Notes From

Buddhist and
Pali University
for the 1. year

Copy-written,
commented and
edited by ven.
Czech Sarana

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (ONLY SUBJECTS)

B.P.F 101 – Emergence of Buddhism: Historical Background....................................................12

B.P.F 102 – Early Buddhism : Fundamental Studies....................................................................90

P.F.I. 101 – Pāli Canonical Literature..........................................................................................163

P.F.I. 102 – Pāli Language and Grammar...................................................................................218

R.S.F. 101 – Introduction to Religious Studies............................................................................244

R.S.F. 102 – History of Religious Traditions................................................................................327

TABLE OF CONTENTS (DETAILED ONE)

Table of Contents (only subjects)................................................................................................................2

Table of contents (detailed one)...................................................................................................................2
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................11

B.P.F 101 – Emergence of Buddhism: Historical Background....................................................12

Pre-Vedic Religion in India (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)........................................................................................................................................................13
Question: Explain the beginning of Vedic religion and describe the development of Vedic religion........15
Vedic period..............................................................................................................................................16
Question: Vedic literature is a mirror to the evolution of religious concepts.............................................17
The Yama and its concepts (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)
...................................................................................................................................................................18
Question: Discuss the evolution of God concept ......................................................................................19
Question: Explain the nature of believing in God in Vedic period (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original
by ven. Medānanda)...................................................................................................................................20
Brahmin period (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).............21
Origin of Buddhism (How Buddhism Originated).....................................................................................22
Question: Elucidate the Buddhist teaching on kamma and show how it sets aside the view that everything
happens due to past kamma.......................................................................................................................23
Concept of Kamma....................................................................................................................................24
The theory of kamma.................................................................................................................................25
Āranyaka Period (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)............26
Question: Since Upaniṣad's period up to the Buddha's period how religious people sought for Jñāna
(wisdom) or knowledge?...........................................................................................................................27
Question: The path of gnāna (gnāna mārga) is the door which opens to birth of Indian philosophy. Justify
the statement..............................................................................................................................................28
Question: Describe the special characteristics of Karma Mārga and Ñāna Mārga....................................29
Upaniṣad Period (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).............30
Upaniṣad theory (original by ven. Tezaniya).............................................................................................33
Śramaṇa Tradition (lectured by ven. Ananda Vijayaratna) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).........34

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 Śramaṇa tradition or ascetic movement in India (original by ven. Hunny)................................................36
Śramaṇa tradition or ascetic movement in India........................................................................................37
The basic view of the division into Brahmaṇa and Śramaṇa (original by ven. Kelananda 1995)...............39
Brāhmaṇa and Śramaṇa.............................................................................................................................41
What are the distinguished characteristics of Buddha as an ascetic?.........................................................42
The concept of totality (the all) in the Upaniṣad and early Buddhism (original by ven. Kelananda 1995) 43
Theo-Centric Religion and Monotheism....................................................................................................45
Brāhmaṇa period........................................................................................................................................46
Brāhmaṇ....................................................................................................................................................47
??? (Upaniṣads and Brāhmaṇ)...................................................................................................................48
Question: What is the unity of Brahman and Ātman?................................................................................49
Brahman and Ātman..................................................................................................................................50
Question: Give an account of theory of reality presented by Upaniṣadic thinker (original by ven. Hunny)
...................................................................................................................................................................52
Ātman........................................................................................................................................................53
Concept of Ātman......................................................................................................................................55
Soul theory (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Medananda)...................................................55
Question: How the concept of ātman (self) varied in Hindu religious philosophical tradition?.................56
Being & the World....................................................................................................................................57
Six Religious Teachers in the sixth century BC.........................................................................................58
Sāmaññaphala sutta + six thinkers or teachers...........................................................................................59
Philosophies of six teachers, the contemporaries of the Buddha (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa)..................60
The six important Indian heretical teachers (NOT COMPLETED)...........................................................61
Ajita Kesakambalī.....................................................................................................................................63
Ajita Kesakambalī (September 2006)........................................................................................................64
Self-indulgence and materialism................................................................................................................65
Question: Teaching of the lokāyatavāda deteriorates ethical and spiritual development of individual and
the society. Discuss....................................................................................................................................66
Question: Explain Ucchedavāda (nihilism) in relation to Kāmasukhallikānuyoga (self-indulgence) and
Sassatavāda (eternalism) in relation to Attakilamathānuyoga (self-mortification).....................................66
Question: Elucidate the deterministic theory existing during the time of the Buddha and explain how
Buddhism criticized this theory.................................................................................................................67
Definition of Akiriyavāda according to Buddhism (original by ven. Kelananda 1995).............................68
Self-mortification.......................................................................................................................................70
The Concepts of Karma and Indriya Saṅvara in Jainism and early Buddhism respectively.......................71
The evolution of social institutions (Aggañña Sutta) (original by ven. Kelananda 1995)..........................73
Political thinking (original by ven. Kelananda 1995).................................................................................75
Economics (original by ven. Kelananda 1995)..........................................................................................77
Question: Explain the political and social condition that helped the rise and establishment of Buddhism.79
BONUS: Book: Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy: Vedic Philosophy.....................................................80
BONUS: Book: Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy: Post-Vedic Philosophy.............................................83
Questions...................................................................................................................................................88

B.P.F 102 – Early Buddhism : Fundamental Studies....................................................................90

Five aggregates (lectured by Mr. Udita Garusingha) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...................91
Dukkha (lectured by Mr. Udita Garusingha) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...............................92
Question: Morality (Sīla) and Concentration (Samādhi) cannot be meaningful without the Right view.
Discuss. (Buddhist Doctrine of deliverance and its final goal)..................................................................95
Tilakkhana, Three Characteristics (lectured by Mr. Udita Garusingha) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)........................................................................................................................................................96

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The Three Characteristics..........................................................................................................................97
Interrelationship of three characteristics (aniccā, dukkha and anattā – tilakkhana)....................................98
Question: Explain how the Buddhist world view is illustrated in the teaching of the three characteristics of
existence....................................................................................................................................................99
The Four Noble Truths (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya)...................................100
Four Noble Truths (1)..............................................................................................................................101
The Four Noble Truths (2).......................................................................................................................102
Question: Explain the Noble Truth of suffering and adduce arguments to show that it is not a pessimistic
view of life...............................................................................................................................................103
Question: Noble Truth of dukkha (suffering) cannot be properly understood in separation from other
Truths. Discuss........................................................................................................................................104
Question: Examine the Buddhist teaching on happiness..........................................................................105
The Doctrine of Kamma..........................................................................................................................106
Question: Explain the statement that „volition itself is kamma“ is relevant to a correct understanding of
kamma.....................................................................................................................................................107
Question: Define the concept of kamma and discuss various divisions of the teachings of kamma.........108
Nature of kamma (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya)............................................109
Kamma (in Sanskrit Karma) – Vipāka (the fruition of kamma) theory (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa)......110
The Theory of Kamma (The fruition of kamma and its different categories)...........................................111
The theory of kamma (the frution of kamma and its different categories) (2)..........................................112
Question: Give broadly the Buddhist criterion how wholesome and unwholesome deeds are determined.
(lectured by Mr. Sanantha Nanayakkara) (original by ven. Tailapon Sundara)........................................114
Question: All happiness and sorrow one experiences in this life is due to past actions. Examine how far
this statement agrees with the Buddhist doctrine of kamma....................................................................115
Question: Examine the Buddhist criteria that can be used to judge good and bad...................................116
Paṭiccasamuppāda (lectured by Mr. Udita Garusingha) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)............117
Dependent origination or causation (paṭiccasamuppāda).........................................................................119
Question: Examine the Paṭiccasamuppāda...............................................................................................120
Paṭiccasamuppāda (ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya).............................................................122
Paṭiccasamuppāda....................................................................................................................................123
Question: Explain the Buddhist doctrine of Paṭiccasamuppāda...............................................................124
Theory of Causality.................................................................................................................................125
Question: Describe the religious and philosophical importance of the twelve links of Dependent
Origination (dvādasaṅga paṭiccasmuppāda).............................................................................................126
Question: Examine how the teaching of Dependent Origination refers to all views and metaphysical
theories....................................................................................................................................................127
Unanswered questions and four-fold propositions and Buddha's attitude towards them..........................128
The fourfold analysis of propositions and category of unanswered questions (NOT COMPLETED).....129
The fourfold analysis of proposition and category of unanswered questions...........................................131
Attakilamathānuyoga – self mortification................................................................................................132
Question: Explain on what ground (reason) the Buddha rejected the Ātman theory................................134
Question: Explain briefly the Buddha's teaching that helps to dispel the belief in a permanent self........135
Question: Examine the relevance of the Buddhist analyses into khandha, āyatana and dhātu to the
elimination of the belief in a soul-entity..................................................................................................136
Question: Examine the practical value of the noble Eightfold Path as a gradual process.........................137
Question: Show the Noble Eightfold Path, as a gradual process, related to morality, concentration and
wisdom....................................................................................................................................................138
Question: Describe clearly the Noble Eightfold Path and examine how it became the via media............139
??? (Salāyatana) (NOT COMPLETED)...................................................................................................140
Mokṣa (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya)............................................................141

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 Nibbāna (the ultimate goal of Buddhism) (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya)......142
The interpretation of Nibbāna..................................................................................................................143
Question: Describe the nature of Nibbāna as taught in early Buddhism..................................................144
Question: „Nibbāna is the bliss of emancipation achievable in this very life.“ Comment........................145
Question: Show how the Buddhist teaching on Nibbāna is distinct from both eternalism and
annihilationism........................................................................................................................................146
Question: Explain the Nature of Buddhist Ethics, which leads to absolute Deliverance from Saṃsāra. . 147
Question: Explain the social significance of Buddhist morality...............................................................148
Question: The purpose of Buddhist ethics is to help an individual to work for his well being as well as for
the well bbeing of other’s. State your observation...................................................................................149
Question: Examine the role of freedom of thought in Buddhism.............................................................150
Question: Explain how Buddhism upholds the independence and authority of man................................151
Question: Examine the doctrinal significance of „attāhi attano nātho“ - „one is the lord of oneself.“.....151
Question: Elucidate how early Buddhism analyzes the mind...................................................................152
Question: Elucidate the early Buddhist analysis of the mind. .................................................................153
Question: Bring out methodically the Buddhist teaching on Saddhā.......................................................154
Question: Discuss the importance of Saddhā in Buddhism......................................................................155
Yoga meditation (lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa) (original by ven. Tezaniya).............................................156
Common Characteristics of Jhānic happiness..........................................................................................157
About jhāna.............................................................................................................................................158
Abhiññā, jhānas.......................................................................................................................................159
Chaḷabhiññā.............................................................................................................................................159
Shortnotes – Buddhist Philosophy...........................................................................................................160
Questions.................................................................................................................................................161

P.F.I. 101 – Pāli Canonical Literature..........................................................................................163

Pāli Canonical Literature (lectured by ven. Piyadassi).............................................................................164
Three Piṭakas (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).......................165
What is Tipiṭaka? (original by ven. Hunny).............................................................................................167
Question: Examine how all the words of the Buddha incorporated into Dhamma-Vinaya at the first
council.....................................................................................................................................................169
Buddhist Council.....................................................................................................................................170
Question: What are the techniques of the language used in canonical literature?....................................170
Question: Give the meaning of the term sutta and vinaya and show the difference between them. (lectured
by ven. Piyaratana) (1).............................................................................................................................171
Question: Give the meaning of the term Sutta and Vinaya and show the difference between them. (2). .172
Navāṃgasatthusāsana (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)..........173
Nine-Fold Division (Navāṁgasatthusāsana) (original by ven. Tezaniya)................................................175
Question: Examine the Navāṁga Satthu Sāsana......................................................................................176
The basic means of nine-fold dispensation and its commentarial interpretation – Navāṁga-Satthusāsana
(lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma).......................................................................177
Question: Write a critical note on Navāṅga Sattu Sāsana (nine-fold division).........................................178
Suttanta Piṭaka (Discourses) (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009) 179
Sutta Piṭaka (original by ven. Hunny)......................................................................................................180
Suttanta Piṭaka (lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma)..............................................180
Suttanta Piṭaka and sayings of the Buddha, sayings of the disciples (lectured by ven. Uparatana)(original
by ven. Tezaniya)....................................................................................................................................182
Sayings of the Buddha and sayings of the disciples as found in the Sutta Piṭaka ....................................183
Suttanta Piṭaka and the teachings of disciples..........................................................................................184
Dīgha Nikāya (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).......................185

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 Dīgha Nikāya...........................................................................................................................................186
Majjhima Nikāya (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)................187
Saṃyutta Nikāya (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).................187
Question: Write a short account on the topic Saṁyutta nikāya................................................................188
Aṅguttara Nikāya (Numerical Sayings or Gradual Sayings) (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by
ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).......................................................................................................................189
Khuddaka Nikāya (smaller collections) (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)......................................................................................................................................................190
Khuddaka Nikāya....................................................................................................................................191
Question: Write information to one of five Nikāyas................................................................................192
Khuddakapātha........................................................................................................................................193
Niddesa....................................................................................................................................................194
Dhammapada...........................................................................................................................................194
Question: Write a short account on Dhammapada...................................................................................195
Dhammapada...........................................................................................................................................196
Vinaya Piṭaka (Basket of Discipline) (lectured by ven. Mahindaratana) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)......................................................................................................................................................197
Vinaya (Discipline)...............................................................................................................................................197
Vinaya Piṭaka...........................................................................................................................................199
Vinaya Piṭaka...........................................................................................................................................200
Question: Give an account of the Vinaya Piṭaka .....................................................................................201
The Vinaya Piṭaka (original by ven. Hunny)...........................................................................................202
The structure and contents of Vinaya (lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma)............203
Parivāra Pāli.............................................................................................................................................204
Question: Examine the history of Parivāra Pāḷi.......................................................................................205
Parivāra Pāḷi.............................................................................................................................................205
Kathāvatthu Pakarana (lectured ven. Piyadassi)......................................................................................206
Kathāvatthuppakarana.............................................................................................................................207
Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa (Short notes)........................................................................................................208
The Paṭṭānapakarana (original by ven. Suvara)........................................................................................209
The Paṭṭhānapakarana..............................................................................................................................210
Abhidhamma...........................................................................................................................................211
Abhidhamma Piṭaka (nature and contents of Abhidhamma Piṭaka).........................................................212
Question: Give an account of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka............................................................................213
The Nature and content of Abhidhamma Piṭaka (lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma)
.................................................................................................................................................................214
Question: Explain the para-canonical texts of Abhidhamma literature (not the canon)...........................215
Questions.................................................................................................................................................216

P.F.I. 102 – Pāli Language and Grammar...................................................................................218

History of Pāli language (Pāli grammar)..................................................................................................219
Question: Opinions given by scholars about the origin of Pāli language should be given. (History of Pāli
language) (Lectured by ven. Piyaratna) (original by ven. Eidariya (Myingyan)).....................................220
Question: Explain with example the classification of alphabet, vowels and consonants. (lectured by ven.
Piyaratna).................................................................................................................................................221
Question: Will be have declension of rāja (king) (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)........................................221
Question: Should be have conjugation „gamu-gam“ (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)...................................223
Question: Should be have modes.. (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)..............................................................224
Question: Should be have conjugation „Bhu“ (lectured by ven. Piyaratna) ...........................................225
Question: Explain the vowel (sandhi) with example (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)...................................226

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 Question: Explain digu samasa with example in Pāli (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)..................................227
Question: Explain with example the consonant sandhi. (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)..............................228
Question: Explain the kicca suffixes with example and show how to use them in sentences. .................229
Question: Will be absolutives... (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)...................................................................230
Question: Will be, the infinitive (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)..................................................................230
Question: Explain the niggahita ṇ sandhi with example (lectured by ven. Piyaratna)..............................231
Question: What is samasa? how many kinds of samasa? Give an example of each kind of samasa........233
Question: Give a description briefly on the secondary derivation and describe Apaccatha suffixes with
examples..................................................................................................................................................234
Question: Explain numerical derivatives with example...........................................................................234
Question: Explain Bhava compound with example.................................................................................235
Question: ??? (Vowels)............................................................................................................................236
Question: Show with example the features of Prakrit language preserved in Pāli?..................................237
??? (Bonus: History of Pāli (Book: Pāli Language and Literature, p. 42-45)) (Not Completed)..............239
Periods of the Development of Pāli.......................................................................................................................240
Questions.................................................................................................................................................242

R.S.F. 101 – Introduction to Religious Studies............................................................................244

Introduction of Religious Studies (lectured by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)......................................................................................................................................................245
Question: Examine whether one can introduce Buddhism as a religion or as a philosophy.....................246
What is Religion?....................................................................................................................................248
Definition of Religion (lectured by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)
.................................................................................................................................................................249
Prof. Ninian Smart.................................................................................................................................................249
Definitions of „Religion“ (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nyāneinda).............................250
What is religion? (lectured by ven. Rāhula).............................................................................................251
What is religion?......................................................................................................................................252
Elements of religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula)........................................................................................253
Origin of Religion (lectured by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...............254
Pre-Historic Religion (lectured by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...........255
Origin of religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula; original from ven. Tejaniya)...............................................257
The Origin of Religion (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nyāneinda).................................258
Question: Examine the religion of pre-historic man (Characteristics of religion)....................................259
Pre-historic religion.................................................................................................................................260
Pre-historical religion (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nyāneinda)..................................261
Concepts of historic (primitive) religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula) ........................................................262
Religion and Science (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon)..................................................................................263
Religion in the Modern World.................................................................................................................264
Question: Discuss the common factors that are significant in Theo-centric religions in the East and West
.................................................................................................................................................................265
Question: Examine the reason for the rapid expansion of philosophical aspects of the Buddha in India. 266
Greek Civilization (lectured by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...............267
Greek Theology.....................................................................................................................................................267
The Greek and Roman God (Retyped by ven. Samnang Phy from paper given by Mr. Jayanta Bogoda)
(2009)......................................................................................................................................................269
The Concept of After-life or hereafter..................................................................................................................271
The ancient religions of Greece and Rome (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nyāneinda). 271
Ancient religion of Greece and Rome (lectured by ven. Rāhula).............................................................272
Greek gods and goddesses (lectured by ven. Rāhula)..............................................................................273
Roman gods and goddesses (lectured by ven. Rāhula)............................................................................274

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Origin of Egyptian Religion with Myth and First Family (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven.
Nyāneinda)..............................................................................................................................................275
Origin of Ancient Egyptian Religion ......................................................................................................276
Origin of Ancient Egyptian Religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula)..............................................................277
The Myth of Osiris (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nai Nyāneinda)................................278
The myth of Osiris (lectured by ven. Rāhula)..........................................................................................279
Tribal Religion (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nyānida)................................................280
North American Indian Tribal religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula)...........................................................281
African tribal religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula).....................................................................................282
African Tribal Religions (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nai Nyāneinda).......................283
Origin of Korean religion (lectured by ven. Rahula) (original from ven. Panna).....................................284
Discuss the organized arrangements that led to the spread of Christianity throughout the world............285
Question: Discuss the services of Buddhist clergy with regard to the spread of Buddhism worldwide.. .286
Zoroastrianism.........................................................................................................................................287
Shortnotes: Religion – Introduction.........................................................................................................288
BONUS: Encyclopedia Britannica: Prehistoric religion..........................................................................290
Problems: nature and scope of prehistory.............................................................................................................290
Methods.................................................................................................................................................................290
Burial customs and cults of the dead. ...................................................................................................................292
Cannibalism...........................................................................................................................................................292
Sacrifices. .............................................................................................................................................................293
Hunting rites and animal cults. .............................................................................................................................294
Female fertility deities. .........................................................................................................................................295
Shamanism, sorcery, and magic. ..........................................................................................................................295
Religious patterns and economic stages. ..............................................................................................................296
Religious patterns in the various periods. ............................................................................................................296
Prehistoric religions and religions of the early civilizations...............................................................................297
BONUS: Encyclopedia Britannica: Primitive Religion...........................................................................298
Importance and influence of the study of primitive religion.................................................................................298
The problematic meanings of the term primitive and suggested substitutes.........................................................298
Development of the study of primitive religion....................................................................................................299
Specific characteristics and functions in primitive communities, life, and thought..............................................300
Various types of religiocultural configurations.....................................................................................................301
Salient distinctions from or similarities with the advanced religions...................................................................302
Distinction between sacred and profane................................................................................................................302
Dynamistic, daemonistic, and theistic views of the sacred...................................................................................303
Primitive cosmogonies and cosmologies; sacred time and times, sacred space and places..................................303
Primitive views of man's nature, origin, vocation, and destiny.............................................................................304
The role of myth in primitive cult and culture......................................................................................................305
Symbolism in primitive thought and action..........................................................................................................305
Primitive art and iconography...............................................................................................................................306
Primitive religious experience and its expressions................................................................................................306
Basic religious actions...........................................................................................................................................306
Salient rites............................................................................................................................................................307
Worship or veneration centred on natural objects or forces..................................................................................307
Worship or veneration centred on human or ex-human beings and qualities.......................................................307
Special disciplines and practices to attain religious states....................................................................................308
Magical, divinatory, and spiritualistic practices....................................................................................................308
Religious personages; types of religious authority................................................................................................309
BONUS: The Indus Civilization (from Wikipedia, prepared by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)...................310
BONUS: The Encyclopedia of religions - Preanimism............................................................................316
BONUS: Encyclopedia of Religions - Prehistoric religions.....................................................................319
An Overview.........................................................................................................................................................319

8
 BONUS: Religious tendencies in the primitive and prehistoric times (Book: schools of Indian
philosophical thought).............................................................................................................................321
Questions.................................................................................................................................................323
Religions: Class Room Test 01 – Underline the correct answer..............................................................326

R.S.F. 102 – History of Religious Traditions................................................................................327

The History of Religion (lectured by ven. Gallëlle Sumanasiri) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009)328
Chronological Order of Indian history (lectured by ven. Gallëlle Sumanasiri) (original by ven. Samnang
Phy) (2009)..............................................................................................................................................329
Indus Valley Civilization Reveals Important Information On Indian Religious History..........................331
Origin of Indian Religion or Early Indian Religion (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nai
Nārada)....................................................................................................................................................332
Question: Discuss common features pertaining to origin of religion giving special attention to India and
China ......................................................................................................................................................333
Early India Religion (lectured by ven. Rāhula)........................................................................................334
Vedic Religion (lectured by ven. Gallëlle Sumanasiri) (original by ven. Samnang Phy) (2009).............335
Aryans and the Origin of Vedic Religion (lectured by Mr. Ilaṁgakon) (original by ven. Nai Nārada). . .335
Nature of Vedic religion (lectured by ven. Gallelle Sumanasiri).............................................................336
Nature Worship ....................................................................................................................................................337
Basic doctrine of Hinduism can be categorized as follows:.....................................................................340
History of Jainism and its Fundamental Teachings (lectured by ven. Gallëlle Sumanasiri) (original by ven.
Samnang Phy) (2009)..............................................................................................................................341
Theory of Jīva .......................................................................................................................................................342
Jainism.....................................................................................................................................................344
Question: Give a brief account of the historical evolution of Jainism......................................................346
Jainism.....................................................................................................................................................347
Question: Jainism is one of the ancient religions in India. Explain the history of Jainism.......................348
History of Jainism and Its Fundamental Teachings..................................................................................349
Question: The fundamentals of teaching of Jainism and how it is different from Buddhism (lectured by
ven. Gallelle Sumanasiri).........................................................................................................................350
The Fundamental teaching of Jainism and how is it different from Buddhism........................................352
Question: Explain the main teaching of Jainism how it is different from Buddhism...............................353
Question: Describe the main teachings of Jainism and discuss how Buddhism reacts on those teachings?
.................................................................................................................................................................354
Jīva and Ājīva theory in Jainism..............................................................................................................355
Chinese Religious Tradition (lectured by ven. Gallëlle Sumanasiri) (original by ven. Samnang Phy)
(2009)......................................................................................................................................................357
Origin of Chinese and their Civilization...............................................................................................................357
Nature of Pre-historic Religions ...........................................................................................................................357
Pictorial characters................................................................................................................................................358
Pre-Historic Chinese Religions – Archeological and other evidences.....................................................359
Religions of Classical Period – Lao-Tze and Taoism..............................................................................360
Chinese religious tradition (1).................................................................................................................361
Chinese religious tradition (2).................................................................................................................362
Chinese religious tradition (3).................................................................................................................364
Prehistoric Religions in China.................................................................................................................366
Lao-Tze and Taoism (2009 and also previous years)...............................................................................367
Lao-Tze and Taoism (original by ven. Nai Nārada).................................................................................369
Lao-Tze. Taoism......................................................................................................................................370
Confucianism...........................................................................................................................................371
Confucius and Confucianism (lectured by ven. Gallelle Sumanasiri)......................................................372

9
Confucius and Confucianism ..................................................................................................................374
The teaching of Confucius as aimed at the Ethical Development (original by ven. Nai Nārada).............376
Question: Assess the challenges Buddhism had to undergo in China......................................................377
Monotheism (original by ven. Nai Nyāneinda)........................................................................................378
Question: Judaism, Christianity and Islam are homogeneous religions. Discuss.....................................379
Question: Judaism, Christianity and Islam are homogeneous religions. Discuss that..............................380
Judaic – Christian religious tradition (lectured by ven. Gallelle Sumanasiri)..........................................381
History of Judaism (original by ven. Nai Ghosaka).................................................................................382
BONUS: Jainism.....................................................................................................................................383
1. Similar but Very Different................................................................................................................................383
2. The Sacredness of Life......................................................................................................................................384
3. The Precepts of Jainism.....................................................................................................................................384
4. The Swatambara and the Digambara.................................................................................................................385
5. The Sayings of Jainism......................................................................................................................................386
BONUS: Judaism – Christianity – Islam.................................................................................................388
Judaism..................................................................................................................................................................388
Christianity............................................................................................................................................................389
Islam......................................................................................................................................................................390
Questions.................................................................................................................................................392

10
 INTRODUCTION

I have written this series of books „Notes from Buddhist and Pāli University for the 1. year“, „Notes
from Buddhist and Pāli University for the 2. year“, „Notes from Buddhist and Pāli University for the 3. year“
only with the purpose to help the students at the first year, second year and third year as well. Though at the
time of first 'CD edition' I am only a student of the first year, I have a kind of belief that it might be helpful to
all students of above mentioned grades. It might be astonishing and maybe even astounding that a student of
1. year is helping students of 2. year and 3. year. What is my explanation? I believe, that anyone who has the
proper intention, proper skill and proper knowledge can help in the field which is connected with those three.
My intention is to help the students, my skill is quick type-writing and my knowledge is English language.
As such I could help with copy-writing the notes from English medium for the students of the Buddhist and
Pāli University of Sri Lanka. I did it with all sincerety and seriousness thinking about the success of the
students. Every monk should help others, if he can and if he does not want to help others he should help
himself – to attain the Nibbāna (ayaṃ pana me attano mati). I spent more than thousand hours preparing this
kind of 'help', but still there is much to do and much to improve. Moreover, I take this work as a draft which
should be checked, changed and revised for the benefit of students. By this way I would like to ask anyone to
contribute in this manner and either contact me on my telephone number – 0778212445 (Sri Lankan number)
or e-mail me on [email protected]. Any corrections, ideas, critique or editions are cordially welcomed.
We can understand religion as one angle from which we understand the truth. We all have closed
eyes, as we still didn’t realize the real knowledge, we still didn’t attain the Nibbāna. Thus, like people with
closed eyes, we try to realize the truth. We are like them, the people with closed eyes, who are trying to
understand the nature of an elephant. Like this bunch of people, staying at various places and trying to
understand the elephant according to what they perceive by their blind touching by hands, the same way we
try to understand the truth either by religion (belief), science (facts realized by our six senses) or philosophy
(thinking) as different points of view. But no way of these three is leading to real understanding, like no way
of touching the elephant will help the people with closed eyes to understand the elephant. What these people
should do, they should open their eyes and just see the elephant as it is. The same way we, if we want to see
the truth of the world, we should attain the Nibbāna and thus see the world as it is.
First and foremost I should thank to all the students who dedicated their precious time to type their
hand-writing and then distributed it among other students (and thanks to that I had the opportunity to compile
them in a book-form). I should be thankful to all those who contributed the notes so that I could copy-write
them here or who gave me the electronic notes which I have implemented here. Especially I am thankful to
ven. Khim Jimmy (Cambodia), ven. Asabha (Myanmar), ven. Bopitiye Samitha (Sri Lanka), ven. Samnang
Phy (Cambodia), ven. Nemeinda (Myanmar), ven. Premlim (Cambodia), ven. Maitri (Nepal) and many,
many others. I would like to express my great thanks to teachers at the Buddhist and Pāli University of Sri
Lanka, apart from those whose ideas are in the notes in these books especially to ven. Mavatagama
Pemananda (mainly teacher of Sanskrit) who went to my present residence just to settle all the
misunderstandings I had with the chief incumbent there. I should not forget to mention the English teachers
who never received sufficient amount of praise from the other teachers at the university – Mr. Svarnananda
Gamage, Mr. Ratnasiri and not less Mr. Pradeep Gunasena who encouraged and supported me enormously
during writing this work for example by allowing me to work on it in their office (as we still do not have any
study hall in our 'modern' university).

I wish all the beings to see the Truth,

I wish all the beings to attain Nibbāna.
Ven. Czech Sarana,
Vipassanā Bhāvanā Madhyasthānaya,
Galawilawatta, Homagama,
Sri Lanka

11
 B.P.F 101 – EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM: HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
The Origins of Buddhism and their relationship to Indian thought are expected to study here.
Special attention is drawn to the following topics for this purpose.

Vedic thought on philosophical trends such as the path of Karma (Karmamārga) and the
path of Ñāna (Ñānamārga), Yogic meditation and the realization of truth, the concept of soul,
rebirth and liberation; a study of the independent concepts that sprang up in the Vedic tradition;
survey of the Brahmin and ascetic traditions; teachings and life stories of six religious teachers
contemporary to the Buddha; multiple theories of liberation; the pre-Buddhist awareness of Jhāna
and Samāpati; self-mortification and theory of soul; self-indulgence and materialism; view of
Pubbantākappikas and Aparantakappikas; the influence of pre-Buddhist thought and culture on the
emergence and nature of Buddhism; Buddhism criticism of views (Diṭṭhi); Buddhist interpretation
of traditional terms; the way in which the Buddha refuted the contemporary religious and
philosophical foundation; Buddhist criticism of traditional Indian religions and philosophies;
identity and uniqueness of Buddhist thought.

Recommended Reading:

1. Indian Buddhism S. Radhakrishnan, London, 1958

2. History of Indian Philosophy D. J. Kalupahana, Hawaii, 1965
3. History of Indian Thought E. J. Thomas, London, 1933
4. A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1 S. Das Gupta, Cambridge; 1962
5. Indian Buddhism A. K. Warder, Delhi, 1980
6. Studies in Origins of Buddhism G. C. Pande, Alahabad, 1957

12
 PRE-VEDIC RELIGION IN INDIA (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)

Aryans came to the Sindhu Valley as shepherdess to feed their cattle but having seen the
well organized city belonged to the people of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa civilization. Āryans
decided to settle down there and continued the cultivation of the aborigines. Aborigines were farmer
who grew maize in their fields. Āryans who followed the path of aborigines without any knowledge
of the weather and climatic changes of the country, faced disasters, and their maize fields were
devoured by the forces of nature such as the rain floods and the drought fire. This happened due to
the lack of experience about the nature. Āryans were perplexed with the unexpected result they
experienced in their fields.

As a result of that Āryans understood that the forces of the nature could influence them and
they decided to understand the nature which they have experienced. They found that the forces of
the nature such as rain lightening and drought fire are active and they can speak; when rain falls
down it makes noise as the fire, water, and wind. So they understood that these forces are not only
actives but also can speak.

For example, when wind blows, it howls. Man also can speak and they also can work and
act. When they compared these qualities with themselves; they found some similarity between
themselves and the forces of nature. They inferred that these forces could think as human beings
think before they act and speak. So they considered that the forces of the nature are also like human
beings but more powerful than themselves. This stage is called anthropomorphism.

They decided to keep a close relationship with the nature to get their supports as a result of
that Aryans began to speak to them and pay their respect to them by offering a part of their
earnings. Aryans thought that by hearing their admiration and enjoyment those forces could help
them to have a better life. The close relationship that Āryans had with the forces of nature became
distant in the fullness of times.

As a result of that the forces of nature were promoted to the positions of Gods. They
considered every forces of nature as a God. So number of Gods increased rapidly. It is said that the
number increased up to 33, 0000 Gods (we normally called Viśva Devah). So this is called
polytheism. During this period the practices of rituals were increased as every person wanted to get
Blessing from gods. The increase of the number of Gods became a burden to the mind of the
Aryans. They confused when they pray to gods, it was so difficult to select a proper god as the
vocabularies of Aryans were very much limited. They wanted to speak, but some words were used
to invoke other gods. This factor led Aryans to select the most powerful god among the Vedic
pantheon.

The Indian of supreme god is called monotheism before monotheism there was transmittable
period during that period, Aryans were in search of a supreme god from the other gods. Max
Müller, German religious scholar, named this period as henotheism. During the henotheistic period
Aryans tried their best to select the most powerful god in the pantheon but failed because there was
no god who holds qualities or qualification to be the supreme god. The supreme god must be

13
 1). Omnipotent (having great or much power)
2). Omnipresent (to be everywhere)
3). Omniscient (knowing everything) and also must have the abilities to create, sustain and
destroy the universe.

Aryans venerated in the Vedic period and Varuṇa was famous one among those gods. He
was considered as a powerful god comparing to other gods; he was the famous as the controller of
the world order “Ṛtasya Gopa” Ṛta means “the world order” and Gopa means “controller.” The Sun
rises in the east everyday in the morning because Varuṇa controls it. This happened everyday in
the morning after the sun sets; the darkness comes. There is the work of Varuṇa, everything in
nature is controlled by the Varuṇa. The Varuṇa was promoted the controller of the truth. Truth is a
moral condition, keeping truth is good. As a result of that Varuṇa became the god of moral because
he was the person who keeps up the truth. Aryans believed that Varuṇa would punish people those
who misbehave and who do not care for truth. The liars and bad are punished by the Varuṇa while
he blesses on the good people. Later Varuṇa became the controller of justice. Āryans were afraid of
the violation of the laws of Varuna as they knew that Varuṇa would punish the bad. Varuṇa
became in the charge of moral actives in the Aryans society. When any kinds of unjust happened
people used to go to Varuna and complained about them to him. With the belief of Varuṇa, at that
time the concept of kamma was begun to evolve.

14
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE BEGINNING OF VEDIC RELIGION AND DESCRIBE THE DEVELOPMENT OF VEDIC RELIGION.
The earliest stage of the Vedic religion is polytheism, worship of many gods which are
deified natural phenomena. The second stage is Henotheism in which the people selected particular
god among these many gods and worshiped a particular time when they needed. From this
henotheism later the religion developed into Monotheism, believing in one Supreme Being
(Brahma) who created everything in this world. The one being has been called by many names such
as Puruṣa, Prajāpati and Viṣvakarma and so on.
They placed this God as the greatest and the highest, a supreme Lord of all beings
(Prajāpati). He had the epithet Prajāpati or ‘the lord of all beings’ which was originally an epithet
for other deities. He was a god as the repository of the highest moral and physical power, who
recognized the other deities and also was given different names.
Similarly some people ascribed him feature of a creator (viṣvakarma). He is said to be a
father of all beings and a creator or a maker of everything. The people considered him as the earliest
god who was responsible for all being and natural phenomena. In order to get blessing from him the
people praised him, offered him food, engaged in sacrifices and so on.
They further developed the belief in creator or one Supreme Being during the Vedic period
and Brahmaṇa period. The stage of belief in Creator God or monotheism comes into prominence till
the Āranyaka period. In this period some Brahmins and Kśatriyas bbegan to doubt and sought new
means of solving their problems. They gradually gave up the belief in Supreme Being or Creator
God and turned towards spiritual development.
Under this circumstance monotheism gave way to ‘monism’. The idea of the Creator God in
the earlier period rejected and accepted the belief that everything is manifestation of one absolute
being. This being is gradually referred to as the neuter Brahman and ātman. The Brahman is the
universal soul, the great soul (jagad ātman or viṣva ātman) and as its counterpart there is the bbelief
in individual soul (pudgala ātman).
It is believed that it is ignorance regarding the unity of Brahman and ātman that is the root
cause of the predicament of man in the Universe. Therefore, knowledge regarding this unity came
to be considered as the one and only mean of attaining salvation. The Upaniṣad as tat tvaṃ asi
(thou art that),1 and everyone could practice severe ascetic practices to realize the individual soul
and universal soul as they were the one thing. Therefore, the belief in Brahman or the universal
principle soul (monism) is different from the belif in Brahma or Creator God (monotheism) at the
earlier stage. The Brahma is considered with the physical form (metaphysical)(?).

1 = you are that

15
 VEDIC PERIOD

According to archeological traces, Āryan people entered India at about the time of decline of
the Indus civilization (about 1600 B.C.) they were probably barbarian invaders, who conquered the
Indus people and destroyed their cities. These Āryans were nomadic herdsmen, who spoke in an
early form of Sanskrit, called Vedic after the earliest extant Indian texts (the Veda) which can at
present be read. The earliest of these Vedic texts of the Āryans were perhaps composed two or three
centuries after the conquest. It is agreed that they migrated from Middle East, perhaps from Iran,
through one of the three passages namely Khyber, Macron or Bolan, to halt in India close to the
Shindu or Indus river. Thus the Indus civilization suffered a temporary eclipse at the hands of these
barbaric nomads. Very soon, however, the barbarians began to follow the ways of the people they
had conquered: they settled permanently in villages and eventually in cities. They kept their cattle in
fieleds and they harnessed the rivers for irrigation.

Anthropomorphism
After they had settled in their new Indian home, the Āryans became aware that in fact the
various elements existent in nature were important factors affecting their very lives, that these
natural elements were somehow powerful or out of their control and at the same time, they were
much fascinated by them. Thunders, wind, rain, storm etc. Held obviously, as they believed, some
kind of standing personalities behind these phenomena that, as they do, possessed manlike nature.
As they were aware that these natural forces or supernatural beings were mightier than they were
they resolved to create a sort of alliance with these beings by singing their praises and offering
worship or sacrifice to these latter in favor of a peaceful and prosper livelihood. This sort of nature
„worship“ denotes the earliest form of Vedic religion or the commencement of India's advancement
of knowledge. And this is called 'anthropomorphism'.

Polytheism
As the relationship or 'alliance' bbetween the Āryans and the mighty beings pursued, the
Āryans continued gradually to personify the forces of nature and to an extent converted them into
particular gods. As resulted from the transitional stage from natural forces to deities, a pantheon of
gods eventually emerged. And this is called polytheism, the faith in several gods.

Henotheism
Peculiar to stage of time, the Āryans were disposed to pay reverence to gods as supreme,
standing side by side, but at some circumstances only one is holding the highest position. It
happened that they choose the supreme gods like Indra, Varuṇa and Prajāpati. In this period they
seemed to have chosen Varuṇa as the most important or highest one among the three and all the
gods. This is called Henotheism, the faith in one supreme god.

