Graduate Texts in Mathematics 84

Editorial Board
s. Axler F.W. Gehring K.A. Ribet

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Graduate Texts in Mathematics
TAKEUTtlZARING. Introduction to 34 SPITZER. Principles of Random Walk.
Axiomatic Set Theory. 2nd ed. 2nd ed.
2 OXTOBY. Measure and Category. 2nd ed. 35 ALEXANDERIWERMER. Several Complex
3 SCHAEFER. Topological Vector Spaces. Variables and Banach Algebras. 3rd ed.
2nd ed. 36 KELLEy!NAMIOKA et al. Linear
4 HILTON/STAMMBACH. A Course in Topological Spaces.
Homological Algebra. 2nd ed. 37 MONK. Mathematical Logic.
5 MAC LANE. Categories for the Working 38 GRAUERT/FRlTZSCHE. Several Complex
Mathematician. 2nd ed. Variables.
6 HUGHES/PIPER. Projective Planes. 39 ARVESON. An Invitation to C*-Algebras.
7 J.-P. SERRE. A Course in Arithmetic. 40 KEMENy/SNELLlKNAPP. Denumerable
8 TAKEUTtlZARlNG. Axiomatic Set Theory. Markov Chains. 2nd ed.
9 HUMPHREYS. Introduction to Lie Algebras 41 ApOSTOL. Modular Functions and
and Representation Theory. DirichletSeries in Number Theory.
10 COHEN. A Course in Simple Homotopy 2nd ed.
Theory. 42 J.-P. SERRE. Linear Representations of
II CONWAY. Functions of One Complex Finite Groups.
Variable I. 2nd ed. 43 GILLMAN/JERISON. Rings of Continuous
12 BEALS. Advanced Mathematical Analysis. Functions.
13 ANDERSON/FuLLER. Rings and Categories 44 KENDIG. ElementaryAlgebraic Geometry.
of Modules. 2nd ed. 45 LoEVE. Probability Theory I. 4th ed,
14 GOLUBITSKy/GUILLEMIN. Stable Mappings 46 LOEVE. Probability Theory [I. 4th ed.
and Their Singularities. 47 MOISE. GeometricTopologyin
15 BERBERIAN. Lectures in Functional Dimensions 2 and 3.
Analysis and Operator Theory. 48 SACHslWu. General Relativity for
[6 WINTER. The Structure of Fields. Mathematicians.
17 ROSENBLATT. Random Processes. 2nd ed. 49 GRUENBERoIWEIR. Linear Geometry.
18 HALMOS. Measure Theory. 2nd ed.
19 HALMOS. A HilbertSpace Problem Book. 50 EDWARDS. Fermat's Last Theorem.
2nd ed. 51 KuNGENBERG. A Course in Differential
20 HUSEMOLLER. Fibre Bundles. 3rd ed. Geometry.
21 HUMPHREYS. Linear Algebraic Groups. 52 HARTSHORNE. Algebraic Geometry.
22 BARNEs/MACK. An Algebraic Introduction 53 MANIN. A Course in Mathematical Logic.
to Mathematical Logic . 54 GRAVER/WATKINS. Combinatorics with
23 GREUB. LinearAlgebra. 4th ed. Emphasis on the Theoryof Graphs.
24 HOLMES. Geometric Functional Analysis 55 BROWN/PEARCY. Introduction to Operator
and Its Applications. Theory I: Elementsof Functional Analysis.
25 HEWITT/STROMBERG. Real and Abstract 56 MASSEY. Algebraic Topology: An
Analysis. Introduction.
26 MANES. Algebraic Theories. 57 CROWELUFox. Introduction to Knot
27 KELLEY. General Topology. Theory.
28 ZARISKJ/SAMUEL. Commutative Algebra. 58 KOBLITZ. p-adic Numbers.p-adic
Vol.I. Analysis, and Zeta-Functions. 2nd ed.
29 ZARISKJ/SAMUEC Commutative Algebra. 59 LANG. Cyclotomic Fields.
Vol.II. 60 ARNOLD. Mathematical Methods in
30 JACOBSON. Lecturesin Abstract Algebra I. Classical Mechanics. 2nd ed.
Basic Concepts. 61 WHITEHEAD. Elementsof Homotopy
31 JACOBSON. l,ectures in Abstract Algebra Il. Theory.
LinearAlgebra. 62 KARGAPOLOvIMERLZJAKOV. Fundamentals
32 JACOBSON Lectures in Abstract Algebra of the Theoryof Groups.
U1. Theory of Fields and Galois Theory. 63 BOLLOBAS. Graph Theory:
33 HIRSCH. Differential Topology.
(continued after index)
Kenneth Ireland
Michael Rosen

