the maximum amount of money a specific actor
is willing. Note that economic value is not the same as market price, nor is economic value the same thing as market
value. If a consumer is willing to buy a good, it implies that the customer places a higher value on the good than the
market price.
Social Value
Social valuation of ecosystem services and public policy alternatives is one of the greatest challenges facing ecological
economists today. Frameworks for valuing nature increasingly include shared/social values as a distinct category of
values. However, the nature of shared/social values, as well as their relationship to other values, has not yet been clearly
established and empirical evidence about the importance of shared/social values for valuation of ecosystem services is
lacking.
consideration of the relation between shared/social values and Total Economic Value, and a review of deliberative and
non-monetary methods for assessing shared/social values. We conclude with a discussion of the importance of
shared/social values for decision-making.
Ethical Value
Ethical value is a set of established principles governing virtuous behaviour. In order to help assure that the company
maintains a good business reputation, many business managers concerned about public relations will develop and
promote a set of suitable ethical values for staff within the company to keep in mind when doing business with the
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customers. Ethical value may be regarded as a study under ethics, which, in turn, may be grouped as philosophy. Similar
to that ethics may be regarded as a subfield of philosophy, ethical value may be regarded as a subgroup of the more
broad (and vague) philosophic value. Ethical value denotes something's degree importance, with the aim of determining
what action or life is best to do or at least attempt to describe the value of different actions
Aesthetic Value
Aesthetic value is a judgment of value based on the appearance of an object and the emotional responses it evokes.
While it is difficult to objectively assess aesthetic value, it often becomes an important determining factor in overall
value; things people perceive as attractive tend to be in higher demand and will cost more than comparable objects
without the aesthetic component. For example, two homes with similar amenities, locations, and sizes can sell for
radically different prices if one is a custom-designed Craftsman while the other is a generic manufactured home.
Informational Value
Informational values derive, as is evident from the very term, from the information that is in public records on the
matters with which public agencies deal; not from the information that is in such records on the public agencies
themselves. The greater proportion of modem public records preserved in an archival institution are valued less for the
evidence they contain of Government action than for the information they contain about particular persons, situations,
events, conditions, problems, materials and properties in relation to which the question of action comes up.

BIO-GIOGRAPHIC ZONES IN INDIA

The Trans-Himalayan Region
This area is very cold and arid. The only vegetation is a sparse alpine steppe. Extensive areas consist of bare rock and
glaciers. The faunal groups best represented here are wild sheep and goats (chief ancestral stock), ibex, snow leopard,
marbled cat, marmots and black-necked crane.

The Himalayan Region

The fantastic altitude gradient results in the tremendous biodiversity of the Himalayan region. Flora and fauna vary
according to both altitude and climatic conditions; tropical rainforests in the Eastem Himalayas and dense subtropical
and alpine forests in the Central and Western Himalayas. The lower levels of the mountain range support many types of
orchids, On the eastern slopes, rhododendrons grow to tree heigh

The Indian Desert

The natural vegetation consists of tropical thom forests and tropical dry deciduous forests, sandy deserts with seasonal
salt marshes and mangroves are found in the main estuaries Typical shrubs are phog growing on sand dunes. Sewan
grass covers extensive areas called pali
Thar desert possesses most of the major insect species, 43 reptile species and moderate bird endemism are found here
No niche of the Thar is devold of birds. The black buck was once the dominant mammal of the desert region, now
confined only to certain pockets..

The Semi-Arid Region

rachel The semi-arid region in the west of India includes the arid desert areas of Thor and Rajasthan extending to the
Gulf of Kutch and Cambay and the whole Kathiawar peninsula) The natural vegetation consists of tropical thom forests
and tropical dry deciduous forests moisture forests (extreme north) and mangroves). The lion of Gir is the endemic
species in this zone.

The Western Ghats

(They cover only 5% of India's fand surface but are home to more than about 4,000 of the country's plant species of
which 1800 are endemic. The monsoon forests occur both on the westem margins of the ghats and on the eastern side
where there is less rainfall. This zone displays diversity of forests from evergreen to dry deciduous
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The Nilgiri langur, lion tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Malabar grey hombill and Most amphibian species are endemic to
the Western Ghats. The Deccan Peninsula

The Deccan Peninsula

is a largo area of raised land covering about 43% of India's total land surface. It is bound by the Sathpura range on the
north, Westem Ghats on the west and Eastem Ghats on the east. The elevation of the plateau varies from 900 mts. in the
west to 300 mts. in the east. There are four major rivers that support the wetlands of this region which have fertile black
and red soil. Large parts are

The Gangetic plain

is one of India's most fertile regions. The soil of this region is formed by the alluvial deposits of the Ganges and its
tributaries. The four important surface differences recognized in the geomorphology of the plains are: Bhabar - pebble
studded zone with porous beds
The Gangetic plains stretching from eastern Rajasthan through Uttar Pradesh to Bihar and West Bengal are mostly under
agriculture. The large forest area is under tropical dry deciduous forest and the southeastern end of the Gangetic plain
merges with the littoral and mangroves regions of the Sunderbans.

