UNIT ONE

COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the meaning of communication.
 Understand how the communication process works.
 Comprehend the complex and dynamic nature of communication process

UNIT INTRODUCTION

Most people believe they know what communication is. Students asked to define
communication usually have no trouble describing its various aspects. Managers asked to
point out a "communication problem" in their organization are quick to find one-or
several.

Communication occurs in innumerable ways. It may take place face-to-face or on the

telephone; by means of interviews, meetings, conferences, classes, or lectures; through
letters, reports, or memoranda; through the use of computers, movies, television,
billboards, newspapers, magazines, or other media. The types and means of
communication, in fact, are too numerous to list.

Although you spend a large 'portion of every day communicating, you probably do not
often stop to consider exactly what happens during the communication process. Whether
you are speaking on the telephone, writing a postcard, exchanging glances with a friend,
or waiting at a bus stop, you are communicating. Successful business persons and
professional communicators owe a large part of their success to their ability to minimize
potential misunderstandings and effectively communicate with others.

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SECTION ONE: UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION

SECTION OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this section, you will be able to:
 Describe the meaning of communication
 Understand the communication model
 Explain the complex and dynamic process of communication
 Understand the importance of effective communication
 Understand the reasons why effective communication is considered as
‘lifeblood’ of organizations
 Understand how communication skills help in your career and personal life

SECTION OUTLINE
1.1 Defining communication
1.2 Using a communication model
1.3 Recognizing communication as complex and dynamic Process
1.4 The importance of communication

1.1 Defining Communication

Communication is a two way process of exchanging thoughts, ideas and feelings

between people in a commonly understandable ways. Communication is considered
effective when it achieves the desired responses or when it has an effect on the receiver.
Successful businesspersons and professional communicators owe a large part of their
success to their ability to minimize potential misunderstandings and effectively
communicate with others.

Communication is a two way process of exchanging thoughts, ideas and feelings

between people in a commonly understandable ways. Communication is considered
effective when it achieves the desired responses or when it has an effect on the receiver.

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1.2 Using a Communication Model

To perceive the elements of the communication process, visualize it as a loop with five
major components: sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback.

1.2.1 The Sender – Encoder

When you send a message, you are the writer or speaker, depending on your
communication is written or oral. You are likewise the “encoder.” You try to choose
symbols-usually words (and sometimes also graphics or pictures)-that will correctly,
tactfully express your message so the receiver or receivers will understand it and react
with the response you desire.

As the sender or source of a message, you are affected by the environment surrounding.
Perceptions, attitudes, values, opinions, cultural and educational background, and many
internal variables affect the way you process stimuli coming from outside.

Consider Tsion, a student sitting in a world history class. As she listens to her
classmates discuss World War II, she finds herself disagreeing with some of their
opinions. Having spent her childhood in France, she has a different perspective from
some of the other students in the class. The discussion around her and her own
perceptions lead her to raise her hand and state her point of view.

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1.2.2 The Message
To communicate, you must transform your ideas into a form that someone else can
understand. This process, called encoding, occurs as you select and put together ideas
and then translate them into words, pictures, numbers, gestures, or other symbols that
someone else can understand. Tsion, for instance, raises her hand to indicate that she
wishes to speak in class. Then she uses spoken words to convey her opinion about the
war.

1.2.3 The Channel (Medium)

As the sender of a message, you need to choose an appropriate channel through which
to transmit the message. The possible channels are innumerable. Messages may be
conveyed through print, touch, sound, smell, and many other media. The channel may
be a letter, a telephone call, meeting, speech, or interview; it may be a newspaper,
magazine, billboard or a radio, television, or computer message. Tsion speaks directly
to her classmates and instructor. Later in the semester, she will incorporate her ideas
into a written exam.

1.2.4 The Receiver – Decoder

The message receiver is your reader or listener-also known as the decoder. Some
messages, of course, may be directed to many readers or listeners. The receivers as well
as the sender are influenced by external environment and internal stimuli. They receive
messages through the eyes and ears, but are also influenced by nonverbal factors such
as touch, taste, and smell. All these factors demand interpretation according to
individual experiences. A problem is that not all of us have identical experiences with
the subject or symbols chosen by the sender.

The receiver of the message is the focus of the communication process. If this person
does not understand the message, the whole process has failed. The receiver decodes the
message by methods such as listening, reading, and watching. The receiver's
environment, attitudes, social skills, perceptions, experiences, and other variables affect
the decoding of the message just as the sender's environment influences the encoding.
To send a message successfully, you need to adapt your message especially to the
receiver. Tsion must adapt her comments to both her instructor and her classmates.
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1.2.4 Feedback – Receiver’s Response or Answer
Although not always present, feedback is an important element of communication
because it completes the process. It allows the sender to understand how the receiver
responded to the message. When feedback occurs, the receiver becomes the sender of a
message, but that message is a response to a former message. When you press the
switch on a lamp and the light comes on, you have received instant feedback. If the
light does not come on, you have received a message as well: The lamp is broken or the
bulb has burned out.

Feedback takes many forms. It may appear as a sudden rise in sales after TV advertising
has been aired, or it may be manifested in a person's vocal quality over the telephone; it
may take the form of a nod, a smile, or a fleeting expression of anger or distaste.

Feedback is an essential element of the communication process because it helps the

sender know how the message was received or if it was received. If the sender perceives
that the message was misinterpreted or misunderstood, he or she can choose to
retransmit or modify the message. Moreover, feedback often leads into a new message:
The receiver of the first message becomes a sender, and the whole process continues.
For example, notice what happens in the following dialogue:
Miki: I saw Hiwot yesterday.
Seidu: So did I. she's leaving for Desse on Wednesday.
Miki: Great! I am too.

Miki initiates a message in this dialogue; then, when Seidu responds, he sends a
message back to Miki. Next, Miki provides feedback-and a new message. Similarly,
Tsion’s comments in her history class lead to a discussion involving the students, the
instructor, and Tsion herself.

Most communication, then, can be envisioned as a loop, a continuous process actively

involving both senders and receivers. Strategies for successfully relaying messages,
transmitting and understanding feedback, and appropriately modifying messages will be
the focus for your study of business communication.
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1.3 Recognizing Communication as Complex and Dynamic Process

Communication, of course, is not an isolated incident. It is a complex, ongoing process

involving words, sensory stimuli, emotions, actions, and reactions.

When you meet someone at a party, for example, both of you begin to interpret facial
expressions, voice tones, physical appearance, and gestures as well as words. You decode and
encode messages through your language, cultural backgrounds, values, and social situations.
You are both affected by internal and external stimuli.

Communication is a dynamic process that involves many related activities working together.
Although a memo from you to a fellow employee may seem like a simple one-way unit of
communication, it is actually only part of a whole process. What prompted you to write the
memo? Why did you write a memo instead of telephoning? Why did you choose the words
you chose? What response will the reader make to the memo? The stimuli that caused you to
write and send the memo are highly complex, as are the messages you will receive from your
reader.

Moreover, that memo is only one element in an ongoing communication process between you
and other employees. And it is only a small part of a communication process that runs
through your entire organization and through the whole society.

To understand business communication more thoroughly, you need to identify different

forms of communication. In general, communication may be verbal and nonverbal,
intentional and unintentional, and internal and external.

Activity 1
1) Define what the communication process means.
2) Describe in a situation in which one’s educational background might interfere with
the effective transmission of a message.
3) Describe a situation in which message was poorly transmitted because a

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 wrong channel was chosen.
4) When a company advertizes on television, how does it receive feedback
regarding its commercial message?
5) Give examples of encoding and decoding.
6) Divide your paper into five columns with the following headings: Sender
Encoder, Message, Medium, Receiver-Decoder, and Feedback. Under each
column list possible causes of miscommunication, problems that contribute to
the breakdown of communication; include examples from your own
experiences, if possible.

1.4 Importance of Communication

If you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, you have an important, highly
valued skill. Managers and top-level executives have repeatedly expressed their concern
regarding the need for better communication. In numerous surveys, business executives have
ranked ability to communicate in first place among the personal factors necessary for
promotion within management. And they have selected business communication as one of the
most useful college studies in their work.

1.4.1 Ancient Heritage for Communication Principles

Oral communication obviously preceded written communication. In fact, the ancient
Greek and Roman world depended heavily on oral communication. It was necessary to
communicate well on one's feet: in government assemblies and in the law courts.

A school of teachers called sophists taught ancients to speak well, for to defend oneself
and to speak eloquently were marks of a learned person. More formal instructors called
teachers of rhetoric taught ideas that in later years appeared in published works. Thus,
today we recognize names such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian-to
mention a few-as contributors to the history of communication. During the Medieval and
Renaissance period the oral tradition continued. And as writing became more important
as a permanent record of communication, authors and books on written communication
principles appeared.

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Hence, some of today's principles of writing are founded on a mixture of ancient oral and
written traditions. Business communication is then one offshoot from an earlier world
where communicating well was a foundation of learning.

1.4.2 "Lifeblood" of Every Organization

So important is communication that without it an organization cannot function. An
organization is a group of people associated for business, political, professional,
religious, social, or other purposes. Its activities require human beings to interact, or
communicate. They exchange information, ideas, plans; place orders; make decisions,
rules, proposals, contracts, agreements.

Because this text is concerned primarily with effective business communication, the
discussions and illustrations you will read focus mainly on business messages. However, you
can apply them also to other organizations, to the professions, and .to your personal
communications.

Both within and outside the organization, effective business communication-oral and written-
is its lifeblood. Founded on established principles, effective communication is essential,
beneficial, and also costly.

1.4.3 Benefits of Communication in Your Career and Personal Life

Your jobs, promotions, and professional reputation often depend on the success or failure
of your written and oral communication. Also you will find that ability to communicate
effectively is a valuable asset during many activities in your personal life.

A Valuable Job Requirement

Especially if your career requires mainly mental rather than manual labor, your progress will
be strongly influenced by how effectively you communicate your knowledge, proposals, and
ideas to others who need or should receive them. Preference for communication skills is
found in the job descriptions listed by numerous companies wishing to employ college
graduates.

Job and career opportunities in which effective communication is the main responsibility are
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available in various areas, such as customer relations, labor relations, marketing, personnel,
public relations, sales, teaching. Communication skills are important, too, in local, state, and
federal governments.

An Essential for promotion

The prime requisite of a promotable executive is “ability to communicate.” Too often those
who cannot communicate effectively in either oral or written communications remain
"buried" in lower, dead-end jobs. Members of management spend 60 to 90 percent of their
working days communicating-speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Over the past 50
years, many studies have confirmed the statement that effective communication is essential
for success and promotion in business.

As a trainee on a new job, you have opportunities to speak about problems with co-workers
and to submit memos, reports, and letters that test your ability to communicate clearly and
quickly. A frequent complaint of managers is the inability of college graduates to make
themselves heard, read, or understood. Your messages can reveal how well you are doing a
job, and they help management to evaluate your fitness for a substantial promotion. For
example, imagine that you are one of several highly trained employees in an organization that
requires everyone to submit frequent oral and written reports to clients or company
personnel. If there is an opening for promotion and you each rate about the same except that
you alone can write and speak effectively, then clearly you have the advantage over the
others.

A Help for Meeting Personal Responsibilities

Effective communication-written and spoken-also helps you to better accomplish various
aims in your personal activities. You will sometimes need to write letters, proposals, or
reports, or to present your views orally as committee chairperson, club officer, or private
citizen. In these roles you might communicate with public officials; business, or professional
people; or personal friends. Whatever your purposes, you will usually achieve them more
effectively when you apply the same skills that help you communicate effectively in
business.

Additional benefits that enthusiastic students of business communication have gained are
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better grades in some of their other college courses that require analytical problem
solving and high-quality, well-organized reports.

Activity 2
1. Sufficiently explain the following as to why you study business communication.
a. Lifeblood of every organization
b. A valuable job requirement
c. An essential for promotion
d. A help for meeting personal responsibilities
2. Clearly describe the ancient thoughts of great men of the time about the
importance of oral and written communication.

SECTION TWO: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

SECTION OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this section, you will be able to:
 Distinguish between the different types of communication

 Develop the requisite skills of verbal and nonverbal communication

 Control the undesirable effects of unintentional and nonverbal messages

 Develop insight into effective nonverbal communication

SECTION OUTLINE
2.1 Forms of communication
2.2 Communicating without words
2.3 Communicating with words
2.4 Sending unintentional messages
2.5 Sending external and internal messages
2.6 The nonverbal communication

2.1 Forms of Communication

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To understand business communication more thoroughly, you need to identify different forms
of communication. In general, communication may be verbal and nonverbal, intentional and
unintentional, and internal and external.

A message transmitted by words is a verbal communication. Letters, memos, reports,

telephone conversations, telegrams, television commercials, and meetings all require some
form of verbal communication. Words, however, may be either spoken or written. The two
major types of verbal communication are distinguished by the words oral and written.

Nonverbal communication includes a multitude of cues that people use to accompany and
sometimes to replace their words. Nonverbal communication includes the way you furrow
your brow, tap your feet, smile, frown, or use your voice. It includes the way you dress,
stand, and walk.

Your communication may take many forms: one of which is sending unintentional messages.
You have undoubtedly had the experience of sending a message you did not plan to send.
Perhaps, while you sat in a job interview, your feet jiggled nervously; while giving an oral
report in class, you stammered. These unintentional messages may have directly contradicted
your oral messages of self-assurance or pleasure at being in the situation. No one can help
sending some unintentional messages.

External communication may take such forms as advertisements, telephone conversations

with vendors, letters to customers, and meetings with clients. Internal messages flow within
an organization and range from policy manuals and corporate magazines to bulletin boards,
memos, and reports to meetings, casual conversations, and gossip.

2.2 Communicating with Words

A message transmitted by words is a verbal communication. Letters, memos, reports,

telephone conversations, telegrams, television commercials, and meetings all require some
form of verbal communication.

Words, however, may be either spoken or written. The two major types of verbal
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communication are distinguished by the words oral and written. Oral communication consists
of formal presentations, speeches, meetings, television and radio advertisements, telephone
conversations, informal discussions, and so on. Written communication includes memos,
letters, reports, resumes, newspapers, and many other types of documents.

Both types of verbal communication have strengths and weaknesses. Each is useful and
appropriate for certain situations. Oral communication, for example, is usually faster than
written. Because oral communication often evokes almost instantaneous feedback from the
receiver, a speaker may be able to alter the message, if need be, to make sure it is understood.

On the other hand, because oral communication is usually linked with many sensory
variables, the receiver may not hear a message correctly. For example, in a noisy room you
may think someone has said he was fired when actually he has said he was tired.

As the sender of a written message, you must rely solely on the words on the page. Therefore,
precision is extremely important. When speaking, you can make corrections: "Did I say that
sales exceeded last year's? I meant they equaled last year's." When you write, your error stays
on the page and cannot be so easily corrected.

Two Types of Verbal Communication

Spoken/Oral Written
Uses words x x
Communicates very quickly x
Can receive instant feedback x
Can be quickly retransmitted x
Involves many sensory variables x
Can be easily analyzed x
Can be easily saved x

2.3 Communicating Without Words

Nonverbal communication includes a multitude of cues that people use to accompany and
sometimes to replace their words. Nonverbal communication includes the way you furrow
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your brow, tap your feet, smile, frown, or use your voice. It includes the way you dress,
stand, and walk.

Imagine seeing a fellow student walk into a classroom on the first day of class. Even though
you have never seen her before, you pick up nonverbal messages. She smiles as she sees
some people she knows; she walks with confidence; she wears an outfit that has been
carefully put together. You decide, even before she speaks, that she is self assured, outgoing,
and organized.

Sometimes nonverbal messages contradict rather than enhance verbal communication. The
words themselves may be harmless and friendly, for instance, but their tone and other subtle
nonverbal elements can transmit negative feelings. Moreover, people tend to believe the
nonverbal more than the verbal messages.

2.4 Sending Unintentional Messages

You have undoubtedly had the experience of sending a message you did not plan to send.
Perhaps, while you sat in a job interview, your feet jiggled nervously; while giving an oral
report in class, you stammered. These unintentional messages may have directly contradicted
your oral messages of self-assurance or pleasure at being in the situation.

No one can help sending some unintentional messages. You cannot completely control your
eyes, gestures, and tone of voice. However, you can increase your awareness and control over
these unintentional nonverbal messages. You can improve your performance in job
interviews and oral presentations, for example, by minimizing the audience's awareness of
your discomfort or insecurity.

You can also increase your own awareness of the messages sent out by others. When working
in an organization, watch for the unintentional communication sent out by both superiors and
subordinates. Just as a doctor can often diagnose patients' problems from the way they walk
or hold themselves, a manager may be able to detect morale problems simply by noticing the
way people sit at their desks or walk in each morning. No matter what else they are doing,
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people are almost always communicating. Being able to decode unspoken messages is a skill
you will find useful in any field or career you enter.

2.5 Sending External and Internal Messages

All companies rely upon both external and internal communication. External messages are
those that flow in and out of an organization. These may take such forms as advertisements,
telephone conversations with vendors, letters to customers, and meetings with clients.

External communications are essential to almost every business. Organizations take great
care that their letterhead, offices, and other attributes reflect appropriate images and values to
the world outside.

Similarly, salespeople, customer service representatives, and other employees who work with
the public are chosen carefully. Being able to write a good business letter and to speak
effectively on the telephone are skills that employers look for in job candidates. No matter
how good a company's services or products, poor external communication can ruin an
organization.

Internal communication takes up far more of most people's time than do external messages.
These messages that flow within an organization range from policy manuals and corporate
magazines to bulletin boards, memos, and reports to meetings, casual conversations, and
gossip. A well-managed company has well-organized methods for selecting and conveying
internal messages, but every company should constantly monitor the efficiency and
effectiveness of its communication flow.

Within organizations, messages flow upward, downward, and laterally. The majority of
messages flow downward; that is, they are sent to subordinates. Downward messages may
take the form of memos, annual reports, directives, orders, policies, in-house magazines,
interviews, group presentations, bulletin boards, and computer generated mail.

In many organizations, the communication is almost all downward. The people at the top
rarely receive feedback or new messages from their subordinates. In some companies,
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suggestion boxes help move communication from subordinates to supervisors. Other compa-
nies use quality control circles-small groups that meet to discuss issues and make
recommendations to management. But many organizations have no formal methods of
upward communication. Employees, moreover, are often reluctant to speak their minds.

Formal Communication Channels

Communication Type Example
Upward Reports
Quality control circles
Suggestion boxes
Meetings
Downward Meetings
Speeches
Classes
Job instructions
Memos
Handbooks
Bulletin boards
Electronic mail
Manuals
Personnel evaluations
Bulletins
Newsletters
Company magazines
Lateral Electronic mail
Memos
Bulletin boards

Lateral communication, messages flowing between people of equal rank in an organization, is

often even less efficient than the upward flow of information. Caught up in their own
concerns, department heads may communicate with each other infrequently, or they may
receive such a flood of information from other departments that they do not take the time to

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assimilate it. In either situation, problems can result.

In every organization, information also moves through an informal communication channel

known as the grapevine. Gossip, anecdotes, and rumors travel through the grapevine, but so
does a wealth of information important to managers and employees. Fast-moving,
spontaneous, and "off the record," information received through the grapevine is usually a
vital part of an organization's communication system. The grapevine is not entirely reliable,
but it often functions more quickly than formal communication processes such as meetings
and memorandums, and it often carries personal information not transmitted by formal
channels.

EXERCISES
1. What are some of the strengths of written communication? What are some
weaknesses?
2. Describe some ways in which external messages may differ from internal
messages.
3. Why is upward communication often so difficult to implement in a company?
4. Upper management often receives distorted messages from subordinates in the
organization. Why does this happen?
5. Describe a situation in which you unintentionally communicated information that
you did not want someone to know?

2.6 Nonverbal Communication

Numerous articles and books have been written on the importance of nonverbal messages.
Some studies have found that from 60 to 90 percent of a message's overall effect comes
from nonverbal cues. This subsection presents a brief general overview of nonverbal
communication.

2.6.1 How Appearance Communicates

Appearance conveys nonverbal impressions that affect recipients' attitudes toward the
verbal messages even before they read or hear them.
2.6.1 Effect on Written Messages
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The envelope's overall appearance-size, color, weight, postage-may impress the receiver
as "important," "routine," or "junk" mail. Telegrams, Express Mail, and private courier
mail also have distinctive envelopes that signal urgency and importance. Next, the letter
report or title page communicates nonverbally even before its contents are read. Also
important are the appearance of a message's stationery and its length, format, and
typing. The enclosures quantity and attractiveness (with or without charts, graphs,
pictures)-also give significant nonverbal impressions.

2.5.2 Effect on Oral Messages

Whether you are speaking to one person face to face or to a group in a meeting,
personal appearance and the appearance of the surroundings convey nonverbal stimuli
that affect attitudes--even emotions-toward the spoken words. Communication success
can be profoundly influenced.

Personal appearance: Clothing, jewelry, hairstyles, cosmetics, fingernails, neatness,

stature are parts of personal appearance. They can convey impressions regarding
occupation, age, sex, nationality, social and economic level or job status, and good or
poor judgment, depending on circumstances.

Appearance of surroundings: Aspects of surroundings include room size, location,

furnishings, machines, architecture, wall decorations, floor (carpeted or bare?), lighting,
windows, view, and other related aspects wherever people communicate orally. How
does the appearance of the surroundings affect attitudes toward and the interpretation of
spoken words? Here are two examples, among hundreds:

Why will an executive or professional whose office is a luxurious top-floor suite with a
panoramic view convey a different nonverbal message (about status, success, advice,
size of bill) than he or she will if the office is in a dingy, poorly lighted basement
room? Why do full professors seek corner offices with windows on two sides?

In some factories and business firms, lower-status employees may work in small,
crowded, unattractive areas. Thoughtful managers can help improve morale and
efficiency when they perceive employee attitudes toward surroundings and follow
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suggestions for improving appearance.

2.6.3 How Body Language Communicates

Included under body language are facial expressions, gestures and posture, smell and
touch; all are noticeable nonverbal communication symbols. Sometimes they are more
meaningful than words, but we must be careful when interpreting them in our daily
interpersonal communications. They are important also for special occasions,
interviews, and speeches to groups.

Facial Expressions
The eyes and face are especially helpful means of communicating nonverbally. They
can show hidden emotions-anger, annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, hatred, joy,
love, interest, sorrow, surprise, uncertainty, and others. They can also contradict verbal
statements.

A new employee may answer "yes" hesitatingly, ashamed or embarrassed to tell the truth
when asked if she or he understands the supervisor's oral instructions. Yet that employee's
frown or red face and bewildered expression in the eyes should prompt the observant
supervisor to consider restating the instructions more clearly.

Direct eye contact (but not staring) is usually desirable when two people converse face
to face. The person whose eyes droops or shift away from the listener is thought to be
shy or perhaps dishonest 'and untrustworthy. But we must be careful not to over
generalize. Because people differ, there are exceptions on individual nonverbal cues, as
shown in this example:

Some folks assume, wrongly, that they can tell what people have been doing just by looking
into their eyes. However, a person's eyes may be misty and red because he or she has been
ill, or crying, laughing, drinking heavily, smoking, sleeping, suffering from infection,
walking in the wind, swimming, or working near harmful vapors. Get more facts before
judging anyone's facial expressions conclusively.

Gestures and Posture

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Do actions speak louder than words? They do in some occupations, as well as in many
interpersonal situations. Employees, who direct traffic on crowded streets or in noisy
stadiums, or guide huge trucks when backing up in narrow places, can effectively
communicate by pointing arms or fingers in the desired directions-without uttering any
words. And, of course, deaf people communicate silently by hand and finger
movements.

Clenched fists pounding on a table may indicate anger or emphasis. Continual gestures
with arms while speaking may signal nervousness; they may also distract listeners'
attention from the spoken words. Handshakes reveal attitudes by their firmness or
limpness, promptness, and movements.

