MODULE-1 Bipolar Junction Transistors

Module II
Bipolar Junction Transistors: Introduction, BJT Voltages & Currents, BJT Amplification, Common Base
Characteristics, Common Emitter Characteristics, Common Collector Characteristics, BJT Biasing:
Introduction, DC Load line and Bias point
Field Effect Transistor: Junction Field Effect Transistor, JFET Characteristics, MOSFETs: Enhancement
MOSFETs, Depletion Enhancement MOSFETs

INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogus to
vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used i amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a
switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern
communication systems.
• The three layers of BJT are called Emitter, Base and Collector
 Base is very thin compared to the other two layers
 Base is lightly doped. Emitter is heavily doped. Collector is moderately doped
• NPN transistor – Emitter and Collector are made of N-type semiconductors; Base is P-type
• PNP transistor – Emitter and Collector are P-type, Base is N-type
• The device is called “bipolar junction transistor” because current is due to motion of two types of
charge carriers – free electrons & holes.

Figure 2.1: Schematic representation

Transistor Voltage and Current

An npn transistor
 The Transistor Voltage polarities for an npn transistor are shown in Figure 2.2(a).
 The conventional current direction, the direction of the arrowhead indicates the transistor bias
polarities.
 For an npn transistor, the base is biased positive with respect to the emitter, and the arrowhead
points from the (positive) base to the (negative) emitter.
 The collector is then biased to a higher positive Transistor Voltage than the base.

Figure2.2: An npn transistor

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 Figure 2.2(b) shows that the Transistor Voltage sources are connected to the transistor via
resistors.
 The base bias voltage (VB) is connected via resistor RB, and the collector supply (VCC) is
connected via RC.
 The negative terminals of the two voltage sources are connected at the transistor emitter terminal.
VCC is always much larger than VB, and this ensures that the CB junction remains reverse biased;
positive on the collector (n-side), and negative on the base (p-side).
 Typical transistor base-emitter voltages are similar to diode forward voltages; 0.7 V for a silicon
transistor, and 0.3 V for a germanium device.
 Typical collector voltages might be from 3 V to 20 V for most types of transistors.

pnp transistor
 For a pnp device [Fig. 2.3(a)] the base is biased negative with respect to the emitter.
 The arrowhead points from the (positive) emitter to the (negative) base, and the collector is made
more negative than the base.
 Figure 2.3(b) shows the Transistor Voltage sources connected via resistors, and the source
positive terminals connected at the emitter.
 With VCC larger than VB, the (p-type) collector is more negative than the (n-type) base, keeping
the CB junction reverse biased.

Figure 2.3: An pnp transistor

All transistors (npn and imp) are normally operated with the CB junction reverse biased and the BE
junction forward biased.

Transistor Currents:
 The various current components that flow within a transistor are illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
 The current flowing into the emitter terminal is referred to as the emitter current and is identified
as IE.
 For the pnp device shown, IE can be thought of as a flow of holes from the emitter to the base.

Figure 2.3: Currents in pnp transistor

 The indicated IE direction is the conventional current direction from positive to negative.
 Base current IB and collector current IC are also shown as conventional current direction.

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Figure 2.4: Currents in pnp transistor

 Both IC and IB flow out of the transistor. while IE flows into the transistor, (see Fig. 2.3and 2.4).
Therefore,

 Almost all of IE crosses to the collector, and only a small portion flows out of the base terminal.
 Typically 96% to 99.5% of IE flows across the collector-base junction to become the collector
current. As shown in Fig.2.3,

 αdc (alpha dc) is the emitter-to-collector current gain, or the ratio of collector current to emitter
current.

αdc = IC /IE.

 Numerically, αdc is typically 0.96 to 0.995.