16
 QUESTION: VEDIC LITERATURE IS A MIRROR TO THE EVOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS

There are two major religious traditions in India. These are the Brahman tradition and
Sramaṇa tradition. Vedic literature serves as the most authentic and primary source for this
Brahmaṇa tradition.
Vedic literature could be divided into different phases, these are Vedas, Brahmaṇas,
Aranyakas and the Upaniṣads. There is fact(?) mirror the various religious beliefs and contepts that
rose into prominence during these different phases.
The Vedas are four in number and these are Ṛg Veda, Yajur Veda, Sāma Veda and Atharva
Veda. The last is not considered so sacred as the other three and it is more concerned with charm
and black-magic.
Ṛg Veda is the earlier of the Vedas and of this too the earliest hymns represent the early
beginning of Vedic religion. This is the stage in which natural objects where deifying and
worshiping by singing songs of prais, and sometimes with very minor offering of ghee, butter, milk,
soma etc.
This represents the stage of polytheism, the worship of many gods. In some of the texts there
is reference to a stage when one god from among the many gods was selected at one time and
worshiped as the higher god. This seems to have happened with the development of civilization
from nomadic life to settled life, a life of agriculture and farming. So, at this stage particular gods
were selected at particular time according to the needs of the time and worshipped. This phase is
known as Henotheism.
The Vedas show a further development in religious thought. It reflects the attempt made by
these thinkers to find out who is the first God, the creator of all other gods and the universe. So,
they think of one such God, whom they say is known by different names by the wise (ekaṃ sat
viprāh bahudhā vadanti). This is monotheism, the worhip of one supreme God.
While this worship of God developed, in Brahmaṇa literature it is shown the development of
sacrifice, which became the hallmark of Vedic religion and hence called Yajña-Mārga, the way of
sacrifice.
The Āranyakas depict a new trend. In this phase religious men became more interested in
contemplation and living in seclution in forests. Is it this trend that God developed and appeared in
the Upaniṣad which texts show how Monotheism that was very developed in the late Vedic period
gave way to Monism, the teaching which put forward Brahman as the unversal soul, and the soul of
everything in the universe. This also gave rise to the metaphysical religion concept of Ātman, the
individual soul. Upaniṣad holds that meditation and ascetic practices is the way to wisdom that
brings emancipation, hence this phase of religion is called Jñāna Mārga, the way of knowledge.
Thus Vedic literature is the mirror to all major religious concepts.

17
 THE YAMA AND ITS CONCEPTS (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)

According to early Vedic teaching Yama was a god who lived above in the sky, he was
known as the first human being who died. All dead people go to Yama and live with him. This
belief was changed due to the rational reasoning. Āryans thought that it was unjust to permit all
human beings those who have done good and bad to live together with Yama without a time
limited. As a result of further questioning Āryans accepted that all dead people go to Yama and
Yama inquires about their previous characters and allows those who have done good to remain in
the heaven and sends others to the hell which is situated under the earth.

Āryans believed that dead could not live forever in the hell or in the heaven on what they
have done in the previous lives because merits and demerits were collected by every individual was
limited. With a limited merits or demerits, one cannot live in the heaven or in the hell forever. It is
not clear for what would happen to them at the end of merits and demerits earned by the individual.

It was unjust to live forever in that heaven or in the hell for limited quality merits or
demerits. So can a person live in the heaven or the hell forever on what he had done in the world?
Āryans found that it is not just for anyone of them to live in the heaven or hell forever. As a result
of this dialogue Āryans decided that no one could live even in the hell or heaven for unlimited time
but to continue one’s live in the heaven, he has to receive merits from his relations those who live
this world. Those kinfolks who live in this world can transfer merits to their dead ones. By gaining
merits from those relatives, dead one can extend the live in the heaven.
On the other hand, those who are in the hell can go to a better place. As a result of that, the
transference of that merits became popular among Āryans. This is the beginning of karma mārga. It
is accepted that human activities have some values that could bring the result to the doers and dead
ones. Good activities are named as puñña and the bad activities are named as pāpa. Every one in the
Āryans society wanted to transfer the merits to their loved ones who were died. At the beginning
this was done by the individual himself, later this practice became an essential in the householders’
lives. As a result of that there appeared a special group of people those who are well-versed in
religious rites and rituals. They are known as Brāhmaṇa. Karma Mārga thrived (develop) with
power of Brāhmaṇa in this period.

18
 QUESTION: DISCUSS THE EVOLUTION OF GOD CONCEPT

God, center and focus faith, a holy being or ultimate reality to whom worship and prayer are
addressed is considered by many people to be the creator or source of all the existence.

Conceptions of God
Many religious thinkers have believed that god is a mystery beyond the power of human conception.
Most philosophers and theologists assume that an ultimate attributes and path of knowledge, God may be
considered transcendent (beyond the world), emphasizing independence and power over the world order.

Monotheism
Monotheism is a belief in the unity of the God-head, or in one God. Christian belief in the doctrine of
the 'trinity' is incompatible with monotheism.2 Some Christian groups reject utilitarianism. Monotheism is
also a tenet of Islam and Judaism.

Polytheism
Polytheism is a belief in many gods. In Vedic period, Vedic people believed in many gods. This
period came to be known as the period of polytheism. At that time, the earliest strong stage of the Vedic
religion was polytheism, worship of many gods which were actually natural phenomena. The second stage is
henotheism, in which people selected particular god among many gods and worshiped him in particular
times.

Atheism
Atheist doctrine denies any existence of deity. It believes in non-existence of God or gods. Atheism
differs distinctly from agnosticism (the doctrine that the existence of deit can be neither proved nor
disproved).

Henotheism
Next to polytheism is monotheism. Monotheism is belief in one god. Turning to monotheism is not
sudden movement. Willing(?) Vedic literature we can found trends towards monotheism. So, Max Müller
has introduced intermediate stage in between polytheism and monotheism, named as henotheism
(kathenotheism). Henotheism is the view that one god is supreme but not denying the existence of other
gods. Even though each god had equal power, some gods have more power than the others. It happened that
Indra became more powerful than other gods, later Indra was on his place replaced by Varuna. Though we
can't find monotheistic gods in Veda, the Varuna is described in the way the creator God tends to be
described. Thus Prajāpatī Aṣvin come to power from time to time. But no-one of the gods could keep their
power for longer period. One of the common questions appeared in Veda is: „who is the god to who we are
to offer sacrifice?“

»Mahat devanaṃ asuratvaṃ ekaṃ.«

»Ekaṃ sat vipra bahudha vadanti, agnih yamah matariṣvana mahuh.«

Therefore the belief in Brāhmaṇ or the universal principle soul (monism) is different from the belief
in Brāhmaṇ or creator God (monotheism). From henotheism later the religion developed into monotheism,
believed in one supreme being (Brāhmaṇ) who is creator of everything in the world. The one being this wise
called by many names such as Purusha, Prajāpatī and Viasvakarma(?) and so on.

2 Here the lecturer is blind and ignorant toward the Christian belief. He does not understand, that the God's trinity (the
Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit) are actually one and only god. Christianity is monotheism and the lecturer is
ignorant.

19
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE NATURE OF BELIEVING IN GOD IN VEDIC PERIOD (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA)
(ORIGINAL BY VEN. MEDĀNANDA)

The Vedic people tried to understand the nature of God in Vedic period. And then they tried
to understand it through their own experience, later on it was developed and believed the concept of
God.(?) Not only they had a concept of God, but, also due to the convention of that time, they
considered belief in God as important. The Vedic people considered the god Varuna as the
governor of the Rta. The nature and the morality has been covered by this Rta according to Vedic
peoples thought. When we compare this concept with the other philosophical concept we can see
the importance of the Rta concept. Some philosophical trends paid their attention to the origin and
the existence of the world without considering gods. It is result of that who wanted to see the reality
of the existence of the world.(?) So that was beginning of monism (advitavāda).

Thought common people believed in god, some people who had a philosophically elevated
mind rejected that concept. Indra, who was the leader of the gods was criticized by those people.
Sometimes they asked whether there would be such a god. Sometimes the concept of god those
challenged by these people and gradually this kind to keep the people as the followers of the god
introducing various kinds of praying.(?) But those people, who rejected existence of the god's
concept, developed their philosophical thinking. The reality of the world and the god would not be
different truth, but it would be one truth, as the Vedic society believed. The reality of the world was
explained by the reality of god. As a result of that, the concept of adithi developed. This world also
was not enough to name the truth of the world.(?) Therefore the reality of the god and the world god
was named by the world of sat(?) that world is a singular and natural gender it implies the ultimate
truth also one and it does not bear any goodness and it is beyond the goodness.(?) In Rigvedic
literature this ultimate truth has been identified by scholar/scholars(?) as Agni, Yama, Mthorishan
etc. The Puruṣa sutta in Rigveda has compared the universe to 'great person', to 'great puruṣa'.

In Rigveda all the universe is compared to that 'great person'. It is the event(?) that Vedic
people tried to understand the universe with the human beings and also they wanted to recognize the
relationship in between the external world, outside their own bodies. Therefore they said the Moon
was born from the 'great person's' head. The Sun was born from His eye. Indra and Agni were born
from His mouth. The air from his breast and the noble sky and space from his legs. The earth from
the ear direction were born from the being rig person.(?) The Vedic people believed in an
omniscient God, but later on, as we can see, they tried to understand the world through
philosophical thinking.

20
 BRAHMIN PERIOD (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

During the Brhāmaṇa period yāga became the most popular rituals among Āryans.
According to this stage, all human beings belong to four casts namely; Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya
and Śūdtra. The hierarchy of this caste system can be changed as if was created by the Brāhmaṇa.
Each caste is given a set of duties to fulfill,
1. Brāhmaṇa has appointed for religious purposes.
2. Kṣatriya has duties to protect the country.
3. Vaiśya has the task to farm and trade or commercialize.
4. Śūdra has duties to slave or service above three castes.

Kṣāatriya and Vaiśya were given permission to practice the caste duties of the next lover
operate in the time of adversities; Brahmans get the power over this caste system. Brahmans
perfected the freedom of other castes and the freedom of all women. This brought a grade
disadvantage to the majority of people in the Āryans society. These three castes were suffered while
Brāhmaṇas prospered; especially Śūdras and all women lost all rights that others enjoyed. They are:
1. Freedom of education,
2. Freedom of religious practices,
3. Freedom of economy, and
4. Freedom of justices and freedom of politics.

As a result of this majority of the Aryan society it was entangled with Brāhmaṇas and they were in
search of another method that they could get their comport-ability of life, spirituality, and
secularity.
Kṣātriyas to introduce their methods for the spiritual development of Aryans without any
discrimination.(?) At this time spiritual development became signification than the secular
development. So, we conclude during this period that it is the Spiritual development of the mind
without spending large of money.

21
 ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM (HOW BUDDHISM ORIGINATED)

When Buddhism arose there were two main religious traditions: Brāhmaṇa and Śramaṇa. The terms
samaṇa-brāhmaṇa in the suttas refer to these two traditions. The Brāhmaṇic tradition were of two levels:
(a) Vedic
(b) Upaniṣadic

Vedic-Brāhmaṇic tradition depended mainly on sacrifice Yajña also called karma. It was believed in
sacrifice as in the most effective mean of security of happiness here and here-after. Therefore it was called
Yajña-mārga or karma-mārga. In this tradition there was the belief in a creator God and a pantheon of other
gods. The worship of them, offerings to them were the main religious practice.
The Upaniṣadic tradition is more philosophical. It believed in a universal principal called Brāhmaṇ
(viṣva-ātman) which should have been the source of everything. Its counterpart was ātman (pudgda(?)-
ātman). Both those were metaphysical concepts. The way to salvation was the realization of the ultimate
oneness of the Brāhmaṇ – ātman. This had to be attained through knowledge (jñāna) produced by the
practice of mental concentration and observance of severe ascetic practices (aṭṭhakilamathānuyogo).
The Śramaṇa tradition opposed these beliefs. There were six famous Śramaṇa teachers:

1. Ajita (a materialist who did not believe in morality)

2. Makkhalī (inclined to materialism; completely denied personal effort and action (kiriyavāda and
viriyavāda) )
3. Pakudha (inclined to materialism)
4. Pūrana (inclined to materialism)
5. Sañjaya (a sceptic)
6. Mahāvīraan (an extremist who preached non-violence and kamma determinism)

Ajita was a materialist who did not believe in morality. Makkhalī, Pakudha and Pūrana were also
more inclined to materialism. But Makkhalī completely denied personal effort and action (kiriyavāda and
viriyavāda). Therefore it was denounced by Buddha. Sañjaya was a sceptic and Mahāvīra an extremist
who preached non-violence and kamma determinism.
All these schools accepted the same kind of an entity (soul) whether metaphysical or physical and
taught the release of the soul through extreme paths: Kāmasukhallikānuyogo and Attakilamatthānuyogo.
This was the religious background in which Buddhism arose. Most of these religious teachings went
to extremes. The materialists went to the xtreme of sensual enjoyment, abandoning all ethics and morals. Of
the eternalists most followed the extreme of self-mortification. All religious teachers accepted some kind of
power or agency that influenced human affairs.
As means of salvation they used sacrifice, invocations, prayer. Almost all of them advocated a(?)
outside oneself. They thought the man's problems lay outside man.
From the Dhammacakkappavattana sutta itself it is clear how the Buddha reacted to those religious
teachings. He began by advising listeners to reject the two extremes. Instead of focusing attention on an
outside agency, the Buddha admonished looking into oneself, to understand reality and see the inter-
dependent nature of both suffering and happiness. There, instead of a god-centered teaching he presented a
man-centered teaching. Instead of praying to god he advocated cleansing of the mind, for both happiness and
suffering originate in mind. All these he reached in response to religious teachings of his time.

22
 QUESTION: ELUCIDATE THE BUDDHIST TEACHING ON KAMMA AND SHOW HOW IT SETS ASIDE THE VIEW THAT
EVERYTHING HAPPENS DUE TO PAST KAMMA.

Like many other religions of the time, Buddhism also presents its teaching on kamma.
However, it is seen that the Buddhist teaching on kamma is quite different from the teaching of
other religions on this subject.
This difference is clearly seen from the definition given by the Buddha to kamma. In the
Nibbedhikapariyāya Sutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya the Buddha defines kamma as volition, cetanā.
Thus an act or a deed falls into the category of a moral deed only if it is done with the necessary
volition or intention. All other deeds though they are not kamma in the sense of moral deeds for
which one has to bear responsibility. Such unintentional deeds are morally neutral.
According to Buddhism there are three modes through which we could act and these are:
1. Body (kāya)
2. Speech (vacī)
3. Mind (mano)

All moral deeds are done through these modes. If such deeds are done with intention
motivated by rāga, dosa, moha then they are evil deeds and good deeds if they are not so motivated.
It is also taught in Buddhism that one is morally responsible for one’s intentional deeds. One has to
bear consequences (vipāka) either in this life, in the next or in some other life. The consequence
may be good or bad depending on the moral quality of the deed which depends on intention or
volition.
The Dhammapdada stanzas 1 and 2 clearly show how the consequences follow the doer.
Yet, it does not mean that the Buddhist teaching on kamma is deterministic. It is the Jain who
presented such a teaching called Pubbekatahetuvāda, that everything one expešriences at present is
due to past deeds.
According to Bubdhism though kamma is of vital importance in deciding one’s destiny, it is
not considered the only factor. In later texts five universal laws (pañca-niyāma) are mentioned and
kamma-niya is one of them. In the Moliyasīvaka Sutta of the Saṅyutta Nikāya the Buddha directly
rejects the Pubbekatahetuvāda and gives different causes for what we experience at present. The
Buddha says that if kamma is a deterministic law then salvation is not possible. The Buddha
points out that man is capable of changing one’s kamma and defeating kamma by realizing
Arahantship.

23
 CONCEPT OF KAMMA

Kamma literally means 'action' or 'deed'. In the religious technical sense it means moral
action which brings about good or bad results.

All religions in India teach about kamma. Vedic Brahmanism teaches all action to please the
God on good kamma and those aagainst the wish of the God on bad kamma. Thus sacrifice is called
kamma, a good action to please the god. Upaniṣadic taechers give a more moral meaning. Some
șramaṇa teachers – especially the materialists – did not believe in kamma. The Jainas believed that
one's past kamma is the cause of one's happiness and suffering in this life (sabbekata hetuvāda).

So, kamma is pre-Buddhist origin. Yet the Buddhist teaching on kamma is different from the
rest. The Buddha gave an interpretation about kamma. According to him it is volition (cetanā), that
is kamma. Therefore he made kammapsychological force. The Buddha divided kamma into good
and bad and also said there are three modes of kamma:
1. Bodily
2. Verbal
3. Mental

However, the Buddha did not say that kamma is deterministic. According to him kamma is
one of the five principles (niyama) that affect man. He also said that kamma can be controleled and
changed by man. Therefore, man is not a slave of kamma.

24
 THE THEORY OF KAMMA

The teaching of kamma is found almost in all religious schools in India during the time of the
Buddha. Some schools believed that everything ahppens due to former kamma, everything happens due to
the will of God. And some believed as everything happens without cause, they are mere accidents and
coincidence s.
The Buddha rejected all these erroneous views and defines kamma as simply action or a deed. The
definition of kamma in Nibedhikapariyāya Sutta says that cetanā or volition is kamma (cetanāhaṃ
bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi), which is one of the mental properties. There is another word – chanda – which
stands for wishing, desiring a result.
All deeds done through evil root causes, namely greed, hatred and delusion are morally
unwholesome (akusala). The opposite root causes, namely alobha, adosa and amoha are to bring about good
deeds or wholesomeness (kusala). All deeds performed through intention are complete kamma. By our
thoughts, words and deeds we creat our world that we are to live in. We create our world with mind behind
the physical form. Therefore „the mind is master of the world.“
The last kammic thought moment at the point of death which forms the rebirth linking consciousness,
the kamma that produces.(?) Other kamma, good or bad, will come to operation at some later place, when
external conditions are favorable for its ripening. The force of weak kamma may be suspended for a long
time by the interposition of a stronger kamma. As a general principple all kinds of kamma bear some kind of
fruit sooner or later.
One has complete control over his actions, no matter what degree other may try to force him. Yet, an
unwholesome deed done under strong compulsion does not have quite the same force as one performed
voluntarily. Under the threat of torture or of death, a man may be compelled to torture or kill someone else.
In such a case the heaviest moral responsibility rests with those who have forced that one to the action. But
in the ultimate sense he still must bear some responsibility for he could in the most extreme case avoid
harming another by torturing himself or his own death.
Collective kamma also takes place when number of people are associated in a same kind of an action
and thought(?). Mass psychology produces mass kamma. Therefore, if all such people are likely to form the
same pattern of kamma, it may result the same way as they associated in the same kind of action and the
same kind of experience.
The results of kamma are called vipāka. This term, kamma and vipāka and the idea they stand for
must not be confused. Vipāka is pre-determined by ourselves by previous kamma, but kamma in the last
moment of one's death.(?) Throughout life one may had to suffer the consequences of vipāka of the death
whatever may had been the cause. But it does not prevent him from forming fresh kamma of a wholesome
type to restore the balance in his next life. Further more, by the aid of some good kamma from the past
together with strong effect and favorable circumstances in the present life the full effect of his bad kamma
may be eradicated even here and now.

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 ĀRANYAKA PERIOD (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Āranyaka period was new era of thinking that the Āryan society of understand the nature and life
through wisdom purity. In the Brahmin period Āryans expected a better future through yāgas based on faith
and devotion. Preference to the spiritual development is given in the Āranyaka period as a result of this; the
demand for yāga become loses. The spiritual development was open for all without any discrimination all
low castes including women are permitted to practice spiritual development.
This count is done without wasting money and other assets. Āranyaka period can be considered
as a new era in the Vedic thought because the significance of the spiritual development was established
during this period. Wisdom became very important than the faith and devotion. Yoga practices were
introduced during the Āranyaka period. Many people went to the forest to meditate when they need mental
(sati) function; scholars are not unanimous about the origin of the Āranyaka period.
According to Vedic period tradition Aranyaka period is an extent of Sañyāsi Āśrama (stage) four
Āśramas;
1) Brahma Cariya,
2) Ashastas,
3) Vanapratha, and
4) Sañyasi.
During the Sañyasi period, Brāhmaṇa who was come to the old age goes to the forest to meditate.
In the four stages of meditation started only in the Sañyasi period. Therefore some argue that the Āranyaka
period could be considered as a development of the Sañyasi stage. There is another argument about the
origin of the Āranyaka period.
Scholars point out that the Āranyaka period that the influence of Mohenjo Daro-Harappa
civilization would led Āryans to spiritual development which was the basis of Āranyaka period because there
were evidences in that period. Archeologists have found pictures of meditating sages belonged to the
Mohenjo Daro- Harappa society to think spiritual development which was popular among aborigines. In the
Mohenjo Daro - Harappa civilization there were facts to prove that Āryans knew about those mendicants, as
it appeared in the Kesisukta Munis, were unclean and ugly. This shown that Āryans did not appreciate Munis
and those ugly and unclean mendicants who lived even during the Ṛg-Vedic period.
Sometimes, this might influence the origin of the Āranyaka, the Brāhmaṇas practice and also
Kṣātriyas were the leader who initiated the Āranyaka period. Kṣatriyas had a rivalry against Brāhmaṇas as a
result of that they might have introduced this new practice to bring down the popularity and the power of
Brāhmaṇa.
Aryans, those who traveled to the Eastern part of India to sell goods, came to know about practice
of the Śramaṇa tradition which has given preference to meditation and other Yogic practice. They produced
this new practice to the Āryans society; it was much convenient to all Āryans to follow without hardship.
Meditation can be performed without any expense. It is the development of the mind that one should be
obtained through practice. It could be practiced without any discrimination of castes, genders and other
social status. As a result of that the wisdom school started with their beginning of Aranyaka period. With the
start of the Āranyaka period, Āryans tried hard to understand the reality through wisdom. The decreased
significance of Yoga during the Āranyaka period.

26
 QUESTION: SINCE UPANIṢAD'S PERIOD UP TO THE BUDDHA'S PERIOD HOW RELIGIOUS PEOPLE SOUGHT FOR JÑĀNA
(WISDOM) OR KNOWLEDGE?

Vedic Brāhmaṇism reaches its climax in the Upaniṣadic thought. The contemplative and
philosophical trends that came to prominence in the Aranyakas further developed in the Upaniṣads.
The Vedic Brāhmaṇism centered on the belief in a creator God with a large number of lesser gods.
These divine powers were supposed to control the destiny of man and everything in the universe.
As some did not find this Vedic approach to religion satisfactiory, they resorted to forest and began
contemplate and reflect on subtle problem affecting man and his world. This inclination towards
contemplation is the prominent feature in the Aranyakas. It is this that developed into a deeper
philosophical system in the Upaniṣads.
This development gave way to the early karma-mārga or the path of sacrifice. Instead of
dependency on the ritual of sacrifice for happiness, the Upaniṣad thinkers advocated the practice of
the path of knowledge, or „jñāna mārga.“ The god of this path was the intuitive understanding of
the unity of Brāhmaṇ and ātman.
Both Brāhmaṇ and ātman were metaphysical concepts of the Upaniṣadic thinkers.
Being metaphysical both these were beyond normal sensory experience. The Upaniṣadic
thinkers maintained that to know and see Brāhmaṇ and ātman a yogi has to develop mystic
knowledge and with it, it is said that one is able to mystically know and see these metaphysical
entities.
Thus the Upaniṣadic thinkers who advocated the existence of a soul (ātman) which was the
microcosmic soul (pudgala-ātma) and its macro-cosmic counterpart (Brāhmaṇ) the universal soul
(jagad-ātma or vis'sva-ātma) said that the path to attain this knowledge or ñāna is
atthakilamathānuyogo or self-mortification. They pointed out that by tormenting the body, by
completely depriving the sense organs of the opportunity to enjoy objects one could attain that
mystical knowledge and realize intuitively the undifferentiated unity of Brāhmaṇ and ātman.
Some of the Śramaṇa schools such as Jainism also believed in a similar path. These schools
abandoned Yajña (sacrifice) as useless. This school also advocated the way of knowledge attained
through self-mortification. However, all these schools, at least in an indirect way, expected the help
of an external agency. The Upaniṣadic traditional wish for the grace of God (daiva pras'ad) for this.
The Jains also did not totally reject such a belief.
Buddhism being a religion that gives superiority to man considers that it is through mind
culture (bhāvanā) attained with one's own effort that will lead to insight wisdom (paññā). This is
different from knowledge understood in the jñāna mārga, for Buddhist jñāna refers to personal
experience (sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā).

27
QUESTION: THE PATH OF GNĀNA (GNĀNA MĀRGA) IS THE DOOR WHICH OPENS TO BIRTH OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY.
JUSTIFY THE STATEMENT.

Gradually, Vedic rites and rituals became complex and common people could not follow due
to the the complexity and expensiveness of sacrifices. They criticized sacrificial system. Some
people renounced and meditated to understand the truth. They believed there could be hidden
philosophical meaning in sacrifices. Therefore some said it is more important to understand this
philosophical meaning than practice of sacrificing. Those who were trying to understand this
meaning were named as upasana.
By upasana they can achieve the knowledge which was known as vidyā. Gradually these
upasana and vidyā have been faced to evolution and some renovation. Therefore people's respect
over the sacrifices became weaker and reduced. There are two kinds of knowledge discussed in
Vedic literature. They are:
1. apra vidya (considered as lower knowledge)
2. pra vidya (considered as higher knowledge)

Pra vidya can be achieved through the various meditations and it is important and correct
knowledge.

When we study about the religious background of this period we can identify three
important characteristics:
1. The rational and empirical part of knowledge
2. The knowledge which assemblages the part of kamma and knowledge which is the state in
between the system of rites and rituals and the renunciation.
3. The karma mārga, which has been accepted as the sole part to the happiness.

An attempting to realize the reality was named as gnāna gaveṣana, finding the knowledge.
They believed it should be the finding concerning the ātman. One who understands the ātman
knows everything and also one who sees the ātman becomes an immortal one.

At the beginning of the Upaniṣadic period, it is said that one wanted to find the path of
nyāna had to learn from the former one (teacher), who was intellectual and realized knowledge.
One can understand ātman and the Brāhmaṇ through meditation. For this purpose one should lead a
moral life and should develop his spirituality. According to Aparāda Upaniṣad one who does not
develop this quality will not be able to understand ātman or Brāhmaṇ. One should see the ātman
and listen to ātman. Then he definitely realizes and understands everything in the world.

In this way Indian philosophy recognize the realization of the ātman as the way of realizing
the knowledge. In this way the Vedic philosophy has stepped over to the nyāna mārga to realize the
hidden absolute truth.

28
 QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KARMA MĀRGA AND ÑĀNA MĀRGA
The path of karma mārga in Vedic literature means the way of performing sacrifices. The
Veda was considered as the God's utterance or God's words. Therefore, it was an absolute truth.
Brahmanic clergy or priests were the one who became the greatest class in the Vedic society which
was formed under the classification of caste system.
It was introduced this way of performing sacrifices.(?) Those Brahman priests claimed that
when the religious performances were performed in the correct way God would have been happy
and conferred the blessings to the people for the successful lufe. People also expected from the
sacrifices to achieve the happiest life in the world. They believed all were happening(?) due to the
yāga, sacrifice. If the yāga had not been performed, the Sun would not rise, the harvest would not
be successful.
Thus the Brahmanic priests introduced various kinds of sacrifices to be performed to
achieve better life here and hereafter. Brāhmanic priests believed that Vedic hymns were originally
uttered by Mahā Brahma and later on creatures listened to those utterances and continued by
lineage. Therefore they unseen power was included in that word and sound.(?) Brāhmanic priests
themselves had taken the prime places in religious performances.
They themselves said to the people they were sole authorities who knew the way of
performances, the selection of utterances, the respect utterances and the pronunciation of utterances.
Further they claimed that one who did the sacrifice in a correct and systematical way he would be
ethically developed person and after death he would be reborn in the Brahma world. On the strength
of sacrifices one would be reborn either in deva loka or in the hell. According to aitareya there was
the sava pūka, agni hotra yāga, rājasūya yāga etc.
In Majjhima Nikāya Saṅgarāva Sutta there is also explained about the yāga, which was
rejected by the Buddha. The commentary mentions about seven kinds of sacrifices. Kutadatta
Sutta and Yajña Sutta of Kusala Saṅyutta mention about Sabbasattaka Yaka.
Besides these there were some other yāgas also. Gradually sacrifices were an unbearable
burden to the individual life and social life. Due to the complexity and expensiveness of the
sacrifices people could not follow and be satisfied with that sacrificial system. Criticizing it they
went away from that path. Believing there could have been hidden philosophical meaning in
sacrifices some people renounced and meditated to understand the truth. They tried to realize the
reality.
It was named as 'ñāna gaveśana'. Finding the knowledge concerning with the ātman.
Consequently the people's respect over the sacrifices became weakened and reduced in the
challenge of finding the knowledge. In this way the Vedic philosophy has stepped over to ñāna
mārga through karma mārga to realize hidden absolute truth.

29
 UPANIṢAD PERIOD (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Upaniṣad was known as the philosophy of Vedanta. There is large number of Upaniṣad
(sitting close to the teacher). Upaniṣads are known as secret teaching, Guhyam parama Guhyam
rahasyam. Upaniṣadic thinkers strove to understand the nature of the person, the nature of world /
universe, and the relationship between those too. There are the aims of Upaniṣad

“ Asato sada gamaya = take me to the reality from unreality.”

“ Tamaso m1ryothir gamaya = take me to light from darkness.”

“ Mrtyo ma amrtoyi gamaya = take me to immortality from mortality”.

During this period Upaniṣadic thinkers engaged in search for Truth not a belief. There
are about 108 Upaniṣads among them 13 Upaniṣads are considered as principal Upaniṣad.
Bṛhadāranyaka, Taithareya, Chāndogya are considered as early Upaniṣadic period (900-700 B.C.)

Katha Upaniṣad
2shā Upaniṣad are considered as contemporary to the Buddhist era 700-500
B.C.
Mundaka Upaniṣad

Praśna Upaniṣad
Svetasvatara are considered as later the Buddhist era 500-B.C.
Maitrī
Māndogya

The main aim of Upaniṣadic thought is to reveal truth of the universe and the individual end
the relationship between the two relationships the man and the universe. According to Upaniṣads
Universe in the Macrocosm Jagadātma Visvātma (great man) Mahāpurisa individual in the
Pudgalātma (microcosm) Kudāpurisa (the small man).

Upaniṣadic thinkers who attempted to investigate the reality of the universe explained the
universe as a creation of the Brahma. Brahma is known as the creation of everything that exist
»Sarvam khalu idaṃ brahma;« there are two types of creations appeared in Upaniṣad:

1. The direct creation

2. The indirect creation.

Besides this theory of evolution also appeared in the Upaniṣads according to the theory of
evolution the universe is not a result of a creation but a result of an evolution both the theory of
creation and the theory of the concept of Brahma.
Brahma means the power to generate, the word “Brahma” according to scholar original
(from Sanskrit word) means “Vach.”

30
 Ṛg-Vedic Āryans thought that the prayers to the gods could bring happiness to the people
because of the power of words and in the early period the word Brahma is used as a synonym to
“Word” the power to generate.
In Upaniṣads Brahma creates universe by himself as it appears in the Bṛhadārnyaka
Upaniṣad Brahma felt alone so he became a man after sometimes again he experienced the
previous loneliness and became a woman as a result of that human beings were originated
according to the direct creation Brahma should be identical with his creation all qualification of the
Brahma should appear in his creation for example, Brahma is eternal therefore his creation should
also be eternal. But it is not so the physical world is impermanent although it is considered as a
creation of Brahma. As a result of the Upaniṣads failed to prove the identity between the creator
and creation. This failure made an attempt to describe the theory of creation with amendments. If
said that the universe is created from Brahma but not by Brahma himself.

Likewise, the net comes out from the spider. Both explanations were not strong enough to
prove the supremacy of Brahma in the creation of the universe. We now can see two kinds of
creations viz.
1) Brahma (direct creation) he himself created the universe.
2) Brahma (indirect creation) is not identified with creation; the Brahma is identified with
his creation.
As a result of that Upaniṣadic sages introduced another theory to explain the relationship between
the Brahma, the Creator, and the Universe. That is the Maya. Maya means illusion; Upaniṣads
argued that the relationship between the Brahma, the Creator can be understood clearly because
everything is covered with the illusion (Maya). Maya misleads people from the truth. We would be
able to understand the universe as a creation of Brahma only when we eradication illusion. Illusion
should be eradicated through wisdom.

Brahma (Macrocosm=huge man) and ātman (Microcosm = tiny man)

According to Upaniṣads Microcosm (ātman) in a part of Macrocosm (Brahma). Ātman is

created from Brahma as a result of that all living beings are identical parts of Brahma. Therefore, all
qualifications of Brahma appeared in the ātman, Brahma is eternal – ātman is also eternal. Brahma
cannot be destroyed and ātman also cannot be destroyed, neither Brahma nor ātman change.

The search made to find the qualification of Brahma in the ātman failed, it was clearly
ātman (the small man), the man is not eternal as Brahma; man is subject to change and mortal. So
they found that the living body of man is not ātman they concluded the physical body of man is not
the ātman (Annmaya Sarīra= physical maintained by food) they penetrated (understand) deeper into
the human body in search of eternal soul ātman) that lives in the person. At this second state, they
thought the Prāṇa (energy) that makes man work as the ātman but later they understood that the
strength of the person is not eternal. It fluctuates (change) person becomes weak when he gets sick
or old. They reject the Prāṇamaya Sarīra (the strength makes man work) the energy as the ātman.
The followings are mentioned:

1) Annamya Sarīra (the body maintained by food)

2) Prāṇa Sarīra (the strength that makes man work)

31
 3) Manomaya Sarīra ( the mind that commands the person to act)
4) Viññāṇa Sarīra ( the entity that mind is based and makes mind work)

As the third, Upaniṣadic sages introduce the Mind as the ātman (Manomaya) they fell that
mind acts backwardly if the mind is perfect as Brahma it should not be backward they continued
their research for ātman, which holds the qualification of Brahma. They found the Viññāṇa as the
ātman. This stage also did not comply with basic qualification of ātman.

It was clear that Viññāṇamaya stage of the ātman did not reach the true nature of reality.
Viññāṇamaya sarīra was not able to show the eternal nature of the ātman. Finally, they decided that
ātman exists but cannot be explained. They penetrated deeper into the human body but were unable
to find the immortal ātman that exists inside the person. In some other Upaniṣad sages tried to
approached the ātman using another strategy; they also tried to reach the immortal soul through
their sense experiences.

They took the living man as the soul (Jagrate), they experienced that the body of the living
man is subject to change but ātman does not change; it is immortal and unchanging. They rejected
the idea that ātman is visible in the external body of the living man; they considered that the ātman
becomes visible during the dream stage (Svapna) during the sleeping-man experienced bad dream.
If ātman is perfect and immortal then bad dream comes to him. If man experienced bad dream
during the dream stage that cannot be ātman. Susapti ātman is visible in the person during the stage
of deep sleep. Even at this stage Upaniṣad sages found that the ātman is imperfect because ātman
could not behave freely.
Three statements; Jagrate, Svapna, Susapati, Turiya, fourth stages when all attempt made
became futile Upaniṣad sages decided that the ātman exists but cannot be grasped; Upaniṣad sages
attempt to clarify the nature of ātman though it cannot be experienced personally. The Katha
Upaniṣad says that the Atman lives in the heart; ātman is inside of a finger »Angushtha matro
parisartartma sadā jananaṃ hucaye saññivishataka« Brahadāranyaka sages say that the ātman
leaves the body at the death and goes to another body, like the leaf goes from one leaf of grass to
another.

32
 UPANIṢAD THEORY (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The word 'Upaniṣad' consists of three words – 'Upa' which means 'near', 'ni' which means
'down' and 'shad' which means 'be seated'. So Upaniṣad means „be seated at the feet of the guru to
receive the teaching.“ During ancient times, pupils used to sit near the teacher in a circle to learn the
holy teachings and sacred scriptures. The Upaniṣad philosophy basically indicates learning from a
spiritual teacher. The exact number of classical Upaniṣads is not known. Scholars differ when it
comes to estimating the number of Upaniṣads that exist. It is estimated that there are around 350
Upaniṣads that exist today.
The Upaniṣads constitute the Vedanta (Veda-anta), the end of the Vedas, not only they
constitute the last part of them, but all their ultimate teachings, reaching to the highest metaphysical
state, beyond which is the realm of peace. In fact, the most ancient Upaniṣads are a part of the
Vedas, and a part of the Śruti. So they constitute the fundamentals, the essence of the Hindu
philosophy. They are connected to the whole of knowledge and contain within them the exposition
of the origin of the Universe, the nature of Brāhmaṇ and jīvātman, the relation between the mind
and matter, etc... therefore, the main topic of the Upaniṣads is the ultimate knowledge: the
individuality of the Brāhmaṇ and the jīvātman.

The Upaniṣads are the first scriptures where the law of kamma first appeared as taught by
Yajnavalkya (Brihadaranyaka Upaniṣad). The characteristics of the Upaniṣads are their
universality and the total absence of any dogmatism. They are the highest philosophy ever
conceived by the human mind. Upaniṣads are the work of different authors and, separately the
'great Upaniṣads' belonging to the ṣruti we cannot say that they constitute a strictly speaking system
of philosophy, some of them being connected to certain particular sects, such as the cult of Śiva,
Viśnu, Durga, Ganeśa, Surya etc.

Here is a list of traditional Upaniṣads:

- Iṣavasya (major)
- Kena (major)
- Katha (or Kathaka) (major)
- Praṣna (major)

The Upaniṣads provide us with spiritual knowledge and philosophical reasoning. Upaniṣads
aim at attaining a level of understanding beyond ordinary knowledge about living. They aim at
seeking a higher level of understanding about survival. They seek to create awareness about our
purpose in life. They dwell on the psychology of the human mind. They speak about consciousness,
sub-consciousness and dreams. They go beyond ordinary knowing and aim at a higher level of
realization.
According to Swami Rama the Upaniṣadic literature is not a religious scripture and is free
from dogma and doctrines. It is not a part of any religion but is a philosophy for all times and for
all. This philosophy does not oppose any school of thought, religion, or interpretation of the
scriptures, but its methods for explaining its concepts are unique.

33
ŚRAMAṆA TRADITION (LECTURED BY VEN. ANANDA VIJAYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

It is the predicament of social, political, and economic situation of the Eastern part of India
during the day of the Buddha. In the Eastern part of India there were different communities
belonging to different cultures as it appeared in the Buddhist suttas; there were 16 major states
belonged to 16 nations and cultures. They are Anga, Magadha, Kāsī, Kosala,Vajjī, Malla, Cetī,
Vaṅsa, Kuru, Pañcāla, Maccha, Sūrasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhā, Kamboja; those states can be
classified under three groups according to their states, i.e.,
1). Developed
2). Developing
3) Undeveloped.*

Among those 16 states the Magadha and Kosala were considered as developed and powerful
states than others; Aventi and Vajji are among developing states. There were tribes who ate human
flesh among those under developed states. Powerful state, Magadha and Kosala, were fighting with
poor and rich states to expend their territories with view to build an empire. While Magadha and
Kosala were fighting with other states they fought with each others.

The king of Magadha, Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu were rivals of Kosala. This war brought
all states to disharmonious state. There were no inhabitants in those states wanted to fight against
each others; but they have to be voluntary to stand in the battle field. Most of them were farmer who
works in the paddy fields. In the Brahmāvartha (Indus Valley) Vedic teachings dominated as a
religion. There were no other popular religious practices, except the religious beliefs of non-Aryan.
The religious background of the East was very much different than the Brahmāvartha there are
number of religious sects; Ajita Kesakambalī, Pūraṇa Kassapa, Pakuddha Kaccāyana and
Nigaṇṭha Nāthaputta, etc. were popular among them. They are all renounced in the early stage of
life seeking of the truth. All of them lived as homeless and mendicant. They spent much time of
their lives in the forest getting food from the forest. They had different views of the life and of the
ultimate freedom. The common teachers, they all are out of the view that the reality could be
understood only through self-mortification.

Ājīvaka were very much popular and strong in the Śramaṇa tradition they were engaging in
practicing self-mortification during their lives. They thought that Pain can be eradicated through
pain. Ājivaka was known as Acela. Acela means those who do not wear clothes; they remain in
nude and Nigaṇṭha also remain in nude too. Ājīvaka followed rigorous practices in becoming an
ascetic. They remove their hair and eyebrow pulling out each of them. After becoming an Ājīvaka;
some of them stay in the village while other stay in the forest. According to the source, Ājīvakas
were much older than the other Śramaṇa traditions. Some of these Ājīvikas were expert in astrology
and other kinds of trades such as Āyurveda (medicine) and mystical practices. These Ājivakas were
considered as opponent of the order of Buddhist monks. According to the Buddhist Vinaya Piṭaka
mentions that Ājivaka helps Buddhist monks.

According to the sources given above, Ājivikas are rivals of Buddhist monks. But there are
facts in the Vinaya Piṭaka to prove that Ājīvikas are friendly attitude towards Buddhist monks. As it
appears in the Vinaya Piṭaka once an Ājīvika invited the Buddha for alms. In other evidences an

34
Ājīvika who has a blood-relation of the king Bimbisāra requested the king to prepare the alms for
the Buddha.