Legs, too, communicate nonverbal messages. Consider, for instance, possible attitudes
of these people: a sitting man with legs stretched on top of his office desk during an
interview; or a standing person shifting weight from one leg to another in rhythmic
motion while humming-or pacing back and forth while speaking.

Posture nonverbally conveys impressions of self-confidence, status, and interest.

Confident executives may have a relaxed posture and yet stand more erect than a timid
subordinate. Interested persons occasionally lean forward toward the speaker, while
those who are bored or annoyed may slump--as well as yawn and repeatedly glance at
their watches.

Smell and Touch

Various odors and artificial fragrances on human beings can sometimes convey
emotions and feelings better than spoken words. (Some odors on equipment can
indicate smoke, fire, decay, or dangerous leaks in containers or pipes, thus helping to
save lives if detected early.)

Touching people in different ways (and places) can silently communicate friendship,
love, approval, hatred, anger, or other motives and feelings. A kiss on the cheek, pat on
the shoulder, or slap on the back is prompted by various attitudes and emotions. Also,
"touching" in a crowded bus in which passengers are squeezed together is offensive to
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many North Americans.

Voice
Perhaps you have heard people speak words that were pleasant but in a tone of voice
that betrayed their true feelings? Para language is a term denoting the subtle variations
in meaning between what is said and how it is said.

You can also convey different meanings by the rate, pitch, and volume of your voice.
Speaking fast may indicate nervousness or haste. A soft voice soothes and calms; a
loud, shouting voice may foretell danger, urgency, a serious problem, joy, or anger.
Furthermore, by emphasizing different key words in a sentence you can purposely
indicate your feelings about what is important.

Consider the sentence "Betty completed two reports." If you accent "Betty," you are
stressing who deserves credit for the reports. If, instead, you emphasize the word
"completed," or "two," or "reports," you can change the meaning of your message with
each different vocal emphasis.

2.6.4 How Silence, Time, and Sounds Communicate

Silence
Though at first thought silence may seem unimportant, it can actually cause serious hard
feelings, loss of business, and profits. Suppose you wrote an urgent letter to the customer
relations manager of a large company, stating why you need a reply by March 5. If you
receive no answer by that date and none for two months after that, what is your reaction to
the silence? Do you worry whether your letter was lost? Do you angrily assume the manager
is rude and just considers your request unworthy of his or her time? Do you wonder if the
manager is annoyed by something in your letter or if your envelope is perhaps at the bottom
of a stack under other priority mail?

Time
Waiting when an important request is ignored causes problems and attitude changes. In
the preceding example, after the long silence, should you write again, telephone, or just
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drop the matter and buy from a competitor? You should also consider whether in your
request for a "reply by March 5" you gave the manager enough time to reply. Time is
important in many other ways too. Being on time for appointments, for work each day,
and for deadlines communicates favorable nonverbal messages.

Concepts of time vary across cultures. Americans and Germans, for instance, are quite
punctual. Middle Eastern business people think little, of arriving after an agreed-upon
time not out of discourtesy, but rather a feeling that the task will be accomplished
regardless of time.

Sounds
In addition to a speaking person's voice, other human sounds--clearing the throat,
sighing, laughing--communicate nonverbally. Also, nonhuman sounds of bells,
whistles, cars, trains; airplanes-all can be significant nonverbal communicators. Many
people set their watches by certain whistles or rush off to work or to catch their
transportation when they hear certain signals. Sounds can also indicate leaky pipes or
defective machines that need immediate attention. And they can sometimes serve as
convincing evidence--contrary to the written or spoken words of a mechanic-that the
repair work just completed is unsatisfactory!

UNIT SUMMARY

Communication is a two way process of exchanging thoughts, ideas and feelings

between people in a commonly understandable ways. Communication is considered
effective when it achieves the desired responses or when it has an effect on the receiver.
Successful businesspersons and professional communicators owe a large part of their
success to their ability to minimize potential misunderstandings and effectively
communicate with others. However, what elements are common in all our
communications? Effective communication depends largely on insights into human
nature and on the ability to get desirable responses. It is a complex process that
involves sender-encoder, message, medium, receiver-decoder, and feedback.

Effective business communication is the lifeblood of every organization in its internal

21 | P a g e
messages to and by employees as well as in its external contacts with customers,
suppliers, and the public. It is also a key to success in your career and a help in your
personal life. The volume and costs of business communications are great; so are
challenges and opportunities for those with the right attitudes and preparation. When you
diligently apply the basics of effective business communications with common sense,
you can continue to improve your communication ability.

Your communications will involve thinking, analyzing, solving problems, gathering

facts, planning, and organizing messages according to acceptable contemporary
procedures for effective business communication. Through these experiences you should
gain a better understanding of people, learn how to win favorable responses from them,
and learn how to make friends for your company. The background provided should give
you the confidence to tackle almost any task you might face when writing letters,
memos, proposals, or reports and when communicating orally.

Human beings spend a large part of each day communicating: in words and actions, through
facial expressions and gestures as well as through the way the way they dress, walk, write,
and speak.

Communication flows both in and out of every organization and through its every level.
Every message is part of a continuous system reaching throughout the organization. A memo
sent from one person to another is not a unique incident: It is part of a much larger
communication network that reaches every individual within the organization.
A successful organization usually has effective channels for two-way internal and external
communication. Understanding and using these channels effectively should be a goal for
every businessperson.

Keep an open mind for getting as many accurate facts as possible about reality. Admit
that there is more than can be said, and allow for the influences of attitudes, opinions,
and emotions.

Remember also the importance of nonverbal communication-by appearance, body

language, silence, time, sounds. Above all, try to better understand the people with
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whom you communicate. This ability will be useful and will be developed further as
you apply the principles in the remainder of this module. In the following unit, you will
study various principles, techniques, examples, cautions, and typical business
communication situations.

EXERCISES
1. People often believe a nonverbal message more easily than a verbal one.
Why?
2. Describe a situation in which a person’s nonverbal message contradicted
his/her verbal message.

REFERENCES
Murphy, H. A. Hilderbrandt (1991) Effective Business Communication, McGraw Hill
Publishing: New York.
Marry Cullinan (1993) Business Communication: Principles and Processes, South-Western:
Singapore.
Sorenson et.al (1997) Business and Management Communication, Prentice-Hall:New Jersey.
Daniels and Spiker (1998) Perspectives on Organizational Communication, Brown and
Bendhamark Publishers: Madison.
Bovee and Thrill (1992) Business Communication Today, McGraw-Hill Inc.: Sanfransisco.

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 UNIT TWO

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon a thorough study of this unit, you should able to:
 Compose complete as well as concise messages

 Recognize the importance of consideration in business communication

 Encode considerate oral and written business messages

 Distinguish between vague, general, specific, and concrete messages

 Construct short, familiar, conversational words

 Write sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and good-natured business messages

 Learn to avoid expressions that are blunt; irritate, hurt, or belittle others

 Can use the level of language appropriate for customers

UNIT INTRODUCTION

To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communications

principles. They tie in closely with the basic concepts of the communication process and
are important for both written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for
choice of content and style of presentation-adapted to the purpose and receiver of your
message. Called the “seven C’s,” they are completeness, conciseness, consideration,
concreteness, clarity, courtesy, correctness.

In this unit we will discuss the seven business communication principles: completeness,
conciseness, consideration, concreteness, clarity, courtesy, and correctness. To make your
messages easily understood, friendly, and accurate, you should apply these C principles of
communication.

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UNIT OUTLINE
2.1 Clarity
2.2 Courtesy
2.3 Correctness
2.4 Completeness
2.5 Conciseness
2.6 Consideration
2.7 Concreteness

Completeness

Your business message is “complete” when it contains all facts the reader or listener
needs for the reaction you desire.

Completeness is necessary for several reasons: First, complete messages are more likely
to bring the desired results without the expense of additional messages. Second, they can
do a better job of building goodwill. Third, they can help avert costly lawsuits that may
result if important information is missing.

As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:

 Answer all questions asked.
 Give something extra, when desirable.
• Check for the five W’s and any other essentials.

Answer All Questions Asked

Whenever you reply to an inquiry, try to answer all questions-stated and implied. A
prospective customer’s reaction to an incomplete answer is likely to be unfavorable. The
customer may think the respondent is careless or is purposely trying to conceal a weak
spot. In general, “omissions cast suspicions,” whether you are answering an inquiry
about your product or recommending a former employee for a new job. If you have no
information on a particular question, say so clearly. If you have unfavorable information
in answer to questions, handle your reply with both tact and honesty.

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 Example: The answer in the following situation was incomplete:

A distributor of software, when replying to a dealer’s letter, answered only four of seven
questions. Because the original questions were unnumbered and somewhat buried in five long
paragraphs, the respondent apparently overlooked or disregarded three of them. The reply,
incomplete and unfriendly, caused the distributor to lose the business and goodwill of a
potential customer.

Sometimes before you can answer an inquiry, you need certain specific information
from the inquirer. Then it is a good idea to list the needed details on a reply form that
the inquirer can fill out and return to you. In this way both your answer and that of your
respondent will be complete.

Give Something Extra, When Desirable

The words “when desirable,” in the above heading, are essential. Sometimes you must do
more than answer the customers’ specific questions. They may not know what they need,
or their questions may be inadequate. For example, suppose you are president of the
Regional Business Executives’ League for your industry and receive the following
inquiry from an out-of-town member:

I think I would like to attend my first meeting of the League, even though I’m not
acquainted in your city. Will you please tell me where the next meeting will be
held?
If you answered only this one question, your letter would be incomplete.

Realizing that your reader is a newcomer to your city and to your league’s meetings, you
should include in your reply a welcome plus such needed details as directions for
reaching the building; parking facilities; day, date, and time of meeting; and perhaps also
the program for the next meeting. Your message will then have the “something extra”
that a reader really needs and appreciates.

Check for the Five W’s and Any Other Essentials

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Another way to help make your message complete is to answer, whenever desirable, the
“five W” questions-who, what, where, when, why-and any other essentials, such as how.
The five-question method is especially useful when you write requests, announcements,
or other informative messages. For instance, to order (request) merchandise, make clear
what you want, when you need it, to whom and where it is to be sent, and how payment
will be made.

Example: To reserve a hotel room, specify the accommodations needed (what), location
(where), sponsoring organization (who), date and time (when), event (why), and other
necessary details (how).

Conciseness

A concise message saves time and expense for both sender and receiver. Conciseness is
saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other
C qualities. Conciseness contributes to emphasis. By eliminating unnecessary words,
you help make important ideas stand out.
To achieve conciseness try to observe the following suggestions
 Eliminate wordy expressions.
 Include only relevant statements.
 Avoid unnecessary repetition

Eliminate Wordy Expressions

1. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without

changing meanings.
Wordy Concise
at this time Now
due to the fact that Because
during the time that While
during the year of During
few and far between Seldom, scarce

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 for a price of for
for the purpose of for; to
for the reason that since; because
have need for need
in accordance with your request as you requested
in due course soon
in many cases often; frequently
in most cases usually
in order to to
in some cases sometimes
in spite of the fact that although
for the amount of for
in the city of in
in the event that if
please don’t hesitate to write please write

2. Omit “which” and “that” clauses whenever possible.

Wordy: She bought desks that are of the executive type.
Concise: She bought executive-type desks.

3. Whenever possible, use a verb in the present tense and active voice.
Wordy: The total balance due will be found on page 2 of this report.
Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.

Include Only Relevant Statements

The effective, concise message should omit not only unnecessarily wordy expressions but
also irrelevant material. To be sure you include only relevant facts, observe the following
suggestions:
1. Stick to the purpose of the message.
2. Cut out irrelevant words and rambling sentences.
3. Omit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at length what that
person has already told you.
4. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, excessive adjectives and
28 | P a g e
 prepositions, pompous words, gushy politeness.
5. Get to the important point tactfully and concisely.
Wordy: We hereby wish to let you know that we fully
appreciate the confidence you have reposed in us.
[18 words.]
Concise: We appreciate your confidence in us. [6 words.]

Avoid Unnecessary Repetition

Sometimes repetition is necessary for emphasis. But when the same thing is said two or
three times without reason, the message becomes wordy and boring.

Here are three ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition:

1. Use a shorter name after you have mentioned the long one once: Instead of the
“Thompson Product Manufacturing Company,” “Thompson Company.” .
2. Use pronouns or initials rather than repeat long names: Instead of citing “North
Central Auto Insurance Company, Inc.” again and again, use “it” or “they” or
“NCAI.”
3. Cut out all needless repetition of phrases and sentences.

CONSIDERATION
Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind and try
to put yourself in his or her place. Try to visualize your readers (or listeners)-with their
desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and probable reactions to your request.
Then handle the matter from their point of view. This thoughtful consideration is also
called "you-attitude," empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human nature.
(It does not mean, however, that you should overlook the needs of your organization.)

In a broad but true sense, consideration underlies the other six C's of good business
communication. You adapt your language and message content to your receiver's needs
when you make your message complete, concise, concrete, clear, courteous, and correct.
However, in all four specific ways you can indicate you are considerate:
 Focus on "you" instead of "I" and "we."
 Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
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  Apply integrity and ethics

Focus on "You" instead of "I" and "We"

Your receivers are usually more concerned about themselves than about you or the
company you represent. They are more likely to read your message when they see their
name and the pronoun "you" rather than "I," "we," or "us."

I/We-Attitude You-Attitude
I want to send my congratulations for … congratulations to you on your ….
We will ship soon the goods in your May 4 You should receive by May 8 the Apex screens
order. you ordered May 4.
We pay 8% interest on …. You earn 8% interest on....

Emphasize the Positive, Pleasant Facts

A third way to show consideration for your reader (or listener) is to accent the positive.
This means (1) stressing what can be done instead of what cannot be done and (2)
focusing on words your recipient can consider favorably.

The reader (or listener) wants to know what you can do for him or her. For most people
negative words like no, won't, cannot, never, impossible trigger unpleasant emotional
reactions. By making clear what you can or will do, you (by implication) often make
clear what you cannot do, without using a single negative word.

Negative-Unpleasant Positive-Pleasant
It is impossible to open an account for you As soon as your signature card reaches us, we
today. will gladly open an…
We don’t refund if the returned item is We refund when the returned item is clean
soiled and unsalable. and resalable.
When you travel on company expense, you When you travel on company expense, your
will not receive approval for first class fare. approved fare is for tourist class.
To avoid further delay and inconvenience, So that you will get this report as soon as
we are sending this report by express mail. possible, we are sending it by express mail.

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Apply Integrity and Ethics
To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity-high moral standards, personal
honor, truthfulness, sincerity-to your written and oral messages. Integrity is indispensable in
our jobs, in business transactions, in social and political activities, in everything we do.
Without it, business communications would prove worthless, and our confidence in people
would be shattered.

Ethics is concerned with what is right human conduct. Codes of ethics provide standards
enabling us to determine the fundamental distinction between right and wrong human
behavior. The following statements, adapted from "Honest Communication," an essay by the
Royal Bank of Canada, express several important basic concepts:

Honesty is not a simple subject, because it goes to the very heart of human nature. Honesty is
born when one perceives what is right and wrong and chooses to do what is right. ...
Confidence in one's honesty cannot be established simply by avoiding only what is illegal.
The rules of ethics are far wider than mere legality.

Promises made in speeches, letters, and advertising should be fulfilled scrupulously. ...
Honesty in business communication reaches its most visible public testing point in
advertising, labeling, and selling. Half-truths, exaggerations, and misleading descriptions of
products or services are not honest communications.

Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague
and general. The following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing
messages:
 Use specific facts and figures.
 Choose vivid, image-building words.

Use Specific Facts and Figures

Whenever you can, state an exact statement or a figure instead of a general word to

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 make your message more concrete and convincing.
Vague, General, Indefinite Concrete and Convincing
This computer reproduces campaign letters This computer types 400 personalized 150-
fast. word campaign letters in one hour.
Our product has won several prizes. [Name] product has won first prize in four
national contests within the past three years.
These brakes stop a car within a short These Goodson power brakes stop a 2-ton
distance. car traveling 60 miles an hour, within 240
feet.
Often vague, general words are opinion words; they may have different meanings to the
sender and the receiver. For instance, how fast is fast? A bicycle rider and a racing-car
driver will have different meanings for this word. How large is large? A person reared
in a village of 150 people may consider a population of 15,000 large; yet to a native of a
city with 10 million inhabitants, 15,000 is very small. The following words can also
lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or confusion.
A few high Low more Quick Soon
Early Long Many Most Slow Tall

In some cases it is, of course, permissible-and even desirable-to use general

expressions. Exceptions to the "facts and figures" rule occur:
1. When it is not possible to be specific, for you may not have nor be able to get
definite facts or figures.
2. When you want to be diplomatic. Thus, instead of saying, "We have sent you
four notices of your overdue payment," you may be more tactful (to a usually
prompt paying customer) by saying, "We have sent you several reminders of
this .... "
3. When you want to allow the person to form his or her own opinion, or when
exact figures are unimportant, as in "Many” of our employees attended the
parade.

Choose Vivid, Image-Building Words

Among the devices you can use to make your messages forceful, vivid, and specific are
concrete instead of abstract and general words
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 Vague Vivid

This is pure clover honey, made by Honeybees have gathered nectar from
honeybees. approximately 4½ million clusters of
clover and traveled about 150,000 miles or
equal to six times around the world to
deliver this package of Bradshaw honey to
you.

ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Discuss orally how to make each of the following requests complete and concrete:
a. The coat you had in your window last Thursday is exactly the style I would like to
have. Please send it to me on my charge account.
b. I am interested in the portable TV you advertised in yesterday's newspaper. Will you
please tell me more about it? [The firm advertised one TV set in the city's morning
paper and a different set in the evening paper.]
c. My daughter and I wish to repaint two bedrooms, each of which is 4 x 5 meters.
Please send us the right amount of paint--in pink--to do this job, and charge my
account.
2. Which of the following verbs are passive and which are active voice? Revise the
sentences that have passive verbs so they will have active verbs.
a. Each member was given a copy of the annual report.
b. Each courteous clerk wins goodwill for Jifar Department Store.
c. Final preparation will be made by the planning committee.
d. The finance committee has been making a careful study.
3. Revise the following sentences to eliminate the negative aspects.
a. We regret that we cannot extend your payment date for more than two months.
b. This policy will not pay except when the damages exceed $50.
c. Because of shortages of material, we will not be able to ship before June 10.
d. I am sorry I cannot send you the booklet you requested, as we have not yet
received it from the publisher.

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4. Change the following sentences so that they emphasize you-attitude instead of we-
attitude.
a. We allow 2 percent discount for cash payments.
b. This is just the kind of job I am looking for, since it offers me a chance to get
practical experience in personnel work.
c. We value your patronage, for satisfied customers are the foundation of our
success.
d. We do not send receipts, because of the extra work involved for us; of course, you
have your canceled checks anyway.
5. Revise the following sentences to eliminate wordiness and other errors.
a. In the event you would wish to schedule playings of there anniversary records to
certain or all of you're employees, arrangements for these programs may be made
by getting in touch with Chali Jones. As you probably know, his phone extension
is 562. [Can you cut these 43 words to 22?]
b. You will note when you study the cost of stationery that the expenditure of
stationery gradually and steadily increased for 2007, 2008, and 2009.
c. I have your letter of October 14 and wish to say that we'll be glad to give you a
refund for the blouse you bought here last week.
d. Permit me to take this opportunity to call your attention to the fact that we have
brought your account up to date.

Clarity

Clarity means getting your message across so the receiver will understand what you are
trying to convey. You want that person to interpret your words with the same meaning you
have in mind. Accomplishing that goal is difficult because individual experiences are never
identical and words may have different meanings to different persons. Here are some specific
ways to help make your messages clear:
 Choose short, familiar, conversational words.
 Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids, when desirable.

Choose Short, Familiar, Conversational Words

When you have a choice between a long word and a short one, use the short, familiar word
34 | P a g e
that your reader or listener will quickly understand. Also, use synonyms instead of Latin
terms (L) if they, though short, may be unfamiliar to your message receivers.
Say: Not: Say: Not:
about circa (L) home, house domicile
after subsequent pay remuneration
announce, declare promulgate show, uncover disclose

error inadvertency that is i.e. (L)

for example e.g. (L) use utilization

Avoid technical and business jargon whenever possible when you talk or write to a person
who is not acquainted with such words. If you must use those words, define them briefly and
clearly.

Include Examples, Illustrations, and Other Visual Aids, When Desirable

In addition to focusing on clarity of words, sentences, and paragraphs, you can also
sometimes use various visual aids effectively.

When you have a complicated or lengthy explanation in a letter, speech, or report, you'll
often find you can improve the clarity by giving your recipients an example, analogy, or
illustration. Furthermore, visual aids-such as headings, tabulations, itemizations, pictures,
charts-are definite aids to clarity and easy understanding. Also, typographical aids can be
useful. Some important statements may be underlined, numbered, colored, or typed in all
CAPITALS or italics or on short lines with narower margins.

Courtesy

Courteous messages help to strengthen present business friendships, as well make new
friends. Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude. It is not mere politeness with mechanical
insertions of "please's" and "thank-you's." To be courteous, considerate communicators,
should consider the following guidelines:
 Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.
 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle.

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 Be Sincerely Tactful, Thoughtful, and Appreciative instead of Bluntness
Tactless, Blunt Tactful
Your letter is not clear at all; I can't understand it. If I understand your letter correctly, •••
Obviously, if you'd read your policy carefully,
you'd be able to answer these questions yourself. Sometimes policy wording is a little hard to
understand. I'm glad to clear up these questions for
you.

Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these traits are a common cause of
discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken idea though few people are intentionally
abrupt or blunt, these traits are of conciseness, sometimes from negative personal attitudes.
Avoid expressions like those in the left-hand column below; rephrase them as shown in the
right-hand column.

Thoughtfulness and Appreciation

Writers who send cordial, courteous messages of deserved congratulations and appreciation
(to persons both inside and outside the firm) help build goodwill. The value of goodwill or
public esteem for the firm may be worth thousands (or millions).

Sometimes silence can also be considered significantly discourteous. A thoughtful, courteous

businessperson-no matter how busy-should not ignore answering customers' or colleagues'
inquiries. Even a short, courteous note written on the bottom of the request and returned
promptly, or a tactful phone call by the secretary, is usually better than no reply. Totally
ignoring the inquiry or request communicates unfavorable nonverbal messages that may lead
to loss of business or employee morale. Thoughtful communicators answer messages as soon
as possible, preferably within a few days.

Omit Expressions That Irritate, Hurt, or Belittle

The thoughtful business communicator should avoid expressions that might offend the reader.
Such expressions are discussed here in three groups: irritating, questionably humorous, and
belittling statements.

Irritating Expressions
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  you are delinquent
 you are probably ignorant of
 you did not tell us you failed to
 you forgot to
 you neglected to
 you should know
 your apparent disregard of our previous request leaves us no alternative
 your stubborn silence

The following list contains irksome expressions to be avoided, particularly when used with
"you" and "your."
Questionable Humor
Humor is often quite effective in business writing. However, before you try to be funny, be
sure your humor is good-natured and appropriate for the situation

Belittling Statements
Talking down to or belittling a person is another form of discourtesy that can have a
profoundly unfavorable effect, as in the following case:

Correctness

The correctness principle comprises more than proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. A
message may be perfect grammatically and mechanically but still insult or lose a customer
and fail to achieve its purpose. The term correctness, as applied to a business message,
means the writer should:
 Use the right level of language
 Check accuracy of figures, facts, and words
 Apply all other pertinent C qualities

Use the Right Level of Language

The three levels of language-formal, informal, and substandard-overlap because of ever-
changing nature of languages. Some words once considered substandard have moved into the

37 | P a g e
informal level, and some once-informal words are now acceptable on a formal level. The
first two-formal and informal language are both correct, but they are quite different from one
another, have different uses, and should not be interchanged.