 The collector current is almost equal to the emitter current, and in many circuit situations IC is
assumed equal to IE.
 αdc is termed the common-base dc current gain.
 Because the CB junction is reverse biased, a very small reverse saturation current (ICBO) flows
across the junction, (see Fig. 2.3). ICBO is named the collector-to-base leakage current, and it is
normally so small that it can be neglected.
 Substituting for IE into Eq. of IC

which gives,

Above equation can be rewritten as,

Where,

 βdc (beta dc) is the base-to-collector current gain, or the ratio of collector current to base current,
(see Fig. 2.4).
βdc = IC /IB.

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 Typically, βdc ranges from 25 to 300.

 βdc is also termed the common-emitter dc current gain..

Figure 2.5: Currents in npn transistor

Typical collector and emitter currents for low-power transistors range from 1 mA to 25 mA, and base
currents are usually less than 100 μA.

Amplification in Transistor
Current Amplification
A transistor can be used for current amplification.
A small change in the base current (ΔIB) produces a large change in collector current (ΔIC) and a large
emitter current change (ΔIE), [see Fig. 2.6(a) and (b)].

Figure 2.6: BJT Current amplification

 The current gain from the base to collector can be stated in terms of current level changes

 The increasing and decreasing levels of input and output currents may be defined as alternating
quantities.
 Thus, Ib is an ac base current, Ic is an ac collector current, and Ie is an ac emitter current.
 The alternating current gain from base to collector may now be stated as,

Voltage Amplification
 Refer to the circuit in Fig. 2.7(a) and assume that the transistor (Q1) has βdc = 50.
 The 0.7 V dc voltage source (VB) forward biases the transistor base-emitter junction.
 An ac signal source (υi) in series with VB provides a ± 20 mV input voltage.
 The transistor collector is connected to a 20 V dc voltage source (VCC) via the 12 kΩ collector
resistor (R1).

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Figure 2.7: BJT Voltage amplification

If Q1 has the IB/VBE characteristic shown in Fig. 2.7 (b), the 0.7 V level of VB produces a 20 μA base
current. This gives,

The dc level of the transistor collector voltage can now be calculated as,

 The VC and IC levels are shown on Fig. 2.7(a).

 While the ac input voltage (υi) is zero, the transistor collector voltage remains at 8 V.
 When υi causes a base voltage variation (ΔVB) of ±20 mV, the base current changes by ±5 μA, as
shown in Fig. 2.7(b).
 The IB change produces a collector current change.

Figure 2.8 (a) shows that ΔIC causes a change in the voltage drop across R1, and thus produces a variation
in the transistor collector voltage.

 The circuit ac input is the base voltage change (ΔVB), and the ac output is the collector voltage
change (ΔVC).
 The output is greater than the input, the circuit has a voltage gain; it is a voltage amplifier.
 The voltage gain (Aυ) is the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

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Figure 2.8: IC causes a change in the voltage drop across R1

The ac signal voltage (υi) produces the ac base current (Ib), and this generates the ac collector current (IC)
which produces the ac voltage change across R1, [see Fig. 2.8 (b)].

The equation for ac voltage gain is,

Transistor configuration
Transistor can be used as an amplifier. For an amplifier, two terminals are required to supply the weak
signal and two terminals to collect the amplified signal. Thus four terminals are required but a transistor is
said to have only three terminals Therefore, one terminal is used common for both input and output.
This gives rise to three different combinations.
1. Common base configuration (CB)
2. Common emitter configuration (CE)
3. Common collector configuration (CC)

1. Common Base Transistor Characteristics

Common Base Circuit
 In this configuration, base is used as common to both input and output.
 Figure 2.9 shows a pnp transistor with its base terminal common to both the input (EB) voltage
and the output (CB) voltage.
 The transistor is said to be connected in common base configuration.
 Voltmeters and ammeters are included to measure the input and output voltages and currents.

Figure 2.9: Common Base Characteristics

Input Characteristics of Common Base Configuration:

 To determine the Input Characteristics of Common Base Configuration, the output (CB) voltage is
maintained constant, and the input (EB) voltage is set at several convenient levels.
 For each level of input voltage, the input current IE is recorded.