A Classical Introduction to
Modern Number Theory

Second Edition

Springer
Kenneth Ireland Michael Rosen
(deceased) Department of Mathematics
Brown University
Providence, RI 02912
USA

Editorial Board
S. Axler F. W. Gehring K.A. Ribet
Mathematics Department Mathematics Department Department of Mathematics
San Francisco State East Hall University of California
University University of Michigan at Berkeley
San Francisco, CA 94132 Ann Arbor, MI 48109 Berkeley, CA 94720-3840
USA USA USA

With I illustration.

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 11-01, 11-02

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ireland, Kenneth F .
A classical introduction to modem number theory / Kenneth
Ireland , Michael Rosen.-2nd ed .
p. cm .-(Graduate texts in mathematics; 84)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Number theory. I. Rosen, Michael I. II. Title. Ill. Series .
QA241.1667 1990
5l2.7-dc20
90-9848
Printed on acid-free paper.
"A Classical Introduction to Modem Number Theory" is a revised and expanded version of
"Elements of Number Theory" published in 1972 by Bogden and Quigley, Inc. , Publishers.

©1972, 1982, 1990 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. in 1990.

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the
written permission of the publisher Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, except for brief
excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any
form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or
by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trnde names. trademarks, etc., in this publication ,
even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names,
as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used
freely by anyone.

9 8 7
Springer-Verlag is a part of Springer Science+Business Media
ISBN 978-1-4419-3094-1 ISBN 978-1-4757-2103-4 (eBook)
DOI I0.1007/978-1-4757-2103-4
Preface to the Second Edition

It is now 10 years since the first edit ion of this book appeared in 1980. The
intervening decade has seen tremendous advances take place in mathe-
matic s generally, and in number theory in particular. It would seem desir-
able to treat some of these advances , and with the addition of two new
chapter s, we are able to cover some portion of this new material.
As examples of important new work that we have not included, we
mention the following two results:
(I) The first case of Fermat's last theorem is true for infinitely many
prime exponents p. This means that, for infinitely many primes p , the
equ ation x P + yP = zP has no solutions in nonzero integers with p r
.ryz. Th is was proved by L.M. Adelman and D.R. Heath-Brown and
independently by E. Fouvry . An overview of the proof is given by
Heath-Brown in the Mathematical Intellig encer (Vol. 7, No.6, 1985).
(2) Let PI , P2, and P3 be three distinct primes . Then at least one of them is
a primitive root for infinitely many primes q. Recall that E. Artin
conjectured that, if a E 7L is not 0, I, - I, or a square, then there are
infinitely many primes q such that a is a primitive root modulo q. The
theorem we have stated was proved in a weaker form by R. Gupta and
M.R. Murty, and then strengthened by the combined efforts of R.
Gupta, M.R . Murty, V.K . Murty , and D.R. Heath-Brown. An exposi-
tion of this result, as well as an analogue on elliptic curves, is given by
M.R . Murty in the Mathematic:allntelligencer (Vol. 10, No.4, 1988).
The new material that we have added falls principally within the frame-
work of arithmetic geometry. In Chapter 19 we give a complete proof of
L.J. Mord ell's fundamental theorem , which asserts that the group of ra-
tional points on an elliptic curve, defined over the rational numbers, is
finitely generated . In keeping with the spirit of the book, the proof (due in
essence to A. Weil) is elementary. It makes no use of cohomology groups
or any other advanced machinery . It does use finiteness of class number
and a weak form of the Dirichlet unit theorem; both results are proved in
the text.
The second new chapter, Chapter 20, is an overview of G. Faltings's
proof of the Mordell conjecture and recent progress on the arithmetic of

v
vi Preface to the Second Edition

elliptic curves, especially the work of B. Gross , V.A. Kolyvagin , K.