The formal level of language is used for writing scholarly dissertations, master's and doctoral
theses, legal documents, top-level government agreements, and other materials in which
formality is expected: The expressions used are often long, unconversational, and
impersonal-just what the term formal implies.

In contrast, the informal level refers to the language of business-for letters, reports,
newspapers, and other business communications. Instead of formal words, you will use short,
well-known, and conversational words, as the following list illustrates:

Formal Informal Formal Informal

anticipate expect endeavor try
ascertain find out interrogate ask
conflagration fire procure get
deem think (believe) terminate end
edifice building utilize use

The third level of language-substandard-should be avoided. If you use words on this level in
writing (or in speaking), your readers will begin to question your ability to use good English.
Here are a few examples:

Substandard Acceptable Substandard Acceptable

ain't isn't, aren't haven't got don't have
between you between you in regards to regarding

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 and I     and me irregardless regardless
can't hardly can hardly nohow anyway
hadn't ought shouldn't should of should have

The following sentences illustrate the three levels of language:

Formal Although item 21 is enumerated in this report, the writer has ascertained that it
is currently not in the organization's inventory nor in the writer's possession
Informal Although item 21 is listed in the report, it is not in our stock now and I don't
have it either.
Substandard Irregardless of the report that item ain't on our shelves now, and I haven't got it
either.

Check Accuracy of Figures, Facts, and Words

Absolute accuracy is essential for effective written and oral messages. When figures,
facts, and some words are incorrectly used, they can cause serious problems.

Names, Occupational Titles, and Parallel Language

In referring to men and women, speakers and writers should, whenever possible, treat the
sexes equally-by using the individuals' own names, nonsexist titles, and parallel language.

Own Names: Women should be referred to by their own names in the same ways
that men are. Both should be called by their full names, by first or last names only,
or by titles. Unnecessary reference to a woman's marital status should be avoided.
Whether married or not, a woman may be referred to by the name by which she
chooses to be known, whether her name is her original or her married name, or a
combination (Smith-Jones).
No Yes
Ron Smith and Helen Ron Smith and Helen Brown Helen
Helen and Smith and Ron
Mrs. Brown and Smith Ms. Brown (because she prefers Ms.)
and Mr. Smith
Miss Kohn and David Green Hilda Kohn and David Green, or
Miss Kohn and Mr. Green, or Dr.
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 Kohn and Dr. Green

Occupational Titles Ending in -Man. Whenever possible, occupational titles should be

nonsexist. Terms ending in -man may be replaced by terms that can include members of
either sex, unless they refer to a particular person.

Yes, for Men Yes, for Men or Women

businessman business executive, businessperson, manager

cameraman camera operator, photographer, technician

chairman chairperson, chairman and chairwoman, head,
leader, coordinator, moderator, person presiding at (or chairing)
a meeting, presiding office, or chair
congressman member of Congress, representative (but Congressman Koch
and Congresswoman Swanson)
mailman, postman mail carrier, letter carrier
salesman sales representative, salesperson, salesclerk, sales agent, sales
associate.

Parallel Language: Words like the following should be in parallel terms:

No Yes
men and ladies Men and women, gentlemen and ladies
Man and wife husband and wife

UNIT SUMMARY

Effective written and oral business messages should be adapted to the purpose and receiver of
each message. The basic business communication principals also known as the seven C
qualities-provide guidelines for choosing content and style of presentation. The four
discussed in this chapter are competences, conciseness, consideration, and concreteness. The
complete message should contain all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction you

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desire. You can make your messages complete by answering all questions asked, giving
something extra when desirable, and checking for the five W’s and H (who, what, when,
where, why, how) as well as any other essentials.

A concise message includes all necessary ideas and facts in the fewest possible words without
sacrificing the other C qualities. You can shorten or omit wordy expressions by using single-
word substitutes, eliminating “which and “that” clauses whenever possible, and avoiding
overuse of “it is” (or “was”) and “there is” (or “are” or “were”) for sentence beginnings. The
message should include only facts relevant to its purpose. Sentences should omit pompous
words, irrelevant details, excessive adjectives, and statements the receiver already knows.
You can avoid unnecessary repetition of long names by using pronouns, initials, or shorter
names. The concise message helps emphasize important points and saves costly time for both
sender and receiver.

Considerate means you are genuinely thoughtful of your message recipients and consider
their probable reactions to your messages. You can indicate you attitude by focusing on
“you,” the reader or listener; by showing benefit to or interest in the receiver; by emphasizing
positive, pleasant facts; and by applying integrity and ethics-consistently fair treatment,
honesty, and sincerity. Consideration involves the golden rule-showing to others the same
fairness and honesty we expect for ourselves. Remember, both your own integrity and that of
your company are revealed in your business messages.

Good concrete writing and speaking include specific facts and figures, with examples.
Generally you should use active rather than passive verbs and place action in verbs, not in
nouns or infinitives. To help make messages vivid and specific you can use comparisons,
figurative language, and concrete instead of abstract nouns, plus well-chosen adjectives and
adverbs.

The complete message should contain all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction
you desire. You can make your messages complete by answering all questions asked, giving
something extra when desirable, and checking for the five W's and H (who, what, when,
where, why, how) as well as any other essentials.

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A concise message includes all necessary ideas all and facts in the fewest possible words
without sacrificing the other C qualities. You can shorten or omit wordy expressions by using
single-word substitutes, eliminating "which" and "that" clauses whenever possible, and
avoiding overuse of "it is" (or "was") and "there is" (or "are" Or "were") for sentence
beginnings.

The message should include only facts relevant to its purpose. Sentences should omit
pompous words, irrelevant details, excessive adjectives, and statements the receiver already
knows. You can avoid unnecessary repetition of long names by using pronouns, initials, or
shorter names. The concise message helps emphasize important points and saves costly time
for both sender and receiver.

Considerate means you are genuinely thoughtful of your message recipients and consider
their probable reactions to your messages. You can indicate you attitude by focusing on
"you," the reader or listener; by showing benefit to or interest in the receiver; by emphasizing
positive, pleasant facts; and by applying integrity and ethics-consistently fair treatment,
honesty, and sincerity. Consideration involves the golden rule-showing to others the same
fairness and honesty we expect for ourselves. Remember, both your own integrity and that of
your company are revealed in your business messages.

Good concrete writing and speaking include specific facts and figures, with examples.
Generally you should use active rather than passive verbs and place action in verbs; not in
nouns or infinitives. To help make messages vivid and specific you can use comparisons,
figurative language, and concrete instead of abstract nouns, plus well-chosen adjectives and
adverbs.

EXERCISES
1. Correct the following sentences so that the meanings are clear. If necessary, use more
than one concise sentence.
a. Ato Dendir visited factory employees May 9 and lectured on "Destructive Pests." A
large number were present.
b. Working in a grocery, several professors chat with him daily.
c. Although working full time on an outside job, Lucy’s grades remained good.
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 d. When only 4 years old, this customer's mother died.
2. Correct the errors in the following paragraph:
In regard to your letter of the fifteenth, let me explain our policy on our Certificates of deposit.
Your certificate comes due on November 9, 2009. At this time the interest check will be
dispersed as you indicated at the time of your initial deposit and the certificate will be
automatically renewed unless you contact us prior to the expiration date.
3. Exercises on choice of words: Choose the correct word or words that should be used in
each sentence listed below.
a. This act will not (effect, affect) my confidence in you.
b. I am (anxious, eager) to (tell, advise) you that you are right.
c. (Continuous, continual) rains are drenching the fields.
d. We sold (fewer, less) fans last month.

REFERENCES
1. Murphy, H.A. Hilderbrandt (1991) Effective Business Communication, McGraw Hill
Publishing : New York.
2. Marry Cullinan (1993) Business Communication: Principles and Processes, South-
Western: Singapore.
3. Sorenson et.al (1997)Business and Management Communication, Prentice-Hall:New
Jersey.
4. Daniels and Spiker (1998) Perspectives on Organizational Communication, Brown and
Bendhamark Publishers: Madison.
5. Bovee and Thrill (1992) Business Communication Today, McGraw-Hill Inc.:
Sanfransisco.

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 UNIT THREE

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

UNIT OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Recognize the barriers that impede communication
 Solve common communication problems

UNIT INTRODUCTION
Recognizing the most common barriers to effective business communication can help you
prevent them from occurring. These barriers, also called noise, can occur at any stage of the
communication process. They may take place as the sender selects material to be communi-
cated, during the passage of the message through its channel, or as the receiver gets the
message. Similar problems can occur if the receiver sends feedback to the sender.

Some of these barriers are verbal, while others are nonverbal. Some exist in the environment.
Others are inside the people sending and receiving the messages.

UNIT OUTLINE
3.1 Examining Barriers in the World around You
3.2 Examining Barriers inside You
3.3 Examining Barriers between People
3.4 Disorganization
3.5 Information Overload

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 3.6 Serial Distortion

3.1 Examining Barriers in the World around You

Innumerable barriers to effective communication exist in the world around you. Distractions,
problems of space and distance, poor physical appearance, or the use of a wrong
communication channel can impede the free flow of messages.

Distractions
Many things are distracting: noise, bright colors, and sudden movements. Noisy offices, for
example, seriously impede day-to-day communication in many organizations; transmitting
and hearing messages in such settings become arduous tasks.

Sending or receiving messages may also be difficult in some environments because so many
other things compete for attention. Perhaps telephones are ringing; customers are asking for
help; people are hurrying to and fro.

Space and Distance

Where people sit or stand can be an important factor in their receiving and transmitting
messages. If you have ever sat in a classroom with people blocking your view of the
instructor, you may remember how difficult it was to concentrate on what was happening in
class. Some spatial arrangements facilitate communication, while others impede it.

Of course, the distance between sender and receiver also affects their communication. A
telephone conversation is less direct and immediate than a face-to-face conversation. Because
you are only hearing a voice, not seeing an entire person, you may find it more difficult to
understand or remember a telephone conversation.

Physical Appearance
If you have ever watched a movie when the sound was bad or the reel had to be stopped, you
know how irritating the experience is. The effect of the film is lost because you are annoyed.
An advertisement with too much small print or confusing graphics can prevent potential

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consumers from reading it: The appearance is as important as the content of the ad.

Similarly, a letter that is typed poorly, is visually unattractive, or contains typographical

errors may be irritating and distracting to a reader. Using a correct format for a letter, report,
or memo is an important part of business communication; so is good grammar, spelling,
punctuation, and word usage.

Many times, also, the appearance of the person sending or receiving the message has an
effect on the transmission of the message.

Inappropriate Channel
Another factor in poor communication can be the choice of an inappropriate channel to
transmit a message. In some cases, a personal conversation will be more appropriate than a
memo. At other times, a letter will be more effective than a telephone call.

3.2 Examining Barriers inside You

Naturally, your state of mind strongly affects your ability to send or receive a message. No
doubt you have noticed that digesting information is easier on some days than on others. You
may find yourself not listening or paying attention for one reason or another.

Lack of Interest or Knowledge

If you are bored by a topic being discussed, you may simply tune it out. Almost every student
learns to do this in some classes, and most employees do too.

Sometimes the tuning out may be the result of confusion rather than lack of interest. You
might well have trouble concentrating in class on a subject you know nothing about. Other
times, you might stop paying attention because the material is too familiar or is being
presented in a way that does not catch your attention. You do have control over your
wandering attention; you need to concentrate, to keep yourself focused on the material.

Internal Distractions

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Just as frequently, you may receive messages poorly because you have other things on your
mind. You can think much faster than you can speak; therefore, you have lots of time as a
listener to think about other things while still catching the point of what someone is saying.
At any moment, however, your internal distraction may take precedence over the speaker's
message. At that point, communication breaks down.

The Right Kind Of Listening

When Jerry Rogoway took over as president of Mode O'Day, he had serious problems to
solve. The company's 460 franchised women's clothing stores were in towns that were too
small compared to major department stores or shopping malls. But the previous management
had decided to change the emphasis of the clothing lines to the low-priced end.
That reduced the retail chain’s investment in merchandise-which it was in the interests of
owners-but displeased the customers.

Rogoway, president since the beginning of the year listened both to franchisees-all of whom
are women-customers.
"We have been doing a lot of listening," Rogoway says. "The customer has told us
that she wants quality as well as variety, and is willing to pay for that"

As a result, Rogoway says, the company has learned that it should be getting back to basics
by serving the customer with a full range of clothing in all sizes as it had when it was
founded: "We have shifted back to what it was that made this company grow."

As part of listening, says Rogoway, the company has tried to make its franchisees part of the
decision making process. "I have an open line. I talk to anyone, I answer all their letters, and I
require that everybody take time with franchisees so that we hear their side of the story."

The franchisees are telling the home office what kinds of merchandise they need. "When
you're dealing with a chain our size," Rogoway says, "you have to be aware of geographical
and economic differences. You don't send the same things to Phoenix that you send to
Minneapolis."

3.3 Examining Barriers between People

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Often communication problems occur simply because people do not like each other, are
afraid of each other, or have some preconceptions about each other that interfere with the
message.

These preconceptions often affect upward communication. Employees may be reluctant to

speak their minds to managers for fear of reprisals, or employees may adjust the message so
it is in keeping with what they think a manager wants to hear.

A common internal barrier is the emotional state of the sender or receiver. If you have ever
quarreled with someone, you know that misunderstandings occur when people are angry or
upset.

Even less extreme emotions, however, can interfere with the transmission of messages. If you
are slightly depressed or annoyed, you may send or receive messages ineffectively; similarly,
if you are extremely happy, you may well ignore feedback from others.

Many communication breakdowns also occur because senders of messages make faulty
assumptions about their audience. Writers and speakers are frequently so focused on
themselves that they are unable or unwilling to recognize the differences between themselves
and their readers or listeners. The following are common errors that writers and speakers
make about their audiences.

Seven False Assumptions about Receivers

1. The receiver has the same interests or concerns as the sender. Writers and speakers
often assume that other people are as interested in a topic as they are. Absorbed in their
subject, they may write numerous letters or memos or take up other people's valuable
time with telephone calls and personal conversations. Such writers or speakers may not
notice that the feedback they receive is less than enthusiastic; they may wonder why their
telephone calls are not returned.

Suggestions: When writing or speaking, consider whether your receivers are apt to be
interested. If you suspect their interest level is low, try to tailor your message specifically
48 | P a g e
 to a part of the topic that affects them the most. In some situations, you may want to
choose another audience for your message.

2. The receiver has time to read or listen to the message. Even receivers who are interested
in a topic may not have time to focus on that problem or situation at that moment. A
manager dealing with several crucial problems simultaneously may not be able to read a
full report within a short time of receiving it or respond fully in a personal conversation.

Suggestions: Be alert to your receivers' situations. Ask courteously when someone will
have time to discuss an issue with you. Keep your message concise. Maintain a sense of
proportion: Consider which issues really need immediate attention and which do not.
3. The receiver is familiar with the situation being discussed. Specialists in a field or
people who have been concentrating on an issue may forget that others do not have
relevant data or background. As a result, messages will simply confuse the receiver, and
communication will fail.

Suggestions: Provide brief synopses of data or background. When writing a report, for
instance, add a summary or appendixes that will help a reader understand the history of a
problem; when speaking, begin with a brief overview or provide written materials that a
receiver can look at later. Always consider what your reader or listener does and does
not already know.

4. The receiver has the same business goals as the sender. Although presumably everyone
in a company is working toward that company's overall success, not everyone is focused
on achieving the same organzational goals. People who work in advertising will have dif-
ferent immediate goals than the people designing a product or the people dealing with
legal or accounting issues.

Suggestions: Carefully consider your listeners' and readers' priorities. For instance, if you
are concerned about the cost of a product, you will need to address the issue differently
when communicating with designers than when communicating with the accounting
department.

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5. The receiver has the same cultural values and attitudes as the sender. Many writers and
speakers assume their readers and listeners have the same background as they do. The
modern workplace, however, is diverse. People from different cultural and ethnic
backgrounds work together. Not only are many companies composed of people from
around the world, but also thousands of companies have international branches, suppliers,
and clients. The possibility always exists for communication problems because of cultural
misunderstandings.

Suggestions: Avoid judging people by how similar or different they are from you.
Instead, research the characteristics of the cultures you encounter most frequently. Note
individual verbal and nonverbal behaviors of different cultures as well as basic values,
standards, thought processes, and attitudes. make your communication according to the
cultural norms of your receiver.

6. A reader or listener is biased by physical handicap, gender, age, or ethnic background.

The biases or prejudices of a speaker or writer can severely impede effective
communication. Consider these situations: A job interviewer speaks very slowly to a
candidate who is visually impaired; a broker signs his letter “Ato Berhe” and sends it to a
client whom he addresses as "Berhanu"; a young employee and asks if the company had
been as exciting "in his day" as it is now; a white employee asks an African American
colleague, "How do you people feel about the tax issue?"; a manager tells an employee
from Japan to write up the budget for a project because "all you people are good at math."
In each situation, the intended message may be transmitted, but the good will of the
receiver may be lost because the speaker has stereotyped or misjudged the receiver.

Suggestions: Honestly assess your own biases. If you recognize that you tend to
stereotype people in certain ways, you may be more able to overcome your prejudices.
Remember that a member of a group may not wish to be considered a spokesperson for
that group. Use the you-attitude: How will your listeners and readers feel about the way
you have addressed them? An honest response to this question should help you remove
bias from your spoken and written communication.

7. The person addressed will be the only receiver of the message. Letters, memos, and
50 | P a g e
 reports are often passed on to people whom the writer did not originally consider as
receivers. Company presidents pass reports on to vice-presidents or managers; department
heads pass memos on to everyone in the department; managers reroute letters to more
appropriate readers. As business documents circulate, communication breakdowns can
occur because the writer did not anticipate barriers caused by the readers' interest,
expertise, language, or cultural differences.

Suggestions: You can not anticipate every reader for every document you write.
However, you can make an educated guess: Your letter of application may be read by a
personnel specialist before it is passed on to the accounting department; your memo on
the cost of a software package may be read by the department head as well as by your
immediate supervisor; your progress report on a project may be circulated throughout
several departments.

3.4 Disorganization

Another potential communication barrier is disorganization. When a message is

disorganized, the major points become lost or the receiver becomes too confused to
understand the message. When writing or speaking, you will find that careful planning
will greatly increase the effectiveness of your message.

Suggestions: Whether you are speaking or writing, organize the components of your
message so the receiver knows what to expect and recognizes the major points. A major
concept, for instance, should not get lost in the middle of less important material.

To emphasize a major point in a written communication, you may use several

approaches:
 Tell your readers that the point is important
 Repeat your point for emphasis
 Put major points at the beginning or end of a paragraph
 Use a short paragraph to attract the reader's attention.
 Highlight the point in a list (like this one).

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  Use underlining, CAPITAL LETTERS, or boldface to make the point look
important
 Use headings and subheadings as we do in this text
 Use visuals to reinforce verbal messages

Make sure, too, that you include sufficient material so that an uninformed receiver will
have no trouble following your message. And delete material that your receiver does not
need. Your audience analysis will help you figure out how much your listeners or
readers already know and what they need to know.

3.5 Information Overload

Another common communication problem is information overload. People can take in

only so much information at once (one reason why college courses are usually divided
into one- or two-hour classes rather than five- or six-hour ones). When the sender
overloads a message with too much information, a sizable portion will inevitably be lost
on the receiver.

Suggestions: To help people comprehend your message easily, focus on your topic.
Highlight one major point and important supporting data. Delete material that is not
strictly relevant to your major points. Limit the length of your written or oral
presentations.

3.6 Serial Distortion

The message becomes distorted as it passes from person to person. Everyone perceives,
selects, and transmits messages differently. As a result, when information is passed
through several people, the original message is inevitably altered.

Suggestions: To avoid serial distortion, avoid letting your message pass through too
many people. A company president who relies on several intermediaries to pass
information to employees may well find that the message has been distorted by the time

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it reaches the employees.

Summary
To communicate effectively, be aware of the potential barriers to communication. These
include distractions such as noise and distance as well as barriers such as emotions,
cultural differences, and biases. Even language itself can act as a barrier to good
communication.

To overcome these potential problems, consider both your message and your audience
while organizing ideas; choose your words carefully; decide on an appropriate channel;
create an effective external environment.

Exercises
1. Have you ever found your reception of a message impeded by the sender’s
appearance? Describe the situation.
2. Have you ever encountered a communication problem that resulted from two
people’s different interpretations of a word? Describe the situation.
3. What is information overload? Give an example.
4. Have you ever experienced serial distortion? Describe the experience.
5. Have you ever encountered a communication problem that resulted from personal
biases? Describe the situation.

REFERENCES
6. Murphy, H.A. Hilderbrandt (1991) Effective Business Communication, McGraw Hill
Publishing: New York.
7. Marry Cullinan (1993) Business Communication: Principles and Processes, South-
Western: Singapore.
8. Sorenson et.al (1997) Business and Management Communication, Prentice-Hall:New
Jersey.
9. Daniels and Spiker (1998) Perspectives on Organizational Communication, Brown and
Bendhamark Publishers: Madison.
10. Bovee and Thrill (1992) Business Communication Today, McGraw-Hill Inc.:
Sanfransisco.
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 UNIT FOUR
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly reading this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain various categories of written communication channels

 Understand how to develop effective business letters
 Describe internal written communications channels
 Understand how to develop an effective employment communications
 Describe how to organize effective business reports

UNIT INTRODUCTION

Written communication covers letters, electronic mail, memorandums, bulletins, notices,

websites, reports, government orders, budget documents and policy documents. In many
cases, substantial time and effort are spent in preparing written communication. Written
communication has several advantages over oral communication. It provides a permanent
record of the message and preferred to as evidence of what has occurred or what was stated.
Hence it can be repeatedly referred to. The receiver of the written communication can read
and re-read it till he thinks that he has properly understood it. It can be disseminated widely
with a minimum effort and allows the sender to think through the intended message carefully.

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If the communicating parties are far off from each other, even beyond telephonic range,
written communication is the only option. Written communication is helpful in reducing
disputes and communication frictions. It also reduces the chances for misinterpretation,
misrepresentation and distortion of information.

However, it has several disadvantages including the expense of preparation, its relatively
impersonal nature, possible misunderstanding by the receiver and the delay in feedback
regarding the effectiveness of the message. Unlike in the oral communication, quick
clarification is not possible in written communication. Further, it is time consuming and
suffers from lack of flexibility. If poorly worded, written communication can cause lots of
confusion.

In this framework, in this unit you will learn about various categories of written
communication channels that are commonly used in organizations.

SECTION ONE: BUSINESS LETTERS

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Understand how to use letters to communicate effectively

 Explain the costs and benefits of writing Letters

 Explain the important components of a business letter

 Discuss of the basics of developing effective business correspondence

SECTION OUTLINE
1.1 Overview
1.2 Writing Letters When Record-Keeping Is Important
1.3 Using Letters to Communicate Inexpensively
1.4 Representing Yourself and Your Company
1.5 Determining Costs and Benefits of Writing Letters
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 1.6 Using an Appropriate Format
1.7 Writing Letters that Ask for Information
1.8 Writing Letters that Make Requests
1.9 To develop effective business correspondence
1.10 To make inquiries that get the results you want

1.1 Overview

Despite the importance of telephone and electronic communications to today's

businesses, letters are used extensively for external communications. Letters flow
between a company and customers, vendors, suppliers, government agencies, other
companies, and a host of other readers.

Rather than becoming less vital to high-tech offices, letters are actually gaining
importance. The computer has made mass mailings more efficient and more
personalized. Increasingly, too, companies need to communicate with huge numbers of
people over a wide geographical area: One-to-one contact on the telephone and in
person can become impossibly expensive and time-consuming. Fax machines also have
contributed to the proliferation of letters in many companies because letters sent
electronically can be received as quickly as a telephone call.

