1.

6 Equilibria and the Phase Line 89

Analysis of the model

To analyze solutions of this differential equation, we could use analytic techniques,
since the equation is separable. However, qualitative techniques provide a lot of in-
formation about the solutions with a lot less work. The differential equation is

  
dS S S
= g(S) = k S 1 − −1 ,
dt N M

with 0 < M < N and k > 0. There are three equilibrium points—S = 0, S = M, and
S = N . If 0 < S < M, we have g(S) < 0, so solutions with initial conditions between
0 and M decrease. Similarly, if S > N , g(S) < 0, solutions with initial conditions
larger than N also decrease. For M < S < N , we have g(S) > 0. Consequently,
solutions with initial conditions between M and N increase. Thus we conclude that the
equilibria at 0 and N are sinks, and the equilibrium point at M is a source. The phase
line and graphs of typical solutions are shown in Figure 1.77.

S Figure 1.77
Solutions of the modified logistic
equation
S=N   
dS S S
=k 1− − 1 S,
dt N M
S=M
with various initial conditions.

S=0 t

EXERCISES FOR SECTION 1.6

In Exercises 1–12, sketch the phase lines for the given differential equation. Identify
the equilibrium points as sinks, sources, or nodes.
dy dy dy
1. = 3y(y − 2) 2. = y 2 − 4y − 12 3. = cos y
dt dt dt
dw dw dy 1
4. = w cos w 5. = (1 − w) sin w 6. =
dt dt dt y−2
dv dw dy
7. = −v 2 − 2v − 2 8. = 3w 3 − 12w2 9. = 1 + cos y
dt dt dt
dy dy dw
10. = tan y 11. = y ln |y| 12. = (w 2 −2) arctan w
dt dt dt

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90 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

In Exercises 13–21, a differential equation and various initial conditions are specified.
Sketch the graphs of the solutions satisfying these initial conditions. For each exercise,
put all your graphs on one pair of axes.

13. Equation from Exercise 1; y(0) = 1, y(−2) = −1, y(0) = 3, y(0) = 2.

14. Equation from Exercise 2; y(0) = 1, y(1) = 0, y(0) = 6, y(0) = 5.
15. Equation from Exercise 3; y(0) = 0, y(−1) = 1, y(0) = −π/2, y(0) = π .
16. Equation from Exercise 4; w(0) = 0, w(3) = 1, w(0) = 2, w(0) = −1.
17. Equation from Exercise 5; w(0) = −3/2, w(0) = 1, w(0) = 2, w(0) = 3.
18. Equation from Exercise 6; y(0) = 0, y(1) = 3, y(0) = 2 (trick question).
19. Equation from Exercise 7; v(0) = 0, v(1) = 1, v(0) = 1.
20. Equation from Exercise 8; w(0) = −1, w(0) = 0, w(0) = 3, w(1) = 3.
21. Equation from Exercise 9; y(0) = −π , y(0) = 0, y(0) = π , y(0) = 2π .

In Exercises 22–27, describe the long-term behavior of the solution to the differential
equation
dy
= y 2 − 4y + 2
dt
with the given initial condition.

22. y(0) = −1 23. y(0) = 2 24. y(0) = −2

25. y(0) = −4 26. y(0) = 4 27. y(3) = 1

28. Consider the autonomous equation dy/dt = f (y) where f (y) is continuously dif-
ferentiable, and suppose we know that f (−1) = f (2) = 0.
(a) Describe all the possible behaviors of the solution y(t) that satisfies the initial
condition y(0) = 1.
(b) Suppose also that f (y) > 0 for −1 < y < 2. Describe all the possible behav-
iors of the solution y(t) that satisfies the initial condition y(0) = 1.

In Exercises 29–32, the graph of a function f (y) is given. Sketch the phase line for the
autonomous differential equation dy/dt = f (y).