So addition to that, the Vinaya says when the demise of the Buddha was informed to
Venerable Mah1kassapa by a group of Ājivaka. According to these facts it is clear that Ājīvika
cannot be considered as the rivals of the Buddhist monks. The rivalry between Ājīvikas and
Buddhist monks might be based on the differences of their doctrinal teachings. As it appears in the
Sutta !jivkas were very popular in the day of the Buddha. They had a large group of disciples.

According to Suttanta Piṭaka in Saṃyutta Nikāya the six heretical teachers who lived during
the day of the Buddha were well-known and high respected by the people. Most of them were
under the royal patronage. Ājivaka existed in India as a popular Śramaṇa even after the falling of
Buddhism. The inscription written during the day of Dhammasoka says the king build houses for
Ājīvika at the top of hill Barabar.

Ājīvika continued to maintain their status even during reign of the king Dasatatha, the
grandson of the king Dhammasoka. The existence of Ājīvika even during the Brāhamaṇa period
was proved by their textual evidence the Viya Purāṇa says Ājīvika condemned the divine cast
system of Brāhmaṇa system. According to the sources Nandavacca and Kisasankacca were
known as the most senior of members of Ājīvika. Ājīvikas had their own method of teaching; they
do not obey others order they do not accept invitation for alms from others. They do not accept food
specially made from others.

Ājīvikas do not eat meal in front of animals; they do not accept food from pregnant women,
and they do not share food with others. The Sandaka Sutta of Majjhima Nikāya gives more detail
about the characteristic of Ājīvikas.

The behavior of Ājīvika has great impact with Jaina and Buddhist tradition Nanda Vacca
and Kisa Samkicca were known as founders of the Ājīvika tradition; Makkhalī Ghosāla was the
historic founder of Ājīvikas; Sāvatthi was the headquarters of Ājīvikas.

Learn for examination:

Brāhmaṇa period
Aranyaka period
Śramaṇa tradition
Upaniṣadic period
Compare Śramaṇa and Brāhmaṇa tradition

35
 ŚRAMAṆA TRADITION OR ASCETIC MOVEMENT IN INDIA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. HUNNY)

Śramaṇa tradition or ascetic movement in India can be recognized as a philosophical

movement, which stood against traditional Brāhmaṇic religion. In this regard many scholars are of
opinion that initiation of ascetic movement marks the beginning of new era in Indian religious and
philosophical movement. In the process of declining of religion and progress towards philosophy
many individual thinkers came into existence in addition to prominent Upaniṣad thinkers. Jaina
Mahāvīra and Śākyamuni Buddha can be recognized as the most prominent figures that gave
birth to the new era. There were many contradictory opinions relevant to the origin of ascetic
movement. As we are aware, traditional Brāhmaṇic religion or Brāhmaṇism dealt with mundane
matter. Brāhmaṇic rites and rituals were centered upon worldly gain. Up to Brāhmaṇic period
people turned to depend on outside courses that were considered as more powerful than oneself.
They were outward dominated and not inward dominated. In the contrary they did not attempt to
identify the internal course that could be directed to overcome or understand external courses. The
inferiority complex, with regard to relationship between oneself and the external world made them
more and more confident on powerful external courses. Sacrifice became compulsory medium of
getting thing done. Brāhmaṇic priests became the mediators between external course and man
coincidence with complex of rituals and with the development of thinking. Intellectual power of the
era attempted to search out truth within oneself and external world. This attempt resulted in
perceiving the reality of ātman and Brāhmaṇ. Scholars such as Dass Gupta tried to say that
Upaniṣadic approach to seeking knowledge is not a new movement, but a gradual progress
descendant from Vedic and Brāhmaṇic period. Anyhow it is more rational and evidential to assume
that Upaniṣadic philosophical result of new movement came into existence against complex
ritualism in Brāhmaṇism. In other words, it is not evolution of Vedic thought but new movement
came into existence against Brāhmaṇic teaching. Some scholars such as B. C. Bunte tried to make
another opinion in this regard. According to them Vedic tradition and ascetic tradition collaterally
developed in India from the inception of Aryan religion. Their thesis is that after the Aryan invasion
Vedic religious tradition developed but non-Aryan religious traditions did not disappear, they were
persistent. According to their opinion śramaṇa tradition was not a new movement, but its origin
goes back to Indu Valley Civilization. There are some rare evidences for accepting that existence of
asceticism during the Vedic period. Rgveda mentioned about a śramaṇa in a vague form. The detail
given in this śramaṇa is evidential to the existence of śramaṇa at the time of Vedic religion. Kesi
Sukga in Rigveda depicts the position of Muni during that period. According to this Vedic record
this śramaṇa had long hair and beard, wore yellow robes, wandered from place to place addicted to
intoxicants and had an awful appearance. This description of śramaṇa contained in Rgveda depicts
that śramaṇa was not a popular figure during that period, but that there was a class of people who
were named as śramaṇa.

36
 ŚRAMAṆA TRADITION OR ASCETIC MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Śramaṇa tradition or ascetic movement in India can be recognized as a philosophical
movement which stands against traditional Brahmanic religion. In this regard many scholars are of
opinion that initiation of ascetic movement marks the beginning of new era in Indian religious and
philosophical movements. In the process of declining of religion and progress towards philosophy
many individual thinkers came into existence in addition to prominent Upaniṣad thinkers. Jaina
Mahāvīra and Śākyamuni Buddha can be recognized as the most prominent figures that gave
birth to this era. There were many contradictory opinions in relevant to the origin of ascetic
movement. As we are aware, traditional Brahmanic religion or Brahmanism dealt with mundane
matter. Brahmanic rites and rituals were centered upon worldly gain. Up to Brahmanic period,
people turned to depend on outside courses that were considered as more powerful then themselves.
They were outward dominated and not inward dominated. In the contrary they were not attempting
or identifying the internal course that could be directed to overcome or understand external courses.
The inferiority complex, with regard to relationship between oneself and the external world made
them more and more confident on powerful external courses. Sacrifice became compulsory medium
of getting things done. Brahmanic priests became the mediatoers between external courses and
man. Coincidences with complex ritualism and with the development of thinking, intellectual
power of the era attempted to search out truth within oneself and external world. This attempt
resulted in perceiving the reality of ātman and Brahman. Scholars such as Das Gupta tried to say
that Upaniṣadic approach to seek knowledge was not a new movement but a gradual progress
descending from Vedic and Brahmanic period. Anyhow it is more rational and evidential to assume
that Upaniṣadic philosophical result of new movement came into existence against complex
ritualism in Brahmanism. In other words, it is not evolution of Vedic thought, but new movement
came into existence against Brahmanic teaching. Some scholars such as B. C. Bunte tied to make
another opinion in this regard. According to them Vedic tradition and ascetic tradition parallelly
developed in India from the inception of Āryan religion. Their thesis is that after the Āryan invasion
Vedic religious tradition developed but non-Āryan religious traditions did not disappear, but rather
were persistent. According to their opinion śramaṇa tradition was not a new movement but its
origin goes back to Indus Valley Civilization. There are some rare evidences for accepting that
existence of ascetics during the Vedic period. Ṛg Veda mentioned about a śramaṇa in a vague form.
The detail given in this śramaṇa is evidential to the existence of śramaṇa at the time of Vedic
religion. Brahman and Ātman
Someone knows the Brahman, truth, knowledge as infinite. He receives all aspiration. This
is how the Brahman concept has been explained in Vedic literature. In Aitareya Upaniṣad Brahman
and ātman have been explained as ānandaṃ or happiness. Furtehr it says human beings live with
happiness. After their death they will go to the happiness. Therefore, all the beings are generated
from happiness. This explains and implies they have considered the human beings to live with
happiness. The Brahman concept can be seen in the Atharvan Veda as well as in Brahmanic
literature. Once they said universal origination is from the Brahman concept. It was the imaginary
concept. Therefore, Vedic teaching has considered the Brahman as the praying.(?) They have seen
some powers included in the praying.(?)
In Brahmin period, they have attributed special power to the praying. Therefore, they could
consider there could be power of creation. They accepted this power of creation was the initiative
force for the whole creation. According to that truth of external world was considered as the
Brahman. They wanted to know absolute truth concerning the human beings. As a result of that

37
they accepted there is the truth of spirituality within the men as ātman. Brahman concept gradually
has been developed. This concept has been realized according to the understanding of the Brahmin
priest. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad it is explained as the water. Soucillir(?) it is explained as
ajuee(?) and sky(?). Someone identifies this concept as the Sun and Moon. In this way Upaniṣadic
thinkers have explained according to their own understanding. Aitareya Upaniṣad has mentioned
that Brahman as the fellow human being. From which human being gets birth, where he lives,
where he goes after his death is Brahman. Further they said all the material things are Brahman.
Bbut animate things can't bbe explained through inanimate things. Therefore they considered prāṇa
or life force as the Brahman. Without material body the being can't live but through the material
body the sacredness of life can't be explained. Therefore, life force was considered as the Brahman.
But they couldn't explain the reality of the life force. Mind or the knowledge of material thing is the
different entity. It is considered as a Brahman. But they accepted there would be important reality
than the mind.(?) They thought it as the knowledge. They tried to explain the absolute truth through
the consciousness. But they were not satisfied with such an explanation. Therefore, they believed in
ānanda or happiness as the absolute truth. Further Upaniṣadic teachers said that Brahman can't be
realized through the visual things. It is invisible entity. The Sun, the wind, which represent the
Brahman's existence, Brahman can't be explained. There are not enough words to explain his
existence. Whatever the words we use to explain the Brahman, everything is Brahman.
Further Kena Upaniṣad says that whatever exists beyond our thinking, seeing and listening,
it is Brahman. Brahman can't be seen. No one can enter it. One who purifies the knowledge and
purifies the mind, through that, Brahman can be seen. On ewho sees Brahman he wards off
happiness as well as sorrow. Kesi Sukga in Ṛg Veda depicts the position of Muni during that
period. According to this Vedic record this śramaṇa was having long hair and beard, wore yellow
robes, wandered from place to place addicted to intoxication and had an awful looking. This
description of śramaṇa that is contained in Ṛg Veda depicts that śramaṇa was not a popular figure
during that period, but there was a class of people who were named as śramaṇa.

38
 THE BASIC VIEW OF THE DIVISION INTO BRAHMAṆA AND ŚRAMAṆA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA 1995)

In ancient Indian system of thought, during the time of the Buddha and early Bbuddhism,
there were two great traditions; Brahmaṇa tradition and Śramaṇa tradition.
These two traditions are not two distinct compartments. We can not say that there is no
connection whatever with other, because the influences are there. Some special features of
Brahmaṇa traditions are as follows:
1. Vedic hymns were regarded as authority. According to Brahmaṇa system, Vedas were
considered as authority, bbecause they are śruti. No one can question the Vedas. Vedas are
correct. It is given to us by God. Vedas are always for authority. Any question has to be
understood in relation to what Vedas teach. So, Vedas are important thing in Brahmaṇa
tradition.
2. Recognition of the institution of castes (vraṇa dharma). Vraṇa means belief in the four
castes: Brahmaṇa, Kśastriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra. According to Brahmaṇa, these four castes
were only recognized castes. If one does not belong to these four, he or she was not regarded
as human and could be treated like an animal. Brahmaṇas believed that caste system is the
heritage from God. God gave it to us, it is Dayāda - what men have is gift from God. So,
they thought, where there is human society, there must bbe the four castes. So, caste system
is the second important thing in Brahmaṇa tradition.
3. Recognition of Āśrama. There are four āśramas. They are:
1. Brahmacariya – the being of a student
2. Gruhastha – when one lives as a householder
3. Vraṇaprastha – when one went to the forest as a hermit
4. and Sannasi – ultimate realization of God.
Thus, Brahmaṇas divided the life of a person into four stages. These āśramadharmas are
also necessary for Brahmaṇa tradition.
4. Recognition of a creator God. This is a part of Brahmaṇa tradition. Brahmins believe that
Brahma is a creator God, and human beings and the world are creations. In the
Mahāpuruśa Sūtra it is mentioned that when Brahma created human beings, Brahmins
came out from his mouth, from his arms the Kśātriyas, from his thighs the Vaishyas and
from his feet the Śūdras. Besides, Brahmins thought that they are superior than others. The
others are to follow. In the list of priority, Brahmins come on top.
5. Women were not considered equal in society. In Brahmaṇa tradition, women were limited
to the house. They only had to look after the house and serve their husbands. They were
occupied in society, generally like a servants or the husband. Nothing more for them. These
are generally characteristics of Brahmaṇa tradition.

Some Śramaṇa traditions which are opposite to Brahmaṇa tradition, are as follows:
1. Not regard Vedic hymn as the authority. According to Śramaṇas, Vedas are not infallible,
these are not the last words and the only truth.

39
2. Non-recognition of the institution of castes. Śramaṇas did not recognize caste system as
Brahmaṇas recognized. In Śramaṇa tradition it is free from caste system. No emphasis to
castes.
3. Non=recognition of Āśrama. Āśrama is not recognized by Śramaṇa tradition as Brahmaṇa
tradition recognized. Only Brahmaṇa tradition recognized Vraṇa and Āśrama. In Śramaṇa
tradition, Āśramadharma order is not valid in the same way. They did not follow the order
in the same way.
4. Non-recognition of a creator God. In Śramaṇa tradition, there is no God who can create
human beings and the world. There eis no external authority (such as a God) on good and
babd action. Everything appeared not because of creation of God, but because of the nature
of peoples§ moral causation.
5. Women were given a better life under Śramaṇa tradition. In Śramaṇa tradition, women were
allowed to enter into ordination like in the Bhikkhunī-sāsana. They were able to renounce
the householder's life and were able to find the truth or the way of liberation.
1. These two traditions can not be regarded that they have no whatever connection with one
another. They can not be separated from one another, because they influence each other
in both ways.

40
 BRĀHMAṆA AND ŚRAMAṆA
The religion of ancient India was broadly and mainly divided into Śramaṇa tradition and
Brāhmaṇa tradition. Majority has the view that Vedic tradition is the older of the two. Those who
hold this view trace the beginning of Indian religion history to the Ṛg Vedic period.
As description given in Aitareya Upaniṣad, Brahmaṇa was defeating the form and figure of
Muni during that period.(?) Brahmaṇa questioned and advised Muni as follows: „What is the use of
dirty yellow robe? What is the use of wearing animal’s skin? What is the use of growing beard?
What is the use of celibacy? Wish and deliver son, increase progeny - that is praiseworthy in the
world.
Scholars who considered ascetic movement have a gradual evolution of Vedic religion and
some opinions were evolved from Saññāsī concept. In Brahmanist concept Sukumadat and Abeke
who opposed this opinion said that the Saññāsī stage of four āśramadharma postages of life was
later addition to Bbrahmanic teaching. It is responded that Brāhmanic teacher against śramaṇa
movement. This argument is contained in early Upaniṣad in which such as Bṛhadāraññaka and
Chāndogya mentioned only three āśramadharmas, no Saññāsī stage. In this regard he got the
standpoint that when ascetic movement came to popularity, Brahmanic teaching was appended
Saññāsī stage to their system. From the above evidences, we can assume that śramaṇa tradition is
parallel service with Vedic tradition. But it is more reasonable factual to accept it, as a movement
came into existence, not divided from Brahmanic tradition, but against Brahmanism.
It is evidential that some Āryans who practised sacrifices and perceived meaninglessness in
Brahmanic rituals and sacrifices. For instance, some ascetics who practised and evaluated
individual development belonged to Āryan society. The ascetics such as Aśvatikaikiya,
Ajātaśatra, Janaka belonged to Kśātriya clan, whereas Uddhālakaruni to gain the knowledge on
soul and ātman. This indicates that śramana movement is a new movement which came out against
Brahmanic tradition without having Āryan and non-Āryan history.
Ascetic movement can bbe recognized as a movement conducted by independent
individually. It is an effort of them to find new teachings against Brahmanism. Those ascetics who
profess difference between teachings were named differently: Ājīvaka Śramaṇa, Parippurājaka,
Ajelaka, Nigaṇṭha, tapasa, Bhikkhu, Yakki, Muni, Brahmacāri, some of names referring to the
ascetics who lived contemporary to Buddha. Though they professed different teachings and
belonged to separated schools they had some common characteristics. All of them unanimously
rejected Vedic theory. All led mendicant life and practised celibacy, their objective was to find out
absolute truth. Among those various ascetic schools, Buddhism and Jainism held unique position
that the others and these two schools continue to the present day subjected to various changes in the
history of their religions.

41
 WHAT ARE THE DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDDHA AS AN ASCETIC?

There were two main religious traditions during the Buddha's time. These were Brāhmaṇa
and Śramaṇa. Buddha was also of the Śramaṇa tradition. Though Śramaṇa tradition constituted of
teachers upholding different religious teaching in practice most of them were more close to ascetic
practices. The exception was the materialist Ajita. His practice was kāmasukhallikānuyogo which
the Buddha denounced by describing as hīno, gammo, pothujjaniko. Though he did not totally
encourage ascetic practices, he rejected any kind of extremism.
Both in practice and teaching the Buddha differed from other ascetics. His hallmark
teaching was the middle path (majjhima patipadā). In that he did not only emphasized mental
culture and wisdom culture, but also virtue culsture. In that he differed from Śramaṇas such as
Ajita, Makkhalī, Pakudha and Pūrana. He was not sceptic, for he had positive attitudes towards
problems of man. Unlike a fatalist like Makkhalī the Buddha emphasized the importance of vīriya,
purisakāra, purisathāma etc. Thus stressing the efficacy of human striving and effort.
Unlike many other ascetics the Buddha gave importance to kiriyavāda, viriyavāda and also
to kammavāda. He emphasized the fact that man is a free agent who is responsible for his suffering
and happiness. This was a totally new approach, in a religious background where one's destiny was
attributed to either an outside power, fate or even chance-happening.
His philosophy of dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) was a completely new
perspective about man and his predicament. His rejecting attā (ātman) was a distinguishing feature
in his teaching. AnattL and paticcasamuppāda teachings presented a world view that was peculiar
to Buddhism.
While declaring that his teaching is well taught (svākkhāto), he did not, like other ascetics
insist that others should follow his teachings blindly. The Kālāma sutta, Vimaṁsaka sutta show his
liberality towards freedom of thought. Though like most other Śramaṇa teachers he also accepted
kamma (like for example Jainas), he never made man a slave of his kamma like the Jainas did (e.g.
pubbekatahetuvāda).
His social philosophy was also different from that of other Śramaṇa groups. In fact basing
his social philosophy on his central teaching of paṭiccasamuppāda he preceded an evolutionary
theory of society and social institution.
Even with regard to his own Saṁgha he attempted to maintain a separate identity. He
adopted certain rules and norms from the prevailing system but changed them to suit the
circumstances and the objective of his mission. This is seen from the onward appearance of his
disciples as well as from their inward spiritual culture.
Thus, one could see many distinctive characteristics in Buddha's Sāsana.

42
 THE CONCEPT OF TOTALITY (THE ALL) IN THE UPANIṢAD AND EARLY BUDDHISM (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA
1995)

Upaniṣadic thinking is one of the pre-Buddhist thoughts. The background where it arose is
Upaniṣadic thought. Vedas gave rise to Upaniṣadic thought.
Upaniṣads commenced at about 8th century B.C., before the arise of Buddhism and it
represented the Vedas. In the Vedic period, there are four stages:
1. The first stage is polytheism, which believed in number of gods such as Sun god, Moon god,
rain god, thunder god etc.
2. The second stage is Henotheism, which means out of a number of gods one was selected and
appreciated and worshiped.
3. The third stage is monotheism, which means a belief in one God, Prajāpati, the creative
God, Brahma
4. The fourth stage is monism, which believes in one ultimate reality which is called Brahma.
This monism is the last tage of development in the Vedic thought before the arising of
Buddhism. Upaniṣad is a monistic system because it believes in the ultimate reality,
Brahma. It said that Brahma is the cosmic soul, universal soul and the ultimate soul. Each
person has a soul which is individual soul. So, there are many thousands of individual souls
in the world, but there is no difference between the cosmic soul and individual soul.
Ultimately both are the same.

The word Upaniṣad means to approach and sit at the feet of a teacher to listen to what he
tells. Because Upaniṣadic thought contributes or represents a secret doctrine which can not be
publicly announced.
The principle(?) Upaniṣads are very old and its texts are 13 in volumes. They were known
as pre-Buddhist Upaniṣad s. But today there are more than 200 groups. Some of them are composed
in prose and some in verse. Out of those 13 pre-Buddhist Upaniṣad s, there are two very important
ones. They are Bṛhadaranyaka and Sāndogya Upaniṣads.
The fundamentals of central doctrines of Upaniṣads are described in three ways:
1) Ekameva advitiyaṃ – only one, without the second. The world has to be understood as one.
It can not be divided or separated. The world or universe represents a real unity.
2) Sarvaṃ khalu idaṃ Brahma – everything is Brahma. Therefore there can be no multiplicity
or diversity in Upaniṣad. For example, myself, my mother, my teacher, my friend etc. Are
different from one another, but in Upaniṣads this division is wrong. Myself and my friend
etc. Are equal because they are all Brahma. So, it is said that thinking – that it is different
from one another or diversity is Maya, unity is reality (Vidya).
3) Tat tvaṃ asi – you (individual soul) are that (the universal soul). It means individual soul
and Universal soul are one or identical. In other words, universal soul is nothing but
individual soul. Two are identical.

43
 Therefore, in Upaniṣad, it is said that to think in terms of multiplicity or diversity is to be
influenced by Maya (delusion). One must overcome delusion. So long as he multiplies two souls, he
is under the influence of Maya in the wrong path. To understand the identity (unity) with Brahma is
Vidya (reality). To know in this way is called Brahmavidya.
So, Brahmins believed that when a person knows Brahma, he is free from all bondage, his
sorrows have an end, and birth and death are no more. This is their liberation from all bondage and
suffering.
Upaniṣad ic teachings are sometimes represented in the Buddhist texts. For example:
(1) So lokko so attā – the world and the soul are one. It means the universal soul and the
individual soul are the same.
(2) So haṃ pecca bhavissāmi – I, the individual soul, will unite with Brahma.
(3) Nicco – I will be permanent
(4) Dhuvo – I will be steadfast.
(5) Sassato – I will be eternal.
(6) Aviparināmadhammo – I will be unchanging.
(7) Sasati samaṃ tattheva thassāmi – I will be so there forever.
(8) Rūpaṃ attato samānupassati (vedanā etc.) - all material things in the world are seen as attā
(soul) by Upaniṣad.

According to early Buddhism, these views are diṭṭhiṭhana – the cause of wrong view, or the
tenet of speculative philosophy, diṭṭhinissaya – the foundation of speculation, sakkāyadiṭṭhi –
personality belief and upādāna – clinging. Buddhism does not recognize any eternal, permanent
reality as understood in Upaniṣads such as Brahma, Ātma, Creator, God etc. Buddhism says:
„Sabbaṃ pahatabbaṃ – Everything, all things should be given up. Because it does not really exist,
it is not permanent, bbut soulless.
The Lord Buddha said in his first sermon that everything in the world is impermanent, what
is impermanent is suffering, what is suffering is soulless. So, one must overcome those wrong views
together with roots, because they are impermanent and soulless. If one clings to them, he is bond to
suffering. In other words, so long as he clings to them, he is not free from suffering and bondage.
In Paṭiccasamuppāda it is said that through clinging is conditioned the process of becoming.
If one does not give up the clinging, he has to continue from life to life. He will never be free from
all sufferings. So, if one wants to get free from all suffering, he must overcome those wrong views,
clinging and evil will together with their roots.
So, early Buddhism definitely opposed to the teachings of Upaniṣads. In Alagaddūpama
Sutta it is mentioned that the Lord Buddha criticized it (the Upaniṣads) that such belief is
completely foolish (kevalo hi bhante paripuro baladhammo).

44
 THEO-CENTRIC RELIGION AND MONOTHEISM

Theo-centric religions are those religions which are centred on the belief in an omnipotent,
omnipresent, omniscient God. These religions are comon to both East and West. Hinduism,
Christianity, Islam, Judaism are such religions.
According to these religions the God is the creator, the sustainer and destroyer of the world.
He is the Lord and the master of everything. Everything functions according to his wish and will.
Nothing happens without his knowledge. He is the designer of everything.
In these religions the man is represented just as a tool or puppet in the hand of this supreme
God. The man's destiny, his happiness and sorrow all depend on the God. It is the God that divides
what kind of life he gets.
So, in these religions the man is without freedom of thought, with no free-will and therefore
having no freedom of choice. Efverything is decided in heaven by the supreme Lord, whose
decisions are final and unchangeable.
All these religions believe in the concept of sin. For the sin is action against the command of
the God. For such one is punished by the God himself. Forgiveness could be obtained by confessing
and repentance, not to transgress again.
Similarly, those who do meritorious deeds are rewarded and reattributed for their good
deeds. Here is the destiny of those who break the God's law and heaven or companionship with the
God in his kingdom is the reward for merit.
So, in all these religions the God is looked upon not only as the Creator, sustainer and the
destroyer, but also as the punisher and rewareder. He is the savior of the good and the denouncer of
the bad.

Monotheism is the belief in a single Creator God. This God is omnipotent, omnipresent and
omniscient. In Vedic religion this is represented in the third stage of development. The first two
stages are: polytheism and henotheism. From henotheism developed monotheism, this is the result
of searching for one single force that is responsible for the creative sustenance and destruction of
the world.
The Vedic sage thought that there was such an all-powerful Creator God who was named
differently as Brahman, Vesvakarman, Varuṇa, Prajāpati etc. They say that the God is one through
the wise(?) call them by different names. This single God is the creator and the substance and the
overlord of the whole world.

45
 BRĀHMAṆA PERIOD

After the Vedic period there came the religious thought very popular. They came to wonder that
if there is life or existence after death. They thought positively. Death was not the en of life. Life was
like the seasons, month after month. It had its circle. After death men went to Yama, who looked after
or kept them in sky or heaven. After sometimes those who did good or bad had to go to Yama after
death and he would give a decision whether they go to heaven or hell. Someone left behind of the death
did merit for him at that time.(?)

Brahmins became powerful and rich in that period because of Yāga, but before there were poor
Brahminds during the Vedicperiod. Brahmins were (like lawyers to judge) mediators to the gods.
Without their mediation no one could speak to gods directly. Mediators were very respectable in
society.
Doing a sacrifice is said to be rich and prosperous. To get the blessings of the gods, Brahmins
became the mediators or the organizers of the sacrifices. They happened to charge money from people
who wanted to perform sacrifice little by little. Then they charged more and only rich people could
perform sacrifices through their mediation. To do any sacrifice, there where three kinds of Brahmins
who could read and write:
1. Hotru (person who prepares the Yāga (sacrifice))
2. Udgatru (person who calls the gods and deities to accept the Yāga)
3. Advaryu (the director of the sacrifice)

The Brahmins introduced themselves as the gods on the Earth (bhūdeva). Those who could read
and write became the advisors to the kings, matehematicians, astrologers, lawmakers and so on as others
were illiterate. Ime by time they wanted to become the high class in society and created the idea of four
classes or caste system. Brahma creates world and men!
It was supposed that Brahmins were created from the mouth, Kśātriyas from the shoulder (or
hand), Vaiśyas from the thigh and Śūdras from the feet of the Brahma. The first three are supposed to
be Aryans and the forth to be non-Aryans.
There are caste duties for every of the four castes:
1. Brahmins – preaching, teaching and so forth
2. Kśātriyas – protection of the country
3. Vaiśyas – production, exchange of goods etc.
4. Śūdras – servants to all other three castes.

There were much discrimination and no equalities in everything with regard to the law etc. All
women of any caste did not have freedom. Those mentioned above were the conditioned during the
Brahmaṇa period.

46
 BRĀHMAṆ

According to the Vedic literature the Brāhmaṇ is the truth and knowledge of infinity. In Taitriya
Upaniṣad, Brāhmaṇ and ātma have been explained as anandaṃ or happiness. It says that the human beings live
with happiness and they also will go to happiness at the end of death. They said that the original universe started
from the Brāhmaṇ. But it was an imaginary concept. So the teaching of Veda has considered the Brāhmaṇ as
someone to be prayed to.
In the Veda period they accept that the Brāhmaṇ is the initial person in the world, the truth of external
world and he who created the whole world. But they want to know absolute truth of the human beings. As a result
they accepted there is the spiritual truth inside the men as ātma and this concept has been gradually developed. In
Chandogya Upaniṣad there it is explained as water, space and sky. And then someone identifies this concept with
the Sun and Moon. Thus Upaniṣadic thinkers have explained it as their own understanding. After death of person
everything what he got – birth, place where he lived and went, came from Brāhmaṇ. If so, then everything is
being like Brāhmaṇ.
But they cannot say where Brāhmaṇ is. Therefore they considered Prāna or life force is Brāhmaṇ and
'mind' or 'knowledge' is Brāhmaṇ. They try to explain the absolute truth through the consciousness. But they did
not satisfy with that explanation. So they believed that ānandaṃ or happiness is the absolute truth. Upaniṣadic
teachers said Brāhmaṇ cannot be realized by the visual things and he is an unseen entity. Kena Upaniṣad also says
whatever exists beyond our thinking, seeing and listening is Brāhmaṇ. But they cannot guide who Brāhmaṇ.(?)
Therefore there are not enough words to explain his existence. Because of that everything is Brāhmaṇ.

»Tam durdaram gudamanu praviṣtaṃ,

Guhahitaṃ gahvareṣtaṃ purānaṃ.
Addhya mayo gadhigamena devaṃ,
Matva dhiro harṣasokau jahati.«

Once there was a dialogue between Najiketa and Yama. Najiketa asked for three bulls(?) from Yama:
1. To go to his father without dying.(?)
2. To have all kinds of wealth.
3 To know whether the ātma will die or not.

Then Yama told Najiketa: „You may ask to live in this world as long as you like. You may have all
kinds of wealth. but you should not ask the third one. But Najiketa asked about the third bull(?) again and again.
Then Yama gave brief explanation as follows:

»Na jayate mriyate va vipascit,

Nayam kutascitnababhuva kascit.
Ayo nityam sasvato yam purano,
Na hanyate hanyamane śarīre.«

The most famous concepts are Brahma world, Candra world, Aditya world, Gandharva world, space,
wind and water.

Anyway, Upaniṣadic thinkers have thought the Brāhmaṇ as the greatest religious stage. So during the
Candogya Upaniṣadic period, they said that everything what exists in this world is the Brāhmaṇ - »Sarvaṃ khalu
idaṃ brahma«. But the Brāhmaṇ cannot be seen by our eyes or knowledge and how he exists in the world cannot
be explained through our words. It can be experienced by one's individuality. He can be understood only through
meditation. In deed there is fulfilling the Brāhmaṇ in the world.

47
 ??? (UPANIṢADS AND BRĀHMAṆ)
??? world, the space world with the Ghandarva world, the Ghandarva world with the Aditya world.
Aditya world with the Chandra world, at the end whole thing has the relation with the Brahma
world. Accordin gto that whole world has the relation with the Brahman. Further Yajñavalka says
the state of the Brahman should not be questioned. It is difficult to explain. In this way the concept
of Brahman has developed and ultimately everything is Brahman, they said.
The word 'idam' has been used to denote any material which can be seen in the world.
Upaniṣadic thinkers thought it is the sole power of this world. Actual nature can't be explained
using the word, the language that is not developed much. It is beyond senses. We can't see, listen,
smell and touch. Therefore it is beyond our sense capacity. There is no suffix or prefix which can be
used. It goes faster than mind. It always goes beyond our senses.We do not have enough power to
empower it. It has bbeen considered as the originality of the entire thing. Therefore it is sole entity
in this world. Brahman is thoroughly existing (sat) and he doesn't exist (asat) have been used to
explain the Brahman. This explanation implied the Brahman inexplicable. According to Ceva
Upaniṣad it is said that Brahman doesn't come to eye. It doesn't come towards to the mind.
Therefore, the Upaniṣad says it is the entity which should be understood. By developing the mind
Brahman can be understood, says Atareya Upaniṣad. Upaniṣadic philosopher has made exertion to
explain the Brahman as eternal entity. It is among the people and unexplained.

48
 QUESTION: WHAT IS THE UNITY OF BRAHMAN AND ĀTMAN?

After accepting the truth of the person, they tried to understand the truth of universe by
comparing person with the great person of the universe. The universe has been compared to the
person, human being. They believed the respective limbs of the univers gave the birth of human
being. Upaniṣad thinkers tried to understand the things as it is which comes within the sense organ.
They did not divide the whole things into the pieces and tried to understand the things which
conceived all the things at once. When this idea was developed the Brahman concept came into
existence. Upaniṣadic thinkers first tried to understand the external world and through that they
entered to the human body and tried to understand the truth of human. After that they said that
thuman being meant the truth of the ātman and material world is the truth of the Brahman.
According to that truth of universe it is called jakata(?) ātman microcosm and the truth of the
human being is called brattiya(?) ātman macrocosm.
Aitareya Upaniṣad explains what the relationship in between Brahman and ātman is. It
further says the fire changes to speaking and enters to the person's mouth. The air changes to the
aspiration and enters human nose. The Sun changes to the eyesight and enters to the human being's
eyes. The direction changes to the power of listening and enters the ear of human being. Bushes and
glass come to the hair and enter the skin of human being. The Moon changes to the mind and enters
the heart of human being. When the person dies in the same way all the senses go to the respective
elements of the universe. For instance sound of the human being goes to the fire, aspiration to the
air, eyesight to the Sun, body to the Earth and so on. When they talk about the truth of individual
and world separately they could have seen it as a true thing, but when they talk about that formation
of ātman they could not know how it was formed from the universal ātman. Further they saw how
human body breaks up and the sense organs go to the universal ātman. Therefore they said the truth
of universe and human are not two truths but one. There is no second truth. All they spoke about the
wheel of the bull cart coming together to enter.(?) Likewise all the beings and all ātman come
together at the Brahman. Brahman as well as ātman is sole absolute truth of universe. Therefore,
none who realized it is the goal of the exertion. Upaniṣad teachers logically have said the truth of
the universe to be Brahman and truth of the bbeing to be ātman. Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad,
Mundaka Upaniṣad also had explained the quality of the Brahma. Svetaśavatra Upaniṣad informs
that Brahman is the first cause of the universe. Therefore, it should be considered as the sole aim
and goal. There is no other entity besides Brahman and ātman.

49
 BRAHMAN AND ĀTMAN
Someone knows the Brahman, truth, knowledge as infinite. He receives all aspiration. This
is how the Brahman concept has been explained in Vedic literature. In Aitareya Upaniṣad Brahman
and ātman have been explained as ānandaṃ or happiness. Furtehr it says human beings live with
happiness. After their death they will go to the happiness. Therefore, all the beings are generated
from happiness. This explains and implies they have considered the human beings to live with
happiness. The Brahman concept can be seen in the Atharvan Veda as well as in Brahmanic
literature. Once they said universal origination is from the Brahman concept. It was the imaginary
concept. Therefore, Vedic teaching has considered the Brahman as the praying.(?) They have seen
some powers included in the praying.(?)
In Brahmin period, they have attributed special power to the praying. Therefore, they could
consider there could be power of creation. They accepted this power of creation was the initiative
force for the whole creation. According to that truth of external world was considered as the
Brahman. They wanted to know absolute truth concerning the human beings. As a result of that
they accepted there is the truth of spirituality within the men as ātman. Brahman concept gradually
has been developed. This concept has been realized according to the understanding of the Brahmin
priest. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad it is explained as the water. Soucillir(?) it is explained as
ajuee(?) and sky(?). Someone identifies this concept as the Sun and Moon. In this way Upaniṣadic
thinkers have explained according to their own understanding. Aitareya Upaniṣad has mentioned
that Brahman as the fellow human being. From which human being gets birth, where he lives,
where he goes after his death is Brahman. Further they said all the material things are Brahman.
Bbut animate things can't bbe explained through inanimate things. Therefore they considered prāṇa
or life force as the Brahman. Without material body the being can't live but through the material
body the sacredness of life can't be explained. Therefore, life force was considered as the Brahman.
But they couldn't explain the reality of the life force. Mind or the knowledge of material thing is the
different entity. It is considered as a Brahman. But they accepted there would be important reality
than the mind.(?) They thought it as the knowledge. They tried to explain the absolute truth through
the consciousness. But they were not satisfied with such an explanation. Therefore, they believed in
ānanda or happiness as the absolute truth. Further Upaniṣadic teachers said that Brahman can't be
realized through the visual things. It is invisible entity. The Sun, the wind, which represent the
Brahman's existence, Brahman can't be explained. There are not enough words to explain his
existence. Whatever the words we use to explain the Brahman, everything is Brahman.
Further Kena Upaniṣad says that whatever exists beyond our thinking, seeing and listening,
it is Brahman. Brahman can't be seen. No one can enter it. One who purifies the knowledge and
purifies the mind, through that, Brahman can be seen. On ewho sees Brahman he wards off
happiness as well as sorrow.

»Tam durdaram gudamanu praviśṭam,

Guhahitam gahvareśṭam purāṇam.
Addhya mayogadhigamena devam,
Matva dhiro harśasokau jahati.«
(Kata Upaniṣad)

50
 Once there was a dialogue between Najiketa and Yama. There Najiketa asked about three
bulls from the Yama:
1. to go to his father without dying
2. to have all kinds of wealth
3. to know whether the ātman dies or not

Then Yama told Najiketa: „You may aks to live in this world as long as you like. You may
have all kinds of wealth. But you should not ask the third one. Then Najiketa again and again asked
about the third bull. Then Yama has given brief explanation as follows:
»Na jayate mriyate va vipascit,
Nayam kutascitnababhuva kascit,
Ajo nityam sasvato yam purāṇo,
Na hanyate hanyamane śarīre.«
Brahma world, Candra world, Aditya world, Gandharva world, Space, Wind, Water
Anyhow Upaniṣadic thinkers have thought that the Brahma was a stage which could be
aquired through some religious performances. This one has been considered as a great religious
stage. Therefore, at the Chāndogya Upaniṣadic period whatever the things exist in this world,
everything was considered as the Brahman: „Sarvaṃ khalu idaṃ brahma.“ Therfore, they claimed
that the Brahman could not be explained either externally or internally. It was immovable which
runned faster than mind. Always it went beyond the senses. According to Iṣa Upaniṣad Brahman
stayed near as well as afar, inside as well as outside. It lived in a secret life. It was the first cause.
All the beings couldn't understand it by worldly knowledge. It was the greatest thing which should
be understood as sat or asat. Our eye or world does not go to the Brahman; therefore no one can see
the Brahman. No one can explain the Brahman. It should be experienced individually. Brahman can
be understood through the meditation. Brahman pervades over the world.

51
 QUESTION: GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THEORY OF REALITY PRESENTED BY UPANIṢADIC THINKER (ORIGINAL BY VEN.
HUNNY)
In Upaniṣadic period the word Brahman had been used to denote the truth of the external
world. The word ātman had been used to denote the inner reality of a person. Upaniṣad
philosophers wanted to know what the ātman is. Some scholars say the word ātman is from the root
ann (meaning breathing).
In early period the word ātman had been used as the synonym of prāṇa. Which was
considered most important thing of being. Being was identified whether it was living or died
because of the prāṇa. Therefore, tman was considered as the prāṇa. Gradually various
interpretations had been given to the word ātman by Upaniṣadic thinkers, basically two
characteristics – permanency and sacredness.
According to the Chāndogya Upaniṣad at the very beginning the human body had been
considered as the ātman. When we go in front of the miror of water vessels we can see our
reflection there. Onece this reclection had been considered as the ātman.
But some Upaniṣadic thinkers did not like to understand this material body as the ātman and
rejected it. Material body is impermanent. At the end the body becomes ashes at the cemetery but
the ātman does not change or becomes ashes at death. By rejecting the concept of material body as
the ātman they believed it as the consciousness, which acted in the dream state. The person who
sees the dream is crippled, whereas in the dream he or she walks without having any deficiency.
Therefore, in this way the person is without deficiency. Acts in the dream state because of
the ātman. According to Bṛhadaranyaka Upaniṣad in the dream state there actually the things exist,
but all the things are imagination. The mind is the power of imagination. Therefore they understood
the power of imagination as the ātman. They believed the tman did not get impurity from the
defilements.
Therefore, the dream state was the state in which the ātman was activated. Further,
Upaniṣad mentioned that one sees the object and listens to the sound because of the ātman. Every
sensual contact can be made because of the ātman. Every sensual contact can be made because of
the ātman. Ātman is like a traveler.
And after death without being destroyed the ātman goes to another bobdy. With the ātman
this world and next world contacts together. It is like a bridge connecting this world and next world.
Finally Upaniṣadic thinkers say no one can touch and destroy this ātman. It is infinite. Only
one who practices meditation and purifies his mind can expreience the nature of ātman.