Rubin , and D. Zagier. Some of this work has surprising applications to
other areas of number theory. We discuss one application to Fermat's last
theorem , due to G. Frey, J.P. Serre, and K. Ribet. Another important
application is the solution of an old problem due to K .F . Gauss about
class numbers of imaginary quadratic number fields. This comes about by
combining the work of B. Gross a nd D. Zagier with a result of D. Gold-
feld. This chapter contains few proofs. Its main purpose is to give an
informative survey in the hope that the reader will be inspired to learn the
background necessary to a better understanding and appreciation of these
important new developments.
The rest of the book is essentially unchanged . An attempt has been
made to correct errors and misprints. In an effort to keep confusion to a
minimum, we have not changed the bibliography at the end of the book .
New references for the two new chapters, Chapters 19 and 20, will be
found at the end of those chapters . We would like to thank Tom Nakahara
and others for submitting a list of misprints from the first edition. Also, we
thank Linda Guthrie for typing portions of the final chapters.
We have both been very pleased with the warm reception that the first
edition of this book received . It is our hope that the new edition will
continue to entice readers to delve deeper into the mysteries of this an-
cient, beautiful, and still vital subject.

February 1990 Kenneth Ireland

Michael Rosen

Addendum to Second Edition . Second Corrected Printing

The second printing of the second edit ion is unchanged except for correc-
tion s and the addition of a few clarifying comments. I would like to thank
K. Conrad, M. Jastrzebsk i, F. Lemmermeyer and others who took the
trouble to send us detailed lists of misprints.

No vember 1992 Michael Rosen

Notes for the Second Edition, Fifth Corrected Printing

In 1995 Andrew Wiles published a paper in the Annals of Mathematics

which proved the Taniyarna-Shimura-Weil conjecture is true for semi-stable
elliptic curves over the rational numbers. Together with earlier results, prin-
cipally the theorem of Ken Ribet mentioned on page 347, this proved
Fermat's Last Theorem. The most famous conjecture in elementary number
theory is finally a theorem!!!

April 1998 Michael Rosen

Preface

This book is a revised and greatly expanded version of our book Elements of
Number Theory published in 1972. As with the first book the primary audience
we envisage consists of upper level undergraduate mathematics majors and
graduate students. We have assumed some familiarity with the material in a
standard undergraduate course in abstract algebra. A large portion of
Chapters 1-11 can be read even without such background with the aid of a
small amount of supplementary reading. The later chapters assume some
knowledge of Galois theory, and in Chapters 16 and 18 an acquaintance with
the theory of complex variables is necessary.
Number theory is an ancient subject and its content is vast. Any intro-
ductory book must, of necessity, make a very limited selection from the
fascinating array of possible topics. Our focus is on topics which point in the
direction of algebraic number theory and arithmetic algebraic geometry. Bya
careful selection of subject matter we have found it possible to exposit some
rather advanced material without requiring very much in the way of technical
background. Most of this material is classical in the sense that is was dis-
covered during the nineteenth century and earlier, but it is also modern
because it is intimately related to important research going on at the present
time.
In Chapters 1-5 we discuss prime numbers, unique factorization, arith-
metic functions, congruences, and the law of quadratic reciprocity. Very little
is demanded in the way of background. Nevertheless it is remarkable how a
modicum of group and ring theory introduces unexpected order into the
subject. For example, many scattered results turn out to be parts of the answer
to a natural question: What is the structure of the group of units in the ring
7L/n7L ?
Reciprocity laws constitute a major theme in the later chapters. The law
of quadratic reciprocity, beautiful in itself, is the first of a series of reciprocity
laws which lead ultimately to the Artin reciprocity law. one of the major
achievements of algebraic number theory. We travel along the road beyond
quadratic reciprocity by formulating and proving the laws of cubic and
biquadratic reciprocity. In preparation for this many of the techniques of
algebraic number theory are introduced; algebraic numbers and algebraic
integers, finite fields, splitting of primes, etc. Another important tool in this