29. 30.
f (y) f (y)

y y

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 1.6 Equilibria and the Phase Line 91

31. 32.
f (y) f (y)

y
y

In Exercises 33–36, a phase line for an autonomous equation dy/dt = f (y) is shown.
Make a rough sketch of the graph of the corresponding function f (y). (Assume y = 0
is in the middle of the segment shown in each case.)
33. 34. 35. 36.

37. Eight differential equations and four phase lines are given below. Determine the
equation that corresponds to each phase line and state briefly how you know your
choice is correct.
dy   dy dy   dy
(i) = y cos π2 y (ii) = y − y 2 (iii) = |y| sin π2 y (iv) = y3 − y2
dt dt dt dt
dy   dy dy   dy
(v) = cos π2 y (vi) = y 2 − y (vii) = y sin π2 y (viii) = y2 − y3
dt dt dt dt
(a) (b) (c) (d)

y=3

y=2

y=1 y=1 y=1

y=0 y=0 y=0 y=0

y = −1

y = −2

y = −3

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92 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

38. Let f (y) be a continuous function.

(a) Suppose that f (−10) > 0 and f (10) < 0. Show that there is an equilibrium
point for dy/dt = f (y) between y = −10 and y = 10.
(b) Suppose that f (−10) > 0, that f (10) < 0, and that there are finitely many
equilibrium points between y = −10 and y = 10. If y = 1 is a source, show
that dy/dt = f (y) must have at least two sinks between y = −10 and y = 10.
(Can you say where they are located?)
39. Suppose you wish to model a population with a differential equation of the form
d P/dt = f (P), where P(t) is the population at time t. Experiments have been
performed on the population that give the following information:
• The only equilibrium points in the population are P = 0, P = 10, and P = 50.
• If the population is 100, the population decreases.
• If the population is 25, the population increases.
(a) Sketch the possible phase lines for this system for P > 0 (there are two).
(b) Give a rough sketch of the corresponding functions f (P) for each of your
phase lines.
(c) Give a formula for functions f (P) whose graph agrees (qualitatively) with the
rough sketches in part (b) for each of your phase lines.
40. Consider the Ermentrout-Kopell model for the spiking of a neuron
dθ
= 1 − cos θ + (1 + cos θ )I (t)
dt
introduced in Exercise 19 of Section 1.4. Let the input function I (t) be the function
that is constantly −1/3.
(a) Determine the equilibrium points for this input.
(b) Classify these equilibria.
41. Use PhaseLines to describe the phase line for the differential equation
Hacer a mano y verificar con la app. dy
= y2 + a
dt
for various values of the parameter a.
(a) For which values of a is the phase line qualitatively the same?
(b) At which value(s) of a does the phase line undergo a qualitative change?
42. Use PhaseLines to describe the phase line for the differential equation
dy
= ay − y 3
dt
for various values of the parameter a.
(a) For which values of a is the phase line qualitatively the same?
(b) At which value(s) of a does the phase line undergo a qualitative change?

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 1.6 Equilibria and the Phase Line 93

43. Suppose dy/dt = f (y) has an equilibrium point at y = y0 and

(a) f  (y0 ) = 0, f  (y0 ) = 0, and f  (y0 ) > 0: Is y0 a source, a sink, or a node?
(b) f  (y0 ) = 0, f  (y0 ) = 0, and f  (y0 ) < 0: Is y0 a source, a sink, or a node?
(c) f  (y0 ) = 0 and f  (y0 ) > 0: Is y0 a source, a sink, or a node?