52
 ĀTMAN
The first Brahman has been used to denote the external word 'truth'. Ātman word then has
been used to denote the inner reality of person. What is ātman? Upaniṣadic philosopher wanted to
know. Scholars say that the word ātman is from the rood ann (meaning – breathing). In early beriod
the word ātman has been used as the synonym of prāṇa. prāṇa is considered most important thing
of being. Being is identified whether it is living or died become of the prāṇa. Therefore ātman was
considered as the prāṇa. Gradually various interpretations have been given to the word 'ātman'.
Basically two characteristics have been attributed to the ātman by Upaniṣadic thinkers:
1. Permanency of the ātman
2. Secretness of the ātman

Therefore the word 'sat' has been used by Upaniṣadic philosopher. According to the
Chāndogya Upaniṣad the very beginning the human body has been considered as the ātman. When
we go in front of the mirror or water vessels we can see our own reflection there. Once, this
reflection has been considered as the ātman. But some of the Upaniṣadic thinkers didn't like to say
this material body as the ātman. But some we see the dream on the basic of whatever we have seen
in awaken state. Some philosophers believe in the reality of the mind or original state of mind
would be seen in the dream state. Therefore, they believe that „human ātman is being explicit in the
dream state.“ According to Gṛhadaranyaka Upaniṣad those mentioned in the dream state, there is
no actually the thing exists but all the things are imagination. The mind is the power of imagination.
Therefore they said the power of imagination is the ātman. They believed the ātman does not get
impurity from the defilements. Therefore the dream state is the state which the ātman activated. If
the ātman is material body, then when we adorn the material body, ātman would be adorned. When
we ornament the material body the ātman would be also ornamented. When we purify the material
body ātman would be also purified. When the body is crippled, then ātman is also crippled. When
the body is dead the ātman would be also dead. When the body is destroyed the ātman would be
also destroyed. In that way the characteristics of body would be explicit in the tman if we believe
the body as the ātman. Therefore, Chāndogya Upaniṣadic thinkers rejected the body as the ātman.
Material body is impermanent. It gets ugly and decays when the time passes. At the end the body
becomes ashes at the cemetery but the ātman does not change or becomes ashes at the death.
Therefore formerly they rejected the concept of material body as the tman. By rejecting this they
believe as the ātman the consciousness which acts in the dream state. Chāndogya Upaniṣadic
thinkers say original state of the consciousness can be seen in the dream state. In that state though
the person who sees the dream is crippled in the dream state he walks without having any
deficiency. Therefore in this way the person without any deficiency acts in the dream state because
of the ātman. When Upaniṣadic thinkers tried to find out the truthness of human being they have
mentioned as follows:
???
Further Upaniṣads have mentioned because the ātman person keeps contact with external
world person.(?) He sees the object and he listens to the sound because of the ātman. Every sensual
contact can bbe made because of the ātman. According to Upaniṣad ātman is like ???
Aṭṭhakavagga of Suttanipāta emphasized that metaphysical speculations depend on the
consciousness. A person which has been formulated out of various capabilities of apprehension of

53
aperson.(?) The major ?ment(?) pertaining to metaphysical ground have been presented in a verse of
Suttanipāta in this way: „How can men abandon their own view which they cherish as they
organized them led by inclination and engrossed with theri likes. As they understand, so do they
speak.“ (Suttanipāta p. 781).
The soul theory which was defined as a psychic principle, different from body, is ephemeral
and subject to cahnge according to Buddha's teachings. Upaniṣadic thinkers regarded that soul is
supersensible. The identity of soul and body held by materialists who denied the survival of
personality after death would be verified through sensory and extra sensory experience according to
buddhist teachings. Buddhist teachings reveal nature of the saints(?) after death very clearly as that
position apprehended through extra sensory perception. According to Buddhist definition an
Arahant is unable to exist in any transcendental state because he has demolished all the craving
which cause rebirth. Anyway, the materialists denied the survival of Arahant as well as the ordinary
person after their death.
Although there are specific discourses concerning with the metaphysical speculation, the
Buddha was reluctant to answer those questions as they were of no use to get rid of the circle of
birth.
Reasoning without any empirical basis and conclusions on the metaphysical ground without
having direct knowledge to acquire the subject matters which are beyond the sensory perception are
the criticism on metaphysics in buddhist philosophical points of view. Anyway the saints(?) who
have developed super-cognitive ability are capable of apprehending the metaphysical concept. The
statements pertaining to metaphysical groun were regarded unsatisfactory, although they inspire
emotional feelings but meaningless(?). This has been understood as logical criticism of metaphysics
found in Buddhist texts. These statements were introduced as abbatihirakataṃ or nirattahakaṃ
(meaningless). These statements are regarded as meaningless because they are not verified in
experience. Sabba Sutta of the Saṅyutta Nikāya described this attitude in this way:
„Monks, I will teach you everything. Listen to it. What monks, is everything? Eye and material
form, ear and sound, nose and odour, tongue and taste, body and tangible objects, mind and mental
objects. These are called everything. O monks, he who would say – I will reject this everything – he
may certainly have a theory of his own, but when questioned he would not be ablbe to answer and
would moreover be subjected to vexation. Why? Because it would not be within the range of
experience.“ (Saṅyutta Nikāya, vol. VI, p. 15). Six spheres of experience corresponding to objects
are twelve gate-ways which are conducive to understand the visible ground of the world, but going
beyond these twelve gate-ways leads to conflicts and worry if one has not apprehended specific
visions which are helpful to perceive all the ground, physical or non-physical.
Superficial understanding of ordinary linguistic usage is also conducive to misinterpretation
of some concept. According to Cūlamaluṅkyaputta Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya), it has given solution
to undeclared (unanswered) questions leading to well being and does not contribute to the higher
religious life to renunciation, dispassion, cessation, pacification, insight, enlightenment or Nibbāna.
In the conclusion the origina nd extent of the universe, the nature of the soul or self and the
state of the saints(?) after birth have been categorized in the grounds of metaphysics. Mahāyāna
speculation regarding the Buddha and absolute are also included in this field.

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 CONCEPT OF ĀTMAN

This is a concept devleoped by the Upaniṣadic teachers who taught monism. Being dissatisfied
with the Vedic theism and belief in sacrifice, they began to search for the true source of everything.
Striving through the Aranyaka period these Brahmin teachers in the period of Upaniṣad finally arrived
on the belief that the final source of everything is a „universal principle.“ This they called the
'Brahman'.
This is a metaphysical concept. Brahman is permanent and indestructible. It is the womb, the
matrix of everything. They conceived that everything that came of it was this Brahman.(?) There is a
little essence of it. So, in the undivided they believed that there is this essence of Brahma – the universal
soul. This essence in the individual, they called ātman – the individual soul.
According to them, this ātman is just the Brahman, in a miniature form: just metaphysical,
permanent and indestructible like the Brahman. According to them the understanding of the identify(?)
of ātman-Brahman is the supreme knowledge that gives freedom. So, they strove to attain this
knowledge through atthakilamatthānuyoga.

SOUL THEORY (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. MEDANANDA)

In many religions and philosophies the immaterial elements that, together with the material
body, constitutes the human individual. In general, the soul is conceived as an inner, vital and spiritual
principle, the source of all bodily functions and particularly of mental activities. Belief, that some kind
of soul can exist apart from the body is found in all known cultures.
Buddhism is a unique religion in that it teaches that the individual soul an illusion produced by
physical and psychological influences. Early Judaism made no sharp distinction between body and soul,
but by the middle ages (from 5th to 15th century) Jews considered the soul capable of surviving bodily
decay. Most Christians believe that each individual has an immortal soul and that the human soul and
resurrected body be granted with presence near the God in the afterlife. In Islam, according to the
Koran, God breathed the soul in the first human being and at death the soul of faithfuls are brought near
to God.
The philosophical Hindu writings, the Upaniṣads, identify the individual soul as divine. The
word ātman is found in the earliest Vedic hymns (verses). The derivation (coming from) of the word is
uncertain. It is something's held to have meant 'breath' at Hal(?) already acquired a more special
meaning.(?) It is the breath in the sense of life. And then the Sun is called the ātman of all that moves
and stands. The coming meaning is that of self a used with which is still found in the modern Indian
language. These meanings were properly, not distinctly separated. This life or self was something which
could have the body. Such as it is spoken of in the Rigveda, is as (manas).(?) Such conceptions coming
sown from what are called primitive times and continue in the Upaniṣadic.(?) It may have leaved the
body in sleep. Therefore let not wake him suddenly for heart is the healing of one to whom he doesn't
return Barhadharanik Upaniṣadic.(?)
So the sould theory is mentioned with various meanings by some scholars in the concepts of
religion.

55
 QUESTION: HOW THE CONCEPT OF ĀTMAN (SELF) VARIED IN HINDU RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION?
In India, Hinduism is the oldest religion. One of the great affirmations that all Hindu make is
that the transformation of human consciousness into divine consciousness, cannot be done a single
life-span.(?) It is not possible in one life time to make manš soul called ātman by Hindus. One with
reality which was the Hindu called Brāhman.(?) The repeated passing or transmigration of souls
through this world is meant by Saṅsāra.
Here I would like to present the concept of ātman. In India speculations regarding ātman are
from Vedic period – they took a final shape in Upaniṣads, which ever since remained fundamental
in Indian thought. Therefore, the word ‘ātman’ originally means ‘life-breath’ and gradually
acquired the meaning of feeling, mind and soul. In an old verse, the ātman means ‘that which
pervades all’, which is the subject and which knows, experience and illuminates the object and
which remains immortal without changing and always the same.
Hinduism considers two philosophies as mentioned above – ātman and Brāhman. According
to Hinduism the realization of the reality is the Mokṣa through this doctrine. Hindu philosophers
were interpreting both human being and universe. Ātman, the self, is the absolute reality of an
individual. Western philosopher called it as ‘microcosmos’. According to Bhagavadgīta it is said
that ātman is eternal, divine, changeless and everlasting.
But Mundaka refers that the fire is its head, the moon and the sun are its eyes, the four
quarters of the sky its ears, the Vedas are its speech, the wind is its breath and the universe is its
heart. The ātman is the eminent self of all beings and the transcendental background of both self
and non-self. None can doubt its reality. We have seen the ātman as the subjective side.
At the beginning of Vedic period there were some views regarding ātman as a human body,
some believed that ātman is the shadow of the man and the life, the mind the consciousness and the
self.(?) This evolution of concept of ātman concluded with realization that the ātman is the subtle
body in the human being. In the Saṅyutta Nikāya it is stated that the world is empty of a self or of
anything of the nature of a self.
The Buddha explained to Ānanda what is emptiness of self: „What is empty, Ānanda, of a
self or of anything of nature of a self? And what is related to mind? All these are void of a self or of
anything that is self-like.“
In the same way Buddha clearly explained that to believe in an eternal self is like a man
who fell in love with the most beautiful maiden in a country though he has never seen her. It means
the theory of eternal self or ātman is a misconception.
According to Hinduism, everything originated from the ‘universal self’ (viśva ātman) which
resides in every individual, so it is called ‘individual self’ (puggala ātman). Sometimes the
universal self is called Brāhman. The viśva ātman and puggala ātman are permanent. They arise
from life to life. To attain emancipation, one should practice self-mortification and realize viśva
ātman and puggala ātman. They are known as ‘eternalistic’.
According to Śramaṇa group, the ātman is not permanent and gets destroyed at the death of
body. There is no next life in their teaching. Therefore, one should enjoy this life as much as
possible. They are known as ‘materialists’.

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 BEING & THE WORLD

In Vedic period people used to solve all the problems with the help of Brahman and ātman.
They thought that world was created by Brahman. It was goverend by Īśvara and destroyed by
Īśvara. Besides that there were some other thinkers who believed that the world existed
permanently. It didn't face to any change, they were thinking as eternalists. There were
annihilationsists who believed that the world was impermanent and it would change. Meanwhile
there were determinists who claimed the destiny of being and the existence of the world to be
unchanged by anyone but to flow forward due to the accepted systematic way. Buddhism rejected
the conceptions of annihilationsists, eternalists and determinists. We can see two words which have
been used as synonyms for world in early Buddhist literature – that of suburb(?) and the Dhamma.
What is world, why we call it as world, what are the reasons according to Buddhism_ We call it
world because it is subjected to change and break. According to Buddhism what(?) things have been
considered as the breakable and breakable things in Saṅyutta Nikāya it is explained as the breakable
things the eyes, form and the other senses and sense objects: »O Bhikkhus, the eyes are destroyed.
The form is also destroyed. Eyes consciousness is also destroyed. Eyes contact is also destroyed.
The feeling which is generated from contact is also destroyed. This is the world according to
Buddhism.“

57
 SIX RELIGIOUS TEACHERS IN THE SIXTH CENTURY BC

There were two religious traditions at the time of rise of Buddhism. These were Śramaṇa
and Brāhmaṇa. Both seemed to be of equal antiquity. Brāhmaṇa tradition goes back to Vedas and
the Śramaṇa can be traced to Indian culture. These were two opposing traditions. The Śramaṇa
tradition was represented by six teachers:
1) Ajita Kesakambala - He was the woe(?) known materialist in the Indian tradition and Cāruaka
system, perhaps represents his tradition. He was an amoralist.
2) Sañjaya Bellatthaputta - Though the Buddhist texts refer to him as a 'fool', he was a well-
known sceptic, who was not ready to give absolute answers, because he held that human knowledge
was limited.
3) Makkhalī Gosāla - He was an extreme fatalist who denied human effort and action and resigned
to fate and allowed fate to bring about salvation.
4) Pakudha Kaccāyana - He was an amoralist who came up with a theory of the being constituted
by seven elements: earth, water, fire, air, happiness, suffering and life (jīva). These constituents had
to be permanent and hence not destructible. Therefore there could not be neither killing nor a killer
etc.; hence he denied māras.
5) Pūrana Kassapa was also an amoralist who preached non-causation, and hence he was akiriya-
vādin.
6) Mahāvīra or Nigantha Nātaputta was the leader of Jainism. A teacher of extreme non-violence.
Believed in soul (jīva), and maintained that soul was in bondage due to being tainted by karma. To
release the soul one had to stop all karma for this it was necessary to undergo consequences for past
karma, and stopping collecting new karma. The practice he suggested was sever ascetic practice to
expiate all previous karma. He was a moralist and also an extremist.

The above account makes it very clear that the Śramaṇa tradition was a very complex one
ranging from utter materialism to total skepticism. This wide range of religious beliefs made people
become perplexed and confused. The Kālāma sutta shows this plight of the people. Some advocated
complete indulgence in sensual enjoyment and others total abstinence from it. The attempt by the
Jains to mix these two extremes, further completed the situation. Materialists rejected all ethical
norms and moral standards, Jains went to the extreme in emphasizing them and making normal
living difficult.
The fatalists made people to give up all hopes while skeptics prompted people to go away
from religion. It was in such a confused background that Śramaṇa Gotama came up with his novel
approach to man's predicament – dukkha. He said that dukkha and sukha were both within man, and
that by changing man's thinking, attitudes, approach to life one could live a contented life. That was
totally a new approach to the problem of dukkha, and the people accepted it as more pragmatic and
beneficial.

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 SĀMAÑÑAPHALA SUTTA + SIX THINKERS OR TEACHERS3

Nigaṇṭhanātaputta was the founder of Jainism, who thought the extremist doctrine which lenth(?) some
regerslee(?) religious practices; example:
1. Not to kill living beings.
2. Not to take article of use unless they are given.
3. Not to tell a lie.
These were common to the schools of Jainism. In addition to these, they lead(?) life(?) self(?) but some Jains
live with their family. According to Janism they believed the result of all actions can be good or bad according to
previous conditions. In Sāmaññaphala sutta, Nigaṇṭhanāthaputta is mentioned as having held the doctrine of four-fold
restraint:
1. Absolute(?) by all water
2. Conjoined with all water
3. Cleaned by all water
4. Suffused with all waters
In the Udapādhi Sīhānanda sutta these practices are appeal(?) Jainism is(?) the philosophy but its based on
soul theory.(?) They thought that all the actions, good or bad, should be finalised by having results - »phussa phussa
byati karoti«.
The next important contemporary of the Buddha was Makkhalighosala. He belonged to the set of Acelakas
or Nekhepa. First part of his name indicates that he carried a staff of bamboo. It is said that he was a certain time a
disciple of Mahāvīra, but later broke away from him. Afterwads he probably founded a school. The doctrine adopted
by him was saṃsāravisuddhivāda, the doctrine of altering purity only while passing through all kinds of existence.

Ghosala didn't believe that there was any special course or either misery of human being or one's deliverance.
He didn't believe in human effort and held that all creators were helpless against destiny. He mentioned that all creators
whether wise or foolish would destroy their misery and accomplish the existence in the circle of saṃsāra. No human
effort would reduce or lengthen this period, like a ball, the saṃsāra has a fixed form.
The remaining four teachers who are mentioned were living during the Buddha's time and also taught some
heretical religious teachings.

Pūranakassapa was a religious teacher, who held the doctrine of akiriyavāda, or non-action. he mentioned
that a man didn't incur sin through actions which were popularly known as killing, committing adultery or telling a lie.
Similarly, according to him, one can't earn a merit through a good action or by staying on the another, South bank of
Ganges, similarly self-control, gif and truth-fullness thus didn't earn merits.(?) his teachings were similar to malerism(?)
which were religious(?) to ethical teachings.

Ajita Kesakambala was another religious teacher at that time, who also didn't believe in the utility of giving,
sacrifice, good or bad actions, existence of heavenly world or person possessing supernatural powers.4 He thought that
the body consisted of four elements into which it dissolved after death, not having any rebirth. He also thought both the
wise and ignorant die and have no further life after death. his ideas were similarly to the character of ideas classified as
ucchedavada (nihilistic).

Pakuddha Kaccāyana was probably a teacher, who taught asalakavāda. According to his idea, there were 7
elements, which were innutibable/indescribable(?) and didn't in any way contribute to pleasure or pain. The body would
be finally dissolved into these 7 elements.

The last one among these teachers was Sañjāya Bellatthaputta. His doctrine was known as vikkhepavāda, or
„a skeptical doctrine“ (saṃsayavāda). Whatever question one would ask, he would not answer as he thought that the
answer might reveal his ignorance.

3 The four-fold restraint of Jains is taken from the following lecture - „Philosophies of six teachers, the
contemporaries of the Buddha“ lectured by ven. Sīlavaṁsa and written by ven. Medananda. The original four-fold
restraint of this particular lecture was incomplete and totally wrong.
4 I do not know about this. According to my knowledge, he just didn't believe in existence of a recluse or a Brahmin,
who would have reached the highest point (Nibbāna) - »natthi loke samaṇabrāhmaṇā sammaggatā
sammāpaṭipannā«.

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 PHILOSOPHIES OF SIX TEACHERS, THE CONTEMPORARIES OF THE BUDDHA (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA)

At the time of the Buddha, there were six teachers who were contemporary of the Buddha. Their views were mentioned
in Sāmaññaphala sutta (Dīgha nikāya).
The first one was Pūranakassapa, who taught the doctrine of akiriyavāda (non-action). Pūranakassapa taught that „in
acting or getting others to act, in mutilating or getting others to mutilate, in torturing or getting other to torture, in inflicting sorrow or
getting others to inflict sorrow, in tormenting or getting others to torment, in intimidating or getting others to intimidate, in taking
life, taking what is not given, breaking into houses, plundering wealth, committing burglary, abusing high ways(?), committing
adultery, speaking falsehood – one does no evil.
If with an orzo(?)-edged disk one were to turn all the living beings on this earth to a single heap of flesh, a single pile of
flesh, there would be no evil from that cause, no coming of evil.
Even if one were to go along the right bank of Ganges, killing and getting others to kill, mutilating and getting others to
mutilate, torturing and getting others to torture, there would be no evil from that cause, no coming of evil. Through generosity, self-
control, restraint, and truthful speech there is no merit from that cause, no coming merit.

The second one was Makkhalī Ghosala, who taught the doctrine of purification through wandering on. He taught that
there is no cause, no requisite condition, for the defilement of beings. Beings are delighted without cause, without requisite condition.
There is nothing self-caused, nothing other-caused, and nothing human-caused. There is no strength, no effort, no human energy, no
human endeavor. All living beings, all life, all beings, all souls are powerless, devoied of strength, devoid of effort. Subject to the
change of fate, serendipity, and nature, they are sensitive to pleasure and pain in the six great closes(?) of birth.

The third one was Ajita Kesakambala, who taught the doctrine of annihilation. he taught that there is nothing given,
nothing offered, nothing sacrificed. There is no fruit or result of good or bad action. There is nor this world, neither next world, no
mother, no father, no spontaneously reborn beings, no priests or contemplatives (who, firing(?) rightly and practicing rightly,
proclaim this world and the next after having directly known and realized it for themselves. A person is a composite of four primary
elements.) At death, the earth (in the body) returns to and merges with (the external) earth-substance.

The fourth one was Pakudha Kaccāyana, who taught the doctrine of relatedness. he taught that there are these seven
substances, unmade, irreducible, uncreated, without a creator, barre, stable, that do not after/alter(?), do not change, do not change,
do not interfere with another pleasure, pain or both pleasure and pain. Which seven?
1. Earth substance 5. Pleasure
2. Liquid substance 6. Pain
3. Fire substance 7. Soul
4. Wind substance

The fifth teacher was Nigaṇṭhanāthaputta, one of the founders of Jainism, who taught the extreme doctrine of the four-
fold restraint. he taught that there was the case where the nigaṇṭha – the knotless one – was restrained by that four-fold restraint. And
how is the nigaṇṭha restrained with the four-fold restraint?
1. There is the case, where the nigaṇṭha is absolute(?) by all water
2. Conjoined with all water
3. Cleaned by all water
4. Suffused with all waters

This is how the nigaṇṭha is restrained with the four-fold restraint. When a nigaṇṭha, a knotless one, is restrained with such
a four-fold restraint, he is said to be a knotless one (nigaṇṭha), a son of Nat (Nātaputta), with that his self is perfect, controlled and
established.
The last one was Sañjaya Bellaṭṭhiputta, who taught the doctrine of evasion (vikkhepavāda). He taught in this way:

„If you ask me whether there exists another world (after death), if I taught that there exists another world, would I declare it
to you? I don't think so. I don't think that way. I don't think otherwise. I don't think not. I don't think not not.
„If you ask me whether there is, whether there isn't another world, bot is and isn't, neither is nor isn't; whether there are
beings who transmigrate, whether there aren't, both are and aren't, neither are nor aren't, whether the Tathāgata exists after death,
whether he doesn't, both neither exists nor not exists after death,5 would I declare that to you? I don't think so. I don't think that way. I
don't think otherwise. I don't think not. I don't think not not.
All above are mentioned in Sāmaññaphala sutta in Dīgha nikāya.

5 Actually, the Budda also didn't answer that question. The difference between the Buddha's answer and Bellaṭṭhiputta's answer is, that the
Buddha claimed the answer could not be understood by not-enlightened people, whereas Bellaṭṭhiputta did not point out anything like that.

60
 THE SIX IMPORTANT INDIAN HERETICAL TEACHERS (NOT COMPLETED)
In India, during the period of the 6th century B.C. There was a large number of teachers who
presented different religions and philosophies. Some of them are known to us through Buddhist and Jain
literature and some are not known. There were six famous śramaṇa or heretic teachers well known to
us:
1. Ajita Kesakambalī
2. Makkhalī Ghosāla
3. Purāṇa Kassapa
4. Pakuddha Kaccāyana
5. Nigaṇṭha Nataputta
6. Sañjaya Bellaṭhiputta
According to Ajita Kesakambalī, the idnividual is made of four great elements. He rejected the
belief in the other world. Thus he maintained ucchedavāda. He is known to have advocated ten views
which according to Bbuddhism are called micchā diṭṭhi (wrong view), namely:
1. no alms (natthi dinnaṃ)
2. no sacrifice (natthi yiṭṭhaṃ)
3. no prayer (natthi hutaṃ)
4. no efficacy of action (natthi sukata dukkatānaṃ phalaṃ vipāka)
5. no this world (natthi loko)
6. no other world (natthi paraloko)
7. no mother (natthi mātā)
8. no father (natthi pitāro)
9. no beings who have spontaneous birth (natthi opapātikā)
10. no samaṇa and Brāhmaṇa who understood through their direct knowledge and explained this world
and the other world (natthi loke samaṇabrāhmaṇā sammaggatā sammāpaṭippannā ye imañ ca lokaṃ
parañ ca lokaṃ sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedenti)
He rejected the authority of samaṇa and Brāhmaṇa. According to Buddhists these are the ten
micchā-diṭṭhi attributed to Ajita Kesakambalī. Salvation comes with death. Any person whether he or
she is wise or foolish will die. After death he or she is no more in the world, so, he or she will be free
from all difficulties, with death he or she attains salvatiíon. The attitude of Ajita Kesakambalī towards
society will be in terms of materialism. He will accept only social value, not religious value. For the
simple reason he does not take religion to guide his life.
According to Makkhalī Ghosāla people need not to attempt to attain salvation. It comes
automatically if one leads the number of life destined to one. People are believed to lead a certain
number of lives, they need not to try to change it. They cannot change it too. If you follow the number
of lives destined by destiny (niyanti) you will attain salvation. That is called saṅsāra suddhiṃ, which
means purification is attained by going through saṅsāra. This religious philosophy is called saṅsāra
suddhivāda (salvation by transmigration). This philosophy implied that there is no use of human effort.
He says »natthi attakāra natthi purisakāra.« Philosophically this means Makkhalī Ghosāla has denied
free-will. This means man has no place.(?) He is just a tool. Makkhalī Ghosāla’s attitude towards

61
society is that man is a product of destiny, he can neither change himself nor change the outside society.
He is just an instrument of fate.
Pūraṇa Kassapa taught that there is no effect of any deed, therefore his teaching is known as
akiriyavāda. He describbed this pointing out that any action good and evil does not produce any result
done in the upper part of the Ganges or the lower part of Ganges as those deeds don’t have any effect.
he rejected dāna (charity), self-restraint (sanyama) and speaking truth towards society. The reason is not
given. The religious value like dāna, sanyama and sacca vajja, which have social significance were
rejected by him. He did not want his disciples to follow kiriyavāda, moral action. The soul is not
involved in what people do.
Pakudha Kaccāyana advocated a theory of kāya (group, which included seven groups, namely:
paṭhavī (earth), āpo (water), tejo (fire), vāyo (wind), sukha (happiness), dukkha (pain) and jīva (soul).
According to him everything is made out of these seven groups depending on their nature. Using this
philosoophy he said when a person kills a man, no one is killing aperson or taking life out of that
person, but what happens is that the weapon (sattha), which is made out of seven elements passed
through that human being who is also made out of those seven elements. This shows that his attitude
towards society is quite different from that of other religious teachers. He interpreted man and his action
in terms of elements. Therefore, his thinking is a kind of mechanism. Man does not need to pay
attention to religious and social values.
Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta is known in the Jaina tradition as Mahāvīra. He taught that life is
sorrowful and one must put an end to this life by following the path of austerity. Bbuddhism does not
accept that position. In the very first discourse the Buddha criticized that and treated it as an extreme
and called it atthakilamathānuyoga as a way of self-mortification. Mahāvīra believed in the existence
of soul not only in living beings but also in plants’ life and dead matter (animate and inanimate).
Therefore, his disciples have been asked to follow certain rules not to disturb the soul lying inside of
those things. They had developed a subtle philosophy. Their logic is called a theory of relativity because
they believed in relativity. Their daily activities, they made it a point not to disturbb them.(?) They were
against killing and also against any type of war. For this reason laity also has to follow a very strict code
of discipline. The discipline of Mahāvīra approved the observance of five precepts. When someone
follows these precepts he would be opposed to the attitude of Pūraṇa Kassapa, Pakudha Kaccāyana
and Ajita Kesakambalī.
Sañjaya Bellaṭṭhiputta like Pyrrho raised skepticism to a scientific doctrine and thus prepared
the way for a critical method of investigation in philosophy. First Buddha says: „there is a school of
thinkers, who are eel-wrigglers (amarā-vikkhepikas). When they are asked a question on this or that,
they equivocate and wriggle like an eel (or slip through like quick-silver).“ Sañjaya Bellaṭṭhiputta
believed in moral conduct, which might be good and bad. For everything he gave skeptical answers. He
declared his philosophy to be that we neither know the good (kusala) nor the evil (akusala), as it really
is. In such case, if we make a positive declaration either with regard to good or to evil, we may be led
away by conceit or pride or be influenced by ill-will and resentment. Under these conditions we may be
proved wrong (musā) and that may cause us the pain of remorse and ultimately a hindrance to the ???

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 AJITA KESAKAMBALĪ

Among the six well-known teachers during the sixth century B.C., except the Buddha, Ajita was
one of the best known as materialistic teacher. Ajita was his personal name as he used to wear his cloth
which he used to prepare his hair style. Thus he was named Ajita Kesakambalī.
Ajita Kesakambalī was the elder contemporary of the Buddha. He was the theacher who
completely rejected all the important teachings of Brahmaṇas known such as severe ascetic practices
(attakilamathānuyoga), sacrifice, offering food to the dead, as future life and so on. He did not believe in the
Brahmaṇic view that the body and the would would be different (aññaṃ jīvaṃ aññaṃ sarīraṃ). He argued
against the belief in individual soul and univesal soul, the bbelief in Supreme God.
Ajita Kesakambalī was the historical founder of the Indian materialism. He held the view that one
should have enjoyed excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures (kāmasukhallikānuyoga). He said that the
soul also get destroyed at the destruction of the body at death. Why should one give pain to the body and
suffer? So, he argued that the best thing is to enjoy these sensual pleasures during the life time, otherwise one
would regret at the time of death. In the Sāmaññaphala Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya it is recorded that the
human bbeing is composed of four great elements, and when one dies the earth part reverts to earth, the
water part to water, the fire part to fire,, the air part to air, and all faculties part away into space. Therefore
Ajita can be considered as materialist, Ucchedavādin.
He was known to have advocated ten views which according to Buddhism are called micchā diṭṭhi
(wrong views), namely:
1. Natthi dinnaṃ (no alms)
2. Natthi yiṭṭhaṃ (no sacrifice)
3. Natthi hutaṃ (no prayer)
4. Natthi sukata dukkatānaṃ phalaṃ vipāka (no efficacy of action)
5. Natthi loko (no this world)
6. Natthi paraloko (no other world)
7. Natthi mātā (no mother)
8. Natthi pitāro (no father)
9. Natthi opapātikā (no beings who have spontaneous birth)
10. Natthi loke samaṇabrahmaṇā sammaggatā sammāpaṭippanna ye imañ ca lokaṃ parañ ca lokaṃ
sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedenti. (no samaṇa and brahmaṇa who understood through their
direct knowledge and explained this world and the other world)

According to his philosophy ethical behavior has become fruitless one, the world and the beings are
beings controlled by the accpeting natural systematical way, therefore he can be identified as the determinist.
Kamma and its result have been rejected by Ajita, therefore we can say he was non-activist (kāyasabveda
uchijanti vinassanti nahanti paraṃ parā). There is no any being after one's death. Everything will finish with
the death or on the dissolution of the body are cut off, therefore Ajita can be considered as a nihilist.

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 AJITA KESAKAMBALĪ (SEPTEMBER 2006)

There were several teachers who presented different religions and philosophies during the
period of the sixth century BC in India. Some of them are known to us through Buddhist and Jainist.
Literatures and some are not known. There are six famous śramaṇa or heretic teachers who were
contamporary to the Buddha. Of these, in the Sāmaññaphala sutta of Dīghanikāya, the teachings
of Ajita Kesakambala is described as follows:

„There is no such thing, as alms or sacrifice or offering - »natthi dinnaṃ, natthi

vitthaṃ, natthi hutaṃ). There is neither fruit nor result of good or evil deeds - »natthi
sukatadukkatānaṃ kammānaṃ phalam vipāko«. There is no such thing as this world or the
next - »natthi ayaṃ loko, natthi paro loko«. There is neither father nor mother - »natthi pitā,
natthi mātā«, nor beings springing into life without them - »natthi sattā opapātikā«. There
are in the world no recluses or Brāhmaṇs who have reached the highest point - »natthi loke
samaṇabrāhmaṇā sammaggatā sammāpaṭipanā«, who walk perfectly, and who having
understood and realised, by themselves alone, both this world and the next, make their
wisdom known to others.

A human being is built up of the four elements (satumahābhūtiko). When he dies the
earthy in him returns and relapses to the earth, the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire, the
windy to the air and his faculties pass into space. The four bearers, on the bier(?) as a fifth,
take his dead body away; till they reach the burning – ground men utter forth eulogies, but
there his bones are bleached, and his offerings end in ashes.

It is a doctrine of fools, this talk of gifts. It is an empty lie, mere idle talk, when men
say there is profit therein. Fools and wise alike, on the dissolution of the body, are cut off,
annihilated, and after death they are not - »na honti paraṃ maranaṃ«.

Ajita Kesakambala's view is called natthikadiṭṭhi, which means the view that regards that
there is nothing at all; there are no such things as we call them. This view can also be called
uccheda-diṭṭhi, or nihilistic view, since it holds that everything absolutely ends at one's death.

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 SELF-INDULGENCE AND MATERIALISM

Self-indulgence is one of the paths, which have been followed in the sixth century BC in
India.

»Manussa sukhakama dukkhapatikula.«

Human beings are naturally eager to experience the sense plasure and they reject to
experience the suffering.
In the Dhammacakka sutta has been explained as »hīno, gammo, pothujjaniko, anariyo,
anattasaṁhito«. The discipline, which can be seen in religious path, can not be seen in the self-
indulgence.
According to Dhammasammadhāna sutta some Brāhmaṇas believed there is nothing wrong
in sense-enjoyment and accepting that view they experienced it. As a result of that they themseves
got birth in a lower world.
The Buddha has explained the danger of self-indulgence in Nivana sutta. There were some
religious teachers who believed: »Natthi kamesu toso.« Contemporary to the Buddha was a
materialistic teacher, Ajitakesakambala, who believed that everything would finish with death.
Therefore whatever can be experienced sensually it should be experienced as much as possible in
this world itself.
The Carvaka philosohy which is belonging to the Lokayathavāda is the most important
philosophy discussing the self-indulgence. They said as long as one lives one should lead a happy
life and experience self-indulgence as much as possible. After the death the body is burnt down.
The body becomes ash, then how is it possible to get birth again. Therefore one should lead as long
as one lives a life in happiness in the world.
They had rejected the ascetic practices and they had accepted body and the ātman as one
unit. They didn't follow asceticism for they believed that as there was no next world, it would be
useless to follow asceticism resulting only in weakening the body. Consciousness was also result.(?)
Further they explain betel leafs, nuts, tobacco and lime – when they are chewed together they
become red. The red color is the new color which did not exist previously. In the same way pathavī,
āpo, tejo, vayo become together an extra power which did not exist previously.
The Carvaka further said: „when we live in this world we are to undergo some difficulties;
we have to face various kinds of unexpected difficulties and suffering, which discard the happiness
that can be experienced in this life.“ It is a foolish idea. Therefore one should not think about the
suffering and try to find the way to experience the self-indulgence.
The Carvaka philosophy has been discussed in Lokayata philosophy. According to Carvaka
philosophy the death is the ultimate freedom. The sole aim of the life is the experience of Self-
indulgence.

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QUESTION: TEACHING OF THE LOKĀYATAVĀDA DETERIORATES ETHICAL AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
AND THE SOCIETY. DISCUSS.

The word ‘lokāyatavāda’ means in English well known term ‘materialism’, which was discovered by the
Cārvaka philosophy during the 6th century B.C. in India by arisen(?) their(?) parts(?).
Self-indulgence is one of the Lokāyatavāda’s paths. According to self-indulgence’s point of view human
beings are naturally eager to experience the sense pleasure and they reject to experience suffering.
According to philosophy it can be discussed under epistemology, cosmology(?) and ethics.
Lokāyatavāda’s achieved the knowledge is sense experience. There is nothing existing which cannot be
experienced taking the account of materialism. The mind is not a sense organ. It is a by-rpoduct of composite
body of great elements and doubt the knowledge even the influence, which can be get through the inference.(?)
materialists considered that within alive position human being could develop their individual spirituality.
After the death there would be nothing, which does not need to be achieved by any effort. That is why they
rejected importance of being recluse or Brahmin who would have reached the highest point, who would walk
perfectly and who would have understood and realized themselves alone.
A human being benefits out of four great elements. When one dies his earth aspect returns to the earth,
fluid to the water, heat to the fire and wind to the air and its faculties pass into space. The four bearers(?) on the
bier(?) as a fifth take his dead body away.(?) The view of self-indulgence explained by Lokāyatavāda is worldly
pleasure. They claimed that as long as one lives he or she should live a happy life as much as possible.
Abbove the discussion is the main reason it has developed and accepted the best among the practices.(?)
Therefore, one should not think about the suffering and try to find the way to experience the Lokāyatavāda. The
philosophy of Cārvaka point of view is that the death is ultimate freedom. The sole aim of this is the experience of
Lokāyatavāda.

QUESTION: EXPLAIN UCCHEDAVĀDA (NIHILISM) IN RELATION TO KĀMASUKHALLIKĀNUYOGA (SELF-INDULGENCE) AND

SASSATAVĀDA (ETERNALISM) IN RELATION TO ATTAKILAMATHĀNUYOGA (SELF-MORTIFICATION).

During the Buddha's time two of the most prevalent religious teachings were nihilism and eternalism.
Nihilism was preached by the materialist teachers of the Śramaṇa tradition. According to them the body and the
soul are same (taṃ jīvaṃ taṃ sarīraṃ) and when the body gets destroyed at death the soul, too, gets destroyed and
everything, the whole existence comes to an end with that.
Based on this philosophy they rejected the belief in rebirth, moral action and its consequences. They said
that the best practice to follow is to enjoy sensual pleasure to the maximum possibility. They said that if one fails
to do this he would have to repent when death comes, lamenting that he did not enjoy life to the full. To them
there was only this life, and this life should be used to enjoy five sensual desires till one dies and gets destroyed at
death.
Opposed to this the Sassatavādins or the eternalists believed in next life, kamma and vipāka etc. They
held that there is a permanent soul going from life to life and that soul is different from the body (aññaṃ jīvaṃ
aññaṃ sarīraṃ). This soul is imprisoned in the body. Their view was that to release their individual soul (ātman)
in order to make it united with the Universal Soul (Brahman), one should give pain to the body by practice of self-
mortification (attakilamathānuyoga). This is the practice followed by Upaniṣadic teachers and the Jains. By
practicing severe ascetic practices and developing meditation, they said that one could obtain the knowledge
regarding the identity of ātman and Brāhman. This according to them is freedom.
Buddhism considers these two philosophies and practices based on them as extremes (anta). It rejects
them and puts forward dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) as its philosophy and the Noble Eightfold Path
(ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga) also called Middle Path (majjhima paṭipadā) as its practice.