vii
 viii Preface

investigation (and in others!) is the theory of Gauss and Jacobi sums. This
material is covered in Chapters 6-9. Later in the book we formulate and prove
the more advanced partial generalization of these results, the Eisenstein
reciprocity law.
A second major theme is that of diophantine equations, at first over finite
fields and later over the rational numbers. The d iscussion of polynomial
equations over finite fields is begun in Chapters 8 and 10 and culminates in
Chapter II with an exposition of a portion of the paper" Number of solutions
of equations over finite fields " by A. Weil. This paper, published in 1948, has
been very influential in the recent development of both algebraic geometry
and number theory. In Chapters 17 and 18we consider diophantine equations
over the rational numbers. Chapter 17 covers many standard topics from
sums of squares to Fermat's Last Theorem. However, because of material
developed earlier we are able to treat a number of these topics from a novel
point of view. Chapter 18 is about the arithmetic of elliptic curves. It dif-
fers from the earlier chapters in that it is primarily an overview with many
definitions and statements of results but few proofs. Nevertheless, by con-
centrating on some important special cases we hope to convey to the reader
something of the beauty of the accomplishments in this area where much work
is being done and many mysteries remain .
The third, and final, major theme is that of zeta functions. In Chapter 11 we
discuss the congruence zeta function associated to varieties defined over finite
fields. In Chapter 16 we discuss the Riemann zeta function and the Dirichlet
L-functions. In Chapter 18 we discuss the zeta function associated to an
algebraic curve defined over the rational numbers and Heeke L-functions.
Zeta funct ions compress a large amount of arithmetic information into a
single function and make possible the application of the powerful methods of
analysis to number theory.
Throughout the book we place considerable emphasis on the history of
.our subject. In the notes at the end of each chapter we give a brief historical
sketch and provide references to the literature. The bibliography is extensive
containing many items both classical and modern. Our aim has been to
provide the reader with a wealth of material for further study.
There are many exercises, some routine, some challenging. Some of the
exercises supplement the text by providing a step by step guide through the
proofs of important results. In the later chapters a number of exercises have
been adapted from results which have appeared in the recent literature. We
hope that working through the exercises will be a source of enjoyment as well
as instruction.
In the writing of this book we have been helped immensely by the interest
a nd assistance of many mathematical friends and acquaintances. We thank
them all. In particular we would like to thank' Henry Pohlmann who insisted
we follow certain themes to their logical conclusion, David Goss for allowing
us to incorporate some of his work into Chapter 16, and Oisin McGuiness
for his invaluable assistance in the preparation of Chapter 18. We would
Preface ix

like to thank Dale Cavanaugh, Janice Phillips, and especially Carol Ferreira,
for their patience and expertise in typing large portions of the manuscript.
Finally, the second author wishes to express his gratitude to the Vaughn
Foundation Fund for financial support during his sabbatical year in
Berkeley , California (1979/80).

July 25, 1981 Kenneth Ireland

Michael Rosen
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition v

Preface vii

CHAPTER 1
Unique Factorization 1
§I Unique Factorization in 7l. I
§2 Unique Factorization in k[x] 6
§3 Unique Factorization in a Principal Ideal Domain 8
§4 The Rings 7l.[i ) a nd 7l. [w) . 12

CHAPTER 2
Applications of Unique Factorization 17
§ I Infinitely Many Primes in 7l. 17
§2 Some Arithmetic Functions 18
§3 L lip Diverges 21
§4 The Growth of 1T(X) 22

CHAPTER 3
Congruence 28
§ I Elementary Observations 28
§2 Congruence in 7l. 29
§3 The Congruence ax == b(m) 31
§4 The Chinese Remainder Theorem 34

CHAPTER 4
The Structure of U("l./n"l.) 39
§ I Primitive Roots and the Group Structure of U(71.1n71.) 39
§2 nth Power Residues 45

CHAPTER 5
Quadratic Reciprocity 50
§ I Quadratic Residues 50
§2 Law of Quadratic Reciprocity 53
§3 A Proof of the Law of Quadratic Reciprocity 58

xi
xii Contents

CHAPTER 6
Quadratic Gauss Sums 66
§ I Algebraic Numbers and Algebraic Integers 66
§2 The Quadratic Character of 2 69
§3 Quadratic Gauss Sum s 70
§4 The Sign of the Quadratic Gauss Sum 73

CHAPTER 7
Finite Fields 79
§ I Basic Properties of Finite Fields 79
§2 The Existence of Finite Fields 83
§3 An Application to Quadratic Residues 85

CHAPTER 8
Gauss and Jacobi Sums 88
§ I Multipl icative Characters 88
§2 Gauss Sums 91.
§3 Jacobi Sums 92
§4 The Equation x" + y" = I in Fp 97
§5 More on Jacobi Sums 98
§6 Applications 101
§7 A General Theorem 102