44. (a) Sketch the phase line for the differential equation
dy 1
= ,
dt (y − 2)(y + 1)
and discuss the behavior of the solution with initial condition y(0) = 1/2.
(b) Apply analytic techniques to the initial-value problem
dy 1 1
= , y(0) = ,
dt (y − 2)(y + 1) 2
and compare your results with your discussion in part (a).
The proper scheduling of city bus and train systems is a difficult problem, which the
City of Boston seems to ignore. It is not uncommon in Boston to wait a long time for
the trolley, only to have several trolleys arrive simultaneously. In Exercises 45–48, we
study a very simple model of the behavior of trolley cars.
Consider two trolley cars on the same track moving toward downtown Boston.
Let x(t) denote the amount of time between the two cars at time t. That is, if the first
car arrives at a particular stop at time t, then the other car will arrive at the stop x(t)
time units later. We assume that the first car runs at a constant average speed (not a bad
assumption for a car running before rush hour). We wish to model how x(t) changes as
t increases.
We first assume that, if no passengers are waiting for the second train, then it has
an average speed greater than the first train and hence will catch up to the first train.
Thus the time between trains x(t) will decrease at a constant rate if no people are wait-
ing for the second train. However, the speed of the second train decreases if there are
passengers to pick up. We assume that the speed of the second train decreases at a rate
proportional to the number of passengers it picks up and that the passengers arrive at
the stops at a constant rate. Hence the number of passengers waiting for the second
train is proportional to the time between trains.

45. Let x(t) be the amount of time between two consecutive trolley cars as described
above. We claim that a reasonable model for x(t) is
dx
= βx − α.
dt
Which term represents the rate of decrease of the time between the trains if no people
are waiting, and which term represents the effect of the people waiting for the second
train? (Justify your answer.) Should the parameters α and β be positive or negative?

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94 CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

46. For the model in Exercise 45:

(a) Find the equilibrium points.
(b) Classify the equilibrium points (source, sink, or node).
(c) Sketch the phase line.
(d) Sketch the graphs of solutions.
(e) Find the formula for the general solution.
47. Use the model in Exercise 45 to predict what happens to x(t) as t increases. Include
the effect of the initial value x(0). Is it possible for the trains to run at regular in-
tervals? Given that there are always slight variations in the number of passengers
waiting at each stop, is it likely that a regular interval can be maintained? Write two
brief reports (of one or two paragraphs):
(a) The first report is addressed to other students in the class (hence you may use
technical language we use in class).
(b) The second report is addressed to the Mayor of Boston.
48. Assuming the model for x(t) from Exercise 45, what happens if trolley cars leave
the station at fixed intervals? Can you use the model to predict what will happen for
a whole sequence of trains? Will it help to increase the number of trains so that they
leave the station more frequently?

1.7 BIFURCATIONS

Equations with Parameters

In many of our models, a common feature is the presence of parameters along with
the other variables involved. Parameters are quantities that do not depend on time (the
independent variable) but that assume different values depending on the specifics of the
application at hand. For instance, the exponential growth model for population
dP
= kP
dt
contains the parameter k, the constant of proportionality for the growth rate d P/dt ver-
sus the total population P. One of the underlying assumptions of this model is that the
growth rate d P/dt is a constant multiple of the total population. However, when we
apply this model to different species, we expect to use different values for the constant
of proportionality. For example, the value of k that we would use for rabbits would be
significantly larger than the value for humans.
How the behavior of solutions changes as the parameters vary is a particularly
important aspect of the study of differential equations. For some models, we must study
the behavior of solutions for all parameter values in a certain range. As an example,
consider a model for the motion of a bridge over time. In this case, the number of cars
on the bridge may affect how the bridge reacts to wind, and a model for the motion of
the bridge might contain a parameter for the total mass of the cars on the bridge. In
that case, we would want to know the behavior of various solutions of the model for a
variety of different values of the mass.

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760 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1