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QUESTION: ELUCIDATE THE DETERMINISTIC THEORY EXISTING DURING THE TIME OF THE BUDDHA AND EXPLAIN HOW
BUDDHISM CRITICIZED THIS THEORY.
In India, during the period of the 6th century B.C. there was a large number of teachers who
presented different religions and philosophies. Apart from the teachers of the Vedas, the
Brahmaṇas and the Upaniṣads, there were in India also other thinkers who had their own views on
the theory of ātman. Some of them were contemporaries of the Buddha and some of them were his
predecessors. Here an attempt will be made to give some ideas about their basic conceptions.
Among the six well known teachers during the 6th century B.C. except the Buddha,
Makkhalī Ghosāla is best known as the third or last tīrthankara or the Ājīvika school. He was a
predecessor of Mahāvīra by sixteen years and spent his whole life in biological(?) researches. The
tender regard which he showed for every form of life was a natural outcome of his philosophical
doctrine.
It appears from the edicts of Asoka and the Mahābhāṣya, Patañjalī’s commentary on
Pāninī, that Ghosāla’s school survived after him and his followers were knwon as the Maskarins or
Makkhalīs. According to Makkhalī Ghosāla people need not attempt to attain salvation. It comes
automatically if one leads the number of life destined to one.
People believed to lead a certain number of lives – they need not to try to change it. They
cannot change it as well. If one follows the number of lives destined by destiny (niyanti) one will
attain salvation. That is called Saṅsāra Suddhiṃ, which means that purification is attained by going
through Saṅsāra. This religious philosophy is called Saṅsāra Suddhivāda (salvation by
transmigration).
This philosophy implied that there is no use of human effort. He says: natthi attakara natthi
purisakara. Philosophically this means that Makkhalī Ghosāla has denied free-will. This means
that man has no place(?). he is just a tool. Makkhalī Ghosāla’s attitude towards society was that
the man was a product of destiny – he can neither change himself nor change the outside society.
He is just an instrument of fate.
But Buddhism criticized these philosophies and practices based on them as the wrong view.
It rejected them and put forward dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) as its philosophy and
the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya aṭṭhaṅgikamagga) also called as the Middle Path (majjhima
paṭipadā) as its practice.

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 DEFINITION OF AKIRIYAVĀDA ACCORDING TO BUDDHISM (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA 1995)

Akiriyavāda means a doctrine of inaction. Inaction means no action. According to this

doctrine, what we do has no result or it is unproducting. In Akiriyavāda system free-will is denied,
moral causation is denied and kamma and kamma-vipāka are also denied.
According to Buddhism, any system that denies free-will and moral causation falls into
akiriyavāda. Buddhism is not an akiriyavāda because Buddhism believes in free-will and moral
causation. There are various kinds of akiriyavāda. They are as follows:
1. Issaranimmānavāda – belief in a creator God, or theistic determinism. God is a creator, he is
in outside, he is the primary cause, the first cause. As God has created all beings, we have
nothing to do. We have to play our part or role according to the will of God. According to
the will of God we die. For it is the will of God, free-will is denied. There is how individual
reveal, no free-will.(?) So, it is a type of akiriyavāda.6
2. Pubbekatahetuvāda – the cause is in the past, or karmic determinism. It means all what we
experience now, is due to our past karmas. According to this karmavāda, in this life we have
nothing to do, we have only to experience the results of what we have done in the past.
Here, free-will is denied too. So, it is a type of akiriyavāda.7
3. Ahetuappaccayavāda – no cause and effect or naturalistic determinism. It means no cause,
no condition. So, morality also has no cause and condition. As it believes in no cause and
effect, it is also a kind of akiriyavāda. This is Makkhalī Ghosāla's philosophy, as he says
that there is an objective, universal law. One becomes defiled or purified without hetu and
paccaya. In causality there is no hetu, no paccaya. He denies free will and moral causation.
So, his doctrine comes under akiriyavāda.
4. Adhiccasamuppannavāda – spontaneous origin or indeterminism. It denies the universal
nature of causality – and in its extreme form it denies causality itself. This is the opposite of
Niyativāda. No causality is recognized and chance has place here. Therefore, this
indeterminism falls into the category of akiriyavāda.
5. The doctrine of Pūrana Kassapa. He says whether our action is good or bad, the soul does
not join with us in performing those actions. The soul is not an active participant, it is only a
spectator. As the soul does not get involved in our action, actions willfully performed have
no merit or demerit. That is why he says „you can walk along one bank of Gange killing
people, doing all harms under the Sun, it is no pāpa. And along the other bank you will
perform all kind of yāga, dāna and sīla, it is no punna.“ He also professed an eternalist
doctrine of the soul. He denies free will; that there is no moral causation. He says willful
action must be barren. So, his doctrine falls into akiriyavāda.
6. The doctrine of Pakuṭa Kaccāyana. He talks of seven everlasting substances. They are the

6 The God, at least according to Semitic religions (that is Judaism, Christianity and Islam) gave to the man possibility
to decide. God is so powerful, that he himself can grant the free will. The theory mentioned above is thus wrong.
Issaranimmānavāda is not akiriyavāda, only in case that God would not give the man free-will, but that is not in any
of the Semitic religions.
7 I again disagree, because thus we would say that Buddhism is akiriyavāda. The belief in the past kamma is correct if
we accept that we can decide how to make new kamma. Our decision is the free will. Thus this is also not the
akiriyavāda.

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 body of earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain and the soul as the seventh. Among these there
is no killer nor one who causes killing. He says if someone were to cut off another person's
head iwth a sharp sword, he would not be taking the other's life. The sword merely passes
through the space between the seven bodies. He says that the soul does not joint in whatever
you do whether it is good or bad, you can do anything, no result. He denies free will, moral
causation and moral contribution. So, his doctrine also falls into akiriyavāda.
7. The doctrine of Ajita Kesakambalī. He believes in materialism and he denies that
everything survives after death. He has no spirtitual value at all. He does not believe in
karma, mokṣa and life after death. He does not talk about soul. He says a person is
composed of the four primary elements. When he dies the earth in him returns to and
emerges with the external earth, likewise other elements go to the outside world and his
sense-faculties pass over into space. There is no next world. Nothing continues after death.
Everything gets rooted up after death. Death is the end of everything. So, all what one has
considered as good ends in ashes, something is reduced to ash. It is of no useful value at all.
Therefore – his philosophy is ucchedavāda (nihilism). It is another form of akiriyavāda ofr
it has no moral causation and moral retribution, no karma, no vipāka.

As akiriyavāda denies free will, moral causation and moral retribution, Bubddhism does not
agree with it. Buddhism always claims that all phenomena have cause and condition. So, Buddhism
is kiriyavāda.
In Buddhism free will means we are free, we have freedom to choose, to decide the best we
should do.
Therefore, Bubddhism always talks of moral causation and moral retribution and forces
people to do good and avoid bad.

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 SELF-MORTIFICATION

Dhammacakkapavattana sutta has mentioned some religious practices. Self-indulgence and Self-
mortification belong to the view of externalism. The externalists believe in the existence of ātman. This
ātman is to be continuing in the next life.
According to Rigveda it is said that after the death the ātman becomes immortal in man. Therefore,
people prayed to the departed ones to accept the offering with Yama.(?) The Pāli word 'attā' means 'oneself',
'I am', 'I was', 'I will be'. This is the base of ātmavāda. The view of ātmavāda has been discussed and
developed in various ways in Indian philosophy.
The word 'attā' means 'one's self'. Kilamatha means 'weaken'. Ānuyoga means 'applying', therefore
attakilamathānuyoga means „one's self being weakened by various practices.“ According to Khandaraka
sutta in Majjhima nikāya the Buddha has mentioned this kind of practice as the attantapa. The ways of
attantapa practices have been discussed under these five groups:
1. Observing the practices concerning taking food.
2. Using the robes or clothes.
3. Concerning the various movements or postures.
4. Concerning various actions.
5. Following various animal actions.

The Self-torturing practices were rejected by Buddhism. According to the sutta there are many
upādānas, karma, diṭṭhi, sīlabbata etc. Self-mortification or self-torturing is not the way to achieving the last
freedom. According to Buddhism, reckoned as sīlabbataparamāsa is one of the cankers. Sīlabbataparamāsa
is one of the five mentioned practices mentioned above, considered as sīla and being observed. It is the only
way to the freedom and cling to it.(?)
The part of self-mortification and observance has been rejected, viz. Aṭṭhaka Vagga and Pārāyana
Vagga (Sutta Nipāta).
The way of self-torturing has been followed by certain śramaṇas as the part of the salvation. Some
of them identified themselves as 'Muni'. Some of are accepted can be purify and attain to samma bomnan(?)
life, but Buddha preached by following these observances and kinds of practice no-one can achieve the
salvation.(?)
Buddha has rejected that view also in Kukkuravatika sutta in Majjhima nikāya. There it is explained
how Puṇṇa and Seniya followed Kukkura and Gona.8 They came to ask the Buddha what would happen
after their death. The Buddha replied them that after death Puṇṇa and Senya would reborn among dogs and
cows. Because they lived for a long time like the animals and had the concept of the animals in their minds
and behavior.

»Ayaṃ gāmini tapassi lukhā,

Jīvi tini manehi garaho attānaṃ anapeti,
Parināmetīti kusalaṃ ca dhammaṃ,
Nadi gaccanti uttauimanussa(?) dhamma,
Alamari ñāna dassanaṃ visesaṃ na sacchi karoti.«

According to Saṁyutta nikāya, due to these reasons Self-torturing should be rejected. (In conclusion,
self-mortification is not leading to the understanding the truth. So, this kind of practice should be rejected.)

8 Here kukkura means 'dog' and gona means 'bull'. The two ascetics intentionally behaved like these animals and
doing things pertinent to these animals. They believed that this way they can achieve a good result, but Buddha
explained them that it was micchā diṭṭhi and that it was rather leading to the animal realm or to the hell. Finally they
under the Buddha's guidance attained Nibbāna.

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 THE CONCEPTS OF KARMA AND INDRIYA SAṄVARA IN JAINISM AND EARLY BUDDHISM RESPECTIVELY

Jainism is historically much older than Buddhism. There were 24 tīrthankaras (founders) in
Jainism. Parśvanātha was the 23rd founder and he lived 250 years before Mahāvīra. Mahāvīra is
24th founder. He was a contemporary of Buddha Gotama. He lived between 6th and 5th century B.C.
Essentially Jainism was a Śramaṇa movement which Kśastriyas were in front line and
against the authority of Vedas and Brahmins. Jainism recognised the institution of caste-system. But
they did not recognize the institution of caste system which Brahmaṇa caste was given to the
superior place.
In their fundamental doctrine, they believe in nature of reality, sat. There are two fold
realities: jīva and ajīva. Both are eternal substances, unoriginated, independent and co-existing. And
both are nitya (permanent) and anitya (impermanent).
Jīva possesses the capacity of liberation. It has the ability to free itself from bondage. When
it is free, it becomes jīvamutta (living and liberated soul).
Ajīva manifests itself through substances such as pudgala, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and
kāla. Here pudgala does not mean a person or an individual, it means matter that is gross or subtle.
Dharma means the motion of movement, adharma means the motion of rest, and ākāśa and kāla
mean space and time.
Another fundamental doctrines are asrava, bandha, saṅvara, nirjana and mokṣa.
Asrava means fine karmic matter that flows into the soul from outside through the sense
door. That is called karmaśarīra too.
Bandha means the bondage of the soul. Bondage takes place when jīva unites with pudgala
– subtle matter. When subtle matter from outside world flows into our system through sense, there
is bondage.
Saṅvara means restraining of the senses. According to Jainism, one must remove the kośa or
karmic body which is forming the sheath or rounding the soul, by means of torturing the senses.
This is indriyasaṅvara (the restraint of the senses, what is understood in Jainism.
Nirjana means freeing the soul or removing the karmic body by tapa (self-mortification).
Here pañca-tapa (five fires) are taught to clear the soul, which means lighting the four fires at four
corners, one then sits in the center and looks at the sun which is the fifth fire. The soul is covered by
the seath of karma. It must be according to Jainism, removed by self-mortification. Another
meaning of Nirjana is burning up defilements of karmic body.
There are two karmas to be burned up:
1. purāṇa-karma (karma what one has acquired in previous lives)
2. nava-karma (karma what one has accumulated through his body, speech and mind in the
present life)

Owing to nava-karma, there is further karma (additional karma). One must burn them
through tapa. There is karmakkhaya, when these karmas were burnt. Then, dukkhaya and
vedanākkhaya follow accordingly. The soul is free from kośa in this way and becomes jīvamutta –

71
leaving the body and living alone forever. This is called mokṣa (liberation) in Jainism. These are the
fundamental doctrines with regard to āsrava, karma and mokṣa in Jainism.
But, early Buddhism does not say that karmic matter comes from outside world and then
forms covering round the soul, because there is no soul in Buddhism. Buddhism talks about karma
without reference to a soul. According to Buddhism, karma is cetanā (volition, willful action).
Volition in Buddhism is not subtle matter and it does not form a covering round the soul, because
there is no soul recognized in Buddhism.
Jainism recognizes the path of self-mortification as a means of to end suffering. The path of
self-mortification means giving pain to the soul or self. But, Buddhism rejects this method as
ignoble, painful and leading to nothing good, profitless, or no-usefulness.
There are various kinds of karmas in Jainism. One of them is gotra-karma. Buddhism also
talks about many kinds of karma. Some of them are as follows:
1. Diṭṭhadhammavedaniyakamma – kamma that results in this very life or kamma that has to be
experienced in this life.
2. Upapajjavedaniyakamma – in the next life
3. Aparapariyakamma – in one of the future lives.

In early Bbuddhism there were only three types of karma, that is with regard to the result.
And there is kāya-kamma, vācī-kamma and mano-kamma again three. Kāya-kamma means
kamma that one performs with one's body (bodily kamma). For example, if one kills, injures etc.
Vācī-kamma means verbal kamma done generally through the door of speech, e.g. If one
scolds and abuses people with harsh language.
Mano-kamma means mental kamma, done generally through the mind, e.g., if one has bad or
ill-will thoughts against people.
These are kinds of kamma which are mentioned in the early Buddhist texts.

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 THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS (AGGAÑÑA SUTTA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA 1995)

According to Brahmanism, society was divided into four groups: Brahmaṇa, Kśātriya,
Vayśya and Śūdra.
Brahmins said that they are superior to other castes and the others are inferior, the
Brahmaṇic caste alone is white and the others are black, only the Brāhmaas can be purified and the
others cannot; only the Brāhmaas are the children of Brahma, created by Brahma, and the heir of
Brahma. The other castes were from upper limb, lower limb and feet of Brahma respectively.
Brahmins believe that where there are human beings, there must be four castes, because the
human beings and the world were created by Brahma.
According to the Buddha's teaching, there is no Brahma – or God who can create beings
including the world. In Aggañña Sutta, in one of Nikāyas it is mentioned that the human beings and
the world appeared without creation by anyone. It further continues that the world would be passed
away and reappear naturally. When it passed away, beings were born in the sphere of radiance9 and
when it begins to be evolved, beings come from there. When they come to the new world, they have
their own light on each body10 and they could go in the sky like birds. They are contented with their
bliss or rapture. At that time, they do not have any food except their bliss.
Later, one person who was greedy and curious took the soil of the earth and tasted it again
and again. The others also imitated him. As beings consumed the soil of earth, they lost their own
light and appeared in different complextions. At that time, beings became to despise or admire to
each other because they had different complexions. The Sun and the Moon also appeared in the new
world. From that time, day and night, month and year, emerged in the world various foods for
beings to consume, such as padalata, bhūmippataka, akatthapakasali etc. They appeared one by
one, their tastes and qualities also are like the soil of earth.
For beings who consumed those foods their complextions and sex-organs differed among
them. When sex-organs or man and woman emerged, they looked at each other with attachment. By
doing so, they were burnt of lust, they then had sexual intercourse. Later, due to sexual intercourse,
families emerged and then shelters, villages, towns, cities and so on emerged in society. When
population became many, people’s ethics also degenerated gradually untill the common properties
had to be shared as the private properties.
Then, evil will or action such as stealing, lying, censure, killing, punishment and so on were
manifesting in society. So, many people gathered together and selected a person who had qualitis to
be worthful, who could censure what was to be censured, to punish who deserved punishment etc.
Later, they established the kingship. Thus, the institution emerged in society. His families also were
called Kśātriyas because they were those who administered and shared the fields. People gave them
in return a proportion of the rise. At that time, people called a king in many ways – Mahāsamata,
because he was elected by the majority of people; Kśātriya, because he was the one who had
authority in paddy fields and Rāja, because he delighted the people.
At that time, some people who refrained from evil action and tried to control their desire
9 This is thoroughly wrong translation of one of the Brahma worlds of people, who in their previous life attained a
stage of rūpa jhāna.
10 This is very bad misinterpretation. These beings from the Brahma world are shining by light as they are very
developed beings, and the light shines from their body by a natural way, there are no bulbs, no torches, please.

73
were called Brahmaṇas, because they have eradicated their ill-will. Some people were called
„Jhayaka“ because they renounced the society and went to the forest and stayed there, concentrated
on their meditation. Thus, they were called Jhayaka – concentrators. People who were doing
trading, farming animals, planting, were called Vaiśyas, because they worked on their occupation
and their conduct of sexual intercourse.(?) The manual workers were called Śūdras. They were
described as the lowest in the society because of their actions, not because of their birth. People
who condemned lay-manhood as inferior, renounced society and went to holy life, they were called
Samaṇa. Thus, society was divided into many divisions called by their appropriate names, because
of peoples activities or morality. Therefore, according to the Buddha’s teaching the institutions of
society emerged in the world without creation by any creator, indeed, due to peoples acitivies or
morality. There is no Creator who would create the world and human beings or society in
Buddhism.
These are the basic assumtpions of the Buddhist eachings on the evolution of social
institutions.
So, according to Buddhism, society was divided according to action and professions, not by
creation. It is very scientific argument and very convenient for society to have a convenient division
of labor, because it has no shortage of labor.

74
 POLITICAL THINKING (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA 1995)

In those days, the person who goverened a country, were called as a king. Nowdays we call them as
government.
There were many theories with regard to the state and kingship. Many scholars proposed about kingship
in different ways. Some proposed that the state and kingship are God-given. They said that God created the
universe and gave us the idea of the state and kingship.
In the Buddhist theory we can also get to know about kingship. But Buddhism does not propose that the
state and kingship would be God-given. In Aggaññasutta it is said that after man and woman appeared in the
world, people became many and many. Their moralities also degenerated gradually untill the common properties
had to be shared as the private properties. Later, crimes also emerged among society. As soon as the crime
emerged, people got together and discussed to appoint a ruler because they found that without a leader it is not
possible to have a proper social order. Finally, they established the kingship. Thus, kingship emerged in a society.
It was not God-given, but established by people.
In the Buddhist literature, there were three kinds of political systems (institutions) or kingship:
1. Monarchy
2. Oligarchy
3. Universal monarchy

But, during the time of the Buddha, we have heard that there were only two types of government or
kingship – monarchical government and another is oligarchical government.
Monarchy is the type which has a single king and he rules the country with some ministers. There are
then royal morals. Monarchy is appropriate or suitable, if they provided that the king stands by ten Royal Morals.
They are giving, observing precepts, gifts, honesty, magnanimity (generosity), control of senses, non-hate, non-
violence, tolerance and peacefulness.
Oligarchy is the type of government which has many kings, that means the feudal lord. They bbecame the
kings or leaders of people by generation. They did not stand for election and people did not vote for them. There
are seven non-declining virtues for oligarchy. Oligarchy is suitable if they keep seven non-declining virtues. They
are:
1. Assemble frequently
2. Assemble and discuss things and disperse in unity(?)
3. Respect old laws and do not hurry to make new laws
4. Respect women and do not force them to be with themselves
5. Respect and listen to senior citizensj
6. Worship properly the ancient shrines
7. Offer protection and respect the religious men who visit the country

In Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the Lord Buddha said that as long as people are following these seven
factors, only the increase of their progress shoul be expected, not declined.(?)
Universal Monarchy means the king of kings or Universal Emperor. This was an ideal, not a historical
reality. Universal Monarchy is good if four national policies are followed and five-fold international policies are
respected. The four national policies are as follows:

75
 1. The first one is to offer a righteous protection to everybody including bees and birds
2. Second one is controlling crime
3. The third one is to work for economic development of the country. To make economic success,
government must make the jobs available and people in capacity. And planting tree, constructing roads
are also important for development.
4. The fourth one is to consult with religious leaders and the leaders of the country. Consultation is very
important. When the king follows national policy the country will prosper, nation will be safe and well
established.

Five-fold international policies are five-fold precepts. Universal monarchy is not controlling in the
harmful manner, its intervention does not destroy the sovereignity of these countries to observe five-fold precepts,
living according to pañca-sīla. Five-fold precepts are as follows:
1. Refraining from killing living creatures
2. Refraining from taking what is not given
3. Refraining from sexual misconduct
4. Refraining from false speech
5. Refraining from taking intoxicating drugs and liquor.

These five-fold precepts are very important, as they are the purest way of human's life. To establish
country is to make people observe the pañca-sīla. If a Universal Monarch rules the country with Dhamma, which
is both the national and international policy, it is good, if he goes against the Dhamma, his authority to rule the
country vanishes. This is the important message given by the Cakkavatti Sutta. This is the Cakkavatti ideal, the
Buddha's political philosophy.
The government rules the country according to Dasa-rāja dhamma, Aparihāniya-dhamma and Cakkavatti
Sutta is the Buddhist democratic government.
Monarchy and Oligarchy systems were in practice, but Universal monarchy was an ideal. All three forms
are suitable if democracy is safely guarded.

Dasa-Rāja Dhamma:
1. Dāna (liberality, generosity, charity)
2. Sīla (a high moral character)
3. Pariccāga (sacrificing everything for the goodness of people)
4. Ajjavaṃ (honesty and integrity)
5. Maddavaṃ (kindness and gentleness)
6. Tapaṃ (austerity in habits)
7. Akkodhaṃ (freedom from hatred, ill-will, enmity)
8. Avihiṅsaṃ (non-violence)
9. Khanti (patience, forbearance, tolerance)
10. Avirodhanaṃ (non-opposition, non-obstruction)

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 ECONOMICS (ORIGINAL BY VEN. KELANANDA 1995)

There are many discourses dealing with economics in Pāli canon. Sometimes, the Buddha even
went into details about saving money and spending it.
In Sīgalovāda Sutta the Buddha told the young man Sīgala that he should spend one fourth of
his income on his daily expenses, invest half in his business and put aside one fourth for any emergency.
In the Cakkavattisīhanāda Sutta it is also said that property is the cause of immorality and
crimes, such as theft, falsehood, violence, hatred, cruelty etc. Therefore, good economic condition or
wealth is necessary for everyone or every country. A poor economic condition can make the country
collapsed. There are two kinds of Economics; Micro-Economics and Macro-Economics.
For the sake of understanding, society should be divided into three groups: political, economic
and religious. All are essential in the country. Political group is responsible in running the state,
protecting life and property of people. Economic group makes money and is developing the country.
Religious group makes the first two to know value because without value the above two groups would
collapse.
As man is economic being, if there is no religious person, there would be conflict between
economic men. People should do business because of need, not because of greed. Greed also should be
controlled by morality, not by regulation or limitation. As economic is science, some said that there
should not be spoken about value (morality) in it. In fact, if one wants to make the world happy, he must
introduce the value system, and should not destroy life, should not do any anti-social activities.
According to Buddhism all economists must be governed by moral consideration. So, Buddhism
adds value in economics. Once the Buddha told Anāthapinḍika, the great banker, that a lay man, who
leads an ordinary family life had four kinds of happiness. The first one was to enjoy economic security
of sufficient wealth acquired by just and righteous means (atthisukha). It depends on labor and justice.
Anything gained righteously by one's own labor is accepted in buddhism. As nobody will be suffering
because of the other, it is regarded as 'clean' or 'white' money in Buddhism.
The second one is happiness of consumption (bhogasukha). Money itself is not our goal.
We make it in order to make use of it. According to Buddhism, one should spend that wealth liberally
on himself, his family, his friends, and relations and on meritotious deeds. The third one is to be free
from debts (anana-sukha) and the fourth happiness is to live a faultless and pure life without committing
evil in thought, word or deed (anavajja-sukha).
From the few examples given above, one can see that the Buddha considered economic welfare
as requisite for human happiness. The Buddha did not approve of each and every way of earning one's
livelihood. Because, there are certain trades – which are against his fundamental teachings like trading
in arms and lethal weapons, intoxicating drinks, poisons, killing animals, cheating etc. These trades
were condemned as an evil and unjust means of livelihood, in his teachings.
In the Jātaka also, it is mentioned that the Buddha himself in his previous life was a merchant.
He started to sell jaggary and water which were but few. He increased the goods little by little, later
became an important business man who could buy even goods as much as a ship would carry. Besides,
the Bubddha said that if one worked hard to earn money, even the severe India caste system could be
cracked down and thus all would become equal.(?)
In the case of macro-economics also, there are many examples in Pāli canon. According to
Buddhism, successful government means a government that has a successful economic policy – which

77
may contain providing:
1. Employment opportunity
2. Encouragement for trading and industry

If the government fails to fulfil this duty in this aspect, the country will be in a disaster.
In the Cakkavattisīhanāda Sutta there are four internal policies, for a cakkavatti king. Of these
four internal policies, one is to provide the people security and the ability to look after themselves
economically. Protection and economic opportunity must be provided by the state. If state fails to
achieve it, people will be unhappy and revolt.
In Kutadanta Sutta it is said that the king in ancient time tried to suppress crime through
punishment providing no economics and agriculture.(?)
As a result, poverty became prevailing and working people stopped their work. And they started
to make riot, stealing and robbery etc. When it was in running scale, the king asked his ministers for an
advice as to what and how to do. Most of ministers advised the king to use violence. But aminister who
was supposed to be wise and future Buddha, suggested a different solution. He said that such method
might never be successful. Instead he suggested that in order to eradicate crime, the economic condition
of the people should be improved, grain and other facilities for agriculture should be provided for
farmers and cultivators, capital should be provided for treaders and those engaged in business, adequate
wages should be paid to those who were employed. When people were thus provided for with
opportunities of earning a sufficient income, they would be contented, will have no fear or anxiety and
consequently the country would be peaceful and free from crime. Only the government could carry out
such economic plan and in fact, the government must have done it.
In the Cakkavattisīhanāda Sutta, it is mentioned that king Dahlanāmi who forgot his social and
economic plan, as a result of neglect poverty became prevailing. It continued:
1. Poverty spread when the king stopped giving capital or charity money to poor
2. Poor people resorted
3. The use of arms increased
4. As a result of it people were killed
5. As a result people started to engage in falsehood
6. Useless talk, slandering etc.

This is macro-economic way how the government can help people. When these are done by the
state, then people can follow the middle path (samajīvita). That is a balanced life. This is good for both
macro- and micro-economics.

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITION THAT HELPED THE RISE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF
BUDDHISM
There were two major conditions that offered the strength to Buddhis to spring up in Indian
society during the 6th century B.C. They were political and social conditions.
By this time there were four monarchic kingdoms, Magadha ruled by king Bimbisāra,
Kosala ruled by Pasenadi, Vatsa ruled by Udena and Avanti dominated by Caṇḍa Pajjota and
number of republican states such as Licchavīs ruled by Vajjian, Sākyas ruled by Suddhodana,
Pāvā ruled by Mallas and so on flourishing in India. The powerful states were greedy to conquer
and to expand their territories over the smaller states. Therefore they engaged in wards. Among the
powerful 16 states(Mahājanapādas) they were emerging as great kingdoms, capturing the smaller
ones. Because of constant wars men had to join army and women had to supply food for them. They
left their agriculture and other works. Therefore, these countries’ economy was undergoing
transition. This period was a great catastrophe characterized by wars, famine and pestilence. So that
people suffered agony and there was no peace and harmony in the society.
Constant wars gave opportunity to produce weapons. For this they needed a lot of
employees for mining to get metal industries. Other great merchants were known as seṭṭhīs who
possessed fleets of caravans numbering to 500. They also needed a number of workers to drive carts
and to export and import goods. But they paid them salary not equal to their labors.
The rich men who had enough wealth and time they spent lavishly on personal comforts and
luxury. This gave rise to gambling houses, pubs, brothels, nightclubbs, carnivals etc. The most of
the poeple fell into pitfalls of these sensual pleasures. Abject(?) poverty among the majority
exploited by the rich and these brought the society to unstable state.
The people were unable to grasp the transition that was taking place in all spheres of life.
The Brahmin religion either with the theory of divine creation proclaimed the Varṇadharma,
Svadharma, Āśramadharma to maintain their caste supremacy and with more philosophical
explanation to monism did not help to understand these transitional conditions and face them
bravely. Other six great śramaṇa teachers too, with the philosophies ahetuvāda, sattakāyavāda,
aṭṭhikavāda, saṅsārasuddhivāda, pubbekatahetuvāda and saṃsāyavāda also did not provide the
answer to these new problems.
In such a background Buddhism denounced wars, gave value to human life, showed
compassion to everybody and preached that if one conquered oneself better than conquered
thousand of people in the world. For monarchic kings Buddhism advised to practice
dasarājadhamma, for republican rulers sattaparihāniyadhamma and specifically pañcasīla being
for all. Buddhism considers poverty as a misery, therefore encourages the people to work hard and
earn wealth righteously. Buddhism discourages five kinds of professions and encourages five kinds
of righteous means, by which people may earn money. Bbuddhism showed six avenues of downfall
of wealth and four avenues of bringing of the prosperity, rights and duties to reciprocate among the
society. Buddhism also did not forget to point out to give up all evil and to do the wholesome.
Buddhism dethroned God and enthroned man and said that one is one’s own master. There is
no caste division in Buddhism, all human beings are equal and women too, not different from men.
In social stage Buddhism judges people by action, not by birth. Buddhism interprets political and
social conditions in the society how they should be. Finally Buddhism showed the way to cessation
of dukkha. In this manner Buddhism arose and firmly established in the society.

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 BONUS: BOOK: PRE-BUDDHISTIC INDIAN PHILOSOPHY: VEDIC PHILOSOPHY

Introductory

(Is there a system of Vedic philosophy?)

Rightly or wrongly, it has long been doubted if we can speak of a system of Vedic philosophy. In order to avoid
modern associations of the words „system“ and „philosophy,“ the Vedic scholars have resorted to such expressions as
„Vedic mythology,“ „Vedic cosmogony,“ and so forth. However, Dr. Lucian Scherman published in 1887 a German
translation of a number of hymns belonging to the two collections called the Ṛig-Veda and Atharva-Veda, under the title
„Philosophische Hymnen aus der Ṛig und Atharva-Veda Sanhita.“ Some seven years later was published the
„Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie“ by Dr. Paul Deussen. In this latter work, Dr. Deussen freely employs the
expression „Erste Periode der indischen Philosophie,“ by which he means, of course, Vedic philosophy. Here the reader
might be referred to an excellent treatise, „The cosmology of the Ṛig-Veda“ by Mr. Wallis. The works of such writers
as Kaegi, Frazer and others deserve special notice.
(The aim of the work.)
The aim of the writer of these pages differs from that of Scherman and Deussen. The principal object with
which both the scholars seem to have started is to estimate the standard of philosophical speculations, embodied in a
few hymns of the Vedas, belonging mostly to the tenth or last book of the Ṛik. Our aim is, on the other hand, not only to
estimate such a standard, but also to bring out the individual element in each of these hymns. That is to say, we
principally seek to show that each mode or system of speculation is a creation of individuality.
(The authors of the Vedic hymns, specially of the philosophical ones, are not all known.)
No one knows yet, and there is little chance of knowing ever, who the real authors of all these hymns were.
Tradition attributes them to a number of names, such as Aghamarṣana, Prajāpati Parameṣṭhin, Brahmaṇaspati, etc.,
most of which are in fact names of the deities to whom the hymns were addressed. t does not, however, make much
difference whether th names, as given in these pages, be taken as fictitious or real, so long as we know that there is
behind the expressions of each of these hymns an individual.
If we go by the dictum, that to doubt is to philosophise, it will not be easy to say exactly when the Indo-Aryan
sages were not philosophers, for their inspired utterances, which still survive in the form of hymns and psalms, contain
many and various inquisitive questions, as to whence, whither, when, and how.
(Philosophy as a doubting process of the human mind is eternal. As a structure of thought it has its beginning.)
Philosophy, viewed as a mere doubting process of the human mind, knows indeed no beginning of its own. If by
philosophy is understood a structure of thought, which we consider permanently established where we find
consciousness of the ultimate categories and also terms to express these, then we may suppose philosophy to have had
its beginnings somewhere with individual thinkers, and with those individual thinkers in whose words we trace this
consciousness.
Philosophy is the fruitful result of reflections on the riddle of existence. These reflections become possible, as
Prof. Erdmann holds, only when „the heroic struggle to acquire the conditions of existence has been followed by its
enjoyment.“
(A peaceful time following upon the struggle for existence is favourable to philosophical reflections, which start at first
from a mythical basis.)
The reflective movement as a whole starts from the mythical stage, and it is only after many serious efforts on the part
of the earlier thinkers that it succeds afterwards in gaining an independent position. This holds true of Greek thinking,
and no less of early Indian philosophy. It is generally agreed among the historians of Greek philosophy that the lines of
development which proceed from such a mythical basis may be distinguished as the cosmological and the
psychological.
As to the difference between mythology and philosophy, the following observations of Prof. Adamson are
here worth quoting.
(Difference between mythology and philosophy.)
„The problem of cosmological speculation differs from the aim of mythology in this : that while the latter represented
the connextions between its assumed ground and existing realities after the crude fashion of temporal sequence, the
more philosophical view raised the question, - what is the permanent element in real existence and of what are actual
things composed? The change of question implied a restriction upon the free play of imagination, which constitutes the
difference between philosophy and mythology.“
The attitude of later thinkers towards the Vedas was far from being one of warm appreciation.

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(The attitude of later thinkers towards the Vedas)
In a well-known passage of the Bhagavad Gītā (II. 42) the Vedic hymns are compared to lovely flowers, loely only in
appearance. In the Tevijja sutta (Dīgha Nikāya, I. No. 13) Buddha distinguishes between the later Brāhmaṇa teachers
and the earlier Vedic sages. Among these sages, again, he regards just ten as the ancient, and as the real authors and
reciters of the mantras. But they are all spoken of as those whose duty it was only to invoke several deities, such as
Indra, Soma, Varuṇa, Iśāna, Prajāpati, Brahmā, 'Mahiddhi' (=Tvaṣṭar ?) and Yama.
(The Brāhmaṇa schoos mentioned in the Tevijja sutta)
Regarding the Brāhmaṇa teachers, such as the Aitareyas, the Taittirīyas, the Chāndogyas, the 'Chandavas' and
the Bahvṛicas, Buddha holds in agreement with the Brahmin youth Vasiṣṭha, a disciple of Puṣkarasīdi, that they
taught various paths leading to a state of union with Brahman (God). An interesting account of this transition of thought
from the earlier Vedic sages to the later Brāhmaṇa teachers is also given in the Dīgha Nikāya, Mahāgovinda Suttanta.
(Buddha's estimate of cosmological speculation)
In the Pātika sutta, however, Buddha said to Bhaggava, „There are, O descendant of Bhṛigu, some śramaṇas
and Brāhmaṇas to whom the teachers who ascribe creation to the hand of Īśvara, - to Brahmā (God) appear as the
foremost of thinkers (agraṇya).“ „But I, too, know, Bhārgava, this mode of cosmological speculation. I know this, and
also know other things far beyond; and having known this, I do not tarnish my knowledge.“
It is very remarkable that the speculations which Buddha alluded to and described in this connexion,
correspond to those set forth in some of the later hymns of the Ṛig-Veda and restated, explained and elaborated in the
Atharva-Veda, the Brāhmaṇas, and in other such texts.
(The problems for cosmological speculation.)
Further more, Buddha thought that these earlier speculations were concerned chiefly with the pre-ens of first
beginnings (Pubbanta) and the post-ens or the other end (aparanta), that is to say, with the problems as to the beginning
and the end of the world as a whole. In other words, the main problems of the Vedic speculations were: How does the
world originate? In what manner are individual things created? By what have these their unity and existence? Who
creates, and who ordains? From what does the world spring up and to what again does it return? These earlier
speculations are to be called, in this sense, Purāṇa, Lokāyata, or the like.
The immediate background of Indian Philosophy is to be found in the cosmogonic hymns of the ancient and
early Vedic sages.
(The cosmogonic hymns of the Ṛig-Veda constitute the immediate background for Indian Philosophy.)
The first philosophic reflections received impetus from the daily experience of things, changing into one another, and
appearing and reappearing at their apointed seasons. Such constant mutations of things of experience must have very
early roused wonder in a people, so lively and such keen observers and so much at home with nature as the Indo-
Aryans.
(Philosophy and the Philosophers.)
Not confined to any particular orders of Brāhmans or warriors, - of householders, ascetics, or hermits, there
arose a body of men who came to be known in the later literature as Brahmarṣis. To Vedic Indians they were known by
the name of Poets (Kavis), and Poets were the divine philosophers of ancient India. According as the Poets were the
philosophers, philosophy itself was called Hymn (Uktha), and hymn-chanting (udgītha) denoted the act of
philosophising. Indeed, there was no other name for philosophy in India than Hymn (Uktha or Udgītha) up to a certain
late date, that is to say, until it was replaced by other epithets more suitable.
(Definition of „Hymn“ or philosophy.)
„Prajāpati Parameṣṭhin“ seems to speak of philosophy as search carried on by the Poets within their heart for
discovering in the light of their thought the relation of existing things to the non-existent, i.e., primordial matter.
Dīrghatamas suggested altogether a different conception. For him philosophy was just 'ignorance for the sake of
knowledge,' and knowledge consisted but in ascertaining the nature of the one, single, original cause to which the
plurality of all known causes might be reduced. Philosophy with „Viśvakarman“ is „sampraśnaṁ,“ „information,“
„doubt,“ „true doubt,“ that is to say, doubt, as distinguished from that of a sceptic, - enlightenment, as distinguished
from the ignorance of an agnostic.
(When could philosophical question arise?)
And if philosophy consists in rightly doubting, and if the immediate background for it was formed by the
cosmogonic poetry which is interspersed throughout the Vedic hymns, conceivably it was only when, as Prof.
Windelband would maintain, in course of time individual views were freely developed that the question at last arose as
to „the unity and abiding original ground of changing things.“ The question, as formulated by a Vedic philosopher, was:
what is the tree of wood (vṛikṣah vanaṁ) out of which the visible universe was fashioned?
(How was the question answered?)

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 Partly because of the legend of the flood in the time of Manu, which lived so deep in the mind of the Indo-
Arynas, and partly because of the ordinary experiences concerning the existence, changeability, circulation, distribution,
and mighty force of water in the world, the answer that naturally suggested itself was – Water. Water is the elementary
matter or abiding original ground of things.
(A further question, and answers.)
From this the further question emerged as to what came into being immediately after water, and before all
created things. As to the answer to this particular question, the Vedic thinkers differed from one another.
Aghamarṣaṇa's reply was – the Year (Saṁvatsara, the time-principle, the natural seasons); „Prajāpati Parameṣṭhin“
said, Cosmic Desire (Kāma, Eros); „Hiraṇyagarbha“ said, the Golden Germ; and „Nārāyaṇa's“ word was the
Individualised Sun (Puruṣa).
(A still further question.)
A still further question had to be faced, and that was, from what did water itself spring? To this
Aghamarṣaṇa's answer was, from Night or Chaos (Tamas); „Prajāpati Parameṣṭin“ said, „I known it or perhaps I
know it not;“ „Brahmaṇaspati's“ answer was – from Nothing; „Anila's“ - from Air; and so forth.
The cosmological speculations of the Vedas are of the greatest historical importance as exhibiting Indian
philosophy in the making.
(The historical significance and value of Vedic speculations.)
Infinitely great was their influence upon later thinking, whether Brahmaṇic, Jaina or Buddhistic; Vedic philosophy
supplied abundantly rich food for later thought, so much so, indeed, that subsequent Indian philosophy might be viewed
as a mere systematic carrying out of the general plan of a structure, tacitly implied or imperfectly conceived.