1.2 Writing Letters When Record-Keeping Is Important

Letters are particularly useful when record-keeping and costs are important concerns.
Many businesspeople have learned the disasters that may result from "doing business on
a handshake." Any time you want a tangible record of items such as transactions,
agreements, and financial terms, they should be recorded in a letter. You will often find
it useful to send a letter verifying whatever was decided during a telephone conversation
or in a meeting; you should definitely send a letter confirming the terms of any oral
agreement. Orders, bills, terms of insurance policies, employment agreements, and any
financial transactions should be recorded in a letter or other document.

1.3 Using Letters to Communicate Inexpensively

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Letters may often be the least expensive way to communicate effectively. Telephone
calls or personal meetings may not be efficient, financially feasible, or even possible.

Letters are least expensive in the following situations:

 When you need to communicate the same message to large numbers of people.
Computers have helped to combine the cost savings of mass mailings with the
personalized touches of individualized letters.
 When you need to communicate with people in distant parts of the country and
the world. You can waste both time and money making long-distance telephone
calls.
 When you are communicating a routine message that can most efficiently be
transmitted in a letter. Orders, bills, subscriptions, insurance claims, and so on can
often be handled through preprinted form letters.

1.4 Representing Yourself and Your Company

Our letters have a dual function: They are a personal message from you, and they
represent your company. A promotional letter from a magazine publisher, for example,
may be signed by the company president, but readers see the letter as being from Time
or News week. Similarly, readers will automatically associate the characteristics of your
letters with your company: Inaccuracy, various types of errors, or a poor tone will affect
their view of the company itself. A well-written letter, on the other hand, can make a
reader a lifetime supporter of an organization. A good business letter is good promotion
for a company.

Strengths Weaknesses

Message can be saved Feedback is delayed

Business Letters Message can reach many Message may seem
people inexpensively impersonal

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 Telephone Calls Feedback is immediate Message cannot be
Message is personal saved easily Calls may be
expensive(but not always)

1.5 Determining Costs and Benefits of Writing Letters

Business letters may be more efficient and less expensive than some other means of
communication, but they are not cheap. Sending out one business letter may cost a
company more than $10-including the writer’s time, typist’s time, stationary, and
postage(on the basis of studies made in U.S.A)

A poorly written letter, moreover, will cost even more than an

A poorly written letter, moreover, will cost even more than an effective letter. A poor
business letter can not only lead to additional costly correspondence, but also spoil the
company’s goodwill.

1.6 Using an Appropriate Format

The appearance and layout of a business letter are important to the image you are
conveying. Like good mechanics, the appropriate appearance of a letter enhances your
credibility and professionalism as well as that of the organization you represent.

Most companies have their own stationery and a standard letter

Most companies have their own stationery and a standard letter format so that their
correspondence is consistent in appearance. You should, however, be familiar with the
parts of a letter and the conventions that accompany them.

Heading (see sample letters on pages that follow)

The heading usually consists of a printed letterhead on business stationery. The heading
consists of your company's name and address.

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Date
Type the month, day, and year.
September 2, 20xx

Inside Address
The inside address consists of the name of the person to whom the letter is being sent, that
person's official title (such as Chairman), the name of the company or organization, and the
address. Also include a courtesy title such as Ato, w/ro., or Dr.

Attention Line
Attention: Customer Service Department
An attention line is optional. You may use an attention line to direct your letter to a certain
person or department. The attention line appears below the inside address. Usually you will
not use a salutation if you use an attention line.

If you use an attention line, the first line of your inside address should be the name of a
company or organization, not the name of an individual. When you use an attention line, put
it on the envelope as well as on the letter.

Salutation
The salutation usually coincides with the first line of the inside address. Thus, if you’re
inside address reads Ato Hussen Endris, your salutation would read Dear Ato Hussen. The
salutation is usually followed by a colon.

Subject Line
SUBJECT: ACCOUNT NUMBER 234-56-9110
The subject line, which is often capitalized, is an option you may to indicate the purpose,
subject, and urgency of your message Written for your primary reader; the subject is also
used for filing materials.

Usually the subject line opens with the word subject followed by a colon and a heading or
title. The subject line usually appears below the salutation, but occasionally it appears above
the salutation. In the simplified letter style, a subject line is used in place of a salutation and
59 | P a g e
attention line. This format simplifies typing but decreases the personal elements of the letter.

Body
The message in your letter begins below subject line. Single-space the body; double-space
between paragraphs. Most letters are typed single-spaced, with double spaces between
paragraphs, before and after the salutation, and before the complimentary close.

Complimentary Close
The complimentary close, which appears two lines after the end of the body, is usually
followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized: (Sincerely,).

Company Name
The name of the company, often in capital letters, is sometimes inserted under the
complimentary close. This format is used particularly when the writer is acting as a legal
agent for the company.
Sincerely,
J. N. MERAWI, INC.

Dawit Tolosa
Vice-President

V & H CONSULTANTS
6789 Felton A venue • Seal Harbor, SC 23678

May 23, 20xx

Mr. George Bortz

Assistant Manager
Nobbley’s Department Store
1298 N. Deerfield Avenue
Merriman, SC 29766

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Dear Mr. Bortz:

Subject: Research on Improved Security System

During our telephone conversation on Wednesday, April 23, Ms. Charlene Simpson informed
me that Nobbley's Department Store has been experiencing increased shoplifting problems in
the last year. She asked me whether V & H Consultants could research the problem and
provide some recommendations on how Nobbfey's could effectively increase security.

We are very interested in the project and would like to discuss it with you in more detail.
Then we will develop a proposal outlining our methodology, budget, and timeframe. I enclose
our company brochure.
I will call Nobbley's next week to set up a meeting at your convenience.

Sincerely yours,

Beryl Jones, Manager

Research Department

BJ/af
Enclosure

Copy: Mr. John Radner

Dr. Laura Turner

P.S. Congratulations on opening your new store in Bay-fair Mall.

Full block letter style. With the full block letter style, every line begins at the left
margin. Because it is easy to type, this format is gaining in popularity. The subject
line may be underlined or printed in capital letters. This letter also shows the
standard punctuation for business letters.

61 | P a g e
V & H CONSULTANTS
6789 Felton Avenue • Seal Harbor, SC 23678

                                                                      May 23, 20xx

Ms. Charlene Simpson, Manager

Nobbley'S Department Store
1298 N. Deerfield Avenue
Merriman, SC 29766

Dear Ms. Simpson:

SUBJECT: RESEARCH ON IMPROVED SECURITY SYSTEM

During our telephone conversation on Wednesday, April 23, you informed me

that Nobbley's Department Store has been experiencing increased shoplifting
problems in the last year. You asked me whether CCC Consulting Services
could research the problem and provide some recommendation; on how
Nobbley's could effectively increase security.

We are very interested in the project and would like to discuss it with you in
more detail. Then we will develop a proposal outlining our methodology,
budget, and timeframe. I enclose our company brochure.

I will call you next week to set up a meeting at your convenience.

                                                Sincerely yours,

62 | P a g e
                                                 Beryl Jones, Manager
                                                Research Department

BJ/af

Enc: brochure
Copy: Mr. John Radner
Dr. Laura Turner

Semi-block letter style: The semiblock letter style is the format most commonly
used in business correspondence. With this style, each paragraph usually begins at the
left margin. The date, complimentary close, and signature begin at the center of page
or to the right of the center. The subject line may be indented or, as in this example,
centered. The subject line in this example is also capitalized. You may use the
standard punctuation as here or the open style of punctuation. With open punctuation,
no colon or comma appears after the salutation, and no comma appears after the
complimentary close.

Signature
Sign your name above your typed name and title. Do not give yourself a courtesy title.

Reference Initials
Reference initials are those of the writer (capitalized) and the typist (small letters) separated
by a colon or dash. Sometimes the typist's initials appear alone in small letters.
BH: ed or BH/ed

Enclosure Line
If you have included enclosures with your letter, you may write Enclosure, Enclosures, or
Enc. below the reference initials. You may describe the enclosure: Enclosure: Resume.

Copy Line
Copy: Professor Yared Gidey

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A copy line is used to list readers other than the person to whom the letter is addressed.
(Readers are usually listed in alphabetical order.)

The notation “bc” means blind copy.

bc: W/ro Lucy Fekadu

This notation is used on the copy being sent to W/ro Lucy, but only on the original letter and
the rest of the copies(if any).

Unless a postscript is used, the copy line is the last line of business letter.

Postscript
Postscript can be used if some message is forgotten after the letter is completed and ready to
be sent. If you wish to include a postscript, make it the last item on your page. Begin it at the
left margin two lines below the preceding section. You may begin the postscript with P.S. or
PS if you like. Avoid using postscripts too frequently; they may indicate poor planning.

Second Page of Letter

At the top of the second page of a business letter, put the name of the person addressed, the
page number, and the date. You may put the information vertically or horizontally.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ato Zena G/Selase -2-              July 17,20xx

Or
Ato Zena G/Selase
July 17, 20xx
Page 2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES
1908 Ridge Avenue
                                  Gillian, MI 56909
                                    February 27, 20xx
Dr. Harvey Olsen
Chair, Department of Geology
Whelan College
Baytown, MI 56903

Dear Dr. Olsen:

We were all so delighted to hear that a former resident of Gillian had received a
prestigious prize for work in geology. Your work on discovering the age of ancient
rocks must be simply fascinating.

The Cultural Society of Gillian is having a luncheon on Sunday, April 1, and we hope
you can attend. We will have lunch in the Historical Museum cafeteria and then watch
a short slide show on the museum, which was built in 1880, as you might already
know. (There should be about 55 members in attendance.) Then we were hoping that
you might give us a few words on your geological research.

Nothing too long--maybe thirty minutes or so-on what you've been doing.
It is important that you let us know by March 15 if you can attend our luncheon. We
need enough time to send out the invitations to our members.
I hope we get an affirmative answer:
Sincerely,

Nancy Taylor
Secretary
Cultural Society of Gillian

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 1. Answer to the following questions based on the letter above.
a. What is the main point of the letter?
b. What do you think should be included in the opening paragraph of the letter?
c. Is anything missing from the letter? Explain.
d. Should anything be deleted? Explain.
e. Has the writer used you-attitude? Explain.
2. Why might correct writing mechanics and format be more important in an external
communication than in an interoffice memo?
3. Why do you think the appearance of business letters is so formalized? Would it be
more effective simply to get the message across and forget about aspects of format
such as spacing, correct placement of words, and so on? Explain.

1.7 Developing Effective Business Correspondence

Letters that make inquiries, requests, and orders constitute a large percentage of business
correspondence. Writing and responding to these letters may take up a significant portion of
your working hours.

If you often write the same types of letters to the same types of readers, then you will find
that you can significantly decrease the time you spend on various steps of the writing process.
Once you have accurately defined your goals and researched your audience while creating a
letter of inquiry, for example, you will not need to spend time on those tasks each time you
prepare a similar letter for similar readers.

With experience, you can create accurate and readable business correspondence without
spending inordinate amounts of time writing and correcting (revising). However, do not let
time-saving efforts decrease the will you wish to maintain with your readers. Your readers,
remember, are the key to your success. As in any communication effort, a routine letter that
emphasizes the writer and ignores the reader can leads to poor results.

Occasionally, you will also have to write special letters that required tact and a personal
touch. Letters of recommendation, appreciation congratulation, and condolence are not
66 | P a g e
routine; for these, you need to pay particular attention to both the emotions and needs of
readers.

1.7.1 Writing Letters that Ask for Information

Inquiry letters ask for information. To make sure you receive the information you want,
organize your letter carefully. Be as specific as you can and explain why you need the
information. Your letter should get to the point quickly and make it easy for the reader to
respond.

Enclosing a preaddressed stamped envelope or a postcard for the reader's response will
increase your chances of receiving the information you need.
____________________________________________________________________
Sample Outline for Letters of Inquiry
1. Open with request for information.
2. State reason for inquiry.
3. Ask specific questions in a list format.
4. Thank reader and state date by which the information is needed.
___________________________________________________________________

1.7.2 Writing Letters that Make Requests

Request letters usually demand more of their readers than do inquiries. Not just asking for
information, request letters ask for action. When writing a request letter, you are actually
trying to persuade the reader to do something. You will want to provide concrete detail that
makes your request seem reasonable and end with a clear, action oriented sentence or
paragraph to help the reader see exactly what you want done.
If your request is relatively simple or pleasant for the reader to accomplish, then open the
letter with your request. Make sure it is clear and specific.

If your request requires some special effort or cooperation from the reader, use a more tactful
approach.

 Sample Outline for a Difficult Sample Outline for Pleasant Request

Unpleasant Request 1. State request.
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 1. Open pleasantly. 2. Add any information the reader might
2. Give a reason for the request. need.
3. Make the request itself. 3. Thank reader.
4. Thank the reader and end
Positively

SECTION TWO: DEVELOPING INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Compose memos that are relevant and useful for internal communications

 Identify the standard parts of a memo

 Understand how to plan and organize memos effectively

SECTION OUTLINE
2.1 Communicating through memos
2.2 Parts of a memo
2.3 Making a plan

2.1 Communicating Through Memos

In studying business letters, you examined primarily external communications,

correspondence to people outside a company. Now you turn to internal communications, the
documents that flow within every organization, large and small.

Memorandums (memos) are the most common type of written communication in business.
Although they are similar to letters, memos have their own format and are used for different
purposes.

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In general, memos are used for less formal situations than letters are. A memo, for instance,
could be as informal as a few words written on a message pad. Where as a formal message,
such as a notice of resignation, would probably be written in a letter.

In studying business letters, you examined primarily external communications,

correspondence to people outside a company. Now you turn to internal communications, the
documents that flow within every organization, large and small.
Memorandums (memos) are the most common type of written communication in business.
Although they are similar to letters, memos have their own format and are used for different
purposes.
While a letter is mostly sent to one reader, a memo is apt to be sent to several readers
simultaneously. In general, memos are used for less formal situations than letters are. A
memo, for instance, could be as informal as a few words scrawled on a message pad,
whereas a formal message, such as a notice of resignation, would probably be written in a
letter.
Whether they work in marketing, financial planning, auditing, personnel, production, or
almost any other area, businesspeople often find they spend much of their work day writing
memos. Despite the proliferation of memos on almost every office desk in the world, how-
ever, people are rarely trained to write them effectively. In many companies, a random
sampling of these documents reveals the majority of memos to be incomplete, unclear,
verbose, offensively worded, or unnecessary.
Using the writing process and following a few guidelines will help make your memos more
readable and worthwhile

Before you begin the memo writing process, ask yourself:

 How many people need the information in this?
 Is the information simple or complicated?
 Do we need a written record of this information?
If only two or three people really need the information and the facts are simple, a phone call
might be more efficient than a memo. For example, you could call up your three fellow
committee members and remind them of an upcoming meeting instead of writing a memo
about it.
69 | P a g e
If you want the information kept on file, however, a memo is preferable. For example, if
you are announcing a change in policy or making a monthly tally of office costs, the
information should be on paper or on a disk.

A computer mail system can alleviate the paper problem in offices where employees have
access to computer networks. On the other hand, an old-fashioned bulletin board can be just
as effective in a small company, and it can cut paper and copying costs to an astonishing
extent.

2.2 Parts of a Memo

Like other types of business documents, memorandums have standard formats. Although
these formats vary from one organization to another, most have several points in common.
Some printed memo forms do not have a subject line, but many companies have memo
forms with headings that look like this:

TO:
FROM:
 SUBJECT:
  DATE:

Sometimes the headings are arranged in two columns:

TO:                   FROM:
SUBJECT:                   DATE:

Sometimes the date is at the top left of the memo, and sometimes it is on the right:
TO:                   DATE:
FROM:
SUBJECT:

Although filling out the appropriate information seems simple, consider a few points.

70 | P a g e
Limit your readers to those who need the information, and use names if you are sending the
memo to a small number of people.

In some cases, you may want to include the reader's title after his or her name: To: Zewdu
Falha, Sales Manager. Use this format particularly if you do not know the reader well or if
the memo is going to be kept on file. If you put the reader's title, also put your own: From:
Jonathan Feisa, Sales Representative. Usually a memo writer initials in front of the line on
which his or her name is typed. In some companies, courtesy titles such as Ato, W/ro, Mr.,
Mrs., Ms., and Dr. are used in memo headings. If you use a courtesy title for your reader,
use one for yourself:

TO:       Zewdu Falha

FROM: Jonathan Feisa

SUBJECT
Because readers should grasp the gist of a memo within moments, the most effective subject
lines are informative and specific. The subject line should also make readers want to read
the memo. Avoid upsetting your readers before they have even started reading!

Make sure that your memo titles are clear and straightforward. Avoid jargons like
"Implementation of Cost-Efficient Regulations" when you mean "How to Lower Our
Electricity Costs."

2.3 Making a Plan

Disorganization is one of the biggest problems with memos. People write them so fast and
so frequently the results are jumbled. If your information is worth putting in written form, it
is worth expressing clearly. Standard organizational patterns will often help you construct
an effective plan. Most memos three main parts:
1. An introduction stating the purpose of the memo
2. A central portion, often in list form, providing the specifics of the topic
3. A conclusion informing the readers what action they should take or expect.

71 | P a g e
Consider the following two memos:

TO: All Employees

FROM: Latrice Frye
SUBJECT: New Library
DATE: January 12, 19xx

On Monday, January 20, our new company library will be opening in

Room 213 of Building C. The books, journals, newspaper, and company
materials on file there will be useful for all of us.

The library, which will be staffed by a full-time secretary, will be open

from 9 a.m. until 5 p.m. every weekday.

Please join Marsha Higgins and me at 1 :30 p.m. on January 20 if you are
interested in a tour of the new facility.

  TO: David Guilder

FROM: Ann Howe
DATE: July 26, 19xx
SUBJJECT: Hiring Temporary Assistants

Please consider authorizing my department to hire two temporary clerical

assistants for August and September.

The whole staff has been working overtime almost every evening and weekend,
and many of them are exhausted from the extra hours. Additional part-time staff
would reduce anxiety and raise morale in the department. Having some
assistants will also enable us to do an outstanding job on the Bartson project,
which is an important one for the whole company.

Most important, given our recent cash-flow problems, estimate we will save
approximately $200 a week by hiring part-time assistants instead of paying
72 | P a g e
 overtime.

Please let me know by Friday whether we can hire the part-time assistants.
Thank you!

Exercises
1. Why are internal communications often more informal than external
communications?
2. Why is an appropriate tone important to a memo?
3. Visit an office in your college or in a local business. Ask if you may copy at least
two memos for use in your business communication course. Then in a page or two
analyze both memos for effectiveness:
a) Are they well organized?
Are they wordy or concise?
Are they visually effective? Explain.
Can you easily summarize their major points? What are they?

SECTION THREE: EMPLOYMENT COMMUNICATIONS

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Develop an effective resume appropriate to your background and goals

 Create job application letters that get the results you want

 Write effective letters for all facets of the employment process

SECTION OUTLINE
3.1 Resumes
3.2 Letters of employment

3.1 Resume

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A successful job search requires the full use of verbal and nonverbal communication skills: It
demands not only competency in one-on-one interviewing and group interactions, but also
effective persuasive writing and marketing.

3.2 Parts of a Resume

1. Opening section
a. Your name, address (school and/or home), telephone number.
b. Job or career objective
c. Summary of basic qualifications.
2. Education
a. Advanced schooling beyond high school-school names and locations, dates attended,
degrees and certificates (include military)
b. Major, significant, pertinent courses; academic honors; grade-point average, if high;
special skills; significant speeches, research reports
c. Positions, such as assistant in classes, grader or research assistant to instructor (these
could be under "work experience")
3. Work experience
a. Employer names and locations, dates (beginning and ending month and year), titles
and positions held, supervisory positions and number supervised, specific
accomplishments
b. Volunteer work, research, tutoring, publications, etc.
4. Achievements, awards, service activities.
a. School and community memberships, offices held, honors, publication
b. Travel, languages, self-support, other facts
5. Personal data - optional (unless job requires or state law forbids)
a. Age, health, military service, hobbies
b. Date of availability
6. References-usually provided "upon request"

Opening Section

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Information in the resume's opening section gives the reader a general picture of the
applicant-who you are, what you want, what you have to offer, and where you can be
contacted. (To protect privacy, examples in this chapter have fictitious names, addresses, and
figures.)

Heading
The resume heading can contain your name alone; your name and the title of the job you are
applying for; your name and address, plus your telephone number, or the name of the firm
receiving the job presentation, or both. Also, you can choose other words besides resume, as
in these examples:

1. Resume of Robert A. Fletcher for Retail Management

2. John O. Bowman
1504 Lamb Avenue
Peoria, IL 61610-0010
Phone: (309) 555-1072

3. Vita of Betty Jo Anderson for a position as Business

Teacher in the North Shore School District
4. Qualifications Brief for Joan Otto

Whatever title you choose, include your address and telephone number on your resume where
your prospective employer can see and use them easily, preferably in the opening section. If
you prefer to omit the address and phone number in the opening, you can include them in the
Personal Data section.

Job or Career Objective

Based on your self-assessment and a market analysis, you narrow your options into a single
sentence. It can be in the heading (see examples 1 and 3 above) or under a separate title.
You must decide whether to state a job objective. If yes, decide if it should be stated in terms
of a functional area, or stated with a specific industry in mind.

75 | P a g e
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
       Sample Resume__________________________________________________________
HOWARD SBUBBS
Campus Address Permanent Address
[Street] [City. State, ZIP] [Street]
[Telephone] [City. State, ZIP]
[Telephone]

Objective A position in marketing or advertising--offering business

administration knowledge with analytical writing and communication skills.
Education School of Business Administration
University [name. city. state]
B.B.A. degree candidate. May 20xx. Concentration in
marketing with interest in advertising. Member of Marketing
Club. Active on advertising and product management
committees. GPA = 3.16.
Business and Commerce
Community College [name. city. state]

A.A.-Associate in Arts degree, June 2009. Member of Phi Theta Kappa,

honorary fraternity. Received [name] Scholarship for Outstanding Community
College Student. GPA = 3.6.

Experience  May Department Stores: Famous-Barr                       [City. State]

Intern. Summer 2009. Worked directly with buyers, assistant buyers, store management, sales
associates, and senior merchandise management. In buying office, gained experience in
distribution, store communication, advertising, and financial analysis. As assistant
department manager, responsibilities included trend analysis, implementation of merchandise
'concepts, communication with buyers, promotion preparation, and motivation of sales force.

Skirboll and Garber Advertising                                            [City. state]

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Intern. Summer 2008. Gained experience in sales promotion, public relations, media
placement, agency presentations, client relations, copy writing, and commercial production.

Commerce Weekly                                                          [City, State]

Advertising display staff. January-April 2007. Responsible for creation and layout of ads, and
guidance of ads through the areas of artwork, typesetting, and billing.

B & S Lawn Maintenance                                         [City. State]

Owner and partner. Summers 2003-2006. Marketed our services to new and already
established areas of our working community. Increased customers from 15 in 2003 to 45 in
2006.
Activities Research assistant for professor of marketing. Leader of
"Gerlex Products" marketing term project; organized advertising agency
presentation of new marketing strategy for Gerlex baby food. Member Zeta
Beta Tau fraternity. Active on fundraising committees. Team member in
intramural softball and football. Participant in Dean's Seminar Program.

Avai1ab1e June 1, 2009. References furnished upon request.____________________

3.3 Job Application Letter

The application letter is just as much a sales letter as any message selling, a product or
service-and the resume is an enclosure. In your letter you tell the prospective employer what
you can do for her or he and why you feel you are qualified. You interpret only the important
points in your resume as they relate to the specific job requirements.