Hints and Answers for Section 1.5

1. y(t) < 3 for all t in the domain of y(t) (c) The differential equation is not defined at t = 0.
√
3. −t 2 < y(t) < t + 2 for all t 13. (a) y(t) = 1/ 1 − 2t
5. y(t) > 3 for all t in the domain of y(t), y(t) → 3 (b) t < 1/2
as t decreases, and y(t) increases without bound as (c) y(t) → ∞ as t → 1/2−
t increases. 15. (a) y(t) = (3t + 27)1/3 − 2
7. 1 < y(t) < 3 for all t, y(t) → 1 as t → ∞, and (b) t > −9 (note that the differential equation is not
y(t) → 3 as t → −∞. defined at y = −2).
9. (a) Substitute each solution into the differential (c) y(t) → ∞ as t → ∞; y(t) → −2 as t → −9+ .
equation and compute. 17. (a) Hint: Differentiate y1 (t) at t0 and remember that
(b) Use the Existence and Uniqueness Theorem. y1 (t) is a solution.
11. (a) If y1 (t) = 0, then dy1 /dt = 0 = y1 /t 2 . (b) Hint: Remember that the equation is au-
tonomous.
(b) For any real number c, let
⎧ (c) Hint: Look at the slope field, but check by sub-
⎨ 0, for t ≤ 0; stituting y2 (t) into both sides of the differential
yc (t) = equation.
⎩ ce−1/t , for t > 0.
(d) Hint: Uniqueness Theorem
The function yc (t) satisfies the equation for all (e) Hint: Do the same four steps again.
t  = 0. It is 0 for t < 0 and nonzero for t > 0.

Hints and Answers for Section 1.6

1. The point y = 0 is a sink, and the point y = 2 is a 5. The sources are w = 0, −2π , −4π . . . and π , 3π,
source. 5π . . . . The sinks are w = 1, w = −π , −3π ,
. . . and w = 2π , 4π , 6π , . . . .

y=2 source
w=π source

y=0 sink
w=1 sink
w=0 source
3. The sinks are . . . −3π/2, π/2, 5π/2, . . . , and the
sources are . . . −π/2, 3π/2, 7π/2, . . . .
7. There are no equilibrium points.

y = 3π/2 source

y = π/2 sink

y = −π/2 source

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 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1 761

9. The equilibria are y = nπ, for n = ±1, ±3, . . . , 17. w

and they are all nodes. π

1
t
y=π node −3 3

y = −π −π
node

y = −3π node
19. v
5

11. The equation is not defined at y = 0, but near y = 0 t

the solutions act as if they are going toward a sink −1 1
at y = 0.
−5

y=1 source
21. y
y=0
2π
y = −1 source π

t
−4 −2 2 4
−π
13. y −2π

3
2
1
23. Since the initial condition, y(0) = 2, is between
the roots of y 2 − 4y + 2, the solution y(t) to
√the
t
−2 −1 −1 1 2 initial-value
√ problem is always between 2 − √ 2 and
2 + 2. The limit of y(t) as t → ∞√is 2 − 2 and
the limit of y(t) as t → −∞ is 2 + 2.
15. y 25. The √solution remains below the equilibrium point
3π/2 2 − 2 and is increasing for all t for which√it is
defined. The limit of y(t) as t → ∞ is 2 − 2.
π
27. Since the initial condition, y(3) = 1, is between
π/2 the roots of y 2 − 4y + 2, the solution y(t) to
√the
initial-value
√ problem is always between 2 − √ 2 and
t
−4 −2 2 4 2 + 2. The limit of y(t) as t → ∞√is 2 − 2 and
−π/2 the limit of y(t) as t → −∞ is 2 + 2.

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762 Hints and Answers for Chapter 1

29. 31. (b)

f (P)

0 P
10 50

33. The following graph is one of many possible f (P)

answers.
f (y)
0 P
10 50

(c) The functions f (P) = P(P − 10)(50 − P) and

f (P) = P(P − 10)2 (50 − P) are two
possibilities.
35. The following graph is one of many possible
answers. 41. Hint: The equilibrium points occur at solutions of
y 2 + a = 0, so you should first study the solutions
f (y) of this equation for different values of a.
43. (a) Source
(b) Sink
y (c) Node
45. The term βx is the effect of the passengers, and −α
is the term that gives the rate of decrease of the time
between trains when no passengers are present.
Both α and β should be positive.
37. (a) viii. (b) vi. (c) i. (d) vii.
47. The only equilibrium point, x = α/β, is a source.
39. (a) If the initial gap between trains is too large, then x
P = 50 will increase without bound. If it is too small, x de-
creases toward zero. It is very unlikely that the time
between trains will remain constant for long.
P = 10
P=0

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