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 IE is then plotted versus VEB to give the Input Characteristics of Common Base Configuration
shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Common Base input Characteristics

 The EB junction is forward biased, the common-base input characteristics are essentially those of
a forward biased pn-junction.
 Figure 2.10 shows that for a given level of input voltage, more input current flows when higher
levels of CB voltage are used. This is because larger CB (reverse bias) voltages cause the
depletion region at the CB junction to penetrate deeper into the base of the transistor, thus
shortening the distance and reducing the resistance between the EB and CB depletion regions.

Output Characteristics of Common Base Configuration:

 The emitter current IE is held constant at each of several fixed levels.
 For each fixed level of IE, the output voltage VCB is adjusted in convenient steps, and the
corresponding levels of collector current IC are recorded.
 In Figure 2.11 the corresponding IC and VCB levels obtained when IE was held constant at 1 mA
are plotted, and the resultant Common Base Transistor Characteristics is identified as IE = 1 mA.
Similarly, other characteristics are plotted for IE levels of 2 mA, 3 mA, 4 mA, and 5 mA.

Figure 2.11: Common Base output Characteristics

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 The Output Characteristics of Common Base Configuration is shown in Figure 2.11 show that for
each fixed level of IE, IC is almost equal to IE and appears to remain constant when VCB is
increased.
 There is a very small increase in IC with increasing VCB. This is because the increase in collector-
to-base bias voltage (VCB) expands the CB depletion region, and thus shortens the distance
between the two depletion regions.
 With IE held constant, the increase in IC is so small that it is noticeable only for large variations in
VCB.
 As illustrated in Figure 2.11, when VCB is reduced to zero, IC still flows. Even when the externally
applied bias voltage is zero, there is still a barrier voltage existing at the CB junction, and this
assists the flow of IC.
 The charge carriers which constitute IC are minority carriers as they cross the CB junction. Thus,
the reverse-bias voltage VCB and the (unbiased) CB barrier voltage assist their movement across
the junction.
 To stop the flow of charge carriers, the CB junction has to be forward biased.
 IC is reduced to zero only when VCB is increased positively.
 The region of the graph for the forward-biased CB junction is known as the saturation region.
 The region in which the junction is reverse biased is named the active region, and this is the
normal operating region for the transistor.

Current Gain in Common Base Configuration

The current gain characteristics (also termed the forward transfer characteristics) are a graph of output
current (IC) versus input current (IE).
VCB is held constant at a convenient level, and IC is measured for various levels of IE.
IC is then plotted versus IE, and the resultant graph is identified by the VCB level, (see Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12: Common Base current gain Characteristics

 The CB current gain characteristics can be derived from the CB output characteristics, as shown in
Figure 2.12.
 A vertical line is drawn through a selected VCB value, and corresponding levels of IE and IC are
read along the line.
 The IC levels are then plotted versus IE, and the characteristic is labelled with the VCB used.
 Almost all of IE flows out of the collector terminal as IC, VCB has only a small effect on the
current gain characteristics.

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2. Common Emitter Transistor Characteristics

 Common Emitter Circuit – Figure 2.13 shows a circuit for determining CE Transistor
Characteristics.
 The input voltage is applied between the B and E terminals, and the output is taken at the C and E
terminals.
 The emitter terminal is common to both input and output.
 Voltage and current levels are measured as shown.

Figure 2.13: Common Emitter Characteristics

Common Emitter Input Characteristics

 To prepare a table of values for constructing the Input Characteristics of Common Emitter
Configuration, VCE is held constant, VBE is set at convenient levels, and the corresponding
IB levels are recorded.
 IB is then plotted versus VBE, as shown in Figure 2.14.
 The Input Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration (like the common base input
characteristics) are those of a forward-biased pn-junction.
 IB is only a small portion of the total current (IE) that flows across the forward-biased BE junction.