CHAPTER 9
Cubic and Biquadratic Reciprocity 108
§I The Ring l[w] 109
§2 Residue Class Rings III
§3 Cubic Residue Character 112
§4 Proof of the Law of Cubic Reciprocity 115
§5 Another Proof of the Law of Cubic Reciprocity 117
§6 The Cubic Character of 2 118
§7 Biquadratic Reciprocity : Preliminaries 119
§8 The Quartic Residue Symbol 121
§9 The Law of Biquadratic Reciprocity 123
§ 10 Rational Biquadratic Reciprocity 127
§ II The Constructibility of Regular Polygons 130
§ 12 Cub ic Gauss Sums and the Problem of Kummer 131

CHAPTER to
Equations over Finite Fields 138
§I Affine Space, Projective Space, and Polynomials 138
§2 Chevalley 's Theorem 143
§3 Gauss and Jacobi Sums over Finite Fields 145
Contents xiii

CHAPTER I [
The Zeta Function 151
§I The Zeta Function of a Projective Hypersurface 151
§2 Trace and Norm in Finite Fields 158
§3 The Rationality of the Zeta Function Associated to
aoxo + a\xj + .. . + anx': 161
§4 A Proof of the Hasse-Davenport Relation 163
§5 The Last Entry 166

CHAPTER 12
Algebraic Number Theory 172
§ I Algebraic Preliminaries 172
§2 Unique Factorization in Algebraic Number Fields 174
§3 Ramification and Degree 181

CHAPTER 13
Quadratic and Cyclotomic Fields 188
§I Quadratic Number Fields 188
§2 Cyclotomic Fields 193
§3 Quadratic Reciprocity Revisited 199

CHAPTER 14
The Stickelberger Relation and the Eisenstein Reciprocity Law 203
§ I The Norm of an Ideal 203
§2 The Power Residue Symbol 204
§3 The Stickel berger Relation 207
§4 The Proof of the Stickelberger Relation 209
§5 The Proof of the Eisenstein Reciprocity Law 215
§6 Three Applications 220

CHAPTER 15
Bernoulli Numbers 228
§ I Bernoulli Numbers ; Definitions and Applications 228
§2 Congruences Involving Bernoulli Numbers 234
§3 Herbrand's Theorem 241

CHAPTER 16
Dirichlet L-functions 249
§ I The Zeta Function 249
§2 A Special Case 251
§3 Dirichlet Characters 253
§4 Dirichlet L-functions 255
§5 The Key Step 257
§6 Evaluating Lis, X) at Negative Integers 261
xiv Contents

CHAPTER 17
Diophantine Equations 269
§ I Generalities and First Examples 269
§2 The Method of Descent 271
§3 Legendre's Theorem 272
§4 Sophie Germain 's Theorem 275
§5 Pelt's Equation 276
§6 Sums of Two Squares 278
§7 Sums of Four Squares 280
§8 The Fermat Equation: Exponent 3 284
§9 Cubic Curves with Infinitely Many Rational Points 287
§1O The Equation y 2 = xl + k 288
§ II The First Case of Fermat's Conjecture for Regular Exponent 290
§ 12 Diophantine Equations and Diophantine Approximation 292
CHAPTER 18
Elliptic Curves 297
§ I Generalities 297
§2 Local and Global Zeta Functions of an Elliptic Curve 301
§3 y2 = xl + D, the Local Case 304
§4 y 2 = Xl - Dx, the Local Case 306
§5 Heeke L-functions 307
§6 y2 = x l - Dx , the Global Case 310
§7 y 2 = Xl + D, the Global Case 312
§8 Final Remarks 314

CHAPTER 19
The Mordell-Weil Theorem 319
§ I The Addition Law and Several Identities 320
§2 The Group EI2E 323
§3 The Weak Dirichlet Unit Theorem 326
§4 The Weak Mordell-Weil Theorem 328
§5 The Descent Argument 330

CHAPTER 20
New Progress in Arithmetic Geometry 339
§ I The Mordell Conjecture 340
§2 Elliptic Curves 343
§3 Modular Curves 345
§4 Heights and the Height Regulator 348
§5 New Results on the Birch-Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture 353
§6 Applications to Gauss's Class Number Conjecture 358

Selected Hints for the Exercises 367

Bibliography 375
Index 385