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 BONUS: BOOK: PRE-BUDDHISTIC INDIAN PHILOSOPHY: POST-VEDIC PHILOSOPHY

(The name Post-Vedic period may require a word of explanation. It is possible tat its upper limit can be fixed as
far back as the last seer of the Ṛig-Veda or even a little earlier. In any case, here we shall restrict the use of the name to
the period covered by the history of the Aitareya, the Taittirīya, and a few other important Brāhmaṇa schools, who were
counted by Buddha as being among the oldest. The period thus chosen might be brought, for our present purposes,
within smaller compass from Mahidāsa Aitareya to Yājñavalkya.
The Post-Vedic period as a whole may be best distinguished from the Vedic by the fact that the intellectual
center is no longer the Brahmarṣideśa, but what is generally known as Madhya-deśa, the Mid-land.
(The historical features of the period.)
It is situated between the Himālayas on the North, and the Vindhya mountains on the South. It lies to the East of
Prayāga (Allahabad) and to the West of Vinaśana („Manu-smṛiti,“ II. 21), Kuru, Pañchāla, Matsya, Śūrasena, are four
among the well-known republics, and Kāśi, Videha, and Kośala are three among the most powerful monarchies of the
time. During this period – Benares, the oldest of the three monarchies – is said to have changed its name many times
(Jāṭaka No. 460).
(The contrast beween the Vedas and the Brāhmaṇa.)
The transition from the Vedic to the Brāhmaṇic period must have taken place gradually. Yet if leaving the one
for the other, the historian turns his back upon the freshness of poetry only to face the dullness of prose. In the language
of Dr. Hopkins, „With the Brāhmaṇas not only is the tone changed from that of the Ṛig-Veda, the whole moral
atmosphere iqs nowsurcharged with hocuspocus, mysticism, religiosity, instead of the cheerful, real religion which,
however formal, is the sould of the Ṛik. In the Brhmaṇas there is no freshness, no poetry. There is in some regards a
more scrupulous outward morality, but for the rest there is only cynicism, bigotry, and dullness. It is true that each of
these traits may be found in certain parts of the Ṛig-Veda; but it is not true that they represent there the spirit of the age,
as they do in the Brāhmaṇic period.“
(The judgment of Brāhmaṇic religion by Hopkins.)
But this careful observer adds: „Such is not altogether the case. It is the truth, yet it is not the whole truth, that
in these Brāhmaṇas religion is an apearance, not a reality.“
Dr. Hopkins seeks to establish the link between the animistic worship of the Ṛig-Veda and the stringent ritual
of the Brāhmaṇas in the person of the priest, as his position is set forth in the liturgical hymns of the Yajur-Veda.
(The Sāma and the Yajurveda are of the least importance from the point of view of philosophy.)
This seems plausible, yet not very important to us. To us, in fact, the Sāman and the Yajur, however voluminous they
may be in size, are but two large collections of excerpts from the older Ṛik. The important text for us is the divine Ṛik,
and also to some extent, the Atharva.
It is conceivable that there is a long interval separating the last sage of the Ṛig-Veda from the thinker whome
we may rightly take as the first philosopher of the Post-Vedic period.
(The transition period defined.)
Probably, as may be easily deduced from the long string of names appended to some of the Brāhmaṇas, at this
intermediate period a great many persons were born who kept alive the philosophic traditions of the past, and
represented the highest wisdom of the time. From our point of view, this intermediate period is the one into which we
can peep through the portals of the Brāhmaṇa sections of the Brāhmaṇa texts, as distinguished from the Āraṇyakas and
Upaniṣads. It seems that the thinkers of the time kept things going, just in the same way that musicians play on various
tunes to indicate that the performance is not over yet, only the scene is changing.
(Its intrinsic value in the history of philosophy.)
The historical value of this intermediate period consists chiefly in its being the period of transition from the
Vedic to the Post-Vedic. At this period, philosophy, no less than Prajāpati, was thinking herself „emptied“ or exhausted
in the activity of production. But the creative impulse led her to ponder over the minds of men, just as Prajāpati was
brooding over the cosmic matter. Whilst thus Prajāpati and philosophy were toiling hard, and fainting in the struggle
for existence, theology was not in any way less active on her own side.
(The peculiarities of the transition period.)
While Prajāpati was fusing the races of men, theology was spinning out the rituals in detail, while philosophy
was busy, we saw, with intermingling Vedic thoughts; consequently the intermixture of blood among men, the painfully
minute elaboration of rituals, and the intermingling of the doctrines of the earlier thinkers – these are among the most
noticeable features of the transition period in question.
(The Sophistic maxim : how did it originate?)

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 So far as philosophy is concerned, it is just in this process of intermingling of the earlier thoughts that we can
trace in India the origin of a something equivalent to that Sophistic maxim, that man is the measure of all things.
Prajāpati generrated man from his soul, therefore 'Man is all the animasl,' i.e., man is the prototype fo living beings –
such is, however, the precise Indian maxim and its argument. And we must note here that as soon as this maxim came to
clear recognition, the course of philosophy was changed.
(The transition from cosmological to psychological speculations is natural and inevitable.)
Beyond a doubt, this transition from the geocentrism of Vedic speculations to the anthropocentrism of the Post-
Vedic took place gradually, as well as harmoniously. The chief interest of the earlier thinkers was centred upon the
physical world as a whole, and the later thinkers were chiefly concerned with the organic world and man. The order Is
perfectly natural.
(The Post-Vedic thought is implied or anticipated in the Vedic. How?)
Further, in spite of the fact that there are in the scheme of the earlier thought but 'very feeble indications of a
zeal for knowledge applied to the organic world and man,' we have seen that in the speculation of Dīrghatamas was
foreshadowed the whole character of Post-Vedic philosophy; his doctrine disclosed to us in an eminent degree as to
what would be the exact lines on which the development of Vedic philosophy must proceed in future.
It was Dīrghatamas, who considered the sacrificial altar as the navel or centre of our world, and set himself to
inquire, What am Ii? and so it was Dīrghatamas whose somewhat paradoxical doctrine of Indra and Soma (sun and
moon, or heat and light) as the active principle and the passive spectator of the visible universe contained the later
conceptions of the relation between life and soul. Besides Dīrghatamas, there is another Vedic sage whose name must
be mentioned in this connection. She is „Sūryā“. „Sūryā“ conceived the son as the reproduction of the father, since a
man is born in the wom of his wife in the form of a seed. Inspite of the fact that this came to be regarded later as a
popular view, it will be remembered that „Sūryā's“ was the first attempt to formulate a scientific theory about the
origin and continuity of human life. We have further to admit here that „Sūryā's“ speculations gave rise to the theory of
heredity as expounded in the Post-Vedic literature.
(The conditions under which the question „Who am I“? permanently arose.)
All this is true, and yet the fact remains that the primary concern of the Vedic thinkers was the world, not man.
Therefore the question „Who am I?“ could permanently arise only in the wake of the consciousness, that 'man is all the
animals.'
(Post-Vedic thought is just the repetition of the Vedic, in so far as the types of problems are concerned.)
Once more, this one question „Who am I?“ brought in its train many other questions, and here it is interesting
to remark that almost all the fundamental questions raised by the Vedic thinkers with regard to the world were repeated
in the Post-Vedic thought with regard to man. In this respect Post-Vedic philosophy may be looked upon as simply the
repetition of the Vedic, although this repetition does not mean imitation, but continuation and development, in the truest
sense of the terms.
(The fundamental problem of the period, according to Buddha.)
In the opinion of Buddha the period which closely followed upon that of Vedic worship was religious-philosophical n
character, the main problem of this period being „How can I hold communion or unite with Brahmaṇ?“
(Justification Buddha's opinion.)
The judgement thus summarized by Buddha may not be wholly true in the letter, yet it must be said to the true
in the spirit, considering that the highest religious aspiration of man to approach and unite with what he looks up to as
the supreme, the mighty, the divine, merciful, the beautiful, the one, the all, was never absent, from the Vedic or Indo-
Aryan minds. This truly religious aspiration of man to unite with what is divine iin nature found its earliest expression
in one of the hymns of Śunahśepa. He aspired to know who among the immortal gods had the power to restore him to
Aditi – the visible Infinite, that he might realise the nature of his father and mother (heaven and earth), and the reply that
came to him was – Fire (Agni alone is powerful to do so). In the case of „Brahmaṇaspati's“ hymn, too, we could not
but see the eagerness of the finite (i.e., the bounded space beyond the heaven and the bounded horizon on the earth) to
approach Aditi – the real Infinite. And yet again it was only in the views of Dīrghatamas that we had the fist definite
indication of the unity of man in essence with the rest of the universe, - with the whole. We know, however, that in the
conception of Dīrghatamas this world-essence is no other than what he called the solar essence, that is to say, identical
with the fire-essence. Thus all these are inter-connected, and their connection came about in natural, historical order.
(Further demonstration of the main problem of Post-Vedic Philosophy.)
Now in conformity with our theory, that in India as in Greece, the first philosophic reflections arose out of
religion, we may hold with Buddha that the main question with the early Post-Vedic thinkers appertained to Yoga – the
inner culture of faith and intellect. It seems probable even then, that from the question „How can I unite with him?“
emerged these two apparently distinct problems for philosophy -

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(1) Who is he with whom I shall unite?
(2) Who am I who shall unite with him?
Of these the former has already been answered by the Vedic thinkers, and now the latter must be answered by
their successors. In reality, however, both of these problems are there for the Post-Vedic thinkers, and they are to them
not exactly two distinct problems, but two aspects of one and the same problem. To them he is logically distinguishable
from me as the object from the subject. But from the Yoga point of view, if I know him, I know myself, and if I know
myself I know him. Thus the two questions - „Who is he?“ and „Who am I?“ are capable of being answered briefly by
„I am he (so' haṁ).“ In other words, according to the Yoga postulate, the two questions are reducible to this one: „Who
is he?“ or, „Who am I?“
(The interest of the problem)
To the question - „Who am I?“ the answers are given in an ascending series. The interest of these answers lies
partly in the roughly outlined stages of transition:
1. from the physical world to the organic;
2. from the organic world to the embryonic man;
3. from embryonic to physiological man;
4. from physiological to psychological man;
5. from psychological to metaphysical man;
6. from metaphysical to religious-ethical man.

(The solution of the problem)

Accordingly, the reply to the question - „Who am I?“ may be stated in the following order:-

(a) I am an individual being, as all the animals of the earth and all the creatures of the air are. All organic
beings and all inorganic things, said „Nārāyaṇa,“ are formed from Puruṣa – the sun or solar substance.
(b) I am annamaya – embryonic man, a man in the process of formation, that is to say, a seed or sperm,
composed of food or five elements, produced from the essence of food digested by the father, communicated to the
mother and established in the womb.
(c) I am prāṇamaya – physiological man, a man born of the parents, brought forth by the mother, a living
body, that is to say, a body imbued with life, composed of food or elements, nourished by food, reduced at death to an
anatomical man, a corpse dissolved hereafter into the elements or returned to the physical world.
(d) I am manomaya – psychological man, a conscious individual, who can perceive through the senses, who
dreams, imagines, thinks, feels, will, and who perceives duality and plurality among things, perceptual and conceptual.
(e) I am vijñānamaya – metaphysical man, a thought-free, but conscious man who is beginning to sleep and
sleeping a sound sleep, a man who is endowed with nothing but the inherent conscious sentient principle or soul – a
thinker who realises the unity of cause in the variety of appearance.
(f) Lastly, I am ānandamaya – spiritual or religious-ethical man, who is enjoying the bliss of sound sleep,
uncrossed by dreams, untouched by eares, - a blessed soul, united with the divine.

According to the earliest, demoniac, or materialistic mode, „I am the body“; according to the later, corporeal or
realistic mode, „I am the mind“; and aicording tot he last, incorporeal or idealistic mode, „I am the soul.“
(The dialectical aspect of Post-Vedic philosophy.)
So far regarding the contemplative side of the Post-Vedic literature. But in dealing effectively with the subject
of Indian philosophy, we must also take into consideration another side of it, which is of as much intellectual
importance as the contemplative. Logic and dialectic (tarka, mīmāṁsā), formed the two wings of discussion, carried on
by the Wanderers generally, and discussion involved, as a rule, a sort of „wrangling“ in the learned circle. As Buddha
described it humorously, the learned recluses and Brāhmaṇs meet together, discuss problems, and wrangle in this
manner:-
„You don't understand this doctrine and discipline, I do. How should you know about this doctrine and
discipline?
You have fallen into wrong views. It is I who am in the right.
I am speaking to the point, you are not.
You are putting last what ought to come first, and first what ought to come last.
What you've excogitated so long, that's all quite upset.
Your challenge has been taken up. You are probed to be wrong.
Set to work to clear your views. Disentangle yourself if you can.“

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(The four laws of thought.)
The problem in theological circles was concerned with the divine revelation of Word, or the Vedas, and duties
enjoined therein. In other circles the subject was either philosophical or scientific. Whatever that might be, the happy
result of this mode of discussion or „wrangling“ among the learned Wanderers was that in the time of Buddha the four
laws of thought were recognised as a matter of course. These are in their application to propositions:
(If A is B), A is B
A cannot be both B and not-B
A is either B or not-B
A is neither B nor not-B.

These are implied in such interrogative propositions as are met with throughout the Buddhist canonical texts.
Is there another world? Is A B? (The reply being, No).
Is it, then, that there is not another world? Is A not-B? (The reply being still, No.)
Is it, then, that there both is and is not another world? Is A both B an not-B? (The reply being as before.)
Is it, then, that there neither is nor is not another world? Is A neither B nor not-B?

In reality this reference ought to have been discussed in the introduction to Part III. For all ancient documents
at our disposal bear evidence to the fact that the recognition of four laws or principles was rather the outcome of a
further penetrating analysis on the part of thinkers other and somewhat later than Post-Vedic. It was not possible until
Sophistic activities in the country were in full swing. So far as Post-Vedic philosophers are concerned, they seem only
to have vaguely and occasionally referred to these three laws, viz., laws of Identity, Contradiction, and Double
Negation. Yājñavalkya's „No-No Doctrine“ affords no doubt the best example of Double Negation. Those who think
merely of the forms of questions may not accept our interpretation in its principle or in its detail. Rather they might go
so far as to assert that Indian minds were so illogical from the beginning that they could, and as a matter of fact did,
with impunity set all the fundamental laws of thought at nought. But the critic, in order to avoid being one sided, must
carefully examine the foms of interrogation, the modes of rejoinder, and above all, their motives. The example given, is
of a controversy in the form in which it was carried on in the sixth century B.C., if not earlier. It is evident that the
motive of the interrogator is to seek a dialectical advantage over the interlocutor who, as a professed sceptic, seeks to
evade the position where he might commit himself to a flagrant logical absurdity.

[Let us produce here at random the specimen of a controversy which dates as late as the third century B.C., for
examination:
Th. - Does the past exist?
A. - It exists on this wise, it does not exist on that wise.
Th. - Does the past as you describe it, both exist and not exist? You deny, then affirm – for you must affirm.
And if this same past both exists and does not exist, then is also exitence non-existence and conversely, then is the state
of being a state of non-being and conversely, then are „is“ and „is not“ convertible terms, identical, one in meaning, the
same, same in content and in origine? And this of course you do not admit.
(Points of Controversy, P. T. S., pp. 108-9).
The Syādvāda or Antinomian doctrine of the Jainas and of the Sarvāstivādins and their followers might be
calculated to be a defience of the established laws of thought. But this is not really the case, the doctrine being of a
hypothetical character only. To affirm that A may be B in one sense, from one standpoint, and not B in another sense,
from another standpoint, is not to deny the Law of contradiction, which teaches that A cannot be both B and not-B at
the same time, and in the same sense. We might here refer the reader to a significant pronouncement of Buddha on the
subject of the Law of Identity in its application to categorical propositions: „that which has passed away, ceased to be,
completely change, is to be designated, termed, judged as „something that was,“ and neither as „something that is“ nor
as „something that will be“; and so on (Saṁyutta, III, pp. 71-3).]

later texts can furnish numerous passages giving us an insight into the exact use to which the fourth law was
put, that of Double Negation. It is implied that this is applicable to two extreme cases:
(1) to the conception of something which is really nothing, that is, non-existent as a fact in the world of experience, but
possible as a product of fancy, viz., „a barren woman's son,“ „the horns of a hare,“ „flowers in the sky;“
(2) to the conception of that which is the real of all that is relatively real, viz., Brahman, Ātman, Nirvāṇa, that is, the
Absolute. The significance of the Nêti, Nêti doctrine of Yājñavalkya is that Brahman is definable only by negation of

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all the predicates assignable to the finite things of experience.
(The theological side of the older Brāhmaṇic activity. Its effect on the course of philosophy.)
Now we sum up the result of the older Brāhmaṇic activity on the theological side. The overwhelming energy
applied to the systematization of Vedic rituals was not without its salutary effect upon the course of philosophy itself.
The oldest Vedic wisdom knew no division at all, nor the older Brāhmaṇic. But the arrangements and re-arrangement of
current hymns and customary rites under various artificial heads, revealed in course of the Post-Vedic period the way in
which the concrete sciences and practical philosophy might be separated from theology proper, and from theoretic
philosophy.

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 QUESTIONS
• Explain the humanistic nature of beliefs in gods in Vedic period
• Discuss identification of religious characteristics in Brāhmaṇa tradition in Vedic period.
• Describe how „Karma Mārga“ in Vedic period was meaningful through sacrifices.
• Explain how ascetic tradition prevalent during the advent of the Buddha was distinguished from
Buddhist ascetic tradition.
• Evaluate the enthusiasm of Indian thinkers in the investigation of knowledge.
• „The concept of soul was one of the leading propositions in Indian philosophy.“ Give examples to
confirm this idea.
• Explain how the materialistic teachings of Ajita Kesakambalī were a challenge to ethical society.
• „It was the posture in Indian society not to put forward conclusions to some propositions.“ Reply
with reference to scepticism.
• „Self-mortification is a futile policy, leading to high objectives.“ Give reasons if you agree to this
statement.11
• „Emergence of Buddhism is the culmination of awakening of religion and philosophy.“ Explain.
• The Vedic belief in gods is a manifestation of the nature of mind, which prevailed in that society.
Examine this idea.
• Explain the qualitative differences between the ‘Path of Karma’ and the ‘Path of Ñāna’.
• „The concept of soul according to the Indian philosophy is obviously the general opinion.“ Are you
agreeable to this idea?12
• Make an assessment of the enthusiasm evinced by the Indian thinker about the search of the truth.
• Describe the harmful effects, influences on society of the non-functionalism (Akiriyavāda)
expounded by Ajita Kesakambalī.
or
Comment at length the teachings of Makkhalī Ghosāla.
• „Though the self-mortification is a futile effort, the outcome expected of it is supreme.“ Explain the
above statement with reference to the sutta, discourses.
• Explain whether the Śramaṇa tradition established against the Brahmin tradition had a tremendous
influence on the new awakening of the philosophical mind in Indian social set up.
• Describe the ideals of the teachings in pre-Buddhist India.
• Write notes on any two of the following.

11 This question is indeed a mystery. „Futile“ means „useless,“ „purposeless,“ „of no value.“ Thus, how can we say:
„Self-mortification is a useless policy, leading to high objectives.“ How can a „useless policy“ lead to „high
objectives“? If it is useless, it will not lead to high objectives, or it is not useless, and thus it leads to „high
objectives.“ I wonder what kind of answer the teacher expected. I require and demand careful control of questions in
question papers by teachers before handing them over to students. Therefore please, students, be careful – some
questions are futile (useless/of no value). Try to discover the intention of the teacher, but do not critisize him. It is
more than enough that already I critisize them publicly.
12 Here we can see how the author of this question didn’t understand the meaning of word ‘agreeable’. „Are you
agreeable to this idea“ means „Is this idea satisfied with you?“ which is an evident nonsense. Correct form is: „Do
you agree with this idea?“ Or „Are you satisfied with this idea?“

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 i. Jaina Mahāvīra
ii. Self-indulgence
iii. Yoga philosophy
iv. Scepticism
v. The Middle Path
• Describe the nature of Vedic rituals which existed among early Aryans.
• Explain how the Vedic karma mārga (the course of acts) could be a meaningless system of spiritual
development according to relevant Buddhist teachings.
• Illustrate the effort of the Vedic thinkers to solve the problem of ātman.
• Point out with reference to relevant sources how Indian religious thinkers and philosophers
endeavored to maintain their views while refuting others.
• Describe the differences between the Śramaṇa and the Brāhmaṇa traditions in the pre-Buddhist
period.
• Discuss whether it is reasonable to consider Samjaya Bellattiputa as a skeptic compared to
contemporary thinkers.
• Describe the distinctiveness of the Buddhist śramaṇa tradition comparing it with other contemporary
śramaṇa traditions.
• Explain the fundamentals of determinism in the Buddhist era and give reasons for its refutation by
the Buddha.
• Evaluate the keenness of the Indian thinkers in search of the truth.
• Explain the early Indian teachings on aims and objectives of life.
• See whether nature worship in Rgveda period led to the beginning of Polytheism.
• Show how Buddhism rejected the karma mārga (path of karma) as the method of liberation.
• „The concept of Ṛta resulted from the attempt made by the Vedic people to understand the activities
of nature.“ Discuss.
• Examine how far the materialist teachings lead to the deterioration of personal and social ethics.
• Discuss the mutual relation between the world soul and individual soul.
• Show how pre-Buddhistic Indian views contributed to the emergence of Buddhist thought.
• „The practice of self-mortification neither leads to spiritual purification through moral activities nor
to the ethical development personality.“ Discuss in the light of Buddhist discourses.
• „When compared with other systems of thought, Buddhism shows a uniqueness as thought.“
Explain.
• How far is it justifiable to maintain that Sanjaya Bellaṭṭhiputta was the most agnostic among the
six teachers.
• Write notes on any two of the following.
I. Makkhaligosāla III. Monotheism
II. Practice of self-indulgence IV. Practice of rite and rituals (sīlabbata parāmāsa)
(kāmasukhallikānuyoga) V. Four human ideals (caturvidha sāra dharma)

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 B.P.F 102 – EARLY BUDDHISM : FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES
In this study the candidates are expected to have a sufficient knowledge of the area of studies as
indicated by the term „Early Buddhism.“ Special attention is drawn to the following topics.
I. The fundamental teachings of early Buddhism such as the three characteristics of Existence
(Tilakkhana), Four Noble Truths, Dependent Origination, the three fold analysis of Khandha,
Āyatana and Dhātu; the mutual relationship between these fundamental teachings and the Buddhist
theory pertainning to the nature of sentient being and contingent existence as revealed by them.
II. Truth and reality – the true nature of empirical existence, sense-perception and higher
knowledges (Abhiññā), subject and object relationship, mind and matter, the nature and function of
mind, the import and the implications of the terms Citta, Mano and Viññāṇa.
III. The nature, base and aim of Buddhist ethical teachings; the distinction between wholesome
and unwholesome vlitional acts and the criteria adopted in this distinction; the theory of Karma, the
fruition of Karma and its different categories; free will, individual well being and the well being of
others; knowledge and conduct, attainment of perfection, the Buddhist doctrine of deliverance and
its final goal.
IV. The Buddhist attitude to purely rationalistic and metaphysical propositions; the position
adopted by Buddhism in relation to other religions and philosophies; empirical tendencies in early
Buddhist teachings; the four fold analysis of propositions and te category of unanswered questions;
the presence of realistic, idealistic, monistic, radically pluralistic tendencies in the early Buddhist
texts; the problems arising thereby as to the interpretation of the earliest form of Buddhism and the
textual data and the methods that could be adopted in solving these problems of interpretation; the
unique characteristics of Buddhism as a religion and philosophy.

Recommended Reading:

1. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism T. R. V. Murti, London, 1955

2. Buddhist Philosophy D. J. Kalupahana, Honolulu, 1976
3. Buddhist Psychology of Perception E. R. Saratchandra, Colombo, 1955
4. Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon A. B. Keith, London, 1923
5. Buddhist Thought in India Edward Conze, London, 1962
6. The Message of the Buddha K. N. Jayatilake, Ed. Ninian Smart, London,
1975
7. Concept and Reality Bhikkhu Ñānānanda, Kandy, 1969
8. Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism D. J. Kalupahana, Honolulu, 1975
9. Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge K. N. Jayatilake, Delhi, 1980

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 FIVE AGGREGATES (LECTURED BY MR. UDITA GARUSINGHA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
Rūpa, vedanā,saññā, saṅkhārā and viññāṇa of five aggregates represent all the mental or
psychological factors operating in an individual. This analysis of five aggregates can be considered
of a fundamental system of analysis in early Buddhism.
Besides this analysis of five aggregates there can be seen the analysis of twelve āyatana and
eighteen Dhātus in early Buddhist discourses.
Those twelve āyatanas are:
1) Cakkhu - eyes
2) Sota - ear
3) Ghāna - nose
4) Jivahā - tongue
5) Kāya - body
6) Mano - mind
7) Rūpa - visual object
8) Sadda - sound
9) Gandha - smell
10) Rasa - flavor
11) Phoṭṭhabba - contact
12) Dhammā - mental objects.

First ten factors of above are connected with material or physical objects while the last two
with mental or psychological phenomena.
When the above twelve factors are added to the six fold sense consciousnesses, the category
of eighteen dhātus.(?) These Eighteen dhātus are;
Cakkhu + rūpa = Cakkhu viññāṇa
Sota + Sadda = Sota Viññāṇa
Ghāna + Gandha = Ghāna viññāṇa
Jivhā + Rasa = Jivhā viññāṇa
Kāya + Phoṭṭhabba = Kāya viññāṇa
Mano + Dhamma = Mano viññāṇa

It is only through this process of analysis, one can realistically comprehend the aniccā
(impermanent nature) of Buddhism. According to this description aniccā is the ever changing state
of things. The mental conflicts that happen due to change is dukkha, what ever change is dukkha
»Yada aniccaṃ taṃ dukkhaṃ.« dukkha here refers not to happiness and suffering of the practical
world but the insatiability in anything that arises due to aniccā are impermanence. It is the changing
state that is suffering what we consider as pleasurable in this modern world, is also dukkha
because it is aniccā too.

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 DUKKHA (LECTURED BY MR. UDITA GARUSINGHA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

dukkha is the result that we see the reason for that result (phala) is explained by the truth of
Samudaya or taṇhā. The nirodha or Nibbāna is a result relative to the truth of the path (magga).
The cause for that is the truth of the path. According to some excites the four noble truths have been
organized on the basic of Ayurvedic principles of
1) The disease,
2) The cause of disease,
3) The occurring and
4) The remedy of disease, which existed in India at that time. It is divided into two extreme
paths in Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta namely;
(1) Kamesukhallikānayoga (self-indulgence) is meant nihilistic and materialistic thought.
According to them everything ends with death; this view regards to Punabbhava kamma,
kammapata and virtues, etc. this kind of philosophy is a string attach on the preservation of social
ethics and morals. Therefore, the Buddha described this path as hīno (low), gammo (undeveloped),
pothujjaniko (fitted for the worldly being), anariyo (ignoble), and anattasaṅhito (unbeneficial as
noble goal like Nibbāna).
(2). Attakilamathānuyoga (self-mortification) is the path of the view of Sassatavāda
(eternalism) which was communicated at that time, the follower of this teaching believed that to
make their soul eternal or to make it more happy they must follow principles of torturing their mind
and body due to this belief. They believed in punaruppati (rebirth), kamma, kammaphala and
virtues etc. an account of this, their principles were helpful for the preservation of the social ethics
and morals.

Therefore, the Buddha did not introduce them in exotic language as used for the
Ucchedavāda but somewhat sympathetic language such as dukkha (pain, sorrowful, suffering.)
anariyo (Ignoble goal like Nibbāna.)
According to above description the Attakilamathānuyoga path can be considered as better
than Kāmasukkhalliyoga but Middle Paths also exclude both these two extremes.
Collection of technical terms,
1. Dukkha
2. Samudaya
3. Nirodha
4. Magga
5. Ariya
6. Anicca
7. Kamma
8. Nibbāna
9. Majjhimapaṭipadā

The Dukkha

1. The dukkha of Four Noble Truth is not only the dukkha that is relative to the ordinary sukha
which we experienced. According to the teaching of the Buddha states that »yada niccaṃ
taṃ dukkhaṃ.« = what is impermanent, is suffering”. The dukkha is related to the principle

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 of aniccā. Buddhism teaches that the impermanence is a universal nature. In the suttas
(discourses) has been taught as example of dukkha; jāti (birth), jarā (decay), vyādhi (illness)
and maraṇa (death). Union with that one dislike separation from the one likes not getting
what one likes in short grasping (upādāna) of five aggregates (pañcakhandha) as ones is
suffering. The truth of the cause of suffering in the Samaria sutta teaches that craving
(taṇhā) is the chief cause of all these suffering. The truth is the cessation of suffering as
birth, decay and death, etc. by completely dispelling of the craving. The truth of path leading
to cessation of suffering (magga) teaches the way to be followed and achieved this. Here
there is a point that it should understand clearly that is now birth, decay, and death, etc.
became extinct by realization of the Four Noble Truths.

According to the history of the Buddhism, the Buddha and Arahants who had realized the
Four Noble Truth all were: sickness, aging, decay, and death even in their life time. The Buddha
lived about ṭ0 years during his life time especially, in the evening of his life he had ailment (illness)
as the pain like backache and final is sickness with the passing away.
The Thera and Therī gāthā revealed that now monks and nuns who were Arahants faced
dead. All of them had realized the Four Noble Truths themselves. Now it is prevalent to understand
how the suffering like decay and death become an extinct by realization of the Four Noble Truths as
found in the Dhammacakka Sutta that there can be seen one interpretation that Arahants are not
scare of suffering because they do not have the existence after death.
The connecting result of realization of Four Noble Truths to the next world does not agree
with the Buddhist teachings especially, for one who dose not have rebirth. The Dhamma was
introduced as “Ehi pasiko” because the Dhamma has the characteristic of inviting man to “come
and see” that means the result can be seen in one’s present existence itself. If the result of following
Buddhism eligible in the next existence the one cannot call it “Ehipasiko.”

By the term Sandiṭṭhiko is meant that the result of practicing Dhamma can be seen in this
world itself. Akāliko means the time is irrelevant as concerning Buddhism. Therefore, to end the
suffering by realizing the Four Noble Truths cannot be justified through connecting wish after
death.

The attention of scholars who interpreted this point has been directed to explain the
cessation of suffering from a mental stands point. Paṭiccasamuppāda (the doctrine of Dependent of
Origination) explains the arising of dukkha such as decay and death as following;
Dependent on taṇhā (craving) arises upādāna (grasping)
Dependent on upādāna arises the bhava (existence of the ego)
Dependent on bhava arises jāti (birth or arising of the concept of “I” related to the ego
concept)
Dependent on jāti arises jarā maraṇaṃ etc. (the arises of the concept “I will come to decay
and death related to the concept of “I will was born).
According to this analysis the concepts like decay and death arise in our mind because there
is the concept of “I” in us. But in real sense there is no permanent existence of “I.” The craving is
dispelled by realizing the Four Noble Truths, thereby, the concept of “I” and “mine” are also
disappeared. When there is nothing as concept of “I” then the concept like ‘I am born, I come to
decay, I will die’ disappeared. That mental illumination is the reason why the Buddha who realized
the Four Noble Truths as the age of ūṭ years, expressed that ‘I have vanquished (devour) all the

93
suffering like headache, backache and diseases and I will not born again after death. This is the last
birth for me, Tathāgata,’

The first Noble Truth of dukkha declares that everything in the world is unsatisfactory. The
reason for that is impermanent nature of everything. The Buddha expressed the principle of dukkha
related to the impermanence or aniccā. The truth of the origination of suffering (samudaya)
underlines the main reason for unsatisfactoriness as craving because of craving man constructs
ideas of permanence and in the search of that he comes to dissatisfactions repeatedly. Therefore, it
was the Buddha’s teaching not to build permanent concepts in the changing world.
In our mind there are three kinds of cravings namely:
1) Kāmataṇhā (the desire for sense gratification)
2) Bhavataṇhā (the desire for self preservation)
3) Vibhavataṇhā (the desire for destruction)

Kāmtaṇhā can be described as the desire of sense. Enjoyment or pleasure, our desire for
permanence as Bhavataṇhā whiles(?) the desire for non-existence as a bhavataṇhā. According to
traditional interpretation, bhavataṇhā and vibhavataṇhā connected with eternalism (sasata vāda)
and nihilism (uccheda vāda) respectably by the construction of the three folds of taṇhā is meant by
the Nirodhasacca (the truth of cessation of suffering). The cessation of those sufferings is Nibbāna.
The truth of magga reveals the path that should be taken to realize the Nibbāna. It is well-known as
the 'Ariya aṭṭhaṅgikamagga' this is called Eightfold Noble Path.

Two of these eightfold noble paths as sammā diṭṭhi (right View or Understanding) and
Sammā saṅkappa (right thought) are connected with paññā (wisdom) and sammā vācā (right
speech), sammā kammanta (right action) and sammā ājīva (right livelihood) are connected with sīla
(morality) and others are sammā vāyāmo (right effort), sammā sati (right mindfulness) and sammā
samādhi (right concentration) are connected with concentration (samādhi). Although, these factors
are shown separately for ease of analysis; it should be considered as very complex process.
The discipline and balance of the individual behavior is meant by sīla. Equipoise and
concentration of mind is meant by samādhi. Because of the changeful nature of the world the mind
of man like his body is always changing. These changes are two kinds namely; rāga and dosa.
Rāga means 'movement of change of lust' and dosa means 'hatred'. The mind that changes thus sees
only one side of the world. Paññā means “wisdom” in Buddhism not viewing of world from one
side but the purpose; we must name a mind that is tranquil. To achieve that tranquil mind and body,
one must cultivate in the long farm principle of restraint and discipline. The two paths of discipline
that bring about a tranquil mind and body called sīla and samādhi; that individual sees the world
characterized by aniccā, dukkha and anattā and his vision is called paññā. As the Buddha says
»Ñānañca para me dassanaṃ udapādi,« what happens is not the looking of the world through
paññā but really a vision of the world”. “Looking at” is intentionally looking with the defilement of
lust and hatred. The person who endowed sīla and samādhi views the world effortlessly as if really
is. This is called »Yathabhūta ñanadassana.«

94
QUESTION: MORALITY (SĪLA) AND CONCENTRATION (SAMĀDHI) CANNOT BE MEANINGFUL WITHOUT THE RIGHT
13
VIEW. DISCUSS. (BUDDHIST DOCTRINE OF DELIVERANCE AND ITS FINAL GOAL)

Answer: (this answer is bad and is not tally with the Question. This topic is rather about Nibbāna!!!)

Deliverance or final goal is regarded as the finality of cycle of birth or Saṃsāra in Buddhism. Its
nature as taught by the Buddha has been the subject of conroversy from ancient time. It has been variously
interpreted in the ancient age and by modern scholars. Anyway, understanding the basic characteristic of
final goal is leading to satisfactory moral life. According to Dhammapada words:

»Mattā sukha pariccāgā, passe ce vipulaṃ sukhaṃ,

caje mattā sukham dhiro, sampassaṃ vipulaṃ sukhaṃ.«

That means, that one who aspires or wishes to reach the final goal should understand the genuine
characteristic of it, because it leads to modulate one's moral life and he gives sub-unsatisfactory leaving
condition.
Etymologically, Nibbāna may mean three things:
1. „Cooling“ (Sītibhuto) which metaphorically indicates the cooling of the craving and passion.
2. „Stillness produced by the absence of wind of craving and passion“
3. „The extinction of the psycho-physical-complex“ (nāma-rūpakkhandha), which is regarded as responsible
for pain and sorrow.
There are several possible interpretations of the concept of Nibbāna and for each one of them some
supposed can be obtained from the early Buddhist texts. At the primary level, Nibbāna means the extinction
of pain and sorrow. However, then it cannot mean negation of all feelings, because Buddha's heart is said to
have been full of deep compassion and love. At the more philosophical level, Nibbāna means the extinction
of the empirical phenomena (the fields of experiences as kamma, rūpa and arūpa). The third implication of
Nibbāna mentioned in some parts of the Buddhist literature and later developed Mahāyāna interpretation
giving some different interpretations. Anyway, when examined the original texts included Tipiṭaka texts
possibly referred to correct interpretations because the Buddha after having completion of worldly
conditions reached the Nibbāna and explained Nibbāna as an empirical knowledge.
According to Udāna Pāḷi, the final goal is interpreted as an institution without having all the worldly
condition, material and non-material:

»Atthi bhikkhave tadāyatanaṃ yattha neva pathavī na āpo na tejo na vāyo na ākāsānañcāyatanaṃ
na viññānañcāyatanaṃ na ākiñcaññāyatanaṃ na nevasaññāsaññāyatanaṃ nāyaṃ loko na paroloko
na ubho candimasuriyā.«

Lobhakkhayo nibbānaṃ, dosakkhayo nibbānaṃ and mohakkhayo nibbānaṃ mean the elimination of
lust, hatred and delusion, which is Nibbāna, which is also meant by the conditions of without having lobha,
dosa, moha is known as Nibbāna which should be experienced and not to be reached.(?) When one destroys
gradually the existence of material and non-material conditions, he can reach the state of Nibbāna. Thus the
rough or material parts of the existence could be restrained from moral conduct and non-material condition
as restraint by samādhi and complete elimination of defilements could be fulfilled through paññā or wisdom.

13 This topic is not appropriate answer for the Question. This topic is about Nibbāna, but not about Right view, which
is asked in the Question!!!

95
 TILAKKHANA, THREE CHARACTERISTICS (LECTURED BY MR. UDITA GARUSINGHA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN.
SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Three characteristics in Buddhism are basic principle namely; aniccā (impermanence),

dukkha (suffering) and anattā (soullessness). The basic teachings of the Buddha like Four Noble
truths and Dependent Origination etc. are made meaningful in the basic of the teaching of three
characteristics. Therefore Buddhism is in every important.
It appeared that in 6th century B.C. when the Buddhism arose many religions and
philosophies putting forth the view that there is permanent soul as apposed to the principle of
everything is 'impermanent'. Especially the Vedic Tradition as well as Jainism teach that there is a
permanent soul described as paramātma, jagadātma, Brāhmaṇa Īśvara and Pratyagātma existing in
the individual.

Buddhism teaches a theory of soullessness 'anattā' instead of impermanent soul. The

teaching of impermanence (aniccā) is not limited to Buddhism alone, other religions also teach it.
However, they taught, aniccā not as universal law but applicable only to certain instances, aniccā
did not apply concepts of ātman, Paramātma or Brāhmaṇa etc. but Buddhism, for the first time in
Indian religious history, taught aniccā as a universal law. Following statements clarify this fact:
»Sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā
sabbaṃ aniccaṃ.
Suññaṃ idaṃ etena
vā attaniyena vā.«

Analysis is the methodology (a set or system of method) of early Buddhism to show

impermanence of everything.
Nāma rūpa (mind and matter = physical and material factor) or the beings and the world.
Everything in universe and loka is analyzed into five aggregates as;

3. Rūpa (forms)
4. Vedanā (feeling)
5. Saññā (perception)
6. Viññāṇa ( consciousness)
In early Buddhism.

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 THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS

The three characteristic features of existence, tilakkhana are:

1. Impermanence (aniccā)
2. Unsatisfactoriness (dukkha)
3. Selflessness (anattā)

Buddhism teaches that there is nothing in the universe that does not change, nothing is
permanent, nothing remains the same for ever. Impermanence is the nature of all things be it man,
animal or whatever else. Everything that comes into existence fails to last(?) and finally perishes.
Buddhism is primarily concerned with the human being and notes that an individual, formed of the
five aggregates, is constantly changing. All things are subject to arising and passing away, they are
impermanent (sabbe sankhārā aniccā).

Another characteristic feature or existence is the presence of a general unsatisfactory state,

dukkha. Sometimes unpleasant things happen, events which are difficult to endure arise, causing
suffering, sorrow, sadness, misery or pain. All beings seek what is pleasurable and dislike what is
non-pleasurable. All like happiness and dislike unhappiness.

Happiness and pleasure however do not last forever, they are transient and bound to change.
When happiness ends and pleasurable things cease to exist one feels uneasy or sad. So in life there
is always an underlying element of unsatisfactoriness (dukkha). There are three kinds of dukkha:
1. Dukkha-dukkha (intrinsic or ordinary suffering)
2. Viparināma-dukkha (suffering due to change)
3. Sankhāra-dukkha (suffering due to formation and conditioned states)

In accordance with the law of the universe of impermanence, all the phenomena of existence
whatsoever are subject to change and dissolution and hence are miserable and unsatisfactory (sabbe
saṁkhār dukkhā).
The third characteristic feature of existence is „egolessness,“ „no-soul“ (anattā). The
impermanence and unsatisfactoriness naturally leads to the basic Buddhist concept of anattā.

The body is soul-less. If there was a soul, this body would not be subject to impermanence,
to change and suffering. If this body has a soul such possibilities like „let this body be thus“ or „let
this body not be thus“ would not be available.
Similarly, the mind is soul-less. Sensations, perceptions, mental formations and
consciousness are always changing. Since the mind and body are always changing - 'no-soul' could
exist. If one truly realizes that everything is changing it becomes obvious there is really nothing
called 'Myself' or 'Mine'.