The checklist below may be a guide when you plan the content of your persuasive "sales"
application letter-organized by the AIDA plan. Subsequent pages discuss ways to develop
each item.
___________________________________________________________________________
Checklist for Job Application Letter

A. Attention (1 paragraph)
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1. Businesslike beginning. Usually choose one or two:
a. Summary-perhaps two or three outstanding qualifications
b. Name-an individual or office the reader is familiar with or publication in which the
reader's ad appeared
c. Question-for reader benefit
d. News item-related to employer
e. Other relevant reader-oriented statement
2. Mention of specific job or field o~ interest

B. Interest, Desire, Conviction (2 or 3 paragraphs)

1. Discussion of your qualifications from a reader-benefit or re interest viewpoint. Include:
a. Education and training-related to job requirements
b. Work experience-related to job requirements
c. Significant personal attitudes, interests, activities, and qualities related to job
requirements 2. Reference to resume (once)

C. Action (1 paragraph)
1. Request for interview at reader's convenience, with suggestions you will be available
2. Easy action
a. Phone number
b. Hours you can be reached
c. Reply envelope or card enclosed only rarely. Consider reader!

78 | P a g e
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sample Job Application Letter
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Masson Avenue
[City, State, ZIP]
February 6, 20xx

Mr. John Q. Largen Lorgen,

Constanz, and Associates
1820 Hightower Building
[City, State. ZIP]

Dear Mr. Lorgen:

Professor James Harns told me your firm is looking for a reliable staff supervisor. With
thorough university training in accounting' and related studies, facility with three languages,
and responsible work, I can be an asset to your firm.

To prepare adequately for a public accounting career, I have completed 40 hours in

accounting as an undergraduate at the University ~f [name] and 60 hours graduate studies at
the University' of [name]. where my grade point was 7.8 (8 = A), Besides my emphasis on
accounting, I also took courses such as electronic data processing, governmental taxation,
international accounting, and policy and control of large corporations.

Since your firm specializes in foreign accounts, I believe I can be of significant benefit in
international accounting because of my foreign language competence in French and German.
I have had considerable experience translating European subsidiary financial statements into
United States generally accepted accounting principles. Additionally, I made 'several trips
overseas to visit with German accountants, working with them as they prepared data for the
home office.

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As audit supervisor of a regional accounting firm, I also worked part-time for two years, as
shown on the enclosed resume. That position brought me into contact with both large and
small firms, while supervising two staff persons as they worked on payroll and long-range
financial forecasts. This experience will De 'useful in audit and analyses for cost control.
Equally important, I passed the C.P.A. examination on my first sitting.

Serving as treasurer of the accounting honorary and chairperson of two charity drives
required honesty, tact, and initiative. These qualities are a vital part of my personal code of
ethics as a public accountant.

Will you please call me at [telephone] to indicate a time when I can come, at your
convenience, to talk 'with you about joining your firm as 'a staff supervisor? I am usually
home after 4 p.m. each weekday.
Cordially,

David Tucko
Enclosure: Resume
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

EXERCISES
Resume and letter of application: Prepare a letter of application with an accompanying
resume for the career job you plan to get into after completion of your college education.
Address it to the firm of your choice and to the particular individual who should receive it.

To make this material as useful to you as possible, date the letter the month and year you
actually plan to send it. For example, if you're graduating this year, the date of the letter
should precede that of graduation by en time (four to nine months) so you'll have the job
when you're ready to work. If you're a sophomore and have at least two more years of co and
then two years of graduate school, again, use the date you'll actually be sending the letter.

Use only facts, so far as possible, in both your letter and resume. ] are dating the letter in the
future, assume the activities (especially schooling, work experience, government service) that

80 | P a g e
will most likely take place between now and then. This timing permits you to update the
written presentation when you're ready to revise, type, and actually send it.

Try to make your message and resume so convincing and selling that they will stand out from
many others that may be received the same day.

Both should be neatly and accurately typed-100 percent correct in spelling and accurate in
facts and figures.

SECTION FOUR: BUSINESS REPORTS

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Define reports and explain their characteristics

 Identify the basic importance of writing reports

 List the different parts included in front matter, main body and back matter of
reports

 Discuss the different steps required in preparing reports.

 Identify the different types of reports.

SECTION OUTLINE
4.1 Meaning and Characteristics of Reports
4.2 Importance of Reports
4.3 Structure of Reports
4.4 Preparatory Steps to Writing Reports
4.5 Types of Reports

4.1 Meaning and Characteristics of Reports

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As the business environment grows in its complexity, the importance of skillful
communication becomes essential in the pursuit of institutional goals. In addition to the need
to develop adequate statistical skills, you will find it necessary to effectively communicate to
others the results of your statistical studies. It is of little use to formulate solutions to business
problems without transmitting this information to others involved in the problem-solving
process.

Unfortunately, it seems that many business managers suffer from inadequate communication
skills. Many employers have adopted policies requiring job candidates to submit a brief
written report as part of the screening process.

Therefore, the purpose of this part is to illustrate some of the major principles of business
communication and the preparation of business reports. We examine the general purpose and
essential features of a report and stress the benefits of effective report writing. Emphasis is
placed on the customary form a business report should take and the format, content, and
purpose of its component parts

The word 'report' is derived from the Latin "reportare" which means to carry back (re =
back + portare = to carry). A report, therefore, is a description of an event carried back to
someone who was not present on the scene. Thus in a broad sense, many memorandums,
letters and news items are reports.

But the types of reports we are interested in are those which business executives and
administrators have to write as part of their duty. These relate either, to the work they
have done or to the activities of the organizations they belong to. Such reports are the
result of careful investigation, sound thinking, logical organization and clear writing and
they are presented in a conventional form sanctioned by long and varied experience.

A number of writers have made an attempt to answer the question 'What is a report'?
Let us consider some of these:
 In a very general sense a report is an account of something. (It) is usually an
answer to a question or a demand from some other person for information.
 A formal report presents in organized form the information that has been
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 requested by an authorized person.
 A report is a communication from someone who has information, to someone
who wants to use that information.
 A technical report is a written statement of the facts of a situation, project,
process or test; how these facts were ascertained; their significance; the
conclusions that have been drawn from them; the recommendations that are
being made.

Keeping in view the above points we may now define a report as follows:
A report is a formal communication written for a specific purpose; it includes a description
of procedures followed for collection and analysis of data, their significance, the conclusions
drawn from them, and recommendations, if required.

4.2 Importance of Reports

It has been estimated that an engineer, a business executive or a government officer

spends about 75 percent of his time at the desk either writing reports, letters, etc. or
processing them. A large number of important decisions in business, industry or
government are taken on the basis of information presented or recommendations
made in reports.

Writing reports is a discipline which has an intrinsic value. It trains the writer in
"planned and orderly procedures and logical presentation of ideas and information.
It reveals gaps in reasoning, spotlights woolly thinking, identifies digressions from
the correct line in the work done, shows up faults of tactics or strategy which the
smoke and confusion of day-today close combat comfortably conceal.

Report writing develops the power of discrimination, organization, judgment and

communication. Universities offering professional programmes are beginning to
take an increasing interest in introducing courses in report writing and progressive
organizations are specially designing intensive programmes in report writing for the
benefit of their employees.

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4.3 Structure of Reports

Custom and convenience have more or less standardized the parts or elements that constitute
a report and also established the sequence in which they appear. Variations in structure are,
however, made according to the purpose, scope and contents of a report.

The order in which various elements are organized is given below. The first ten elements are
col1ectively termed as front matter, because they appear before the main body. The last five
are known as the back matter, because they follow the main body.

Front Matter
1. Cover
2. Frontispiece
3. Title page
4. Copyright Notice
5. Forwarding Letter
6. Preface
7. Acknowledgements
8. Table of Contents
9. List of illustrations
10. Abstract and Summary

Main Body

11. Introduction
12. Discussion or Description
13. Conclusions
14. Recommendations

Back Matter

15. Appendices
16. List of References
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 17. Bibliography
18. Glossary
19. Index

Of the above elements, only the title page, the introduction, and the discussion or descriptions
are obligatory. In very short reports even a separate title page is not necessary; all you need to
do is to write the title on the top of the first page and start with the introduction.

In practice only long formal reports are likely to contain all the elements. The primary
consideration for including an element should be its usefulness. Including elements which are
not needed would make your report unnecessarily bulky and impede the flow of
communication.

One point to remember is that all the terms used hereunder are to describe elements and do
not appear as headings or sub-headings in a report but have been listed here only for the
convenience of the reader.

A. FRONT MATTER

Cover
A cover is usually made of white or some soft, neutral-colored card. It protects the
manuscript from damage and gives the report a neat appearance.

The cover gives the first impression and you should, therefore, not crowd it with information.
Too many items are likely to distract the reader's attention and reduce the attractiveness of its
layout. The inside of the front cover and both the inside and the outside of the back cover are
usually left blank.

Frontispiece
A frontispiece generally appears in bound reports which are meant for wide circulation. It is a
sort of window display that ignites the curiosity of the reader. The forms most often used for
the purpose are photographs, maps and artistic drawings.

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Title Page
Usually the title page is the first right-hand page of the report. In addition to all the
information given on the cover it may contain the following information:
1. Sub-title
2. Name of the author
3. Name of the authority for whom the report was written
4. Contract, project or job number
5. Approvals
6. Distribution list

Sometimes you will be required to get your report approved by some other officer before
submission. When you do this, mention the name and designation of the approving officer on
the title page. Similarly, if your report is meant for circulation to officers other than the
primary recipient, indicate their names and official titles. Use a separate page for the purpose
if the lists of approvals and circulation are long.

Take great care in setting the items on the page symmetrically. Proper grouping of items and
spacing are essential to make the title page look attractive. Some organizations provide a
prescribed form for the title page to help their employees

Copyright Notice
If a report is published, copyright notice is given on the inside of the title page as:
© 1992 Ram Gopal Shewde

Usually the following note is added:

All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Forwarding Letter
The 'introductory' letter performs almost the same function which a preface or an
introduction does for a book and its characteristics are those of a good business
letter. Through it, you should establish rapport with the reader and put him into the
proper receptive mood. Besides mentioning the title, repeat particularly important
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points and also the scope, contents and purpose of the report briefly. Make a
reference to the authorization under which you did the work and acknowledge any
assistance received from persons and organizations in carrying out the work. Also,
point out the report's limitations and the need for further work, if any, and close the
letter by expressing the hope that it would be found satisfactory.

The preface should not be confused with the foreword, whereas the former is written
by the author himself, the latter is customarily written by an authority or expert in the
field recommending the work done. Day-to-day reports rarely have a foreword.

Acknowledgements
Unless you have given credit elsewhere, mention diligently the names of persons and
organizations that have helped you in the production of the report. When you include
published material and the list of sources is very long, use a separate page for the
purpose. Clearly indicate that permission has been taken for the reproduction of
copyright material, if any.

Table of Contents
If the report is long, say, more than ten pages, the table of contents is essential. Its
function is to give the reader an overall view of the report and help him locate a
particular topic or subsidiary topic easily. He will feel more at ease using the report
the way he wants if he knows what to expect from it and where. It will, however, be
superfluous to prepare a table of contents for short reports of four or five pages.

The contents are compiled from the headings and sub-headings of the report. Sub-
headings beyond the third order are generally excluded. The page numbers are
carefully checked against the text so that the reader does not feel frustrated when he
opens a particular page and looks for a heading or sub-heading that is not there.

List of Illustrations
A separate list of illustrations is given immediately after the table of contents if
there are a large number of (a dozen or more) tables and figures. Its layout is the
same as that of the table of contents and it gives information about the number, title
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and page reference of each illustration. If the number of illustrations is very large,
divide it into two parts, namely: List of Tables, and List of Figures.

Abstract and Summary

Most reports contain a synopsis which is called an abstract or a summary.
Although some people regard these two terms as different names for the same
element, a distinction between them is made by discriminating writers.

The main difference between them is that of function. An abstract tells in

concentrated form what the report is about whereas a summary gives the substance
of the report. In fact, a summary presents the reports in a nutshell, without any
illustrations and explanations. A reader who is interested in knowing only the
extent of coverage will be satisfied with the abstract. But if he also wants to know
the method of analysis, the significant findings, the important conclusions and the
major recommendations, he will need a summary.

As the purpose of both these elements is to enable the busy reader to gather
important information quickly without having to go through the whole report, they
should be self-sufficient and intelligible, without reference to any other part of the
report.

The question whether either or both should be included in a report depends upon
two factors: (i) the length of the report, and (ii) the requirement of the primary
recipient. In long reports it is essential to include a summary. An abstract either by
itself or in addition to the summary should be included when the circumstances
require it.

B. MAIN BODY

Introduction
Though an abstract or summary is often the first important element to be read, an
introduction provides a better starting point to the reader who is not familiar with
the subject of a report. The main function of the introduction is to say what the
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report is about, what work has already been done .on the subject and what new
grounds are covered in the present study. In specific terms the information that
may be included in it are the following:
 Historical and technical background.
 Scope of study, specifying its limitations and qualifications.
 Methods of collecting data and their sources.
 Authorization for the report and terms of reference.
 Definitions of special terms and symbols, if their number is small.

Since the introduction sets the scene and prepares the reader for what is to follow,
take utmost care in writing it. The introduction of a report is, however, different
from that of an essay or a popular article in which you are expected to quickly
arrest the reader's attention and gradually lead him on to the subject matter. The
introduction to a report states in a forthright manner what you are going to discuss
and does not admit of any vagueness.

Discussion or Description
This section discusses or describes the main business of the report. It naturally fills
most of the report and contains almost all the illustrations. Usually it has several
sections grouped under different headings and sub-headings. It is, however, not
necessary to use the term 'Discussion' or 'Description' itself as a heading; other apt
words or phrases may serve this purpose better.

The main function of this part is to present data in an organized form, discuss their
significance and analysis and the results that flow there from. Sometimes the whole
of this process is gone into for each topic or sub-topic and an inference is drawn at
the end of each. If the data are too numerous and likely to impede the explanation
or discussion, give them in the appendix; in this part refer to them either by means
of footnotes or parenthetical statements.

There is no set procedure for writing the discussion. Many report writers, however,
see an advantage in using what has been called the 'backward order' that is, first
stating the results and then describing how they were arrived at. This view is based
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on the observation of the psychology of the reader who is more interested in
knowing what finally happened than in wanting to know how something happened.

Conclusions
The term conclusion is generally used to describe remarks at the end of a piece of
writing. The function of such a conclusion is to bring the discussion or description
to a close and to signal to the reader gracefully that he has reached the end. But as
an element of the report, this term refers to the body of logical inferences drawn
and the judgments formed on the basis of analysis of data presented in the report or
to the findings of the investigation made.

All conclusions must be supported by what has gone before; nothing new should be
included at this stage. If their number is large, they may be itemized in the
descending order of their importance.

In some reports mini conclusions are drawn at the end of the discussion of each
topic or sub-topic. These should now be grouped suitably and presented in this
part.

Recommendations
The busy executive may sometimes read only this part of the report and take
decisions. And that is why recommendations should be formulated after
considering all aspects of the question examined in the report.

It is not wise to make recommendations if you have not been asked to do so. The
reader for whom you prepare the report may think that you have assumed the
authority which rightly belongs to him. And this may affect your relationship with
him. In this part more than anywhere else there is a need for paying special
attention to the kind of reader and your relationship with him.

As in the case of conclusions, you should list recommendations in the descending

order of their importance. If their number is very large, they may be grouped under
different subheadings.
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 C. BACK MATTER

Appendices
The appendix contains material which is needed to support the main body of the
report but is too detailed to be included in the text. It should be such that the reader
can safely omit reading it without any loss of understanding of the contents of the
report. But if he wishes to examine in detail the supporting or related evidence and
documents he should be able to find it in the appendix.

All appendices should be referred to in the text and their significance or meaning
pointed out. If their number is more than one, they should be designated as
Appendix A, Appendix B and so on.

Generally, the kinds of materials included in the appendix are questionnaires,

statistical data, samples of forms or data sheets used in the investigation, detailed
calculations, derivations of questions, illustrative materials, worked-out examples,
sample documents, specimens, tables of definitions and symbols, correspondence,
summaries of results achieved by other organizations, views of others on similar
topics, and other materials which must be included for record.

List of References
It is essential to give credit to the works (published or unpublished) which you
have used or quoted in your report. This is done by citing such works in the text
and listing them in alphabetical order at the end of the report. If their number is
small, they may be mentioned in the footnotes at the bottom of the page on which
they are cited. In the footnotes the name of the author is given in the natural order
and commas are used to separate the details of the notation as shown below:

Alan Warner, A Short Guide to English Style, Oxford University Press, London,
ELBS Edition, 1964, pp. 40-42.

Bibliography
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A bibliography is a serially numbered list of published and unpublished works
which are consulted before or during the preparation of a report. It is distinct from
the list of References in several respects:
i. The bibliography lists the works which the author has read and to which he is
indebted for ideas or information in general terms whereas the purpose of the
list of references is to point out the specific location of an idea or a piece of
information in the original source.
ii. The bibliography may contain works recommended for further study whereas
the reference does not perform any such function.
iii. The bibliography may be annotated, that is, it may indicate briefly the content
and usefulness of the works cited; whereas the references indicate only the
sources. When some authors give more details in the latter they term it as 'Notes
and References'.
iv. The bibliography may be 'select' or 'selected' including only the more relevant of
the works consulted, whereas the references are always complete.
v. The entries in the bibliography are in alphabetical order whereas the references
may sometimes be recorded in the sequence in which they have been cited in the
text.
vi. The author often prepares the bibliography before writing the report to
remember the work he intends to consult. The list of references, on the other
hand, is more conveniently prepared while the report is being written. Final
shape to both is, however, given at the end.

While preparing the bibliography, keep the following points in mind:

(i) The order of writing the names and surnames of authors,
(ii) The sequences of details,
(iii) The punctuation marks, and
(iv) The layout.

A few examples are given overleaf.

1. Book with One Author
Palmer, Frank, Grammar. Second Edition. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books
Limited, 1972.
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2. Book with Two Authors
Loewy, Ariel G. and Philip Siekevitz, Cell Structure and Function. Second Edition.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1969.
3. Book with Three or More Authors
Churchill, Ruel V. et al. Complex Variables and Applications. Third Edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1974.
4. An Article in a Periodical
Mahapatra, Bijay P., "Malto Object Classifiers", Indian Linguistics (September,
1973), Volume 34, Number 3. Poona: The Linguistic Society of India.
5. An Article in an Encyclopedia
"Communication" The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 4, 15th edition,
1977, pp. 1005-1019.
6. An Article in a Newspaper
Singh S.P., "Mind Your English", The Hindustan Times (January 8, 1976), p. 7.
7. An Article without an Author
"Chomsky through Indian Eyes", span, (April 1975), p. 19, Volume XVI,
Number 4, New Delhi: United States Information Service.
8. An Unpublished Work
Mohan, Krishna. Some Problems of Teaching English as a Foreign Language in India at
the University Level and a Few Suggestions for Solving Them. Associate ship Report,
Institute of Education, University of London, Unpublished. 1965.
9. An Address at a Conference
Sundaram, P.S. "A Pearl to India", Presidential Address, All-India English Teachers'
Conference, XIX Annual Session, Balngalore University, Bangalore, 1968.

Glossary
A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and their explanations. If,
however, the number of such words is small, they are generally explained in the
footnotes. Whether you should include a glossary in your report will depend upon
who is going to read your report. If the reader's field of expertise is the one to which
your report relates, there is no need for a glossary. But if the audience is drawn from
other areas, it is advisable to give a glossary.

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Index
The index is intended to serve as a quick guide to the material in the report. It
enables the reader to locate easily any topic, sub-topic or important aspect of the
contents. There is a need for giving an index only in bulky reports where the Table
of Contents cannot do this job.

Entries in the index are made in alphabetical order and cross-referenced. All page
numbers on which information about an entry is available are mentioned against it.

QUESTIONS
1. What elements must appear in the structure of every report and why?
2. What is the difference between an abstract and a summary? In what
circumstances should both be given in a report?
3. How do recommendations differ from conclusions? What purpose do they serve
in a report?
4. What factors would influence your decision regarding the materials to be
included in the appendix of a report?

4.4 Preparatory Steps to Writing Reports

An effective report is the result of careful preparation and execution of the plan. A
thorough preparation will save your time and make the writing of the report easier.
It will help you keep your objective in view and realize it effectively. The following
are important preparatory steps to writing a report:
 Define your purpose and scope
 Determine your audience
 Collect the data
 Organize the material
 Make an outline

4.4.1 Defining the Purpose and Scope

Reports are produced in response to specific demands. Very often you have clear

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instructions which are generally called terms of reference that tell you what you are
required to do.

Though the terms of reference will guide you in your job before you actually begin
to collect data, it is advisable to spend some time in working out the exact scope of
your report. If the instructions are woolly, you should seek clarification before
making a start. A false start invariably results in waste of time, energy, money and
ideas.

4.4.2 Determining the Audience

A report is always written with an audience in mind. The terms of reference very
often make it clear who will read your report. Generally speaking, you will find that
your report has any of the following six kinds of audience:
(i) Superior officers
(ii) Colleagues, and counterparts in other organizations
(iii) Subordinates employees
(iv) Other organizations engaged in similar activities
(v) Share-holders
(vi) Customers and members of the public

If, however, the audience is large and varied, you should find out carefully what they
know and what they do not know. The difference in their training, experience and
background should determine the presentation and style of your report. To overcome
the difficulty of catering to the needs of a varied readership, keep in view the people
who are farthest in knowledge from the subject of your report.

4.4.3 Collecting Data

After the purpose and scope have been specified and the audience determined, the
next step is to gather the relevant data. Before you set about this task, you must know
the various methods of collecting information and the sources from which you can
gather the relevant material. Many reports turn out to be ineffective because the
writer did not use the proper method, consult the right documents, approach the right
people or secure the right answers. Let this not happen to you. Recognition of
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sources of information and culling the relevant data are essential for writing a good
report.

There are a number of methods and sources for collecting data. Choose the ones
relevant to your purpose. We may place them into the following categories:
(a) Methods
1. Personal Observation
2. Telephone Interview
3. Personal Interview
4. Questionnaires
(b) Sources
1. Internal Records
2. Library

Evaluation of Material
After locating the material (book, article in a journal, etc.) you should evaluate it
before you gather any information from it. An early assessment is useful because it
will enable you to avoid false and blind leads. One process of doing so is to answer
the following questions:
i. Is the author an authority in his field? Is he widely quoted? Has he published
other books in the area?
ii. Has the author produced the material on the basis of his own experience or is he
reporting what others did, said or thought?
iii. Is the reputation of the publishers high? Do they specialize in the subject?
iv. How far is the information or opinion supported by facts and figures?
v. Is the purpose for which the information was collected similar to yours?
vi. What is the opinion of other specialists in the field about the material?
vii.When was the information collected and compiled?

If the answer to most of the above questions is positive, you can rely on the source
and gather the information you need for your report. If it is negative, you must look
for alternative Sources. It is not wise to draw conclusions on the basis of material of
doubtful standing.
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Note-Making
Note-making is a process of jotting down important points, arguments, facts or ideas
contained in written material. Efficient note-making is an asset which will help you
to study on your own. Discernment, judgment and quick comprehension are the
qualities which note-making will demand from you. Since it involves sifting the
essential from the non-essential, it will also develop your critical faculty.

Notes are an aid to memory. Experience shows that in the process of note-making
several ideas, facts, etc. get fixed in one’s mind. In fact, there are many people who
cannot remember things unless they write them down.

The materials that you note should be logically arranged and numbered. The
arrangement should be such that you can at a glance form an idea of the topic on
which you have made notes and also locate quickly the particular point you are
looking for.

While making notes, it will be helpful if you bear in mind the following points:
i. When you reproduce an author's words, put them within quotation marks.
You should indicate any breaks in quotation by a series of three dots.
ii. In most cases you will be making a summary of the opinions, ideas, etc.
expressed by the original writer.
iii. If you have to make extensive notes, you may use abbreviations. Take
care that these are so devised that there is no difficulty in understanding them
when you refer to your notes after some time.
iv. Very often you will have to consult a number of sources on one topic, or
subject. It is advisable and convenient to use 3x5 inch cards for making notes;
these can easily be put together topic wise or subject wise. If you make notes on
plain sheets of paper or exercise books, set aside certain portions for each topic
you are going to touch.
v. Notes should be neatly written because they will form the basis of your
report. Untidy notes can mislead you and will certainly waste your time.
vi. Reference to the sources from which you make notes should be clearly
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 given. Ways of giving reference are discussed below.