Figure 2.14: Common Emitter input Characteristics

 Figure 2.14 also shows that, for a given level of VBE, IB is reduced when higher VCE levels are
employed.
 This is because higher VCE produces greater depletion region penetration into the base, reducing
the distance between the CB and EB depletion regions.
 Consequently, more of the charge carriers from the emitter flow across the CB junction, and fewer
flow out via the base terminal.

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Common Emitter Output Characteristics:

 IB is maintained constant at several convenient levels.
 VCE is adjusted in steps at each IB level, and the IC level is recorded at each VCE step.
 For each IB level, IC is plotted versus VCE to give a family of CE Transistor Characteristics as
shown in Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: Common Emitter output Characteristics

 Because IE is not held constant the shortening of the distance between the depletion regions (when
VCB is increased) draws more charge carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 IC increases to some extent with increasing VCE although IB is held constant.
 The slopes of the Common Emitter Output Characteristics are much more pronounced than those
of the common base characteristics.
 At the knee of the CE Transistor Characteristics, the CB junction voltage (VCB) has been reduced
to zero, (because VCE = VBE). Further reduction in VCE causes the CB junction to be forward
biased.
 The forward bias repels the minority charge carriers, thus reducing IC to zero.

Common Emitter Current Gain Characteristics:

 The Common Emitter Current Gain Characteristics are (output current) IC plotted versus (input
current) IB for various fixed levels of VCE.
 VCE is held at a selected level, and the base current IB is adjusted in steps.
 The corresponding IC level is recorded at each step of IB.

Figure 2.16: Common Emitter Current Gain Characteristics

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3. Common Collector Characteristics of BJT

In the Common Collector Characteristics of BJT circuit arrangement of Figure 2.17, the collector terminal
is common to both input CB voltage and output CE voltage.

Figure 2.17: Common collector Characteristics

Using this circuit, the common-collector input, output, and current gain characteristics can be determined.
The output and current gain characteristics are shown in Figure 2.18.

Figure 2.18: Common collector output and Current Gain Characteristics

 The common-collector output characteristics are IE plotted versus VCE for several fixed values of
IB.
 The common-collector current gain characteristics are IE plotted versus IB for several fixed values
of VCE.

The common-collector input characteristics shown in Figure 2.19. The input voltage (VBC) is largely
determined by the VEC level.

Figure 2.19: Common Emitter Current Gain Characteristics

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Referring to Figure 2.18,

Increasing the level of (input voltage) VBC with VEC held constant, reduces the level of VEB, and thus
reduces IB.

DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit

 The DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit is a straight line drawn on the transistor output
characteristics. For a common-emitter (CE) circuit, the load line is a graph of collector current (IC)
versus collector-emitter voltage (VCE), for a given value of collector resistance (RC) and a given
supply voltage (VCC).
 The load line shows all corresponding levels of IC and VCE that can exist in a particular circuit.

Figure 2.20: Transistor Circuit with collector resistance (RC)

The polarity of the transistor terminal voltages are such that the base-emitter junction is forward biased
and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit in Figure 2.20 is drawn on the device common-emitter
characteristics in Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21: DC Load Line drawn on the device common-emitter characteristics

From Figure 2.20, the collector-emitter voltage is,
VCE = (supply voltage) – (voltage drop across RC)

If the base-emitter voltage (VBE) is zero, the transistor is not conducting and IC = 0. Substituting the
values of VCC= 20V and RC=10KΩ,

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Plot point A on the common-emitter characteristics in Figure 2.21 at IC = 0 and VCE = 20 V. This is one
point on the DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit.

Now assume a collector current of 2 mA, and calculate the corresponding collector-emitter voltage level.

Plot point B on Figure 2.21 at VCE = 0 and IC = 2 mA. The straight line drawn through point A and point
B is the dc load line for RC = 10 kΩ and VCC = 20 V. If either of these two quantifies is changed, a new
load line must be drawn.