The teaching of 'no self' (anattā) is difficult to comprehend, because for so long one is
conditioned to think in terms 'I', 'mine', 'myself', 'my soul'. The Buddha reallized and taught that
only when the three fundamental evils of desire (rāga), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) are fully
uprooted, one is free from the bondage of the 'self'. And then the ignorance is destroyed and one's
mind becomes enlightened.

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 INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THREE CHARACTERISTICS (ANICCĀ, DUKKHA AND ANATTĀ – TILAKKHANA)

Almost all religions and philosophies of the Buddha's time in India believed in a permanent
'thing' as the essence of all phenomena. In the individual this essence was called ātman, and in that
of the world was called Brāhmaṇ. Eternalists believed this essence to be metaphysical, permanent
and everlasting, the annihilationists/nihilists(?) considered it to be physical, impermanent and
getting annihilated. Their world view was based on this core belief in an essence, a substance, an
entity which lasted forever without changing, or which lasted for times without changing.
The Buddha considered this view pointed out that it is when viewed from this wrong point
of view that there arises suffering. Then, analysis of the cause of dukkha is that it is due to distorted
vision. This makes one believe in some entity or a substance (attā). This remains without changing,
therefore it gives happiness, whereas whatever gives happiness should not be changing. The Pāli
suttas describe the distorted vision as »anice nicca saññā, dukkhe sukha saññā, anattani atta
saññā«.
Thus the Buddha pointed out that it was against reality. Being misled by the distorted
vision, when one meets with reality he experiences change, and change produces suffering. To
explain this problem and show the real nature of phenomena the Buddha said that there are three
characteristics of all phenomena. Phenomena he pointed out in what is compunded and not
something independent and discreet. Therefore all phenomena he described as saṁkhāta. All what
is saṃkhāta has three characteristics (»tīni saṁkhāta lakkhanāni). These are aniccā
(impermanence), dukkha (suffering), and anattā (no-soul). This is the true nature of all dhammā that
are saṁkhāta.
The Buddha pointed out that what is saṁkhāta is aniccā (»sabbe saṁkhārā aniccā«), what
is aniccā is dukkha (»yad aniccaṃ taṃ dukkhaṃ«), and what is dukkha is without a self (»yad
dukkhaṃ tad anattā«). This is the basis of the Buddhist world view, a view that presents the true
nature of things. Buddha's explanation is that it is the ignorance (avijjā) regarding the true nature
of things or the lack of knowledge regarding „things as they are“ (yathābhūta ñāna) is the cause of
man's suffering.
In order to bring out this clearly he analyzed the being and the world in number of ways.
These are five main such analyses:

1. nāma-rūpa
2. pañcakkhandha
3. 6 dvāra
4. 12 āyatana
5. 18 dhātu

The purpose of all these analyses is to show the absence of an entity and show that all
phenomena are impermanent (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anatta). This presents a
correct vision of being and the world.

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN HOW THE BUDDHIST WORLD VIEW IS ILLUSTRATED IN THE TEACHING OF THE THREE
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENCE.

The aim of Buddhism is to understand the man’s predicament (dukkha) and bring about its
cessation (nirodha). To do this it is necessary to understand what dukkha is. This could be done by
udnerstanding our existence for it is said that the whole existence that is the whole world is
established on dukkha.
The Buddha explains that our vision about the world is distorted by our craving (rāga,
lobha), hatred (dosa) and confusion (moha). Due to the influence of these defiling forces we fail to
view the world as it is. Instead we view as we wish it to be. So, our vision of the world is
determined by our likes and dislikes (rāga, dosa), which are due to our confusion (moha).
Therefore, the world view we have is a misleading one.
Being misled by this wrong, distorted vision we see permanence in what is impermanent
(anicca nicca saññā), happiness in what is sorrowful (dukkha sukha saññā) and a soul or some
entity where ther is no such soul (anattani atta saññā).
It is this distorted vision, the wrong world view that causes as dukkha when we are faced
with reality. All phenomena are interdependent (sabbbe dhammā paṭiccasamuppannā). Whatever is
interdependent has no independent, permanent existence. We put together interdependent things and
call them as permanent things. But in reality what is put together or compounded (sankhāta /
saṅkhāra) are impermanent (aniccā). Whatever is impermanent is suffering (yad aniccaṃ taṃ
dukkhaṃ) From this it follows that whatever is suffering due to impermanence is wihtout a soul
(yad dukkha taṃ anattā).
Thus it is seen that all phenomena is marked by these three characteristics of aniccā, dukkha,
anattā. A world view based on this understanding straightens our distorted, crooked vision and
makes us see things, the world in its true perspective. This vision makes us understand our
predicament (dukkha) and helps us to attain its cessation (nirodha).

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 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

Truth is an incontrovertible fact which everyone has to face. There are four such truths
according to Buddhism. The Buddha himself discovered them by his own intuitive knowledge and
revealed them to the deluded world. They do not and cannot change with time because they are
eternal truths.

The Four Noble Truths are as follows:

1. The truth of suffering or sorrow (dukkha sacca)
2. The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya sacca)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (samudaya sacca)
4. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga sacca)

In details, the first one is meaning that birth, old age, illness, death, association with those
we do not love, separation from those we love. Not to get whatt we desire and in brief the five
aggregates of clinging.
The second is craving what leads our life not to free from suffering from rebirth to rebirth or
from life to life in saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth).
The third one, nirodha sacca means the deliverance or cessation from all suffering. It links
our life to the part of Noble.(?)
The last one, magga sacca means that is(?) Noble(?) including(?) with eight portions. if one
who realizes them in greatest insight knowledge, could be called Ariya or Noble man, who attained
the Nibbāna.
Whether a buddha arises or not, these Four Noble Truths exist in the universe. We can not
know because the sensible of truths of our wisdom is covered by ignorance.(?) The Buddha only
reveals these Four Noble Truths that were hidden in the dark abyss of time. The Buddha was not
indebted to anyone for his realization of them. he himself said: »They were unheard before.«
These truths are in Pāli termed as cattāri ariyasaccāni. They are so called because they were
discovered by the greatest Ariya, the Buddha, who completely removed all his passions.
Although the Buddha passed away, the Four Noble Truths that he discovered still exist in
the world. By following his teachings, one, who wants to enjoy sense of the truths, would possess
them like a Noble person, who had attained the Nibbāna, which is the ultimate goal of Buddhists.

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 FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (1)

The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teaching. At the Mahāparinibbāna sutta
states, it is the ignorance of these truths that make all beings wander in this saṃsāric round of births and deaths. In
fact the Buddhist explanation is that ignorance (avijjā) which is the primary cause of suffering is our lack of
knowledge regarding these truths (catu sacce aññānaṃ avijjā). On the contrary, vijjā is defined as knowledge of
the Four Noble Truths.
Its importance is such that the Buddha announced these Four Noble Truths in his first discourse itself.
When analyzed deeply it is seen that the presentation of the Four Noble Truths is another way of presenting the
Buddha's central teaching of dependent origination. It is accepted that the Buddha's main concern was about
man's dukkha and its cessation (nirodha). He says: »Pubbe cāhaṃ etarahi ca dukkhaṃ paññāpemi dukkhassa
nirodhaṃ.« The doctrine of the Four Noble Truths is about that, what is about the causally conditioned nature of
dukkha and its cessation. The Four Noble Truths are:

1. Dukkha ariya sacca

2. Dukkha samudaya ariya sacca
3. Dukkha nirodha ariya sacca
4. Dukkha nirodha gāminī paṭipadā

In the Dhammacakkappavattana sutta the Buddha says that the Four Noble Truths should be
apprehended in three phases and twelve aspects (ti-parivattaṁ dvādasākaraṁ). Three phases (ti-parivatta) mean:
(a) saccañāna – knowledge of each truth
(b) kiccañāna – knowledge of the approach to be applied to each truth
(c) katañāna – knowledge about the fulfillment of such approach.
When these three modes are applied to the Four Noble Truths then we get the twelve aspects.
It is only when the Four Noble Truths are comprehended and understood in manner that one becomes free
from dukkha. Such understanding makes one truly see what dukkha is, how it arises, how it could be ceased and
the way leading to its cessation. This enables one to see the dukkha originating and ceasing within one's own
mind. Then one knows that dukkha and sukha are neither punishments nor rewards given by any external agency.
One understands that they are one's own making. When one sees the causal origin of dukkha he realizes that its
cessation is possible through the removal of causes. This is the realization:

»Yam kiñci samudaya dhammaṃ sabbaṃ taṃ nirodha dhammaṃ.«

The path lays down the means of achieving this cessation. It is not by washing away externally all
defilements but by having a complete internal bath that one can clean oneself of all the defiling forces and
achieving happiness. It is our failure to understand and apply a proper approach towards the Four Noble Truths
that we suffer. We take them as separate truths. The Buddha has clearly shown that understanding the Four
Truths separately is like the attempt of the blind men to understand an elephant.
The Four Noble Truths have to be taken together, for they are not four different truths, but one truth with
four aspects. The key point is dukkha. But, according to Buddhism whatever arises has to invariably/inevitably(?)
cease. Therefore, there is cessation of dukkha. For this, the cause – tanhā has to be eliminated. This could be done
by following the Noble Eightfold Path consisting of the threefold training with sīla aiding samādhi, and samādhi
supporting paññā. One will be able to see the āsavā or defiling forces that one is kept bound to saṃsāra. These
knowing and seeing (jānaṃ – passaṃ) once, āsavā get completely destroyed by seeing with paññā: »paññāya ca
disvā āsavā parikkhīnā honti.« The aim of the Four Noble Truths is to direct one to end.

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 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (2)

The Four Noble Truths are the most important doctrine of Buddhism. They are the noble
truth of the suffering –
1. Dukkha ariya sacca - the noble truth of the suffering
2. Dukkha samudaya ariya sacca - the noble truth of the origin of the suffering
3. Dukkha nirodha ariya sacca – the noble truth of the cessation of the suffering
4. Ariya magga sacca – the noble truth of the way to the cessation of the suffering

The truth of the suffering is to be compared with a disease; the truth of the origin of the
suffering with the cause of disease; the truth of the cessation of the suffering with the cure of the
disease; and the truth of the path to the cessation of the suffering with the medicine.14

The conception of dukkha may be viewed from three aspects:

1. Dukkha as ordinary suffering
2. Dukkha-dukkha as a suffering produced by change
3. Viparināma dukkha – as a conditioned state (Saṁkhāra dukkha)

All kinds of suffering in life such as birth, old age, sickness and death are included in
dukkha. All such forms of physical and mental suffering are included in dukkha-dukkha. A happy
feeling and condition in life is not permanent, not everlasting. It is always changing. Sooner or later
it produces pain, suffering and unhappiness. This kind of vicissitude is included in viparināma
dukkha.
A combination of ever changing physical and mental forces or energies, which are divided
into five khanda or aggregates, is called a burning(?) dukkha itself (saṁkhāra dukkha). There is no
being or 'I' standing behind these five aggregates. mere suffering exists but no suffering is found.
The deeds are but no doer is found.
The origin of the suffering is craving (taṇhā), which produces the re-existence and
becoming. Craving for sense pleasure (kāma-taṇhā), craving for existence and becoming (bhava-
taṇhā) and craving for the non-existence (vibhava-taṇhā) are the main causes of all kinds of the
suffering.
The third noble truth is that the emancipation, liberation from the suffering is Dukkha
nirodha ariya sacca, which is Nibbāna. The Fourth Noble Truth is that of the way leading to the
cessation of dukkha. This is a middle path, because it avoids the extremeness. The Buddha
discovered this through his personal experience. This middle path can give the vision and
knowledge which can lead to the insight enlightenment, Nibbāna. It is referred to as the Eightfold
Noble Path (ariya aṭṭhaṁgika magga).

14 Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, one of the most famous translators of Pāli Tipiṭaka to English, gives the simile, that the
Buddha is like a doctor, whom we visit. The doctor examines us well and says: „You are sick.“ That is like when
the Buddha said: „There is a suffering.“ Then the doctor examines even more and tells us what is the cause of our
sickness.“ Not much differently the Buddha told us: „the cause of suffering is craving.“ Consequently the doctor,
because he has the knowledge, tells us, that it is possible to cure the sickness. The same way the Buddha
announced: „there is a way out of suffering.“ Finally, the doctor gives us some medicine and advice, so that we can
cure the sickness. Similarly, the Buddha lets us know the Noble Eightfold Path, leading out of suffering.

102
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE NOBLE TRUTH OF SUFFERING AND ADDUCE ARGUMENTS TO SHOW THAT IT IS NOT A
PESSIMISTIC VIEW OF LIFE.

The essence of Buddhism is found in the Four Noble Truths (cattāri ariya saccāni). The first
of these is the Noble Truth of suffering (dukkha ariya sacca). Though it is listed first it does not
mean that it is more important than the other three. All four truths are of equal importance, and they
are not four different truths, but four aspects of the single truth, namely dukkha.
The Buddha, summing up his teaching, says that he teaches only two things, namely the
prevailence of dukkha and the cessation of dukkha. The suttas contain such statements as the world
is established in dukkha (dukkhe loko patiṭṭhito). This emphasis of dukkha has made some to
consider Buddhism as a pessimistic teaching.
But such a conclusion is not at all justified. What does the First Noble Truth mean? It means
that birth is dukkha, so is old age, disease and death; similarly all kinds of disappointment are
dukkha. Finally it say that saṅsāric life or the five aggregartes of clinging (pañcupādānakkhandha)
are dukkha.
There is nothing pessimistic about this. This is only a statement of fact – describing life as it
really is. If it is anything it is a realistic view of life and not a pessimistic view.
Those who consider Buddhism as pessimistic have failed to understand the real meaning of
dukkha. They take dukkha to mean suffering. But this is only one of its many meanings. The term
dukkha means besides suffering, unhappiness, unsatisfactoriness, pain etc. In essence dukkha is a
lingering mental pain, non-satisfactoriness that makes one suffer mentally, a sharp mental agony.
Whether we like it or not, we all have to undergo such mental agony as long as we fail to get
rid of it. Buddhism teaches how one could get rid of it (nirodha). The second Truth shows the cause
of its origins, the third its cessation and the fourth the way to cessation. Finally Buddhism teaches
how to experience supreme bliss (Nibbāna) state, which is blissful, because it is free from dukkha
(dukkhakkhaya). How can a teaching, which presents supreme happiness as the goal be called
‘pessimistic’?
Such a conclusion is derived through non-comprehensive understanding of the Buddha's
teaching on dukkha. Understanding only a part of the teaching they arrive at wrong conclusions, just
like blind one attempting to understand the form of an elephant by touching its different parts.

103
 QUESTION: NOBLE TRUTH OF DUKKHA (SUFFERING) CANNOT BE PROPERLY UNDERSTOOD IN SEPARATION FROM
OTHER TRUTHS. DISCUSS.

The Four Noble Truths or cattāri ariya saccāni as they are referred to in Pāli are as follows:
1. The Noble Turth of dukkha (dukkha ariya sacca)
2. The Noble Turth of the arising of dukkha (dukkha samudaya ariya sacca)
3. The Noble Truth of cessation of dukkha (dukkha nirodha ariya sacca)
4. The Noble Turth of practice leading to the cessation of dukkha (dukkha nirodha gāminī paṭipadā
ariya sacca)

In brief, they are called dukkha sacca, samudaya sacca, nirodha sacca and magga sacca.
These Truths are so important that the Buddha has declared that he has well as others continued in
Saṅsra because of the ignorance of these Truths. Thus it is clear that the correct understanding of
these Truths is the way to freedom from dukkha or realization of Nibbāna.
The first Truth deals about what dukkha is. It starts by explaining common dukkha such as
birth, decay, death and not obtaining what one desires, then goes on to explain how change of
conditions brings about dukkha. Frinally it declares that all five aggregates of grasping (upādāna) as
dukkha.
The second truth deals with the cause of dukkha and herein taṇhā or craving is given as its
cause. The third truth deals with the possibility of cessation (nirodha) of dukkha or the realization
of Nibbāna. The fourth las down the path that leads to it. This is the Noble Eightfold Path, the ariya
aṭṭhaṅgika magga.
It is clear that these four truths contain the whole of the Buddha's teaching, for the Buddha
says that he teaches only about the prevailence of dukkha is necessarily connected with its solution,
namely nirodha. Therefore, it is seen that the four truths dealing with dukkha, its arising, cessation
and the path leading to cessation are inter-related.
The basic truth is dukkha. The other three truths are different aspects of it, for they deal with
its arising (samudaya), cessation (nirodha) and the path (magga) leading to cessation.
These truths cannot be understood in isolation. They have to be understood as a whole, as
different aspects of a single truth. If one separates them, then one sees only one aspect of the truth
and the picture he obtains would be partial and incomplete as the view the blind people obtain by
trying to understand the sahpe of an elephant by touching the different parts of its body.
Dukkha can be understood only if one understands its cause; this understanding is
incomplete if does not see the possibility of its cessation (nirodha). This understanding becomes
useful only if one understands the path. Thus, it is clearly seen that these are not four different
truths, but one single truth viewed from four different angles.

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE BUDDHIST TEACHING ON HAPPINESS
Some who failed to understand Buddhism properly labelled Buddhism as a pessimistic
teaching. By focussing their attention on dukkha alone, and not trying to understand the For Noble
Truths as a single teaching, they wrongly concluded that Buddhism teaches only dukkha.
This is clearly seen that the Buddhism while emphasizing the prevailence of dukkha in the
world (dukkhe loko patiṭṭhito), very clearly states that there is enjoyment (assāda / sukha) and also
complete cessation of unhappiness (nissaraṇa / nirodha).
Buddhism speaks of two main kinds of sukha or happiness. These are the happiness enjoyed
by the recluse (pabbajjita sukha) and the happiness enjoyed by the householders (gihī sukha).
Among these Buddhism consideres the former as a higher form of happiness as it comes from
renunciation (pabbajjā). This renunciation helps one to reduce selfishness, which is the basis of all
unhappiness.
Speakin gabout the householders the Buddha divides them into two categories. On eis the
householder who is dressed in white, meaning more inclined to religious life (gihī odātavasāno).
The other is the householder who enjoys pleasure (gihī kāmabhogī).
Speaking about the latter the Buddha says that poverty is a primary cause of unhappiness
for the householders. Therefore, the Buddha encourages them to work hard, earn righteously and
enjoy life, helping themselves, others and discharging all their duties.
The Buddha speaks of four kinds of happiness a householder could enjoy. These are:
1. Atthi sukha – the happiness an individual feels when he knows that he has enough. Satisfaction
and contentment (santuṭṭhī) with the fulfilling the basic needs gives one happiness.
2. Bhoga sukha – the happiness an individual feels when he enjoys what he has rightly earned.
3. Anna sukha – this is the happiness when one has enough and there is no need to fall into debt.
Falling into debt is a great source of misery. If one is able to know one is free of debts, this is a
great happiness one could enjoy.
4. Anavajja sukha – this is the deep mental happiness an individual feels when his consciousness is
clear that he has not done anything bad or wrong in earning his living.

Besides these there are various other kinds of happiness. These are happiness of married life,
having children, doing well in life and so on. But above the highest happiness (parama sukha) is
that of realization of Nibbāna, which puts an end to all unhappiness (dukkha).

105
 THE DOCTRINE OF KAMMA
Friends, in this talk I will speak to you about the doctrine of kamma, as it is a fundamental
teaching in Buddhism. In a system which does not recognize the existence of a God, who would be
the Creator, mainainer and judge who would dispense justice, many of his functions are taken by
the law of kamma. Creation is attributed to the laws of nature such as evolution, worship goes to the
Buddha, and dispensing justice and retribution goes to the impersonal law of kamma.
No one who rejects the teaching of kamma can call himself a Bbuddhist. To be a Buddhist
one will have to accept the prevailence of the law of kamma. We have to accept kamma bbecause of
its soundness and the fact that it explains the diverse fortunes of men bbetter than any other theory
known to man. The only verifiable evidence for kamma that I know of is found in the works of
Edgar Cayce of America. His clairvoyant readings about kamma and the past lives of people have
been verified and found to be correct in so far as was possible. Books such as „Many mansions,
many lives – many Loves, and the world within“ by Gina Geraminara and Edgar Cayce on
Reincarnation by Jess Stern provide the details.
The word kamma means ‘action’. Here the law of action and reaction, cause and effect
operating in the psychic realm was revealed by the Buddha. Here we are told that good actions
bear good results, while evil actions bring about bad effects. The law of cause and effect is accepted
in the scientific world and allied disciplines. Everything that we know what operates on this law,
and therefore it is reasonable to suppose that in the psychic realm too this law operates. Now
kamma is based on volition or cetanā, that caused the action. hence actions that are not motivated
byb any deliberate or calculated volution that is unintended actions do not constitute kamma. The
Buddha was clear on this when he said: „O monks, I declare that volition is the kamma“ - »Cetanā
haṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi.«
Without maintaining the existence of a person, an individual who performs good and bad
actions no kamma theory can be maintained or preached. There is no meaning in saysing that the
five-fold aggregates (pañca-khandha) performs good and bad deeds and accumulates kamma. Their
existence in combination has to be accepted as the self for purposes of teaching kamma and rebirth.
Until we realize and understand the full significance of anattā in the higher spiritual light of
Arahantship, we will have to accept and base our behavior in the conventional basis that there is a
person who wanders in saṅsāra and performs kusala and akusala kamma. In many of the
Buddha's sermons He refers to a person performing good and bad deeds. For example the lines of
the Dhammapada: „If a person performs a meritorious deed, let him perform it again and again.“
and „One who is born as a mortal must perform a large store of meritorious deeds.“
»Santi bhikkhave ekacce samaṇa brāhmaṇā ucchedavāde sato satassa vināsaṃ paññapeti.«
In this text the Buddha says that some ascetics and Brahmins and materialists say that the
being is completely destroyed at death. Here also the Buddha speaks of a person who at death is
supposed to be annihilated. Therefore, on ehas to take into account the existence of aperson, it
cannot be denied as is done by Abhidhamma casuistry. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka was ???

106
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE STATEMENT THAT „VOLITION ITSELF IS KAMMA“ IS RELEVANT TO A CORRECT
UNDERSTANDING OF KAMMA.

The teaching on kamma is found in almost all religious schools of India during the time of
the Buddha. Some schools like Jainism considered to form kamma as the most important feature
that decides the present life. Many of these schools emphasized the physical performance of kamma
as being the most important aspect of kamma. The Buddha offered a completely new interpretation
in his teaching regarding kamma and its consequences (vipāka).
The Buddha defined kamma saying in the Nibbedhikapariyāya Sutta of the Aṅguttara
Nikāya, that volition is kamma; one having willed performs deeds through body, speech and mind.
Here the emphasis is on volition or intention that makes one act. The Dhammapada in its first
stanza itself shows the importance of the mind in deciding the goodness or badness that is the moral
quality of the deed.
According to this view all actions do not come under kamma. Only actions done with the
necessary intention have any moral quality. Unintentional kamma are morally neutral. Therefore,
one is responsible only for one’s intentional kamma.
The intention is decided by the root-causes that motivate one to act through body, speech
and mind. There are three evil root-causes, namely lobha, dosa and moha. All deeds done through
these are evil. Their opposite root-causes are alobha, adosa and amoha, which bring about good
deeds.
Though intention is the basis of kamma, intention by itsef does not complete kamma. If it
remains as an intention, then it is only a mental kamma, which itself can be morally good or bad. It
is only when the volition is put into action through body and speech that kamma gets completed.
Thus intention to kill, if it is not carried out will only be a mental kamma and one will obtain
consequence accordingly. If it is put into operation through body or speech he would become
murderer. Then one is guilty of intentional killing and the consequence would come accordingly.
Just as kamma is mainly mental, consequences, too, are primarily mental. Whatever physical
consequences that happen would be due to these mental consequences.

107
 QUESTION: DEFINE THE CONCEPT OF KAMMA AND DISCUSS VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE TEACHINGS OF KAMMA.

The teaching on kamma could be found in almost all religious schools of India during the
life of the Buddha. Some schools believed that everything happened due to former kamma,
everything happened due to the will of God. And some believed that everything happened without
cause, that they were mere accidents and coincidences.

The Buddha rejected all these erroneous views and defined kamma as an intentionally
committed deed. In the Nibedhikapariyāya sutta the kamma is said to be cetanā or 'volition':
»Cetanāhaṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi.«, were volition is understood as one of the mental
properties. There is another word – chanda – which stands for wishing, desire for a result.

Each individual kamma is one's own personal action, it results in one's own personal
inheritance. One alone should consider his decisions, no matter to what degree others may try to
force one. Yet an unwholesome deed done under strong compulsion does not have quite the same
force as one performed voluntarily. Under threat of torture or of death a man may be compelled to
torture or kill someone else. In such a case, it may be believed that the gravity of the kamma is
decided. Therefore, according to Buddhist interpretation the will is necessary to consider a deed as
kamma.

This brings us to the question of collective kamma as we have seen each man's kamma is his
own individual experience. No one can interfere with the kamma of in other beyond a certain point,
therefore no one can interfere the results of personal kamma. Yet it often happens that numbers of
people are associated in the same kind of action and share the same kind of thought, they become
closely involved with one another, they influence one another.

it is in fact this kind of mass kamma that produces different kinds or results. Therefore in
Buddhism intention is given priority taking the result of a certain kamma. The result of kamma is of
kamma is known as vipāka, which means 'ripening'. these terms – kamma and vipāka and the idea
they stand for must not be confused. Vipāka is pre-determined by ourselves according to our
previous kamma.

According to texts, kamma can be regarded as an active principle and vipāka as the passive
mode of coming to be. We have seen that through th lobha, dosa, moha and alobha, adosa, amoha
only the results of kamma can be decided. But yet there is a large number of action which can not
be avoided. In such a case psychologically each individual should decide whether he has done good
kamma or bad kamma. On the conclusion we have to understand that kamma theory is the leading
factor to decide one's process of life and it modulates one's life time in the cycle of birth. When the
good or bad actions are stopped that is the cessation of saṃsāra, that's why an Arahant is introduced
as puññapāpabahina, one who has destroyed merits and demerits, both together because he has
stopped the birth after eliminating all the cankers.

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 NATURE OF KAMMA (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

Volition is kamma, as the Buddha uttered. The popular meaning of kamma is 'action' or 'doing'. But
regarding its technical meaning, kamma means 'volition' or 'will'. When you do something, there is a volition
behind it, and that volition, that mental effect is called kamma. Whatever you do there is some kind of
kamma. Mental effect, 'will' and 'volition'. 'Volition' is one of the fifty-two mental states which arise together
with consciousness.
According to the law of kamma, if you do good deeds you get good results and if you do bad deeds
you get bad results. however, these good and bad results are not given by anyone and not given by as reward
and punishment. Kamma is a moral law which does not need any law-giver, it is a law that operates naturally.
Any kinds of intentional action whether mental or physical are regarded as kamma. Generally
speaking, all good or bad action constituted kamma. In this ultimate sense kamma means all moral and
immoral volition (kusala kamma, akusala kamma). The Buddha says:

»I declare, oh bhikkhus, that volition (cetanā) is kamma. Having willed one acts by body,
speech and thought.«

When you do something such as making an offering to the Buddha, there is volition which prompts
you to give, and that volition is called kamma. Thus kamma is the cause, not the effect. Some people say that
ikammai mean the cause, the deeds and also the effects. But in Theravāda Buddhism kamma never means
the effect or the result. Kamma means only the cause.
There are five aggregates:
1. Matter
2. Feeling
3. Perception
4. Mental formations
5. Consciousness

Kamma belongs to the mental aggregates; volition belongs to the aggregations of formation. The
aggregate of mental formations lasts only a very short time. It comes into beings – it stays only a little bit of
time. And then passes away. But volition is different from other mental states in that it has ability to leave
some potential when it dies, it does not disappear altogether. It leaves something, some power or potential to
give results, when circumstances favor those results to appear. One does kamma here and now, but the results
come here in this life, in the next life or in some life after after the next life.
Kamma does not end with the demise of the present life. It goes on and on. But we cannot say that
kamma is stored somewhere in our body or consciousness. Because everything is impermanent and must be
continually changing, kamma is likewise impermanent and so disappears. But it leaves a potential in the
continuity of beings, so that when circumstances are favorable for results to appear, those results appear.
Similarly, a tree can be said to have the potential to give results. There are no fruits in the trees at first. But
when the opportune-times arise, fruits appear. Likewise the results of kamma.
When we say about kamma, we should not leave the results or fruitions of kamma (kamma-vipāka).
Kamma is action or cause and vipāka, fruition or result, is its reaction. As kamma may be good or bad, so
may vipāka be good or bad. Good beget good and bad beget bad. As we sow, we reap somehwere or
someday, in this life or in the future birth. What we reap today is what we have sown either in the present or
in the past.

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 KAMMA (IN SANSKRIT KARMA) – VIPĀKA (THE FRUITION OF KAMMA) THEORY (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA)
(original by ven. Medhananda)

The Pāli word kamma (karma) literally means 'action' or 'doing'. Any kind of intentional action
whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded as kamma. It covers all that is included in the phrase „thought,
word and deed.“ Generally speaking, all good and bad actions constitute kamma. In this ultimate sense
'kamma' means all moral and immoral volition (kusala-akusala cetanā). Involuntary, unintentional or
unconscious actions, though technically deeds, do not constitute kamma, because volition, the most
important factor in determining kamma is absent.

The Buddha said:

»I declare, oh bhikkhus, that volition (cetanā) is kamma. having willed one acts by body, speech and
thought.«

Every volitional action of an individual except buddhas and arahats, is called kamma. The exception
made in their case is because they are delivered from both good and evil; they have eradicated ignorance and
craving – the roots of kamma.

»Destroyed are their (grmīnal(?)) seeds (khīna bījā); (selfish) desire grows no longer.«

states the Ratana sutta. This does not mean that the buddhas and arahants are passive. Kamma does
not necessarily mean 'past' actions. It embraces both past and present deeds. In short, kamma is the law of
cause and effect in the ethical realm.

Kamma is action and vipāka, fruit or result, is its reaction. Just a very object is accompanied by a
shadow even so every volitional activity inevitably accompanied by its due affect. Like potential seed is
kamma. Fruit, arising from the tree, is like the vipāka, effect or result. The leaves, flowers and so forth which
correspond with the external differences such as health, sickness, poverty etc. are vipāka.(?) Ānisaṁsa and
ādinavā (as the vipāka) of kamma inevitably pertain to mind.

Like kamma may be good or bad, so may vipāka fruit be good or bad. Ānisaṁsa are the concomitant
advantageous material things, such as prosperity, health and longevity. When vipāka's concomitant material
things are disadvantageous, they are known as Ānisaṁsa, „full of wretchedness,“ and appear as poverty,
ugliness, disease, short life span and so forth.
As we sow, we reap, somewhere and someday, in this life or in a future birth. What we 'reap' today is
what we have 'sown' either in the present or in the past. Saṁyutta nikāya states:

»According to the seed that's sown,

So is the fruit ye reap there from,
Doer of good will gather good, Doer of evil, evil reaps,
Sown is the seed, and thus shaft taste,
The fruit thereof.«

Kamma is a law in itself which operates in its own field without the intervention of any external,
independent ruling agency. The cause produces the effect. the effect explains the cause. The seed produces
the fruit; the fruit explains the seed, such is their relationship. Even so are kamma and its effect - „the effect
already blooms in the cause.“

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 THE THEORY OF KAMMA (THE FRUITION OF KAMMA AND ITS DIFFERENT CATEGORIES)
(a mixed version from two anonymous originals having first half same and second half different)

Kamma is simply an action or a deed. Actions are performed in three ways, by body, by mind and by speech.
Every action during its time is performed because there is a desire for a result.15 This desire is a form of craving. It
expresses the thirst (taṇhā) for existence and for personal gain.
According to the Nibbedhika Pariyāya sutta of Aṁguttara nikāya, kamma is defined as: »cetanāhaṃ
bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi« („kamma is known as volitional act“).16 The actions in which mind is involved, are
bonded with intention. This is expressed by the Pāli word „cetanā“ or volition, which is one of the mental properties
(cetasika).
An action (kamma) is morally unwholesome (akusala) when it is motivated by the forms of craving that are
associated with greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). It is morally wholesome (kusala) when it is motivated
by the opposite factors – greedlessness (alobha), amity (adosa) and wisdom (amoha).
Now each deed performed with intention is a creative act. By reason of will behind them it constitutes a force.
It is a force analogous to others unseen physical forces that move the universe (cittena nīyate loko). By our thoughts,
words and deeds, we create our worlds from moment to moment in the endless process of change. We also created
ourselves. That is to say, we mount our changing accretion of deeds and the preponderance of one kind over another,
that determines what we will become n the life and in the subsequent ones.
In this creating our personality, we create also the conditions in which it functions and the other kinds of world.
Therefore the mind is the master of world and is man's made. According to Dhammapada's first verse,
„manopubbaṁgamā dhammā“ which means mind is the forerunner of all the mental properties. From this we come to
understand that it is result of mental force, which forms the point of our new birth. This is the only link between one life
and the other.
According to Buddhist teachings, kamma, vipāka or result of the kamma can be decided according to the
intentional actions, good or bad being done by a person. In many suttas, especially in sutta in Lonaphalavaggo,
Lonaphala sutta (Aṁguttara nikāya), there must be some other conditions (paccaya) for the completion of the particular
kamma. In that sutta very satisfactory parable is given concerning the taste of salt. According to that parable when a bit
of salt is put into small jug, the taste of salt is much. But when the same quantity of salt is put into the pond, the taste of
salt is very little. Similarly, there must be some other conditions also for the fruition of a kamma. Those conditions
(paccaya) may be economic, social or political conditions. Therefore, kamma and vipāka are also regulated by many
conditions. Some kinds of kamma may be inoperative but this never happens in case of stronger kamma. Moreover, the
force of weak kamma may be suspended for a long time by the interposition of a stronger kamma. Hence, it is not
deterministic nor indeterministic.
There are some lind(?) of fruits sooner or later. Each kamma is one's own action. Its result is one's own
personal inheritance. One alone has completed his action, no matter what degree others may tried and force him. Yet an
unwholesome deed done as fulfilling someone's order does not have the same force like if one would perform the same
action voluntarily.
In the ultimate sense one must bear same responsibility for harming others like for harming oneself.17 This
brings us to the question of kamma, when we have seen that each man's kamma is his own experience. No-one can
interfere with another's kamma beyond a certain point. There no-one can intervene to the result of kamma. People
become involved with the kamma of those around and they themselves influence each other.
Good kamma produces good consequences, bad kamma – bad consequences. But as the Moliyativaka sutta of
Samyutta nikāya points out all what one experiences at present, good or bad, is not due to past kamma. This pubbekata-
hetuvāda is the Jaina view. So kamma should not be considered the sole cause of our experience. This can be further
seen by the pañcaniyāma dhamma doctrine. This gives kamma as one of the causes. Then, Buddhist doctrine of kamma
does not make a man slave of it.

15 Here should be noted, that there are three kinds of taṇhā (according to Dhammacakkappavattana sutta): kāma
taṇhā, bhava taṇhā and vibhava taṇhā. Lecturer here mentions only two – bhava taṇhā and kāma taṇhā, but that is
incomplete and therefore wrong.
16 This translation is also incomplete and wrong. I suggest this translation: „Monks, I say that the intention is action.“
17 Original is: „But in the uttimate senese be must bare same responsibility for be would avoide harming another by
tarturing on death himself.“ This sentence, not only that is full of spelling mistakes, but also does not make much
sense. Version I wrote above is the only solution I considered worth writing here.

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 THE THEORY OF KAMMA (THE FRUTION OF KAMMA AND ITS DIFFERENT CATEGORIES) (2)
Kamma is simply action or a deed. Actions are performed in three ways – by body, by mind
and by speech. Every important action is performed because there is desire for a result. It has an aim
and objective. One wishes for something specific to happen as the result of it. This desire no matter
how mind(?) it may be is a form of craving. It expresses the thirst (taṇhā) for existence and for
action. To exist is to act on one level or another. Organic existence consists of chemical action,
psychic existence consists of mental action. So, existence and actions are inseparable.
But some actions, those in which mind is involved are bound to have intention. This is
expressed by the Pāli word cetanā or volition, which is one of the mental properties. There is
another word chanda, which stands for wishing, desiring a result. These words all express some
kind of desire. Some form of desire is behind practically every activity of life. Therefore, to live and
to desire are one and the same thing (taṇhā janeti purisaṃ). An action or kamma is morally
unwholesome when it is motivated by the forms of craving that are associated with greed (lobha),
hatred (dosa), delusion (moha). It is moral, wholesome (in ordinary language good, when it is
motivated by the opposite factor this interestedness (greedlessness), amity and wisdom. They are
unwholesome actions or akusala. An act so motivated is prompted by intention rather than crating.
Intention is included it is that which gives direction and forms to the deed.
Each deed performed with intention is a creative act. By reason of the will behind it, it
constitutes a force. It is a force analogous to the other great, unseen physical forces that move the
universe. By our thoughts, words and deeds we creat our world from movement to movement in the
endless process of change. We also create ourselves. That is to say we mould our changing
personality as we go along by the accumulation of such thought, words and deeds. It is the accretion
of deeds and the preponderance of one kind over another that determined what we shall become in
this life and subsequent ones.
In thus creating personality, we create also the condition in which it functions. In other
words we creat also the kind of world we are to live in. The mind therefore is master of the world.
As a man’s mind is, so is his cosmos.
Kamma then as the product of the mind, is the true and only real force in the life continuum,
the flux of coming to beings. From this we come to understand that it is the residue of mental force
which from the point of death kindles of a new birth. It is only the actual link between one life and
another. And since the process is a continuous one it is the last kammic thought movement at the
point of death which forms the rebirth linking consciousness, the kamma that reproduces. Other
kamma, good or bad, will come to operation at some later space(?), when external conditions are
favorable for its ripening. The force of weak kamma may be suspended for a long time by the
interposition of a stronger kamma. Some kinds of kamma may even be inoperative, but this never
happens with very strong or weighty kamma. As a general principle all kamma bears some kind of
fruits sooner or later.
Each individual kamma is his own personal act, its result is his own personal inheritance. He
alone has complete command over his action, no matter what degree others may try to force him.
Yet, an unwholesome deed done under strong compassion(?) does not have quite the same force as
that one performed voluntarily. Under threat of torture or of death, a man may be compelled to
torture or kill someone else. In such a case it may be believed that the gravity of his kamma is not so
sev ere as it would be if he deliberately chose to act in such a way. The heaviest moral

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responsibility rests with those who have forced him to do the action. But in the ultimate sense he
still must bear some responsibility for he could in the most extreme case avoid harming another by
torturing or death himself.
This brings us to the questions of collective kamma. As we have seen, each man’s kamma is
his own individual experience. No one can interfere with the kamma of another beyond a certain
point, therefore, no one can intervene to alter the result of personal kamma. Yet it often happens that
numbers of people are associated in the same kinds of actions adn share the same kind of thought,
they become closely involved with one another, they influence one another. Mass psychology
produces mass kamma. Therefore, all such people are likely to form the same pattern of kamma. It
may result in their being associated with one another through a number of lives and in their sharing
much the same kind of experiences. Collective kamma is ismply the aggregate of individual kamma,
just as a crowd is an aggregate of an individual.
It is in fact this kind of collective kamma that produces different kinds of world we live in.
The state of creation of suffering or unhappiness. Each being has that kind of happiness which it
prepared for itself. It is how it comes about in mlutiworlds and mode of bbeing. Each one represent
particular type of consciousness, the result of kamma. The mind is confined, only boundary, it
erects itself.
The results of kamma are called vipāka (ripening). This term, kamma and vipāka and the
idea they stand for must not be confused. Vipāka is pre-determined by ourselves by previous
kamma, but kamma in the last thought moment of one’s death. Throughout life one may have
suffered the consequences of vipāka of the death whatever one has done.(?) But it doesn’t prevent
him from forming fresh kamma of a wholesome type to restore the balance in one’s next life.
Furthermore, by the aid of some good kamma from the past, together with strong effect and
favorable circumstance in the present life, the full effect of his bad kamma may be eradicated even
here and now. Causes of this kinds are seen everywhere where people overcome the most
formidable and handicap.(?)