For each source of information you should make one card; it is called a source card.
In it give the name of the author (surname and then initials), title, edition (if not the
first), publisher, place of publication, year of publication and volume number, if
any. If the author is an editor, indicate this fact. If there are two authors, give names
of both. If there are more than two, write the name of the first and add et al after it.
All this information is given in the bibliography also. Hence this card is sometimes
called a bibliography card. You may have to consult this card again and so you
should give the library call number too. If your sources belong to several libraries,
note down from where you got a particular source.

In the note card you should write only the last name of the author and page number.
The details regarding the source need not be repeated in each note card; these are
already present on the source card.

Often you may have to consult periodicals for gathering data. Prepare notes on cards
as in the case of books. The source card for a periodical article gives the following
information: author, title of article, name of periodical, volume number, date of
publication, page numbers. Samples of a bibliography card, a note card and a source
card for periodicals are given below.

651.75 Shurter, R.L.

S562 Written Communication in Business. Third Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1971.

Shurter, p. 9
"A written business communication gives its writer a chance to consider and to organize
his thoughts; it provides the chance to re-read and to revise; and it offers a choice of
various forms and styles in which the message can be couched."

Prator Clifford H., "Development of a Manipulation-Communication Scale", English

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Teaching Forum, Volume XIII, Numbers 1 and 2, 1975, pages 122-125.

4.4.4 Organizing Material

Now you are ready for another crucial step, viz, the organization of the material you
propose to include in your report. It is obvious that if you start preparing the first
draft straightaway, you are likely to be lost in the mass of data and it will be difficult
for you to adhere to the sequence of your ideas. Thoughts do not always come in the
order in which you would like to put them in writing. They are sometimes elusive
and occasionally it becomes difficult to recall what you were thinking just a few
minutes ago.

The best way to organize material is to prepare the outline of a report before you
actually start writing it. The outline will provide you with a framework into which
you can fit in an orderly manner various bits and pieces of information you have
collected and your own conclusions. It will indicate the pattern of your report and
provide you with a starting point for writing. It will also serve as a map which will
not only lead you to your destination but also enable you to ensure that you are on
the correct track. The various headings and subheadings contained in it will act as
traffic signs, directing you on the right course.

As a matter of fact, in all compositions it is advisable to prepare an outline. Even in

short presentations, a brief listing of the points you are going to touch is essential.
It will pay if you take pains to prepare an effective, elaborate outline for long
reports. Like a blacksmith you should not rest until you have beaten and molded it
into proper shape. Remember that your outline is your report in a skeletal form.

As a mechanical structure, an outline is an arrangement of words, phrases or

sentences which indicate the nature and sequence of topics and sub-topics to be
discussed in your report. The elements that constitute it are numbered, and sub-
numbered according to their rank and relationships with one another. An outline
thus shows which topics are more important, which are of equal status, and which
are subordinate.

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Principles of Organization
While constructing your outline keep the audience in mind. Reject the material
which you think will be beyond your reader's comprehension or which will not help
him take a decision or action. While collecting material you must have borne these
factors in mind and hence may not have much material to reject at this stage. But it
is advisable to have another look and to discard material which is of doubtful value.
Often, only after looking at the total picture will you be able to judge the relevance
or otherwise of its constituent elements. The following principles will help you to
decide what to include, what to reject, and how to organize the selected material into
the form of an outline.

Logical Ordering
Weigh and consider which ideas or pieces of information are more important than
others, and in what order should you present them to achieve your goal. One
obvious method is to order the material from the least important to the most
important or vice versa. It has been suggested that the former is effective if the
report is interpretive and the latter is advisable if the report is informational. It is
argued that the reader of an interpretive report likes first to go through the material
on which you base your interpretation and recommendations. On the other hand, the
reader of an informational report wants to gather of the most important piece of
information first and sometimes he is not interested in unimportant details at all.
Other methods of ordering are categorical, comparative and chronological. If you
use the first of these, you will start with a general statement and then discuss
particulars. For example, if you are writing a report on 'International Airports in
Ethiopia, you may first write about airports in general and then take up particular
airports for description and discussion. Very often, you may like or be required to
compare a procedure, a process or a system operating in your organization with
those in other similar organizations. You use the comparative method, usually in
conjunction with another method of ordering. The last, viz. the chronological
method is most convenient to follow because all you have to do is to go on
describing, discussing, or analyzing the events as they occur or the action as it takes
place. However, this method is useful generally for reporting laboratory experiments
and describing industrial processes. In many other cases it has been found unsuitable
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because things do not necessarily happen in a logical order.

There could be other methods of ordering your material. The circumstances of the
situation will tell you which one to use for your purpose.

Coordinating
Topics or sub-topics which are of equal rank should be assigned the same level in
the outline so that when you treat them in your report they receive approximately the
same degree of importance and extent of coverage. For example, if your topic is
'Sources of Energy' the following sub-topics which are of equal value should be
assigned the same place in the outline.
Sources of Energy
1.1 Oil
1.2 Electricity
1.3 Coal

Subordinating
You should clearly determine which ideas can be grouped together under one topic
or subtopic and in what order. This will help you to find out where to fit in a
particular idea or piece of information. For example, in the outline for an essay on
environmental pollution the various suggestions for reducing pollution are
subordinate to the main topic (see 'Outline').

Numbering
To establish a suitable relationship among topics and sub-topics use a single
numbering scheme throughout your outline and follow the same in your report. Two
schemes are most commonly used for this purpose: letter number and decimal.

In the former both letters and numbers are used as shown below:
I.
A.
B.
C.
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1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
i.
ii.
iii.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

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Note that a full stop has been used up to the fifth level of subordination whereas at
the sixth level letters have been put within brackets and there is no full stop after
them.

The decimal numbering scheme is as follows:

1.
     1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.3.1.
        1.3.2.
1.3.3.
                   1.3.3.1.
1.3.3.2
1.4. and so on

2.
2.1.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.          
2.2.4.1
     2.2.4.2
     2.2.4.3
     2.2.4.4,
and so on.
An important thing to note is that the letters/numbers indicating one levels are
equidistant from the margin and that you move towards the right side of the page for
showing subordinate levels.

Phrasing
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The words, phrases, or sentences that you use for indicating the topics or subtopics of
your outline should generally have parallel grammatical construction. Look at the
following extract from the outline of a report on nationalized banks:
2. Advantages of Nationalization
2.1. Mobilization of national resources
2.2. Promotes agricultural production
2.3. Encouragement of new classes of entrepreneurs
2.4. Canalizing people's saving towards productive purposes

You will observe that three types of construction have been used in the above extract,
viz. noun formed from verb, verb (present tense form) and verb (present participle
form). For proper organization one of the forms should be chosen and used as shown
below:
2. Advantages of Nationalization
2.1. Mobilization of national resources
2.2. Promotion of agricultural production
2.3. Encouragement of new classes of entrepreneurs
2.4. Canalization of people's savings towards productive
purposes.

Dividing
Check whether any single sub-topic has crept into your outline. If you find one,
eliminate it because splitting a topic logically presumes more than one sub-topic.
Avoid subdividing a minor point into a large number of sub-topics. Fill in the details
at the time of writing. Too many details in your outline may make your report
imbalanced.

Making an Outline
How do you go about organizing the material into an outline? This question is difficult
to answer because there is no set procedure for doing so. You will with experience
discover one which works. However, a few steps that may be helpful are suggested
below:
(i) Go through the entire material you have gathered and       think of possible
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organizational patterns.
(ii) Choose one pattern and then jot down the topics and sub- topics as they come to
you.
(iii) Then arrange them on the basis of the principles discussed above.
(iv) Prepare a tentative outline, demarcating the material that could go under each
topic and sub-topic.
(v) Carefully examine it and make changes, if necessary.
(vi) Write out neatly the final outline.

Now you are ready to start writing the first draft of your report. While doing so you
may well realize that in the final outline you have omitted certain essential information
or some important idea. Or perhaps you think that some topics or sub-topics need
rearrangement. Do not hesitate to revise where necessary because an outline is merely
a tool, a framework to help you organize the material for your final report. Your
ultimate aim is not to prepare a good outline but to produce an effective report.
Readiness to make changes when the situation demands is a quality that always pays.

QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of telephone interviews as a method of
collecting data.
2. What is a mail questionnaire? In what respects is it different from the list of
questions prepared for a personal interview and in what situations would you use
it?
3. How would you assess material before making notes from it? Why is assessment
necessary?
4. How does an outline help a report writer to arrange his material suitably?

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EXERCISES
1. Given below are fragments of outlines. Point out their shortcomings and rewrite
them after necessary modifications.
A. Hostel facilities
(i) Indoor Games
(ii) Reading Room
(iii) Entertainment
(iv) Regarding Messes
B. (i) Nuclear Fuels
(a) Uranium
(b) Thorium
(c) Plutonium
(ii) Types of Nuclear Reactors
(a) Pressurized Water Reactor
(b) Fast Breeder Reactor
C. (i) Causes of Food Problem
(a) Defective Distribution System
(b) Lack of Proper Storage Facilities
(c) Hoarding
(d) Natural Calamities
(e) Floods
(f) Drought
(g) Wars
(ii) Social and Cultural Factors
(a) Population Growth
(b) Reverence towards Animal Life
(iii) Illiteracy
D. Utilization of Solar Energy
(i) Solar Pump
(ii) Solar Refrigerator (iii) Solar Furnace
(iv) Producing Photo Electric Cell

2. You wish to study the attitude of students as regards the board and
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 lodging arrangements in your college hostels. Prepare a mail
questionnaire to be sent to them for collecting data for this report.
3. You have been asked to write a report on the activities of students in
your college for 1992-93. Prepare a mail questionnaire to be sent to the
secretary of each student society, club or association, which will elicit
the information you need for writing your report.
4. Assume that you are the chairman of a committee which has been
asked to study and report on the working of the internal evaluation
system which was introduced in your college two years ago. For this
study your committee proposes to interview 200 students and 50
teachers. Prepare two lists of questions (one for interviewing students
and the other for teachers) which the members of your committee will
use for personal interview with them.
5. You have been asked to write in about 300 words a report on your
college, factory, farm, or office building. Prepare an outline for your
presentation.
6. Make an outline for writing a short report on the administrative set-up
of the organization to which you belong.
7. You have been asked to map out a day's tour of your town for a visitor.
Draw up in an outline form a full itinerary for him.
8. You are required to write an informational report on the canteen of your
college/office. Prepare an outline for this report, including information
on the kinds of food served, prices, physical arrangements for serving
and dining, the flow of traffic etc.
9. Assume that as the office manager of a company you have to buy 20
typewriters for a new branch office. Before you do so, you are required
to make a comparative study of the popular brands available in the
market. Make an outline after gathering information about a few
leading brands.
10. Choose a problem of your interest on which you would like to write
a report. Discuss briefly the source(s)/ method(s) you would use for
collecting data and prepare a tentative outline for the report.
11. Prepare a list of questions that you would use for interviewing the
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 ladies of your locality for a report on the cosmetics they use.
12. Draw an outline for a report on the spending habits of the students
of your college or the colleagues in your office.

4.5 Types of Reports

Reports may be oral or written. An oral report is a piece of face-to-face

communication about something seen or observed. Unless tape-recorded, it is as
ephemeral as any other oral communication. Though it saves the reporter's time, it
is more time-consuming for the receiver as he has to listen to every word of the
report. A written report is relatively more accurate and permanent. In certain cases
the reader may just skim through it, or read the abstract or the conclusions or
recommendations only. It can be referred to again and again and is by its very
nature more formal than an oral report.

There are, however, certain types of written reports also which, like oral reports
comparatively informal. For example, the manager of a firm may write a report
giving his assessment of the working of the branches he visits on a tour for the
information of the proprietor. Generally, such reports are written in the form of a
memorandum and range from a few lines to several pages of detailed information.
Sometimes they are written in the letter form too.

Formal reports vary a great deal according to their purpose and contents, and
different organizations have different ways of classifying them. Some classify them
according to their source or frequency of appearance, others by their length or
degree of formality or physical form. Whatever may be the basis of classification,
there is one thing common to them; they follow more or less a similar pattern. We
may for our purposes classify these reports into the following two broad categories:
(i) Informational
(ii) Interpretive

Both kinds of reports are the result of an analysis, investigation of a problem,

survey of a situation, or a piece of research. An informational report contains only
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the data collected or the facts observed in an organized form. It presents the
situation as it is and not as it should be. It does not contain any conclusions or
recommendations. It is useful because it presents relevant data put together in a
form in which it is required by the management to take decisions.

An interpretive report, like an informational report, contains facts but it also

includes an evaluation or interpretation or analysis of data and the reporter's
conclusions. It may also have recommendations for action. An interpretive report
which consists principally of recommendations is also called a recommendation or
recommendatory report.

There are some reports which are written in a prescribed form. All that the report
writer has to do is to put a tick mark against certain items listed in the form or write
very brief remarks against them. These reports are written usually for recording
routine matters at regular intervals, e.g. confidential reports on employees, periodic
reports on the progress of projects, reports on inspection of equipment, etc. Though
these reports are formal and contain information and sometimes recommendations
also, they are called routine reports.

The following tree diagram summarizes the various types of reports that have been
mentioned in this section:

Reports

Oral Written

Informal Formal

Informatio Interpretive Routine

nal

UNIT SUMMARY
Business letters are a primary form of external communication for most businesses. Because
letters reflect the image of a company and because they are expensive to create and send out,
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they should be developed carefully. Attention to appearance and format as well as to content,
grammar, and punctuation is essential.

As you draft and revise business letters, remember that you are communicating with people,
readers who should be able to understand your letters easily and who you hope will respond
positively to your messages.

Memos are the most common form of internal written communication in businesses. Because
memos are meant for conveying data efficiently, construct them carefully so that readers can
glance quickly at major points, and send them only to readers who actually need the
information.

Despite the informality of many memos, they deserve your careful writing and editing skills.
Well-written memos are invaluable aids to both employees and managers because they
facilitate internal communication.

Before you write a resume and job application letter, make an inventory of your employment
qualifications. Analyze what you have to offer an employer and determine which jobs and
employers require what you can offer.

After you have evaluated your assets and noted requirements for desirable job opportunities,
you are ready to prepare your written “sales promotion.” The main purpose is to get an
interview. First prepare a resume that has all the qualities for a well-written presentation.
Organize pertinent facts under appropriate headings, use action phrases, and emphasize your
strong points honestly. Education, work experience, and achievements should preferably be
stated in reverse chronological order – with the present or most recent first.

The application letter is your sales message that accompanies the resume. It tells the
prospective employer why you feel you are qualified for a certain job or area. You need to
interpret important points in the resume as they relate to the specific job requirements.

REFERENCES

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11. Murphy, H.A. Hilderbrandt (1991) Effective Business Communication, McGraw Hill
Publishing: New York.
12. Marry Cullinan (1993) Business Communication: Principles and Processes, South-
Western: Singapore.
13. Sorenson et.al (1997)Business and Management Communication, Prentice-Hall:New
Jersey.
14. Daniels and Spiker (1998) Perspectives on Organizational Communication, Brown and
Bendhamark Publishers: Madison.
15. Bovee and Thrill (1992) Business Communication Today, McGraw-Hill Inc.:
Sanfransisco.
16. Lipman, M. (1985) How Was It For You?, Robson Books (Futura), London.
17. Monkhouse, B. (1988) Just Say a Few Words, Lennard Publishing, London.
18. Moran, R. (1989) 'Tips on making speeches to international audiences', in International
Management, Reed International, London.
19. Sun Tzu (1981) The Art Of War, Hodder and Stoughton, London.
20. Buchanan, D., and Huczynski, A. (1985) Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall
International, Hemel Hempstead.
21. Margerison, C. (1974) Managerial Problem Solving, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.

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 UNIT FIVE
ORAL COMMUNICATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly reading this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain various categories of oral communication channels

 Understand the procedures of making effective presentations
 Discuss effective listening
 Understand how to make an effective telephone communication
 Understand how to make an effective interview
 Describe how to conduct meetings/leading discussions

UNIT INTRODUCTION

Regardless of the job you are hired to do, a majority of your time will probably be spent
communicating orally – in groups and one-on-one, in person and over the telephone. Of
course, having been speaking and listening for years, you are proficient in many elements that
contribute to effective oral communication.

On the other hand, communicating effectively on the job requires special skills that you may
not have acquired in school or in your communications with family and friends. No matter
how skillful you are in accounting, programming, engineering, law, or whatever your field,
you will have to develop expertise in speaking and listening in order to perform your job well
and advance successfully. Developing these skills, moreover, will almost certainly increase
your self-confidence, reduce frustration and conflict in your relationships, and enhance your
performance at work.

SECTION ONE: MAKING PRESENTATIONS

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SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Identify the major purposes of making presentation

 Identify the different steps we need to pass to make successful presentation

 Discuss the checklist that enable us to develop presentation skill

 Identify and understand the different techniques of making presentation

 Explain various categories of written communication channels

SECTION OUTLINE
1.1 Purpose of Presentation
1.2 Stages of Successful Presentation
1. Set your objective
2. Planning
3. Preparation
4. Rehearse and practice.
5. Be ready and prepared on the day
1.3 Presentation Techniques
1. The words you use
2. Your appearance
3. The use of your voice
4. Body language
5. Using notes
6. Visual aids
7. Answering questions

1.1 Meaning and Purpose of Presentation

Presentation or Speech is the vocalization form of human communication. It is based upon

the syntactic combination of lexical and names that are drawn from very large
(usually>10,000 different words) vocabularies. Each spoken word is created out of the
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phonetic combination of a limited set of vowel and consonant speech sound units. These
vocabularies, the syntax which structures them, and their set of speech sound units, differ
creating the existence of many thousands of different types of mutually unintelligible human
languages. Human speakers are often polyglot able to communicate in two or more of them.
The vocal abilities that enable humans to produce speech also provide humans with the
ability to sing.

Speech in some cultures has become the basis of a written language, often one that differs in
its vocabulary, syntax and phonetics from its associated spoken one, a situation called
diglossia. Speech in addition to its use in communication, it is suggested by some
psychologists such as internally used by mental processes to enhance and organize cognition
in the form of an interior monologue.

Speech is researched in terms of the speech production and speech perception of the sounds
used in spoken language. Several academic disciplines study these including acoustics,
psychology, speech pathology, linguistics, cognitive science, communication studies,
otolaryngology and computer science.

The purposes for making presentations are many, but can be grouped in the following way:
1. To demonstrate: a service, product, system.
2. To create: an image, strategy.
3. To entertain: colleagues, outside people.
4. To sell: a concept, product, idea.
5. To represent: a group, company, department.
6. To promote: an attitude, a way of working.
7. To suggest: a solution, a new concept.

No matter what the reason for the presentation, it should always be remembered that what
you are consistently seeking is the promotion of better communication, the most professional
standards of presentation and the commitment to greater awareness of the needs of others.

However good you are on your feet, you are unlikely to be successful unless you have

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prepared thoroughly. For any presentation, the first thing to consider is, 'What are my
objectives?' Be sure you know why you are making the presentation and what you want from
it. When structuring the presentation, check that the basic steps help you achieve the overall
objective.

1.2 Stages of Successful Presentation

There are five stages to consider for a successful presentation:
1. Set your objective.
2. Plan the presentation.
3. Prepare the materials.
4. Rehearse and practice.
5. Be ready and prepared on the day.

1. Set your objective

No matter what the reason for the presentation, it should always be remembered that what
you are consistently seeking is the promotion of better communication, the most professional
standards of presentation and the commitment to greater awareness of the needs of others.

2. Planning
No two situations are the same, but whatever the situation, success will not be achieved
unless you follow some basic rules and have asked yourself some basic questions. Knowing
to whom you are actually making the presentation is one of the most fundamental questions
to be asked. The next part deals with a list of questions you should consider when planning
your presentation.
What is your audience's background?
How knowledgeable are they?
What are their strengths and weaknesses?
How can your ideas be of benefit/threat to them?
What should your appearance be?
What is your status in relation to your audience?
Is there some common ground?
What impression do you want to create?
Have all aspects of the idea been considered?
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 What specific points need emphasizing?
What are the possible objections?
Where will you be required to make the presentation?
What date and what time of day?
How many people will be attending?
Are there other speakers? If so, what will they be speaking about?
Where in the sequence of events do you fit in?
Will you need AVA facilities? Microphone? Can you use a microphone well?
Will you be expected to provide handouts etc?

Timing is an extremely important point. You must know how long you are expected to talk
so that you can prepare and rehearse what you have to say. It is also good to know at what
time of day your presentation is to be made as this will help you to decide what kind of
'mood' the audience is likely to be in.

When rehearsing, you will probably find that you will overrun or under run, and therefore
you can change the structure of your presentation to conform with your allocated time. One
guideline you can use is that the introduction and summary should take up only 20 per cent
of your presentation time, leaving the other 80 per cent for the main subject matter, as
shown in Figure 3.1. Sections A to E in the figure are amplified below:

A. Introduction and objectives, reasons for the presentation (10% of time

available).
An introduction should be short, snappy and catch the audience's attention. This
is a critical period in which you should be trying to establish a rapport with the
audience. They have a choice of listening or not-you must motivate them to
want to listen.
B. Introduction of main themes, issues (20% of time available).
Here you identify and explain the basic themes and issues concerning your
presentation, the key elements you wish to develop.
C. Development of main themes, issues (40% of time available).
You develop your arguments logically and rationally, showing clearly the
relationship between the themes and arguments.
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 D. Integration of main themes, issues (20% of time available).
Here you pull together the main thel11es of your presentation. Do not introduce
any new themes at this stage - it will only lead to confusion.
E. Summary or conclusion (10% of time available).
The message you want to leave with the audience is encapsulated here. You must
be clear what your objectives are, to ensure that the message, the reason for giving
the presentation, gets across. Summarize the main points; pull together all loose
ends; and stress the way in which your argument leads to your required
conclusion. End on a high note - and thank the audience for listening: they did not
have to, even if they were coerced into attending!

You will need to consider the facilities - where you will be making your presentation, how
the room will be set out - and what equipment is available at

the venue and whether the equipment you wish to use can be used effectively in the room
allocated. Showing OHP slides on a wall with a fairly bold pattern is not conducive to good
attention or the credibility of the presenter!

Make sure that your presentation suits the audience to whom you are presenting, and make
sure that there is adequate formality for the individual groups. Do not assume that what is
good enough for a small group of colleagues will work just as effectively with a group of
fifty people from all other departments within your organization.

3. Preparation

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In any presentation, it is only you the speaker who know the exact nature of the
material you are about to deliver. To ensure that you get the information across in the
best manner you need to consider the following points:
1. It is vitally important that you research and prepare the information. Once
you have decided what you want to communicate, you need to collect all
the information required to do the job effectively. A great deal of the
information will already be stored in your mind, so that should be written
down first, and then other details added as you acquire the additional data.
2. The information should be presented in a logical and sequential manner to
ensure that the audience understand the events, are able to reach some
solution to the problem, or are left with a clear understanding of the reason
for the presentation. A natural order to your presentation makes listening
easier for the audience and makes the presentation easier to remember.
3. It is necessary to give all the required information, as gaps tend to present
problems. If the presentation is difficult to follow because of the lack of
information, the audience will lose the thread of the message and lose
interest. It is often said that a presentation is like a string of beads, with the
beads linked by a logical thread.
4. The opening and closing section of the presentation are as important as the
middle part. Bob Monk house, in his book Just Say a Few Words, says that
'in the beginning is the hook ... the means of grabbing the crowd.' A
striking introduction is a useful way to achieve a good presentation,
providing that the rest of the material follows suit. The opening statement
should say what you want to communicate and the closing statement
should be a summary so that everyone is clear about what you have
achieved.