The Coastal Region

The natural vegetation consists of mangroves. Animal species include dugong, dolphins, crocodiles and avifauna. There
are 26 species of fresh water turtles and tortoises in India and 5
species of marine turtles, which inhabit and feed in coastal waters and lay their eggs on beaches. Tortoise live and breed
mainly on the land. The highest tiger population is found in the Sunderbans along the east coast adjoining the Bay
INDIAN BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
The Indian biodiversity hotspot refers to one of the world's 36 designated biodiversity hotspots, known as the Western
Ghats and Sri Lanka hotspot. This hotspot encompasses the Western Ghats mountain range along the western coast of
India and the island nation of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity hotspots are regions with exceptional levels of species richness
and a high degree of endemism (species found nowhere else), but they are also facing significant threats due to human
activities.
The Western Ghats are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and are recognized for their immense biological diversity and
unique ecosystems. The hotspot includes a range of habitat types, including tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf
forests, grasslands, wetlands, and more. It's home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are found
only in this region.
The Indian biodiversity hotspot is characterized by several notable features:
1. Species Richness: The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka hotspot hosts a diverse range of flora and fauna, with a large
number of species found within relatively small areas. The region is home to a multitude of plant species, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
2. Endemism: This hotspot is known for its high levels of endemism, meaning many species are unique to this region
and are not found anywhere else on Earth. This includes a variety of endemic species of plants, animals, and insects.
3. Threats: The biodiversity of the Indian hotspot is under significant threat from activities such as deforestation, habitat
loss due to agriculture and urbanization, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. These factors put pressure on
the unique ecosystems and species that make this region so valuable in terms of biodiversity.
4. Conservation Efforts: Various conservation organizations, governmental agencies, and local communities are working
to protect and conserve the biodiversity of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka hotspot. Initiatives include creating protected
areas, implementing sustainable land-use practices, and raising awareness about the importance of this hotspot.
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It's important to note that biodiversity hotspots are critical areas for global conservation efforts, as they hold a
disproportionately high percentage of the Earth's biodiversity. Protecting and preserving these regions can have a
significant impact on global biodiversity conservation.
GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
Around the world, 35 areas qualify as hotspots. They represent just 2.3% of Earth's land surface, but they support more
than half of the world's plant species as endemics i.e., species found no place else and nearly 43% of bird, mammal,
reptile and amphibian species as endemics.
A global biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that contains a significant concentration of Earth's biodiversity
but is also facing severe threats due to human activities. These hotspots are identified based on the number of species
they contain and the level of endemism (species found nowhere else) present within their boundaries. Conservationists
and scientists have identified these hotspots as priority areas for conservation efforts due to the high risk of species
extinctions and ecosystem degradation.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was introduced by Dr. Norman Myers in 1988 and later refined with the support of
the nonprofit organization Conservation International (CI). To be recognized as a biodiversity hotspot, an area must
meet two main criteria:
1. Species Richness: The hotspot must have a high number of plant species (typically more than 1,500) as endemism,
meaning a significant portion of these species are found only in that particular area.
2. Threats: The hotspot must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat due to human activities, or it must be
experiencing habitat loss at an accelerated rate. This indicates that the hotspot is under significant threat.
As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, there are 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots around the world.
Some of these hotspots include the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka hotspot in India, the Atlantic Forest hotspot in South
America, the Cape Floristic Region hotspot in South Africa, and the Indo-Burma hotspot in Southeast Asia, among
others.
Conservation efforts in biodiversity hotspots focus on protecting and restoring habitats, preventing species extinctions,
and supporting sustainable development to reduce the negative impact of human activities. These areas are considered
crucial for global biodiversity preservation because they represent a substantial portion of the Earth's species diversity
and often harbor unique and specialized ecosystems. However, the status of biodiversity hotspots may change over time
due to evolving ecological conditions and conservation efforts
ENDANGERED AND ENDAMIC SPICIES IN INDIA
As of my last update in September 2021, India is home to a diverse range of endangered and endemic species due to its
varied climatic and geographical conditions. Keep in mind that the status of species can change over time due to
conservation efforts, habitat changes, and other factors. Here are a few examples of endangered and endemic species
found in India:

Endemic Species:
Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris): The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and is found primarily in Indian
forests. It is endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus): The Indian peafowl, also known as the peacock, is the national bird of India. It is
endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica): The Asiatic lion is a critically endangered species that is found in the Gir Forest
National Park in Gujarat, India. It is one of the last remaining populations of wild Asiatic lions.
Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius): The Nilgiri tahr is a mountain ungulate found in the Western Ghats of India. It is
a symbol of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and is endemic to this region.