DC Bias Point (Q-Point)

 The dc bias point, or quiescent point (Q-point) (also known as the dc operating point), identifies
the transistor collector current and collector-emitter voltage when there is no input signal at the
base terminal. It defines the dc conditions in the circuit.
 When a signal is applied to the transistor base, IB varies according to the instantaneous amplitude
of the signal. This causes IC to vary, and consequently produces a variation in VCE.

Figure 2.22: Transistor circuit with a bias point at VCE = 10V and IC = 1 mA

Consider the circuit in Figure 2.22, and the 10 kΩ load line drawn for the circuit in Figure 2.23. Assume
that the bias conditions are identified by the Q-point on the load line,

Figure 2.23: DC Load Line for transistor circuit with a bias point at VCE = 10V and IC = 1 mA
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 When IB is increased from 20 μA to 40 μA, IC becomes approximately 1.95 mA and VCE becomes
0.5 V, as illustrated at point C on the load line. The VCE change from the Q-point is,

 So, increasing IB by 20 μA (from 20 μA to 40 μA) caused VCE to decrease by 9.5 V, (from 10 V to

0.5 V).
 When IB is reduced from 20 μA to zero, IC goes down to approximately 0.05 mA, and VCE goes up
to 19.5 V (point D on the load line in Figure 2.23). So, the VCE change is,

 Decreasing IB by 20 μA (From 20 μA to zero) caused VCE to increase by 9.5 V (from 10 V to 19.5

V). It is seen that with the Q-point at IC = 1 mA and VCE = 10 V, an IB variation of ±20 μA
produces a collector voltage swing of ΔVCE = ±9.5 V.
 The base current can be increased and decreased by smaller amounts. For example, a base current
change of ±10 μA (from the Q-point on Figure 2.23) would produce a collector current change of
±0.5 mA, and a collector-emitter voltage change of ±5 V.

Figure 2.24: The collector emitter voltage of a transistor can range from approximately zero to VCC

 For convenience, it may be assumed that IC can be driven to zero at one extreme and to VCC/RC at
the other extreme, [see Figure 2.24].
 This changes the collector-emitter voltage from VCE = VCC to VCE = 0, as illustrated in Figure
2.25.
 Thus, with the Q-point at the center of the load line, the maximum possible collector voltage
swing is seen to be approximately ±VCC/2

Figure 2.25: The collector emitter voltage ranges from approximately VCC to zero

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Q-point Selection
 Suppose the transistor is biased at IC = 0.5 mA, and VCE = 15 V, as shown in Figure 2.26 (a).
 Increasing the collector current to 2 mA reduces VCE to zero, giving ΔVCE = -15 V.
 Reducing IC to zero increases VCE to VCC, producing ΔVCE = +5 V.

Figure 2.26

 When used as an amplifier, the transistor output (collector-emitter) voltage must swing up and
down by equal amounts; that is, the output voltage swing must be symmetrical above and below
the bias point.
 So, the asymmetrical VCE swing of -15 V +5 V illustrated in Figure 2.26 (a) is unsuitable. If IC is
driven up and down by ±0.5 mA [see Figure 2.26 (b)], a symmetrical output voltage swing of ±5 V
is obtained.

Effect of Emitter Resistor

Figure 2.27 (a) shows a circuit that has a resistor (RE) in series with the transistor emitter terminal, and
the supply voltage connected directly to the collector terminal. In this case R E is the dc load, is rewritten
as,

The DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit is drawn exactly as discussed, with IE taken as equal to IC for
convenience.

Figure 2.27: The transistor dc load is the sum of the resistors in series with the collector and emitter terminal

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In Figure 2.27 (b) collector and emitter resistors RC and RE are both present, and the total dc load in
series with the transistor is (RC+ RE). For drawing the DC Load Line of BJT Biasing Circuit, equation can
be written as

The voltage drop across the emitter resistor is actually (IE RE), but again for convenience IE is taken as
equal to IC.

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