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PREPARATION CHECK LIST
When you have planned your presentation, examine the following:
1. Objectives: recheck that you have defined your objective correctly.
2. Structure: does your presentation have a clearly identifiable structure?
3. Content: is all said that needs saying?
4. Sequence: is it logical? Are all links and summaries appropriate?
5. Time: is sufficient time available for all you want to say?
6. Balance: is each section weighted correctly? Check the priorities of your
arguments and facts.
7. Conclusion: does it make people sit up and agree with you? Is it punchy?
8. Objectives: do all the above work towards achieving your objectives?

4. Rehearse and practice.

Practice and rehearsal are essential if you wish to develop the necessary skills to be a
good presenter. In rehearsal:
i. Some people prefer to practice away from everyone else, in a distant room with
just a mirror to represent the audience.
ii. Others will perform to a sympathetic friend/colleague/spouse and require some
constructive criticism.
iii. Another method is to tape the presentation and to listen to it a few times, thus
allowing you to make any necessary or desirable changes.

When you are rehearsing, don't do your presentation sub-vocally, or simply read it in
your mind. You must recite it, stop where you have problems and start again from
there. If you do not speak it aloud, your timing will be all wrong. Remember also that
it will take longer on the day, so do not try to cram too much into the time available.

5. Be ready and prepared on the day

1.3 Presentation Techniques

The techniques which can help to ensure a successful presentation are concerned with:

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the words you use; your appearance; the use of your voice; body language; using
notes; visual aids; and answering questions.

1. The words you use

It is often said that no matter how good the presentation may be, or how smart and
attractive your appearance, or how dynamic your visual aids, it is, in the final
analysis, what you say that actually matters.

Words are the main vehicle for making your communication, so your objective
should be to talk clearly, concisely, intelligibly and in an enthusiastic, interesting and
motivating way.

Visual aids are important to enhance the points you are making, but you should also
try to create the image through your use of words. Use examples, analogies and word
pictures to give interesting and graphic illustrations to your points. Most people are
able to visualize and understand more easily from an example than from a technical
description.

Avoid the use of expressions like 'um', 'er', 'you know', 'you see'. Many of us use these
without really being aware, but they can be distracting, especially if they are used
excessively. If you do use any of these constantly then you must make every effort to
stop using them. Instead, pause and collect your thoughts, look at your notes, take a
deep breath. Any of these would be more acceptable to your audience.

Talking to people who do not have the same amount of expertise as yourself means
that the words you use should be jargon-free and free from all technical terms which
are likely to be unknown. You should also avoid slang and colloquialisms as these are
often open to misinterpretation. The audience is not there to unravel verbal puzzles, so
keep your words simple and easy to understand.

2. Your appearance
People make instant assumptions from the visual contacts they make. You will not
necessarily be judged by your appearance, but how your presentation is received will
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be determined by how you present yourself. Points to consider are:
 You should be dressed comfortably which means avoiding tight-fitting, brand-new
and heavy clothing.
 Whatever you decide to wear should be right for the occasion. Jeans and jumper
would not be a good idea when making a presentation to potential clients, and a
formal dinner suit or evening gown may be too extreme for the afternoon
presentation to a society group.
 Make sure that whatever you wear is neat, tidy and clean. Making the time to
check on your appearance just before you start your presentation can alert you to
any problems.
 Try not to wear anything which could prove to be too distracting, or perfume or
aftershave which is too overpowering.
 If you are the type of person who fidgets with 'things' then avoid having anything
about your person which will encourage the habit!

3. The use of your voice

The way you use your voice can help to put across a controlled, interesting, rational
and comprehensive message. The points you should consider are: volume, tone, pitch,
speed, and breathing.

3.1. Volume: the first aim of any speaker is to be heard, so adapt the loudness
of your voice to the size of the audience, the size and acoustic qualities of the
room and the emphasis you wish to use on certain words. You do not have to
shout to be understood, but speaking up allows you to communicate more
clearly.

3.2. Tone: speaking in a monotone is very boring to the listener. You can use
your tone for emphasis, effect and to signal a break or link. When you raise
your voice slightly, you appear to be increasing the intensity of feeling that you
put into those particular words: Speaking more softly will tend to increase
audience concentration.

3.3. Pitch: changing the pitch of your voice often indicates to the audience that
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 you have finished with one particular point and that you are about to go on to
the next. Pitch change can also give a dramatic effect.

3.4. Speed: speaking at one constant speed can be as off-putting as talking in a

monotone. You will need to practice speeding up and slowing down as you
speak. It is better if you can begin your presentation slowly because you will
speed up as you get into your presentation. A pause can be used to good effect
because it can create anticipation and encourage attention. The summaries should
be done slowly, remembering that for most of the people the information is new
and therefore they need time to absorb it.

3.5. Breathing: nervousness can cause your breathing to be irregular and erratic. It
is a good exercise for your own-self-confidence to know that you are quite
capable of getting through your longest paragraph without gasping at the end.
Should you find that you are getting short of breath, you will become more
nervous, flustered and getting more short of breath which will make you more
nervous. If you should find that this is happening, then it is better to take an
unscheduled deep breath than to flounder on.

4. Body language
The use of non-verbal communication can lead to greater effectiveness. To counteract
the nervousness that you will probably feel, stand straight and tall. You will not only
look confident, but you will feel more confident also. Make sure that you do not
slouch, that you do not exaggerate movements which will prove to be distracting and
that you can control any habits that others would find intolerable. Do not be afraid to
use gestures, but do make sure that they are natural. Watching yourself on a video can
highlight many of these points.

Your facial expressions will be mirrored by your audience. If you look serious your
audience will feel the same and reflect that feeling back to you. If you find it difficult
to use gestures and still feel natural, try to let your feeling and your meaning be
mirrored in your expression. This will make it easier for your audience to relate to
your message. A dead-pan expression is very off-putting, so it is important to
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remember to smile! A smile will bring warmth to your presentation and will also help
to create a friendly atmosphere and rapport with your audience.

5. Using notes
It is always helpful to have notes on the main points summarized on some sort of
card. A good exercise is to start off by writing the whole presentation down, and
then as you practice and become more accustomed to the presentation, you can
condense it into succinct headings. You must make sure that your notes are legible
and can be good indicators of your next point.

Using a different color pen or a highlighter to alert you to making a change in your
tone or pitch, to pause or to make a gesture, will help with the final presentation.
These points can only be made by recording your presentation and listening to it and
making the changes where necessary. Do not use floppy sheets of A4 paper for your
notes: put them on to small cards which you can hold in one hand and refer to, and
make sure you have them in the correct sequence before you start. Number the cards,
and tight them together with a piece of string through the top left hand corners. If you
don't, and you drop the loose cards, you'll never find your sequence again!

6. Visual aids
As they suggest an aid to communication, they must be relevant, simple and bold.
You do have options when presenting things by means of aids. In particular:
- You do not have to use audio or visual aids.
- Try to assess the value of all the aids you can use before making your decision.
- If you mix your media try to match the various formats.
- Ask yourself why you want to use aids and what you hope to achieve.

When aids are used properly they can arouse interest, show visually things that are
difficult to describe verbally, focus interest on key points, and provide clarity of
understanding as the senses are combined to absorb the matter presented. The more
interesting you can make your illustrations, the more chance there is that you will
capture your audience's attention. Be sure that you restrict the information on each aid
to only one point. If there are a number of different points you want to illustrate, use
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one aid for each.

Be careful that you do not stand in front of your visual aids: your audience cannot see
through you! Allow sufficient time for your audience to absorb the information and
then remove it from view and go on to the next point.

7. Answering questions
You must listen to the questions carefully and answer them as straightforwardly as
possible. It is rather rude to tell a questioner that the question is stupid or was covered
by the presentation. Try to empathize with the person, and realize that you may have
to make a point much clearer to answer the particular question.

How you introduce the question session has a large impact on how it will develop.
Asking gruffly, So, are there any questions?' is likely to deter the audience from
participating. If you say pleasantly, 'I am sure that what I have been saying has given
you lots of food for thought. I will try to clarify any points about which you are
unclear. What are your questions?' is more likely to guarantee a positive response.

Do not be afraid to plant a question if nobody asks voluntarily after a short time.
Once the first hurdle has been overcome, others will not feel so nervous about
opening up.

Avoiding the issue will not satisfy the audience. If you are asked a question and you
do not know the answer, it is better to admit your lack of knowledge, but try to find
the answer for a later date. Bluffing can work some of the time with some people, but
you must be aware of the hidden experts!

EXERCISE
How do you use your body to communicate during a presentation?
1. Do you talk to the audience, or to the screen behind you?
2. Do you actively seek eye contact with specific members of the audience? Do
you sweep over them or fix them beadily in the eye?
3. Do you know who the decision makers are, and speak primarily to them?
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 4. Do you tend to concentrate on looking to the right or left, to the front or back
of the audience?
5. Are your gestures congruent with your message? Too exaggerated? Are you
too stiff?
6. Do you have any distracting mannerisms?
7. Do you point at the audience? Wag your finger?
8. Are your movements simple? Or do you pace like a caged tiger?
9. Are you natural? Are you yourself?
10. Do you create barriers between you and your audience?

Before you make your next presentation, consider the points above, and how you can best use
body language to reinforce your message. After your next presentation, ask a friend in the
audience for feedback on your body language.

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SECTION TWO: EFFECTIVE LISTENING

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Communicate effectively through nonverbal cues

 Develop active listening skills

 Promote active listening skills in others

SECTION OUTLINE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Common Faults of listening
2.3 Listening With Purpose
2.4 Important Points for Improved Listening
2.5 Results of Good Listening

2.1 Introduction

"Nobody listens to me" is a common complaint. It is so common that businesses spend large
sums of money teaching their employees how to listen. All of us spend much of our lives
speaking, writing, and listening-the last, far in excess of the other acts of communication.
The subject is important.3

Most of your listening, as a learner, is comprehensive listening: that is, you're seeking to
understand and, sometimes, to evaluate information given you orally. You, and many others,
also engage in enjoyable, relaxed listening, as when watching movies, plays, or television or
when playing records or tapes.

So you're already engaged in the kind of listening you will do in business namely, trying to
absorb as much information as possible through your ears. Thus, even now, it pays to

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improve your listening ability. It is important in business, whether you are an executive or a
subordinate employee.
Poor listening habits can keep an organization from functioning properly. Verbal information
can be misunderstood. Those with public contact may misinterpret what a customer wants. A
manager who doesn't listen efficiently cannot pass along instructions, and subordinates who
don't listen well often have difficulty carrying out instructions.

The benefits of applied listening skills are impressive. Good listeners make a company a
more effective organization. They have better rapport with others, they get more out of
meetings and are more effective in conferences, and they are better at understanding the
needs of others.

2.2 Common Faults of Listening

Studies agree that our listening efficiency is no better than 25 to 30 percent. That means,
foremost, that considerable information given us orally is lost. Why? Some reasons follow.
1. Prejudice against the speaker. Perhaps you have heard this quotation "Who is saying
it shouts so loudly than what is said is easily forgotten”. We are distracted because
who the speaker is conflicts with our attitudes. For example, can you maintain
attention when the speaker's position, attitude, or belief is entirely contrary to your
own?

2. External distractions. The preceding fault was more of an internal distraction. Some
nonverbal cues are strong external distractions. Does the speaker stammer? Wear loud
clothing? Dress sloppily? Walk or gesture excessively? All of these and more cause
persons to tune out on speakers.

Actually, the entire physical environment affects listening. Among, the negative
factors are noisy ventilators, poor or glaring lights, distracting background music,
overheated or cold or oddly shaped or gaudily decorated rooms, excessive draft from
a window or register, and so on. Also, sitting near disturbing individuals in the
audience might distract listener's attention from the speaker's message.

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 3. Thinking speed. Most of us speak between 80 and 160 words per minute. Yet people
have the capacity to think at the phenomenal rate of up 800 words per minute. That
leaves time on the listener's hands (or his or her head). What do you do during all that
time when you're actually processing the speaker's words? Do you go off on tangents,
focus your attention elsewhere, begin to daydream, shift your attention? Soon you can
be off, far away from the words of the speaker-missing some important points.

4. Premature evaluation. How many times have you interrupted persons before they
completed their thought? Finished their sentence? Stated their conclusions? Directly
as a result of our rapid thinking speed, we race ahead to what we feel is the
conclusion. We anticipate. We arrive at the concluding thought quickly-although
often one that is quite different from what the speaker intended.

5. Semantic stereotypes. As certain kinds of people bother us, so too do their words. An
interesting class interchange occurs when discussing this question: What is your
favorite word, and why? Opposite that question is, What words bother you, and why?
Internal reaction words vary from person to person, each list influenced by feelings,
attitudes, prejudices, and biases we carry inside ourselves. Hence, some words cause
negative reactions. We tune out the speaker because the word annoys us; it shouts so
loudly in our brain that effective listening is impaired.
6. Delivery. A monotone can readily put listeners to sleep-or cause them to lose interest.
Sadly, some teachers speak in monotones. So do significant people in government or
business. How a speaker delivers his or her message does annoy some people-and
they become bored, uninterested, and critical of the message. "He's a bore" is more a
critique of delivery than an assessment of a speaker's mental abilities. Good listening
is hard work-and important. It is easier to listen to what we enjoy, and to those we
enjoy-more quickly following arguments and ideas that link With our own way of
thinking.

2.3 Listening with a Purpose

Up to this point you may feel that getting an audience to listen is entirely up to the speaker.
Wrong. All of us have had the experience of reading to the bottom of a page and being unable
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to tell what we have read. Similarly, it's possible to hear someone and be unable to
summarize or repeat a word of what we heard. The fault is not entirely that of the sender. The
audience (or you as a member of that audience) must answer this question: Why listen?

To Gain New Information and Ideas

Throughout our lifetimes there are kernels of information that become a part of us through
the spoken word. Lectures in class, for example, can supplement and clarify a textbook;
informative orientations give new employees background to a company; persuasive
statements to clients give both information and reasons for buying. New ideas are received
daily, via the oral medium, if one listens.

To Question and Test Evidence and Assumptions

When a speaker presents a message, much of what is said is based on either verifiable facts or
his or her opinions. A good listener tests those facts and opinions against his or her
assumptions, then questions the speaker. The goal is to arrive at what is true, workable, and
acceptable to most people.

To Be Inspired
Sales meeting audiences know the value of a stimulating keynote speaker. He or she sets the
tone, direction, mood for the entire meeting. A well-delivered poem or a moving speech can
be motivational, provided that the listeners focus on the in spilling statements.

To Improve Your Own Communication

Role models and mentors are valuable to young people entering the business world. If your
role model is also an effective communicator, you are lucky. However, if your mentor lacks
some communication skills, and thus cannot serve as a resource, other excellent ways exist to
study communicators: attending meetings, hearing speeches, or even observing famous
officials speaking on television. Choose the best techniques; listen for and adopt those that
are done well. Add them to your list of desirable speaking attributes. Omit undesirable habits
that you see and hear.

The preceding discussion suggests reasons why you should listen. You, as a listener, can help
ensure achieving those listening goals by doing the following:
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2.4 Important Points for Improved Listening

1. Be prepared. For a class, this means completing your reading and assignment
responsibilities. For an outside speaker, you can learn something about the
speaker, the topic, the audience, the situation even before attending. In a sense you
are preparing yourself to listen.
2. Accent the positive. "If you have to do it, do it with a positive attitude" is a
centerpiece of many modern self-help books-and a good model for life. In
listening, too, we ought to leave our negative baggage at home, taking along only
a constructive attitude. Find something interesting or useful in the message.
3. Listen to understand, not refute. Respect the viewpoint of those you disagree with.
Try to understand the points they emphasize and why they have such feelings
(training, background, etc.). Don't allow your personal biases and attitudes
regarding the speakers or their views to influence your listening to their message.
To deny hearing a view with which you disagree is to possess a closed mind and
ear.
4. Focus your attention. Tune out internal and external distractions by facing and
maintaining contact with the speaker. If you experience some negative
environment factors, you can sometimes move to another location in the room.
Blot out your meandering thoughts and focus on what is being said.
5. Concentrate on context. Search out the main ideas. Construct a mental outline of
where the speaker is going. Listen for transitions and the progression of ideas.
Look for supports that develop the thesis.
6. Take notes. If you focus on content, the physical act of writing main points
reinforces the mental outline you are constructing. Jot down ideas. Even
incomplete sentences or single words will later be a memory jogger of what was
said. But avoid trying to record entire sentences verbatim, for while you are
writing them, you may miss the next significant points the speaker is presenting.
Note the general principles, and record the supporting facts for them whenever
possible.

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 7. Curb the impulse to interrupt. This suggestion applies to interviews, conferences,
job instructions, and meetings. Listen attentively until the speaker invites
questions. Don't assume conclusions before the speaker has stated them.
8. Summarize and evaluate. Restate-in your own words-just what you think was said.
You should also question evidence used and mentally test the validity of evidence
in support of a proposition. Furthermore; during the speech, you can also note
nonverbal cues (gestures, eye contact, tone) that help indicate whether the speaker
appears to be sincere in his or her statements. At the conclusion of the talk, during
a question period, it is your right to ask questions about material presented.

2.5 Results of Good Listening

Positive, purposive listening-to speakers in discussions, in interviews, in speeches, or in one-

on-one situations-yields valuable benefits:
1. Leads to helpful, positive attitudes-by understanding the hindrances that lie in the
way of good listening.
2. Permits the speaker and listeners to improve communication, because each side is
more aware of and receptive to the other's viewpoint.
3. Indicates by feedback to the speaker that listeners are interested; in turn, the
speaker tries harder to give his or her best presentation.
4. Helps listeners obtain useful information on which they can make accurate
decisions.
5. Creates better understanding of others and thus helps listeners work with others.
6. Assists the speaker (especially in an interview) in talking out a problem. A person
needs to receive, as well as give, help.

EXERCISES
1. Keep a list of you listening activities during an average day at school or work.
Whom were you listening to? What percentage of your day did you spend
listening?
2. Why do you think the distance between a speaker and listener can be important?
Give an example.
3. Why do you think eye contact is so important to both speakers and listeners?
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4. How do biases affect our ability to listen? Give an example.
5. What techniques do you use to help you listen more carefully?

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SECTION THREE: TELEPHONING

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Recognize the need for preplanning before calling

 Differentiate between the application of telephone and face-to- face conversation

 Maintain the discipline required for effective telephone communication

SECTION OUTLINE
3.1 Suggestions for Effective Telephoning (One to One)
3.2 Preplanning by the Caller
3.3 Behavior during the Telephone Conversation
3.4 Checklist for Telephone Communication

3.1 Suggestions for Effective Telephoning (One to One)

Throughout the world the telephone, along with face-to-face communication, is the most used
mode of communication, but it is often ill used. Because most of its uses and values are
familiar, we will look only at how to be more effective in using it.

As with all other successful written and oral communication, telephoning requires
preplanning by the caller and desirable behavior during the conversation by both persons who
are conversing. As some commercials advise, "Reach out and touch someone." Though you
are not meeting face to face, your conversation will be voice to voice and you want it to be as
favorable as possible.

3.2 Preplanning by the Caller

1. Know the specific purpose of your call.

2. Know the name and occupation (if pertinent) of the person you are calling.

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 3. Consider the best time to phone, from the standpoint of that person and of your
company. Usually, avoid calling just before lunch or at closing time. If you are
calling long-distance, be sure to consider time zones; consult your phone directory
map. Choose discount times whenever possible and desirable.
4. Plan your opening statement.
5. Jot down the questions you want to ask. Try to limit your call to one main point. If
you are calling to sell something, know your sales psychology and have factual
suggestions for listener benefits.
6. Have paper and pen handy for note-taking; also place near the phone any figures,
files, former correspondence, or whatever may be necessary for reference during
the conversation.

3.3 Behavior during the Telephone Conversation

When You are the Caller. Introduce yourself, and if you are calling long-distance, say so at
the beginning. Secretaries are more willing to interrupt their bosses if they know you are
calling from out of town. Person-to-person calls add importance and a feeling of urgency. If
the person you are calling is not in, ask whoever answers the phone for the best time to reach
that person. Or you can leave a message with your number and time to have your call
returned.

When you Answer a Phone Call. With a clear, pleasant voice answer promptly, usually with
your name and department. If you are answering for your employer or a co-worker, you
might say, "Ato Mohammed’s -office. This is Martha. How may I help you?" If Ato
Mohammed happens to be in another office, you might transfer the call (with the caller's
permission) or suggest when Ato Mohammed can be reached in his office. The tone of your
voice, your language, and courtesy to the caller can often create impressions that are critically
important for personal and organizational success.

When You Record on a Recording Machine. Many business- and professional persons now
use a recording machine when they do not wish to answer the phone or when they are absent
from their office. "I'm not available right now, but when you hear the tone, please leave your

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message, name, the date and time you called, and your phone number; I will get back to you"
is a sample recording.

When you respond to this invitation, speak slowly, giving your message as naturally as
possible. Then add your name, phone number, day and time when you called, and when you
can be reached.

3.4 Checklist for Telephone Communication

1. At the beginning of your conversation with the desired person, smile. Though
your listener cannot see you, the tone of your voice will sound more pleasant
when you smile.
2. Establish rapport-preferably with some item of interest or benefit to your
listener.
3. State the purpose of your call and proceed-with a clear, enthusiastic voice-to
one of your questions or to your main point, unless it is bad news that should
come only after other material has been tactfully presented.
4. Listen to the other person's views, ideas, and suggested solutions; don't
interrupt.
5. Listen also for the tone of the other person's voice; if it sounds annoyed,
negative, angry, try to be helpful without arguing immediately.
6. If you are trying to sell something, never read a sales pitch word for word. It
will sound insincere and canned. Adjust your presentation to your listener as
well as possible. Be sincere and truthful.
7. Before closing, restate the main decisions, if any that were made, and check
that your listener agrees with your statements.
8. Thank your listener, and let him or her hang up before you do.

EXERCISES
Oral improvements on three telephone responses to customers:
The following replies are similar to some that employees have given the customers when
answering telephone calls. What impressions do you think they make? Write your
suggestions for improving each.
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 a) “Hello, Yeah, it’s Elias. Huh? What kinds TV do you have? I dunno if we
have a part to fit it. I can’t tell ya; I have ta know the model number of your
TV. Wit a sec. I’ll look. Woops. Got a customer here just now. Call again.
Bye.” (Click)
b) “Hi, nop. This is not Wr/o Hiwot. Wow! I’m not sure if she’s out or just not
taking calls. May be she’s still out to lunch. What was your name? Hang on.”
c) “Hello. XY repair service. Get, we’re so far behind today. Have a stack of cars
here. No way we could getcha in today. Well, maybe. Don’t call until after
tomorrow.”

SECTION FOUR: INTERVIEWING

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 After completing this section, you will be able to:

 Define the meaning of interview

 Identify the major reasons of why we conduct interviews

 Explain the characteristics of the most appropriate location for an interview

 Identify the preparations required for conducting interview

 Identify the important skills requires successful interview

 Discuss the attitudinal rules required from an interviewer side

 Explain how to make judgments and analyze interview results

SECTION OUTLINE
4.1 Meaning and reasons for interviews
4.2 Interview Process
i. Location
ii. Preparing for the interview

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 iii. Conducting the interview
1. Questioning
2. Listening
3. Summarizing
4. Note taking
5. Closing the interview
6. Making judgments and analyzing results
4.3 Attitude rules for the interviewer
4.4 Summary

4.1 Meaning and Reasons for Interviews

Dear Students! As managers we spend much of our time in meeting other people - our bosses,
our colleagues and our staff. On several of these occasions we have to conduct interviews.
Locked into the mind of every manager is the opinion that he is a 'good' interviewer.
Regrettably, in most cases, this is rarely so. This section identifies the factors, techniques and
skills that will make you a better interviewer.
An interview is defined as 'A meeting of persons face to face'. Some of those reasons why
interviews are arranged are the following:
 to select a person for a specific task
 to monitor performance
 to exchange information
 to provide information
 to advise
 to counsel

4.2 Interview Process

It should already be clear that, whatever is the purpose, the objective of the interview must be
defined if we are to be successful.