Endangered Species:
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Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus): The Indian elephant is listed as endangered due to habitat loss, human-
wildlife conflict, and poaching for ivory.
Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia): The snow leopard is found in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas and is
endangered due to poaching and habitat fragmentation.
Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica): The Ganges river dolphin is a freshwater dolphin species found
in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna river systems. It is endangered due to pollution, habitat degradation, and
accidental entanglement in fishing gear.
Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps): The Great Indian Bustard is a critically endangered bird species found in
grasslands and deserts. It is threatened by habitat loss and hunting.
Vultures (Various Species): Several vulture species in India, such as the Indian vulture, have faced steep declines due to
the use of diclofenac, a veterinary drug, which is toxic to them.
Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis): The Indian rhinoceros, also known as the greater one-horned rhinoceros, is
endangered due to habitat loss and poaching.
Conservation efforts are ongoing to protect these species and their habitats. Various governmental and non-governmental
organizations are working to prevent their decline through measures such as habitat preservation, anti-poaching efforts,
and community involvement in conservation initiatives.
INDIAN BIODIVERSITY HOT SPOTS
There are 3 biodiversity hot spots present in India. They are:
1. The Easter Himalayas (Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Eastern Nepal]
2. Indo-Burma and [Purvanchal Hills, Arakan Yoma, Eastem Bangladesh)
3. The Westem Ghats and Sri Lanka Indo-Burma Region
a) The Indo-Burma region encompasses several countries.
b) it is spread out from Eastern Bangladesh to Malaysia and includes North-Eastern India south of Brahmaputra river,
Myanmar, the southern part of China's Yunnan province, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Cambodia, Vietnam and
Thailand.
c) The Indo-Burma region is spread over 2 million sq. km of tropical Asia. d) Since this hotspot is spread over such a
large area and across several major landforms a wide diversity of climate and habitat patterns in this region)
Biodiversity of Indo-Burma Region
a) Much of this region has been deteriorating rapidly in the past few decades.
b) This region is home to several primate species such as monkeys, langurs and gibbons with populations numbering
only in the hundreds.
c) Many of the species, especially some freshwater turtle species, are endemic.
d) Almost 1,300 bird species exist in this region including the threatened white-eared night-heron [Endangered], the
grey-crowned crocias (Endangered], and the orange-necked partridge [Near Threatened].
e) It is estimated that there are about 13,500 plant species in this hotspot, with over half of them endemic. Ginger, for
example, is native to this region.)
The Eastern Himalayas
a) The Eastern Himalayas is the region encompassing Bhutan, northeastem India, and southem, central, and eastern
Nepal.
b) The abrupt rise of the Himalayan Mountains from less than 500 meters to more than 8,000 meters results in a diversity
of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broad leat forests along the foothills to temperate
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broad leaf forests in the mid hills, mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and alpine meadows above the
tree line
Biodiversity of the Eastern Himalayas
The Eastern Himalayan hotspot has nearly 163 globally threatened species (both flora and fauna) including the One-
homed Rhinoceros [Vulnerable], the Wild Asian Water buffalo [Endangered]
b) There are an estimated 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas, of which one-third are endemic and found nowhere
else in the world.
c). A few threatened endemic bird species such as the Himalayan Quail, Cheer pheasant, Weste tragopan are found here,
along with some of Asia's largest and most endangered birds such as the Himalayan vulture and White-bellied heron.
d) Mammals like the Golden langur, The Himalayan tahr, the pygmy hog. Lang-urs, Asiatic wild dogs sloth bears, Gaurs,
Muntjac, Sambar, Snow leopard, Black bear, Blue sheep, Takin, the Gangetic dolphin, wild water buffalo, swamp deer
call the Himalayan ranged their home.
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
a) Western Ghats, also known as the "Sahyadri Hills" encompasses the mountain forests in the southwestern parts of
India and highlands of southwestern Sri Lanka. The entire extent of hotspot was originally about 1,82.500 square kms,
but due to tremendous
b) population pressure, now only 12,445 square Km or 6.8% is in pristine condition.
c) The wide variation of rainfall patterns in the Western Ghats, coupled with the region's complexgeography, produces
a great variety of vegetation types.
d) These include scrub forests in the low-lying rainshadow areas and the plains, deciduous and tropical rainforests up to
about 1,500 meters, and a unique mosaic of montane forests and rolling grasslands above 1,500 meters. In Sri Lanka
diversity includes dry evergreen forests to dipterocarpus dominated rainforests to tropical montane cloud forest.
The important populations include Asian elephant, Niligini tahr, Indian tigers, lion tailed macaque All Endangered),
Indian Giant squirrel (Least Concern), etc.