Having defined the desired outcome of the interview-where you want to get to you then have
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to decide how to achieve that end:
 decide on a suitable location;
 prepare for the interview;
 conduct the interview;
 make a judgment and analyze the results.

1. Location
An interview can be doomed from the start in a badly chosen location. It may be, of
course, that you have no choice and that you have to use a specific area; this should not
prevent you from organizing that area to achieve the best results:

Firstly, the location should be comfortable, private and free from interruptions. If there is a
telephone this should be taken off the hook before the interview begins; similarly, it is
a good idea to hang a 'do not disturb' sign on the door.

The room should be warm and well ventilated and lighted, so that minds will stay
clear and a constructive exchange of ideas is encouraged. Seating should be
comfortable and of a style compatible with the formality of the interview.
If there is a likelihood that interviewees might have to wait then it is a good idea to
provide a comfortable waiting area with magazines and tea/coffee to help pass the
time.

2. Preparing for the interview

In all matters before beginning, a diligent preparation should be made. Time spent in
preparation will save time, and often embarrassment, at the actual interview.
The factors which need to be decided are the following:
 When is the interview to be arranged?
 How much notice should be allowed?
 How much time should be allowed?
 Who should conduct the interview?
 What questions need to be asked?
 How will the answers be recorded for future reference?

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  How will interviewees be compared with each other after the
interview?
 What information will be given to the interviewee?

Before the interview begins the interviewer(s) (who should be the most suitable
person(s) for the job) should always read relevant documentation and make a list of
the information which needs to be obtained during the interview; this, in turn, enables
specific questions to be decided and written down so that nothing will be forgotten.

It is a good idea to have a standard format (with tick-boxes if you are conducting the
interview(s) alone, which provides suitable headings and avoids having to write the
same thing down several times.

3. Conducting the interview

Conducting a successful interview requires three important skills: questioning,
listening, summarizing, note talking, and closing the interview.

3. 1. Questioning
Questions fall into five general types, as listed below:

A. Closed questions:
Closed questions require only a yes or no answer and do not therefore result in any
information other than the response to a single fact. Closed questions are useful for
checking facts, but as the name implies, each answer 'closes' the communication until
the next question is asked.
Examples:
'Did you read our advertisement in Ethiopian Herald?'
'Do you have a driving license?'

B. Open questions
Open questions enable a breadth of information to be gathered, since they encourage
the candidate to provide a fuller answer. Open questions give the interviewee a good
opportunity to present himself/herself, and they provide in-depth information to the
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interviewer.
Examples of open questions would be:
'How would your past experience help you to do this job?'
'What are your ultimate career aspirations?'

C. Probing questions
Probing questions are used to gain more information about something which has
already been said, possibly because a previous answer was vague or incomplete.
Probing questions provide a greater depth of knowledge about the interviewee and
test the genuineness of answers already given.
Example:
'I can understand your pride in the project finishing early and below budget,
but what precisely was your contribution to that?'

D. Situation-related questions
Situation-related questions provide the interviewee with the opportunity to illustrate
his/her skills in dealing .with a particular situation. This type of question enables the
interviewee to show how experienced he/she is in dealing with such problems.
Example:
'How did you deal with that member of staff who was repeatedly late for work?'

E. Link questions
Link questions create a smooth Logical flow in the interview. Here you form the
question by picking up the last or an earlier response from the interviewee, in order to
move on in a desired or different direction.

'You mentioned that you were concerned about the way in which we measure
inventory levels; how does this fit in with our plans for a new production control
system?'

There are also leading questions, discriminatory questions and multiple questions
which you should avoid!
- Leading questions are those which 'lead' the candidate to agree with the
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 interviewer; that is, they reveal the interviewer's own opinion.

Example:
'Don't you agree that managers should be really strict when dealing with bad
time keeping?'
- Discriminatory questions are questions which are asked of some candidates
but not of others; in some cases questions of this nature could be unlawful.

Example:
'How would an attractive lady like you feel about working in the stores
adjacent to the workshop?' (You would not ask this if the candidate were
male.)

- Multiple questions consist of a number of questions presented as a package to the

interviewee. Apart from becoming confused, the interviewee tends to respond to only
one question (often the 'safest' or last one). Example: 'What was your main work in
that period how did you like it, and how does it compare with your present job?'

3. 2. Listening
A common fault of interviewers is their apparent readiness to launch into long
monologues rather than providing the opportunity for the candidate to take part.

As a generalization, a good interviewer will not spend more than around one-third of
the interview talking - which implies that for about two-thirds of the interview the
interviewer will be actively listening.

Active listening implies much more than just hearing what is being said-it suggests
that the listener will be active in what is being said, and will be constantly displaying
attention to the interviewee. This is done in numerous ways, including:
 showing interest by looking at the candidate; smiling and nodding at
appropriate times to encourage the candidate to continue with the conversation;
 resisting the temptation to allow your mind to wander on to other things.

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In all forms of communication, you will find active listening to be one of the most
important skills to acquire. As the Arabs say, 'If I listen, I have the advantage; if I
speak, others have it.

3.3. Summarizing
As the name suggests, the aim is to summarize what has been said to date to
ensure that you and the candidate have the same understanding.

The great advantage of this technique is that it provides a break during which
you can confirm what has already been said, you can re-target the interview and
you can move into a different topic; by summarizing you can effectively curtail
a verbose candidate without making him/her feel uncomfortable.

3.4. Note taking

You should never rely on memory when conducting interviews. Having said that, an
interviewer who continually scribbles notes during an interview will undoubtedly
distract the candidate and interrupt the flow of the interview.

Note taking must therefore be unobtrusive and should not prevent the interviewer from
listening actively. A good way is to use a pre-designed Interview Profile sheet which
enables the interviewer to fill in information from documentation available before the
interview, and which can be used during the interview for added data. At the end of
each interview, time should be taken to write down impressions, comments, etc. so
that the interview will be more easily recalled at a later date.

When an interview is likely to be complex, it is often a good idea to have a second

person present to take notes, leaving the interviewer free to concentrate on the
candidate.

3. 5. Closing the interview

This should be done in a way which leaves the candidate feeling comfortable. Make it
clear that you have finished your questions, and give an opportunity to the candidate
to put any relevant questions to you; such questions should be answered as fully and
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frankly as possible, bearing in mind that it is in everyone's interest that they leave the
interview with a clear picture in mind.
 The interviewer should then advise the candidate what the next actions are
likely to be, and give some idea of the timescale involved.

3.6. Making judgments and analyzing results

You may have felt, in the past, that making decisions was the most difficult part of
the interviewing procedure, yet in reality it should be the easiest. By following the
advice given in this chapter you will have proceeded through the following stages:
1. Deciding your objectives.
2. Planning and preparing the interview by reviewing all the information you
already have, and deciding what additional information you aim to get from
the interview.
3. Conducting a constructive and objective interview to enable you to obtain the
facts.
4. Creating a written record of facts, observations and impressions.
5. You now have everything you need to make the best judgment or decision.

4.3 Attitude rules for the interviewer

1. Give your whole attention to the person you are interviewing and make it evident
that you are doing so.
2. Do not display any kind of authority.
3. Never argue; never give advice.
4. Listen to what the person:
(a) wants to say;
(b) does not want to say;
(c) Cannot say without your help.
5. Talk or ask questions only for the following reasons
(a) help the person talk;
(b) relieve fears or anxieties;
(c) summarize what has been said and present for verification or
comment;
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 (d) clarify;
(e) Steer the discussion towards some topic that is being avoided.
6. Give attention to issues of confidentiality and obtain agreement about the
circumstances in which you can discuss them.

EXERCISES
Consider the Situation 1 in light of the ten questions listed below:
1. How would you prepare for them?
2. How would you structure them?
3. How would you prepare for the unexpected in them?
4. What are likely to be the 'crunch' moments in the interviews?
5. How would you deal with them?
6. What outcomes will you try to achieve?
7. What will be your strategy in order to achieve them?
8. What are the worst possible outcomes?
9. How will you deal with these? Have you any contingency plans?
10. When you have worked through 1-9 above, share your thoughts with a colleague
and see if he/she agrees with you.
Situation 1
As sales manager, you have carefully planned sales territories to minimize traveling and
maximize call time. One salesman's traveling time has steadily increased beyond what you
consider reasonable.

You have heard that his car is often seen outside a house in another salesman's territory.
You are suspicious about what is going on, especially as your information source is
usually reliable. You decide to see the salesman.

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SECTION FIVE: RUNNING MEETINGS/LEADING DISCUSSIONS

SECTION OBJECTIVES
After thoroughly studying this section, you should be able to:

 Define meeting and its importance

 Identify the different types of meetings
 Identify the factors that contribute for the failure of meetings
 Identify and discuss the different roles played by the chair person, recorder
and members
 Discuss the ethical behaviors in meeting
 Identify the techniques of handling conflict in meeting

SECTION OUTLINE
5.1 Meaning and Importance of Meeting
5.2 Types of meeting and their implications
5.3 Factors contributing to the failure of a meeting
5.4 The roles of chairperson and members
a. Responsibilities of the chairperson
b. Responsibilities of the recorder
c. Responsibilities of the members
5.5 Behavior in meetings
5.6 Handling conflict

5.1 Meaning and Importance of Meeting

The general view about meetings, held by many organizations, is that a good meeting,
properly handled, will achieve more than each participating member could have done' alone
and more than could be achieved by exchanging information in some other way. Meetings
are not simply a communal or social alternative to memos, letters or phone calls. They can, if
handled correctly, produce a dynamic effect which cannot be produced by any other means.

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To achieve such a result you have to make sure that the meetings you are involved in are
more efficiently and effectively run. That means you need to understand what meetings are
all about, how a meeting should be run, and the behavior and relationships you are likely to
encounter in a meeting situation.

In a meeting, two or more people come together for the purpose of discussing a (usually)
predetermined topic such as business or community event planning, often in a formal setting.
In addition to coming together physically (in real life, face to face), communication lines and
equipment can also be set up to have a discussion between people at different locations, e.g. a
conference call or an e-meeting.

In organizations, meetings are an important vehicle for personal contact. They are so
common and pervasive in organizations, however, that many take them for granted and forget
that, unless properly planned and executed, meetings can be a waste of time and resources.
Because of their importance, a career in professional meeting planning has emerged in recent
years.

5.2 Types of meeting and their implications

Below are listed five types of meeting and a description of each:

1. Negotiating: to resolve some types of conflict. Discussion may be 'two-
sided', and the aim will be to bring the two sides together.
2. Informing: the flow of information will tend to be only one way.
Discussion is discouraged, as it may affect the passing of the information.
3. Solving problems: the creativity of the group should be used so that the
problems can be solved. Structure of such a meeting will not be as precise.
Discussion will flow around the table.
4. Making decisions: particular members are involved in a decision-making
process. The result should be that members are informed of and committed
to the decisions made. This type of meeting is fairly well structured.
5. Collecting and exchanging ideas: to present, inform and receive reactions to
ideas. This type of meeting encourages discussion and questions.

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Perhaps the most difference and similarity between these different types of meeting is
the amount of control used by the chairperson to steer the events in the desired
direction.

Holding a meeting is expensive in terms of time and cost. There is therefore the need
to make sure that a meeting is being held for a, very clear reason, that only those who
need to attend do so, and that the meeting is planned effectively.

5.3 Factors contributing to the failure of a meeting

Some of the typical factors which contribute to the failure of a meeting are the
following:
1. Inadequate structure: this usually occurs when there is a failure to keep the
meeting to its purpose and there are one or two forceful members who dominate
the proceedings.
2. Distribution and absorption of information: it may be wrongly assumed that all
members will have read and understood all the information circulated prior to the
meeting. Distribution of information at the meeting may wrongly assume that all
in attendance can read quickly and retain every part of the information.
3. Minutes: inaccuracy of the minutes of the previous meeting leads to valuable time
being taken up in the next meeting while points are reconsidered and agreed.
4. Agenda setting: if a meeting is not planned properly, the topics covered will tend
to be diverse and to a certain extent time wasting. It will also mean that some
members who are not involved in certain points will lose interest in the whole
proceedings.
5. Chairperson: problems associated with the chairperson are that he or she allows
too much free discussion, is not clear about the purpose of the meeting or the
required conclusion, and allows one or two dominant speakers to the exclusion of
everyone else.

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5.4 The roles of chairperson and members

In a formal meeting there will be a chairperson, a recorder, and the members. To

ensure a successful meeting it is important for them all to work together. All meetings
have a formal and informal level because of the personal interests of all the people
involved and their personal (sometimes hidden!) agendas.

1. Responsibilities of the chairperson

The chairperson is responsible for controlling the meeting, clarifying the objectives,
handling people's contributions, ensuring a fair distribution of time to all members,
ensuring that all members make a contribution and ensuring everyone knows what is
expected of them following the meeting. Responsibilities the chairperson include:

Pre-meeting Clarify and inform about the purpose of the meeting; set the
agenda; decide on the members who are needed; decide where
the meeting is to be held and the time; decide on the type of
meeting to be held; circulate written material.

During the meeting: Set the right climate; open the meeting; control the agenda;
encourage discussion; summarize; control members'
contributions; get decisions made; confirm actions and
responsibilities; close the meeting
Post-meeting Review the meeting; evaluate progress and results; ensure total
understanding by all members.

It is important that, whatever the reason for the meeting, the right climate is created. It
should be a climate of practicality of views and criticisms, and an efficient attitude
towards the use of time and resources.

However, it is also important that the correct level of formality is provided for the
type of group and discussion taking place. It is important that all members are put at
their ease, as a relaxed climate is more likely to bring out the best in any member.
Whether the meeting is held to make a decision, enforce some regulation, or
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announce a new project, an atmosphere that people find uncomfortable will only
make them resistant, which will be counter-productive.

Positive moves should be made to set the scene for the whole meeting and thus ensure
that no other person dictates the atmosphere.

Some specific rules to consider during meeting are the following:

1. Begin the meeting smoothly and on time
2. Start the meeting promptly and do not let other people's casual attitudes waste
each other's time.
3. Do not postpone or cancel a meeting without very good reason. By postponing or
canceling a meeting you are in fact disrupting other people's schedules. This in
turn will disrupt their levels of efficiency and morale.
4. Meetings should be scheduled so that you and all the other participants have
sufficient time for any necessary preparation.
5. Greet people as they arrive for the meeting and ensure that they are all seated
adequately. By using a little informal conversation as they arrive you can put
people at their ease. It is also important to ensure that any new member is
introduced before the meeting starts.
6. As the meeting starts the topic should be set simply, clearly and early. The aim of
the discussion should be set so that everyone is aware of what you want to achieve
and what level of progress you would consider sufficient.
7. Help should be given to everyone to ensure that they make a contribution. The
chairperson will need to recognize who is likely to act assertively, aggressively,
submissively and passively. It will be necessary to compensate for any imbalance
in the discussion and to do that in such a way that no-one will feel threatened or
'put down'.
8. Keep the discussion focused on one topic at a time, and avoid letting anyone
particular idea be developed to the detriment of others.
9. Be sure to allow only one person to speak at a time, and that only one meeting is
taking place!
10. Keep the meeting moving by summarizing or recapping on the ideas which have
already been presented.
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11. Diffuse any tensions that may result in the meeting not reaching a '. satisfactory
conclusion.
12. Ensure a conclusion is reached whenever possible.

Margerison (1974) suggests that at the beginning of a meeting it is important to ask

whether anyone wishes to add an item to the agenda. This serves the purpose of
allowing any member who has a 'burning' issue to make it known early, and then be
able to relax in the meeting rather than sit anxiously thinking that the point will not
be aired during the small amount of time designated for any other business.

Another point Margerison makes which is worth consideration is that the chairperson
should discuss with the group the order in which the items should be taken, or a
rationale for the priority of each item should be stated.

The chairperson needs to understand how the group functions so that he or she can
be aware of the members who may need encouragement to speak and those who may
need controlling.

2. Responsibilities of the recorder

The recorder, often a secretary, is the person who, with the chairperson carries out
the preparation for the meeting. Detailed planning will include:
 Pre-meeting: Checks should be made on venue details, date and time; notification
to attending members; necessary documents/distribution; refreshments/ seating/
AVA equipment.
 During the meeting: Recording of the minutes; those in attendance; actions to be
taken; by whom; deadline dates.
 Post-meeting: Writing up of minutes; checking essential facts/figures; agreeing
minutes with chairperson; distribution of the minutes.

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3. Responsibilities of the members
Everyone who attends a meeting has a responsibility to make that meeting a success.
It is important that all members actually understand the objective of the meeting, the
agenda items and the roles of others at the meeting. Points that members should
consider include:
• Pre-meeting: Research the case from a personal view- point; prepare a reasoned
argument with supporting documents; make a note of venue, date and time details;
prepare for particular role you are expected to play.
• During the meeting: Listen to the views of others; be constructive when
contributing; maintain interest in item being discussed; partake in informal chairing.
• Post-meeting: Complete any tasks allocated at the meeting.
It is important that everyone is prepared to put forward constructive ideas and to
decide on the best solution for the problem being presented, even if it means
modifying or surrendering your own views.

If a meeting covers several different areas, it is possible that interest could be lost by
members once their particular area of expertise has been dealt with. The level of
interest should be maintained as much as possible as it is often found that good ideas
are forthcoming from a combination of abilities.

If a chairperson fails to fulfill his/her function in a proper fashion one of the members
should raise the point of order in a tactful manner. The worst possible situation would
be one in which a chairperson loses complete control of a meeting and it would be:
up to a member to regain some sort of control. It would be necessary to help the
chairperson in as diplomat a manner as possible to avoid any conflict.

5.5 Behaviors in Meeting

To ensure that you can effectively participate in meetings you should consider
the following aspects:
 You are well prepared.
 Speech is clear and persuasive.

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  Criticism is constructive.

Constructive criticism will alert people to the fact that you are listening to them. This
will encourage them to listen to you. You should listen carefully and with tolerance,
making notes where appropriate. Some points worth considering are:
1. Summarizing what the last speaker has said will show your understanding and
provide a platform for you to make your point.
2. Do not enter into a debate unless you have a valid contribution to make, as this
tends to take up, too much time and often detracts from the question in hand.
3. Do not accept an interruption unless it is allowed by the chairperson. Be polite
and assertive and continue with what you have to say.
4. Only criticize constructively, even if some ideas are very obviously of little use
or interest.
5. Agreeing with something simply to conform with the majority is not a good
idea. Once you have looked carefully at your reasons for disagreeing and wish
to maintain your ideas, you should state your objections and have them
recorded.
6. Disagreeing with something even though your argument has proved to have
little basis is also of little use. Have the grace to admit that the argument against
your idea is sound.
 Questioning is clear and constructive.
 Behavior exhibited is confident and assertive (but not aggressive).

5.6 Handling conflict

One of the most necessary skills to possess for holding effective meetings is the
ability to handle conflict.

Conflict can arise because of a disagreement about a particular point or even because
of the manner in which discussions have taken place. To ensure that there is a greater
amount of collaboration and commitment in meetings, the following points should be
considered:

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 1. Active listening: this involves paying close attention to what the person speaking
is saying and doing. Communication is through words, emotions and body
language. A speaker should be given the chance to verbalize his or her thoughts
with a minimum of interruption and the maximum amount of help from open
questions, probe questions, clarification of ideas and head nodding.

2. Assertiveness: being assertive will give a positive reaction to any conflict and
will maintain control over the meeting. Showing assertive behavior is standing up for
your own rights in such a way that you do not violate another person's rights' and
'expressing your needs, wants, opinions, feelings and beliefs in direct, honest and
appropriate ways' .
1. Reducing communication blocks: this must be achieved by reducing any
threatening, dominating or aggressive behavior. It is also important to encourage
those who find it difficult to voice their opinions because of the more dominant
personalities present.
1. Emphasis of issues: issues should be voiced and all the necessary facts gathered.
Large issues should be broken down into smaller, manageable ones and problems
should be dealt with one at a time. Most importantly - emphasize issues, not
personalities!
2. Decision on actions to be taken: appraisal of actions and their possible
consequences should be made, and the agreement of all members obtained
concerning the course of any action which needs to be taken. This will act as a
deterrent to any conflict at future meetings when the results have to be discussed.

The final word goes to Charles Margerison (1974) who says: 'What is absolutely
necessary is the skill to talk to others in groups, to resolve problems, and to seek
opportunities. This demands high interpersonal communication skills ...'

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CHECKLIST - PREPARATION FOR A MEETING
The Domestic Arrangements  Venue, time, length of meeting
 Who should attend
 Who will chair
 Who will be called upon to speak
Paper work  The agenda
 Minutes from previous meeting
 Reports to be read beforehand
 Written reports or graphics wanted at the
meeting
Purpose/Preparation  What do you want to achieve?
 What kind of meeting is it?
 Do you need to canvass for views?
 Do you need to acquire specialist advice
on any subject?
 Are you conversant with the reason for the
meeting?
 Do you need to discuss any of the content
of the meeting with anyone in a higher
management position?
Contributions  Do you need to use visual aids?
 Is a written report going to be needed?
 How much general knowledge of the
subject is there?
 If you have a presentation to make, have
you read through the necessary points to consider
and followed them?

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UNIT SUMMARY

By following the suggestions in this chapter you will feel more confident about making
presentations, but a great deal will be learnt from practicing and getting feedback from others.
There is a saying that 'Experience is a great teacher', to which has been added 'the only
trouble is, you get the tests before you learn the lesson!
Before the presentation: plan and prepare.
During the presentation: speak up.
At the end: SHUT UP AND SIT DOWN!

No matter what career you are in or plan to enter, you will find that good listening and
speaking skills are essential to your success. The two activities reinforce and depend on each
other. Both demand that you pay attention to verbal and nonverbal messages. Both activities
also require that you consider other people’s needs as well as your own. While learning to
speak effectively, learn also to listen actively-and work on helping others do the same.

A telephone conversation can often (but not always) take the place of two written messages
or a face-to-face interview between two persons. Along with face-to-face communication, it
is the most common form of communication in the business world. A variety of new
electronic equipment is available. For effective telephoning the caller must preplan regarding
purpose, listener, best time to phone, opening statement, questions, and supplies to have
nearby. During the telephone conversation both caller and called should observe the C
principles in their behavior and language while expressing ideas.

We have also identified that, in any interview situation, the objective of the interview must be
known and understood by both parties. Interview success will occur only if suitable
preparation is made by the interviewer and interviewee, rapport established early in the
interview, and control exercised by the effective use of questions by the interviewer.
Guidelines have been given for managers dealing with specific incidents and situations at
work.

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In this unit we have examined the various types of meeting we are likely to encounter at
work, and how to manage them. Remember that any meeting is likely to cover several issues
and topics - a meeting that started out as a vehicle for solving problems may move into a
negotiating one as more information is contributed, and so on. So you need to vary your style
of chairing to meet the needs of the situation. Be organized and use your skills, and meetings
will turn out to be successful.

REFERENCES
1. Murphy, H.A. Hilderbrandt (1991) Effective Business Communication, McGraw
Hill Publishing: New York.
2. Marry Cullinan (1993) Business Communication: Principles and Processes, Soth-
Western: Singapore.
3. Back, Ken and Back, Kate (1987) Assertiveness at Work: A practical guide to
handling awkward situations, Guild Publishing, London.
4. Belbin, R. M. (1981) Management Teams: Why they succeed or fail, Heinemann,
London.
5. Buchanan, Do, and Huczynski, A. (1985) Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall
International, Hemel Hempstead.
6. Homans, G. (1951) The Human Group, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Kakabadse, A., Ludlow, R. and Vinnicombe, S. (1987) Working in Organisa-
tions, Gower, London.
7. Margerison, C. (1974) Managerial Problem Solving, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead.
8. Maslow, A. H. (1971) Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York.

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