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 QUESTION: GIVE BROADLY THE BUDDHIST CRITERION HOW WHOLESOME AND UNWHOLESOME DEEDS ARE
DETERMINED. (LECTURED BY MR. SANANTHA NANAYAKKARA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TAILAPON SUNDARA)

Buddhism primarily is an ethical religion and therefore it pays much attention to the problem of good
and evil or good and bad. Buddhist theory of causality explains that good and bad actions generate good and
bad consequences and the doer of such actions becomes morally responsible for these actions and has to
undergo consequences.
Thus the Dhammapada lays down the general teaching of all Buddhas as the abstention from evil,
the accumulation of the good deeds and the purification of the mind:
»Sabbapāpassa akaranaṃ, kusalassa upasampadā,
sacittapariyodapanaṃ, etaṃ Buddhānasāsanaṃi.«

In Buddhism, there are two sets of terms used to connote good and bad. These sets of terms are
puñña/kusala meaning good and pāpa/akusala meaning bad. Though generally these two terms are used,
there is an important difference between puñña and kusala. Puñña means meritorious or good and all puñña
actions produce good consequences leading to happiness in this life and in the hereafter. Thus puñña
conduces to prolong Saṅsāra. Kusala actions in the ultimate sense are leading to stop Saṅsāric process and
rebirth.
However, irrespective of this subtle difference, puñña and kusala mean good. Pāpa and akusala
mean bad. What are the Buddhist criteria used for distinguishing them? Good and bad can be done through
speech, bodily action and mental action. A basic criterion in distinguishing acts as good or bad is by finding
out the root causes that motivated such actions. If they are due to rāga, dosa and moha, they are definiteyl
bad. If stimulated by their oppositions, they are good.
Another very well known criterion is the one found in Amalaṭṭhikā Rāhulovāda Sutta. Therein it is
explained that any action that is good for oneself and others is good. The opposite actions are bad. So, herein
the good and the bad is decided on the consequence of an action. The Kālāma, Bāhitika and such other suttas
also accept this criterion.
Another way of testing the ethical and moral quality of an action is to take oneself as the standart
(upamā) and see how one would react to such an act done to oneself by others. The Dhammapada lays down
this standard which is called Attipanāyika:
»Sabbe tasanti daṇḍassa – sabbe bhāyanti maccuno,
attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā – haneyya na ghataye.«

The Sālyyaka Sutta also accepts this.

There are few more criteria. One is self-conscience (attādhipatayya). What is not approved by self-
conscience is bad. Another is public opinion, especially the opinion of the wise. This is Lokādhipatayya. As
the Mettā Sutta says, one should not even do the slightest thing that is condemned by the wise: »Na kuddhaṃ
samācare kiñci, samācare yena viññū pare upavadeyyuṃ.« Yet another criterion accepted is the moral
standards – dhammādhipatayya.
A very simple standard is to judge one’s action according to hiri and ottappa, moral shame and
moral fear, which keep one away from evil. If hiri and ottappa prompt or whisper that what we are about to
do is not acceptable, then we should consider it bad and give it up.

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 QUESTION: ALL HAPPINESS AND SORROW ONE EXPERIENCES IN THIS LIFE IS DUE TO PAST ACTIONS. EXAMINE HOW
FAR THIS STATEMENT AGREES WITH THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINE OF KAMMA.

Except some extreme materialsts, all other religious teachers generally accepted the doctrine
of kamma. Thus in the 6th century BC in India kamma doctrine was known prior to the rise of
Buddhism. The Brahmins generally held that whatever action that is done in accordance with the
God’s wish is a good kamma. According to them, going against the God’s wish was bad kamma or
pāpa.
The above view, that is that all happiness and sorrow one experiences in this life is due to
one’s past actions was the kamma teaching presented by Jainas. The Buddhist texts refer to this
teaching as Pubbekatahetuvāda. According to Jaina explanation kamma or daṇḍa as they named it,
is threefold. These are verbal, physical and mental and that physical kamma is the gravest of all
these. Once an action is performed, it produces a power which they consider something material
and compare it to ‘dust’. This effect of kamma is to soil(?) or to make the soul impure by getting
attracted to it.(?) There is no power within man to control this soiling of the soul by dust like
particles of kamma power. There are only two ways of eradicating kamma – one is by
undergoing(?) its(?) experience(?) and the other by completely abstaining from collecting new
kamma.
This Pubbekatahetuvāda of Jainas made their kamma doctrine very deterministic.
Everything was fixed, according to this theory, by one’s past kamma, over which one has no power.
Therefore, the individual was made a slave to his kamma. He had no escape from saṅsāra till he had
completely experienced the consequences of all his past actions and till he stopped to accumulate
new kamma.
Buddhist theory of kamma has many similarities with the Jaina teaching of kamma too. But
it differs in certain fundamental aspects. Buddhist view is that mental kamma is of great importance.
Kamma is only willed or intentiona actions and as such mere physical actions are not kamma.
Besides, Buddhism does not say that kamma is deterministic law operating in pre-
determined way. Explaining the difference between the Jaina and Buddhist view the Buddha says
that it is wrong to hold what does not experience in the same manner.(?) Buddhism does not agree
with this.
In answering a Jaina follower called Moliasivaka noted in Saṅyutta Nikāya the Buddha
clearly says that he does not uphold the Pubbekatahetuvāda. He says that what one experiences in
the present is not always the consequence of one’s past actions. Therein he gives various other
causes, physical, biological, psychological, externally man-made causes as sources of what one
experiences in this life.
Similarly in the Lonaphala Sutta the Buddha says that operation of kamma and
consequences is influenced by many other factors. Later texts explain that there are five universal
laws that influence man’s life (pañca-niyāma) and that kamma is only one such law.
A good example to show that an individual is not a slave of his own action is in the story of
Aṅgulimāla Thera, who overcame kamma and attained Arahatship.

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE BUDDHIST CRITERIA THAT CAN BE USED TO JUDGE GOOD AND BAD
Buddhism is an ethical religion. Therefore, it teaches that one should give up all that is bad
and evil and engage in what is good (sabha pāpassa akaranaṃ, kusalassa upasampadā). There are
some terms very commonly used in Budhist texts to indicate good and bad. The term puñña and
kusala devote good, and term pāpa and akusala devote bad or evil. Though when analyzed deeply,
puñña and kusala are different, in text these two terms are used synonymously.
There are cetain specific criteria or measurements used to judge good and bad. One such
criterion is given in the Ambalaṭṭhika Rāhulovāda of the Majjhima Nikāya. Therein the Buddha
says that one should consider the effect or consequence and actions has on oneself and others and
on this decide the moral quality of a deed. According to this criteria any deed that is harmful to
oneself and to others in bad, what is beneficial to oneself and other in good.
There is another well known criteria and that is to understand the root causes or the
motivation forces behind one’s action. If any action is motivated by greed, hatred or confusion that
is lobha, dosa or moha such action is considered as being evil. Their opposites, namely actions
done through non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa) and non-confusion (amoha) are considered as
good and wholesome. A very popular method of deciding whether an action is good or evil is to see
whether that action is in accordance with one’s conscience (atta-dhipateyya), public opinion
(lokādhipateyya) and righteousness (dhammadhipateyya).
A self-test that can be used to judge good and bad is to see how one would react if some
others would do the same thing to oneself. For example, if one was to be oppressed by others, wone
would not like it. Therefore, one should understand that others also would not like such harmful acts
being done to them. This is called attūpanāyaka criterion.
These are some of the important criteria adopted in judging good and bad.

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 PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA (LECTURED BY MR. UDITA GARUSINGHA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

All the teachings of Buddhism can be described aspects of Paṭiccasamuppāda. It forms the basis of the
fundamental doctrine of aniccā, dukkha, anattā and suñña. the universe which exists in time and spread over
religion is a continuation of activity that is varied. Paṭiccasamuppāda gives the fundamental truth of the
interrelatedness, clash and cessation of conditioned phenomena. Therefore the being and the world are
realistically described by Paṭiccasamuppāda. It gives in a large frame what the Four Noble Truths give in a
concise form. Therefore it is said that one who comprehends the Paṭiccamuppāda as a law of causality, also
comprehends the Dhamma.
»Yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati.«
Paṭiccasamuppāda or Idappaccayatā pervades the whole universe including beings, that is everything
which is called material and psychological phenomena. It is not the formulation of any religious teacher but a
universal law. The Paṭiccasamuppāda which is realizable by paññā by everybody is discovered by the Buddhas
and they preach it for the sake of the world.
»Katamoca bhikkhave paṭiccasamuppādo uppādāvā tathāgatānaṃ anuppādāvā tathāgatānaṃ ṭhitāvasā
dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā idappaccayatā. Taṃ tathāgato abhisambujjhati, abhisameti
abhisambujjhitvā abhisametvā āchikkhati deseti paññapeti paṭṭhapeti vivarati vibhajati uttānīkaroti passathāti
āha.«
As the Buddhas' teachings state he attained Sambodhi by realizing the origin of suffering having reflected
on the Paṭiccasamuppāda in direct order, and the cessation of suffering by reflecting on it in reverse order.
According to the Nidāna Saṃyutta of Saṃyutta Nikāya in the teaching of the origin and cessation of the suffering,
the Paṭiccasamuppāda is described as having 12 components. Those are avijjā, saṅkhārā, viññāṇa, nāma-rūpa,
saḷāyatana, phassa, vedanā, taṇhā, upādāna, bhavo, jāti, jarā, maraṇa ………..!
Suffering arises with cause becoming the result and the result in turn becoming the cause. Suffering
ceases with the cessation of cause and with the result also in turn ceasing. Though avijjā is posited as the
beginning Paṭiccasamuppāda is like a cycle. The beginning or the end of the cycle cannot be found. Therefore the
starting point of the being in Saṃsāra also cannot be found.
»Anamataggoyaṃ bhikkhave saṃsra pabbākoṭo na paññāyati.«
(S. 11, ii 178)
The philosophical meaning of above statement is the existence of a being occurs according to a cycle of
cause and effect. By comprehension of the Dhamma is meant that the realization of this Paṭiccasamuppāda or in
other words, the Saṃsāric condition that exists with the interconnection of cause and effect.
»Yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati.«
M.N. Mahāhatthipadopama Sutta-
The above statement indicates this point. The main aim of Paṭiccasamuppāda is to show that man comes
into being due to cause and effect and with the cessation of cause and effect the concept of being ceases.
»Na idaṃ atta kataṃ bimbaṃ na idaṃ para kataṃ aghaṃ hetuṃ paṭicca saṃbhūtaṃ hetu bhaṃghā
nirujjhati.«
S.N. I p. 134 (Sela Sutta).
In short it is the intention of the Paṭiccasamuppāda to show that the dukkhakkhandha arises due to cause
effect and with their cessation suffering ceases. The Mahānidāna Sutta of D.N. says that due to not
comprehending the Paṭiccasamuppāda the individual goes through immense suffering in saṃsāra.
The Paṭiccasamuppāda comprises a basic theory as
»Asmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti imassa uppādā idaṃ uppajjati asmiṃ asati idaṃ na hoti, imassa nirodhā idaṃ nirojjhati.«
- „When there is this, this becomes, with arising of this, this arises. When there is not this, this becomes not, with
the cessation of this, this ceases.“
This is the basis of Paṭiccasamuppāda the components of which are varied in suttas and employed for

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various purposes. When this fundamental doctrine is applied with reference to suffering of the being it is known as
twelve fold Paṭiccasamuppāda.
The Mahānidāna Sutta of D.N. gives a different text of the Paṭiccasamuppāda and it explains how the
individual suffering becomes social suffering as follows:
“Thus, Ānanda in dependence upon feeling (vedanā) there is craving (taṇhā); in dependence upon
craving there is pursuit (pariyesanā); in dependence upon pursuit there is gain (lābho); in dependence upon gain
there is decision-making (vinicchayo); in dependence upon decision-making there is desire and lust
(chandarāgo); in dependence upon desire and lust there is attachment (ajjhosānaṃ); in dependence upon
attachment there is possessiveness (pariggaho); in dependence upon passiveness there is stinginess
(macchariyaṃ); in dependence upon stinginess there is safeguarding (ārakkho) and because of safeguarding
various evil unwholesome phenomena originate the taking up of club (daṇdādāna) and weapons (satthādāna),
conflicts (kalahā), quarrels (viggaha) and disputes (vivāda), insulting speech (bho), slander (pesuñña) and
falsehood (musāvādā). Although the Paṭiccasamuppāda with 12 factors is traditionally handed down the Saṃyuta
Nikāya gives unique Paṭiccasamuppāda system with 22 components analyzing the origin and cessation of
suffering;

»Iti kho avijjupanisa saṅkhārā Upādānupanisa bhavo Sukkhupanisa samādhi

Saṅkhārāpanisa viññanaṃ Bhavupanisa jāti Samādhupanisa yathābhutā
Viññanupanisa nāmarupaṃ Jātupanisa dukkhaṃ āṇadassanaṃ
nāmarupanisa salāyathataṃ Dukkhupanisa saddhe Yathābhutupanisa Nibbida
salāyathanupanisa phassaṃ Saddhupanisa pamojjaṃ Nibbadupanisa virāgo
phassupanisa vedanaṃ Pamojjupanisa pīti Virāgupanisa vimutti
vedanupanisa taṇhaṃ Pītupanisa passadhi Vimuttupanisa khayeñaṇaṃ
(knowledge obtained by
Taṇhupanisa upādānaṃ Passadhupanisa sukhaṃ
destroying all influxes).«
The aim of the Paṭiccamuppāda of Sivaka Sutta of Saṃyutta Nikāya is to demolish the view that
everything happens according to one’s earlier karma.
The Brahmajāla Sutta of Dīghanikāya and Nirodha pātha Nikāya and some other suttas give the aim of
Paṭiccasamuppāda to demolish Akiriyavāda, Nāstikavāda (nihilism), Ahetukavāda (no cause and fruitful).
The aim of Paṭiccasamuppāda in Samaṇabrahmana Sutta of Samyutta Nikāya is to analyze the Four
Noble Truths in the Cakkavattihinda sutta, Aggañña sutta, Mahānibbāna sutta. The aim of Paṭiccasamuppāda is
to analyze social lives suffering of the individual being.

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 DEPENDENT ORIGINATION OR CAUSATION (PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA)

No God, no Brahma can be found no matter of this wheel of life, just bare phenomena roll
depend on conditions all.(?) (Visuddhi Magga)

The law of dependent origination is one of the most important teaching of the Buddha and
it is also very profound.
The Buddha has often expressed his experience of enlightenment in one of ways, either in
terms of having understood the Four Noble ruths, or in therms of having understood the nature of
the dependent origination.
However, more people have heard about the Four Noble Truths and can discuss about them
better than about the Law of Dependent Origination, which is actually more important.
Although the actual insight into dependent origination arises with spiritual maturity it is still
possible for us to understand the principle involved.
The basis of dependent origination is that the life or the world is build on a set of relations,
in which the arising and cessation of factors depend on some other factors which condition them.
This principle can be given as follows:

1. Dependent on ignorance (avijjā) arise kamma formations or activities (saṁkhārā).

or: Dependent on ignorance there are activities (avijjā paccayā saṁkhārā).
2. Dependent on kamma formations arises rebirth consciousness (paṭisandhi viññāṇa).
or: Dependent on activities there is consciousness (saṁkhārā paccayā viññāṇaṃ).
3. Dependent on rebirth consciousness arises mind and matter (nāma-rūpa).
or: Dependent on consciousness there is mentality-materiality (viññāṇa paccayā nāma-
rūpaṃ).
4. Dependent on mind and matter arise the six spheres of senses or bases (saḷāyatana).
or: Dependent on mentality-materiality there are six bases (nāma-rūpa paccayā
saḷāyatanaṃ).
5. Dependent on six spheres of senses arises feeling, contact or impression (phassa).
or: Dependent on the six bases there is contact (saḷāyatana paccayā phasso).
6. Dependent on conduct arises feeling (vedanā).
or: Dependent on contact there is feeling (phassa paccayā vedanā).
7. Dependent on feeling arises craving (taṇhā).
or: Dependent on feeling there is craving (vedan paccayā taṇhā).
8. Dependent on craving arises grasping or clinging (upādāna).
or: Dependent on craving there is clinging (taṇhā paccayā upādānaṃ).
9. Dependent on grasping arises action or becoming (kamma-bhava).
or: Dependent on clinging there is becoming (upādāna paccayā bhavo).
10. Dependent on action or becoming arises birth (jāti).
or: Dependent on becoming there is birth (bhava paccayā jāti).
11. Dependent on rebirth arise decay and death (jarā-maraṇa).
or: Dependent on birth there is old age and death (jāti paccayā jarā maraṇaṃ).

The fundamental principle at work in dependent origination is that of cause and effect. It is
described in detail what takes place in the casual process in the Dependent Origination.

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA

All religions attempt to find out the nature and the origin of things. Religions that are older than
Buddhism have their own theories regarding the nature and origin of things. The Buddhist theory of causality was
presented against the background of a variety of such theories. The following are the major theories of causality
that were prevailing during the time of the Buddha and these can be broadly divided into four groups.

1. Theory of self causation or internal causation

This is the theory of causality put forward by those, who accepted the existence of a
permanent soul or the „sassatavādins.“ According to them, everything is cause by the self or soul
within oneself. They believed that everything is caused by this internal self and that no outside
cause influenced it. According to Buddhist texts, this is reffered to as „Sayaṃ kataṃ“ (self
caused).

2. Theory of external causation or paraṃ kataṃ

This put forward the view, that everything is caused by some outside or external forces.
Various religious schools gave different external causes, some said that it is fate, it is the cause of
everything. Some others said that it is Time, that is the cause of everything. Yet others said that it
is inherent nature (svabhāva), that is the cause, some put forward the view that the kamma is the
only cause. A very popular theory of external causation is that everything is created by the God
(issaranammanavāda).

3. Some schools like Jainism put forward the view, that everything is caused by both internal and
external cause. In Buddhism this is known as „sayaṃ kataṃ caparaṃ katañca.“

4. Another theory of causation is that everything is cause due to neither internal nor external
causes but due to acccent(?) or change and this is called Ahetuappaccayavāda.

These were the major theories of causality that were known during the time of the Buddha. It seems that
He have studied all these theories known at that time. This is seen from the fact, that He rejected them.18
The Buddha rejected the self-causation theory, because he showed the non-existence of a soul. As there
is the non-existence, then it follows that there cannot be a self-causation. He found the external causation theory to
be equally baseless. He clearly demonstrated the absence of a creator God or any such external forces, Time or fat.
As he rejected these two theories, it naturally follows that he rejected also the combination of these theories of
causation. Besides, his observations made him realise that everything happened due to causes and conditions and
this made him reject the theory of causation which hold that everything is cause due to accident or change.
The Buddha very thoroughly observed the nature and understood certain special features, that operate in
nature. He found out, that nothing happens without any cause, that everything takes place due to certain causes.
He observed that there is a system, a uniform pattern in the working of the nature. When he carefully observed the
nature of things, he understood four specific features.
Thus he realized that causation is not a mentally made up thing, but something that really takes place in
nature. That is something that happens objectively or something, that takes place really. The Buddha very clearly
says, that it is not something created, caused by the Buddha or any others. He says, that whether the Buddhas
were to appear in this world or not, this causation takes place in the world.
Secondly he found that when certain condition exists, then necessarily certain effects follow. This is a
necessity and there is no exception to this. Whenever causes are present then one can be certain that there will be
some effect. Thus it is seen that what we think to be accidents are also due to certain conditions. If those
conditions were not there, then what we generally consider to be accidents world not take place. Therefore we say,
that certain events are accidents, because we fail to see the real conditions behind them (avitathata).
It is by making these observation that the Buddha finally formulated the theory of Paṭiccasamuppāda.

18 I think there was no need for the Buddha to study anything as he was omniscient.

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The general theory of Paṭiccasamuppāda runs as folows:

When this is present, that comes to be;

from the arising of this, that arises,
when this is absent, that does not come to be on the cessation of this, that ceases.

»Imasmiṁ sati idaṃ hoti imassa uppāda idaṃ uppajjati.«

»Imasmiṁ asati idam na hoti imassa nirodha idam nirujjhati.«

This is the general theory of causality expounded by the Buddha. This explains everything in the world.
Fundamental truth, that the Buddha discovered. To all spheres of life, namely physical, mental, social, moral and
even spiritual happiness, Theory of Dependent Origination shows that:

1. Nothing arises without a cause.

2. Nothing arises from a single cause. Nothing can exist independently, unaffected and unrelated to other
phenomena.
3. Nothing can exist independently, unaffected and unrelated to other phenomena.
4. There is no first cause – thus a concept of a creator God gets rejected.

This formula of Paṭiccasamuppāda consists of twelve factors, and hence it is referred to as the twelve
linked formula of dependent co-origination (dvadasanga-paṭiccasamuppāda).

1. On ignorance depends dispositions (avijjapaccayā-sankhārā).

2. On dispositions depends consciousness (sankhārā paccayā viññāṇaṃ).
3. On consciousness depends name and form (viññānapaccayā nāma-rūpaṃ).
4. On name and form depend the six gates, ways of sense-perception (nāma-rūpa paccayā saḷāyatanaṃ).
5. On six gateways depends contact (saḷāyatana paccayā phasso).
6. On contact depends feeling (phassa paccayā vedanā).
7. On feeling depends craving (vedanā paccayā taṇhā).
8. On craving depends grasping (taṇhā paccayā upādānaṃ).
9. On grasping depends becoming (upādāna paccayā bhavo).
10. On becoming depends birth (bhava paccayā jāti)
11. On birth depends aging, sorrow, lamentation etc. (jāti paccayā jarā maranaṃ, soka, parideva...)19

As this theory embodies the Truth the Buddha discovered at his enlightenment this is called the central
philosophy of Buddhism, this theory rejects both the theories of eternalism and annihilationism.
This formula shows that things come into existence through causes and conditions and cease when causes
and conditions are absent. Therefore, this theory illustrates the change and impermanence of everything. This
theory rejects both the theory of eternalism and annihilationism. Thus it is rightly called „middle doctrine.“

19 As it is clear from What the Buddha Taught from Walpola Rāhula, the last condition can be either together as
eleventh one or divided into 11. jāti + 12. jarā, maranaṃ, soka, parideva... where we get finally 12 conditions,
whereas in the former case we get only 11 conditions.

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 PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA (VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The doctrine of paṭiccasamuppāda is very important in Buddhism. The substance of the

paṭiccasamuppāda teaching is as follows.

1. From ignorance there arises sankhārā (kamma formation).

2. From saṁkhārā there arises consciousness of the new existence.
3. Consciousness gives rise to nāma-rūpa.
4. Nāma-rūpa leads to āyatana (six bases).
5. From āyatana arises the phassa (impression).
6. Phassa causes feeling.
7. Feeling leads to craving.
8. From craving here results clinging (upādāna).
9. Because of clinging there is the process of becoming (kamma-bhava).
10. From the process of becoming there arises rebirth (jāti).
11. And rebirth leads to old age, death, sorrow, grief and lamentation.
Thus the whole mass of suffering arises.

According to the Buddha, avijjā is ignorance of the Four Noble Truths, viz. the truth about
suffering, its cause, its cessation and the way to its cessation. It makes us mistake what is false and illusory
for truth and reality. Because of avijjā there is sankhārā, which in turn causes viññāṇa. As a result of good or
bad kamma in the previous life there arises the stream of consciousness beginning with rebirth consciousness
in the new life.

Viññāṇa gives rise to nāma-rūpa. This means that with the arising of rebirth consciousness there also
arise mind and body. Because of rebirth consciousness there arise mental phenomena associated with it such
as feeling, remembering etc. Nāma-rūpa leads to salāyatana or five physical sense-organs, viz. eye, ear,
nose, tongue, body and consciousness. Existence of salāyatana causes contact (phassa). This means the
contact between the six senses and the respective objects. here contact arises, feeling (vedanā) exists. When
there have been various sorts of contact through the six senses, feelings arise which are the emotional
response to those contacts. Feelings are of three sorts:
1. Pleasant
2. Painful
3. Neither pleasant nor painful

When feelings arise, cravings are (usually) produced. Craving leads to the making of new kamma in
the present and it is possible now, and only now, to practice Dhamma.

Where the kamma of further craving is produced there arises grasping (upādāna). When these
become strong in people, they cannot even become interested in Dhamma and towards(?) dukkha. Where this
grasping is found, there becoming (bhava) is to be seen.

With hearts boiling with craving and grasping, people ensure/enjoy(?) for themselves more and more
of various sorts of life. In the presence of becoming there is arising of a new birth (jāti). Birth is shown as a
mother in the process of childbirth. It arises conditioned by the kamma made in this life. Naturally where
there is birth, there is also old age and death (jarā, maraṇa), sorrow, grief etc.

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 PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA

The central philosophy of Buddhism is Paṭiccasamuppāda. This is the Buddhist theory of causality. All
religions attempt to explain how things happen. This is a feature of all religions. There were many such causal doctrines
during the Buddha's time. Among them there were four major ones. These were:

1. Sayaṃ kataṃ vāda (self-causation or internal causation which gave „self“ as the agent of all that happened)
2. Paraṃ kataṃ vāda (external causation – explaining that the cause of everything is external; God, fate, luck
and so on)
3. Sayaṃ katañ ca paraṃ katañ ca (combination of the above two theories; this one was the causal theory of
Jains)
4. Ahetu-appaccaya or Adhiccassamuppañña (no-cause, no-condition theory); Yadrcchāvāda (a theory of
chance happening)

After examining all these theories and understanding the nature properly, the Buddha discoursed that
everything happens due to causes and conditions. To explain this causality he came up with the following formula:
»Imasmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti,
imassa uppādā idaṃ upajjati,
imasmiṃ asati idaṃ na hoti,
imassa nirodhā idaṃ nirujjhati.«

This is the general formula of paṭiccasamuppāda applical to all spheres of life, ethical, social, economical,
political and so on. This was not a theory created by the Buddha, but what he found to be operating in nature.
Therefore he says that this causality operates in the world whether there is a Buddha or not. Hence, he did not say it is
his theory but the dhammatā, the nature of things.
Buddha's main concern was the problem of dukkha and its cessation. As understood by the Buddha dukkha is
also something that arises »yaṃ kiñci samudaya dhammaṃ.« All that arise cease to be »sabaṃ taṃ nirodha dhammaṃ.«
Working as this premise the Buddha applied the general paṭiccasamuppāda doctrine to the specific problem of human
predicament of dukkha. By this application the Buddha himself evolved the 12 linked theory of paṭiccasamuppāda
(dvādasa-ākāra-paṭiccasamuppāda). This is Buddha's own interpretation of the origin and cessation of dukkha. This
particular paṭiccasamuppāda formula consists of 12 items:
1. avijjā 7. vedanā
2. saṁkhāra 8. taṇhā
3. viññāṇa 9. upādāna
4. nāma-rūpa 10. bhava
5. saḷāyatana 11. jāti
6. phassa 12. jarā-maranaṃ-soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassa20

These are mutually inter-related and inter-dependent. Though the formula begins with avijjā it is not the first
cause. As shown in the Anamatagga sutta of the Samyutta nikāya, the first beginning of avijjā is not perceivable.
Buddhism also does not consider that an effect is produced by a single cause. This is a doctrine which say that things
happen due to cause and condition. The change of cause and conditions change the effect; similarly with the removal of
cause and conditions the effect is also removed. This is a totally new theory of causality, never heard of before (pubbe
ananussuta). This understanding enabled the Buddha to explain how things happen without a soul, a god, any other
external power or agency. Thus, this is a totally new theory of causality.

20 As it is clear from What the Buddha Taught from Walpola Rāhula, the last condition can be either together as
eleventh one or divided into 11. jāti + 12. jarā, maranaṃ, soka, parideva... where we get finally 12 conditions,
whereas in the former case we get only 11 conditions.

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINE OF PAṬICCASAMUPPĀDA
All religions attempt to explain how things happen, how things are caused. Hence all religions have their
own particular theories explaining this. They are called ‘theories of causality’. Broadly speaking, these theories
can be categorized into four. They are as follows:
1. Self causation – everything is caused by soul or self.
2. External causation – everything is caused by some external power, example – God, fate, time etc.
3. Self causation and external causation – a combination of the first two theories
4. Neither self causation nor external causation – which says that everything happens due to accidents.
The Buddha rejected all these and puts forwards the law which he observed as operating in the world.
This is called the Paṭiccasamuppannavāda, the doctrine of dependent origination. According tot his, everything
happens due to cause and condition. When particular cause and condition exists, particular effects come into being
and when the cause and condition ceases, the effect ceases. This general formula is that which the Buddha
expressed in words as follows:
»Imasmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti,
imassa uppādā idaṃ uppajjati,
imasmiṃ asati, idaṃ na hoti,
imassa nirodhā idaṃ nirujjhati.«
„When this is there, this comes to be,
with rising of this – this rises,
when this is absent - this does not come to be,
with the cessation of this – this ceases.“
This general formula is applied to explain all happening, origination of the world, society, social
institution and other phenomena even how people become good and bad and so on. Even kamma is explained
according to this cause and effect relation. This shows that there is neither a first cause like the God or fate etc.
nor a single cause. Nothing happens by chance. Everything happens due to causes which prevail in a certain
pattern.
While this general theory could be happened to explain the operation of all phenomena, the Buddha's
main concern was to explain the arising of dukkha and its cessation. In other words, the arising of the Saṅsārici
process and its cessation. Therefore, the Buddha applied the general formula to explain the arising of dukkha and
its cessation. By this application he evolved a 12 linked formula of dependent co-origination (dvdasakāra paṭicca-
samuppāda). This is as follows:
»Avijjā paccayā saṅkhārā, saṅkhārā paccayā viññāṇaṃ, viññāṇa...« and so on.
The reverse order of this formula namely »avijjā nirodhā saṅkhāra nirodha« etc. explains how the
dukkha ceases when causes disappear.
This general theory of paṭicca-samuppāda is called the central philosophy of Buddhism, bbecause all
other teachings are based and founded on this teaching. The theory of kamma, rebirth all are based on this. It also
rejects the two main views that were known at the time, namely eternalism (sassatavāda), which accepts
something permanent and annihilationism (ucchedavāda), which accepts the fatal destruction. Instead the
Paṭicca-samuppāda adopts a middle position, a position that goes beyond both eternalism and annihilationism. It
puts forwards that view of rising and falling a continuous process of change that takes place in phenomena. Hence
it is said that the Buddha teaches this docrine from middle (majjhima deseti) without going to extremes of
eternalism and annihilationism. Hence this teaching is rightly referred to as the central philosophy of Buddhism.

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 THEORY OF CAUSALITY
Paṭiccasamuppāda. That is Buddhist causality. The name is given in the Diṭṭhāyana Sutta.
We have already touched upon the subject somewhat the other day. Causality means the theory , a
searching for cause of certain effect. Why we are here? Why the world is in this way? like that. For
some people, they just don’t accept any causefor whatever effects. So, things just happen by chance
(according to them). For that kind of things, but they will call that causality as theory of causality.
(?) Because that conclusion comes a path after having searched for cause. That is causality, that is
the opinion and attitude towards causality.
The particular kind of causality in Pāli is called aṭiccasamuppannā. Aṭiccasamuppannā
which does not believe in any cause. But you also do have one cause, theory for whatever is it. It is
due to Brahma, or it is due to God, or it is due to Ramma the only cause. And that kind of theory is
called in the Aṅguttara Nikāya as Isaranimmānavāda. here the word Isarā means ‘creator’. I would
like to distinguish here, as we come across the word Isarā. This word is important in relation to the
word ‘deva’. We bbelieve in gods as well. People say why Buddhism, on the other hand, denies
God. On the other hand, they have something like deva, which is translated into English as ‘gods’.
So, remember when we say that Buddhism denies God, we mean the only one God.
When we accept gods in Buddhism, it means plural gods and is (simplicity) and not only
gods but also (god it is).(?) This is just in spelling. When we come to the term in Pāli, the Buddha
used, then we come to have a very clear distinction between the two. The word ‘God’ (with capital
letter at the beginning), is never used as ‘Deva’, it is used in Pāli as Isarā. So, we deny existence of
Isarā, we don’t deny deva. Deva is other form of being, other than human being. Many of them are
there. They are subject to impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and non-soullessness, apart from not-
being creators. So, the capital one, capital God is Isarā – we deny existence of Isarā. Here is the
other word, ‘nimmāna’, which means ‘creation’ or ‘creator’. Then the second theory according to
this – they believe whatever happens, good or bad, it happens due to the wish of God. The only
cause, the sole cause is to be the God.
When few people died, you see in the newspapers, it happens according to the wish of God,
and when something good happens again, it happens according to the wish of God. This is
according to this type of causality. And the third one, I think that is more important for us, like
Jainism. Why? Because the Jainism also believes in kamma, just like Bubddhism. Kamma means
ethical action, the action which has ethical implication, not all actions. That ethical action has the
result. And the one who carries the action is responsible for that. This is the brief explanation of
kamma. Then according to Jainism, kamma means only past action, it doesn’t include the present
one. According to them, to burn away the evil action which one has committed in the past, it is not
that he/she might have commited it, but that they indeed have committed it. They are quite sure.
Then one has to practice what they call „self-torture practice.“

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 QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE TWELVE LINKS OF DEPENDENT
ORIGINATION (DVĀDASAṄGA PAṬICCASMUPPĀDA).
Paṭiccasamuppāda or the Dependent Origination is the central teaching of Buddhism. All other
fundamental teachings of Buddhism are founded on this. The Four Noble Truths, the Nobble Eightfold Path,
Tilakkhana etc. are all different expressions of this central teaching. In brief this is the theory of causality
explaining how things happen, as presented by the Buddha. This is not a creation of the Buddha, but what
he observed as operating in nature. Hence it is called the dhammatā, dhammaniyāmatā of all phenomena.
During the time of the Buddha there were at least four such major causal theories put forward by the
religious teachers of the time. These are:
1. Self-causation (sayaṃ kataṃ)
2. External causation (paraṃ kataṃ)
3. Self and external causation (sayaṃ katañ ca paraṃ katañ ca)
4. Fortuitous causation or accidental causation (asayaṃ kāraṃ aparaṃ kāraṃ adhicca samuppannaṃ)

These theories either accepted existence of ‘self’, the God, fate or some such internal or external
agent as the doer of everything. There were also others who said that everything happened without causes or
condition.
Rejecting all these theories as baseless the Buddha presented what he saw in the nature and called it
paṭiccasamuppāda, the theory, which says that everything happens on causaes and conditions. Through this
the Buddha attempted to explain everything as a process of evolution taking place according to some causal
pattern. This rejected the idea of a soul, God etc. as being in control of everything.
This general theory he aplied to the problem of dukkha and its cessation (nirodha). This special
application of the general formula »imasmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti« „when this is present, this comes to be,“ is
called the twelve-linked Dependent Origination, because it contains 12 links, namely:
1. Depending on ignorance (avijjā) arise mental formations (saṅkhārā).
2. On saṅkhārā arises consciousness (viññāṇa).
3. On consciousness arises psychophysical personality (nāma-rūpa).
4. On psychophysical personality arises six-gathering of sense-perception (salāyatana).
5. On six gathering of sense perception arises contact (phassa).
6. On contact arises feeling (vedanā).
7. On feeling arises craving (taṇhā).
8. On craving arises grasping (upādāna).
9. On grapsing arises becoming (bhava).
10. On becoming arises birth (jāti).
11. On birth arises decay, disease, death, sorrow etc. (jarā vyādhi maraṇa dukkha)
This explains the arrising of dukkha or in other words the saṅsāric existence established in dukkha.
Similarly depending on the cessation of ignoracnce as there comes to be the cessation of mental formations
etc. Then the reverse order of these 12 links explains the cessation of the process of dukkha.

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE HOW THE TEACHING OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION REFERS TO ALL VIEWS AND METAPHYSICAL
THEORIES.

In the sixth century BC in India, there were many very religious activities.(?) There were
many religious teachers. They put forward edifferent religious views regarding man, the problems
he has to face in life and what life really is. The Brahmajāla Sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya shows very
clearly how busy(?) the religions were and what different theories they put forward. This sutta says
that there were 62 views, but in fact the numbber can be much larger.
Each religious teacher claimed his view to be the right one, and all others as false theories.
Therefore, there was much confusion also. What is seen sis that all these theories were metaphysical
theories, theories that were imagined to exist and not theories that would be empirically tested.
The Bubddha categorized all such religious teachers and their religious theories as
extremes. This is why the Kaccāyanasotta Sutta of Saṅyutta Nikāya says that the world is usually
accustomed to go to extremes. While some say that everything exists or everything „is“, others go
to the extreme and say that everything gets completely destroyed or annihilated and therefore
everything „is not.“
Broadly these are the metaphysical theories that fall into eternalism (sassatavāda) and
materialism (ucchedavāda). These are speculations, attempts to explain reality through philosophy
which has no real objective foundation. They are mere views and nothing more.
Rejecting all this the Buddha explained that he stands in the middle and teaches. He says
that what he teaches is what he observes in the universe. This is that everything is risieng and
folling. He saw everything as a process of rising (uppāda) and falling (vaya). He saw that when
certain causes exist, certain specific effects rise and when these causes fall, the effect also falls.
Through this the Buddha explained all happenings in the universe. Hence, he was able to
reject the metaphysical beliefs such as God, Brahma, Emau(?), fate and even the metaphysical
view that everything happens by chance.
Thus, the Buddha applied this Paṭiccasamuppāda doctrine to explain all the physical
happenings and moral and spiáritual happenings. The rising of the universe, society, social
institutions as well as kamma and rebirth are explained through this theory.

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 UNANSWERED QUESTIONS AND FOUR-FOLD PROPOSITIONS AND BUDDHA'S ATTITUDE TOWARDS THEM

There are four types of questions which can be seen in the Pāli literature. They are:
1. Ekamsa vyākaranīya
2. Vibhajja vyākaranīya
3. Patipucchā vyākaranīya
4. Thāpanīya vyākaranīya

These are the methods of communicating in the teachings of the Buddha.

The first one is Ekamsa vyākaranīya method, which can be answered directly. This can be
seen in suttas sach as Dhammacakkappavattana sutta. The Buddha avoiding two extremes gave
way of the Noble Eightfold Path as a new message among the several philosophers at that time.
The second one is Vibhajja vyākaranīya, which can be analyzed and answered. For this form
of answer , the Buddha preached to the Yasa in Barānasī:

»Dānakathaṃ sīlakathaṃ saggakathaṃ kāmānaṃ ādīnavaṃ okāraṃ samkilesaṃ

nikkhammañca ānisaṁsaṃ pakāseti.«

„Talk about charity, morality, heavenly happiness, the offence of sensuality as low, good
results by renouncing household life,“ etc.

The third one is Patipucchā vyākaranīya, which could be answered by counter-questions. In

Brahmajāla sutta in Dīgha nikāya (heretic) views, held by several śramaṇas who were
contemporary with the Buddha (altogether 62 views) were rejected and explained by the Buddha.
In Ālāvaka sutta is also mentioned, that Ālāvaka asked the Question: „What is the noble wealth of a
person?“ (»Kimsūdha vittaṃ purisassa setthaṃ«) and then „how can one cross over a flood“
(»Kathamsu tarati ogham«). The Buddha answered: »The faith is the noble wealth of a person.«
»Saddhīdha vittaṃ purissassa setthaṃ.« and »With faith one can cross over a flood« (»Saddhāya
tarati oghaṃ«). One night a god asked the Buddha about blessings (mangala) of the world. The
Buddha answered and preached about 38 fold blessings – that Mangala sutta is also included in the
patiputchā vyākaranīya.
The fourth one is Thapanīya vyākaranīya, which should be set aside – unanswered. For
example, when Paribhājaka Vacchagotta asked the Buddha about soul (ātman):
a) »Is the soul and body the same?« (»Taṃ jīvitaṃ taṃ sarīraṃ.«)
b) »Is the soul and body different?« (»Aññaṃ jīvaṃ aññaṃ sarīraṃ.«)

The Buddha puts it aside and remained silent when asked these questions. If the Buddha
said: „the soul is body“ he would hold the nihilistic theory (ucchedavāda) and if the Buddha said
„the sould is different from body“ he would hold the eternalist theory (sassatavāda). Therefore
Buddha sets aside these questions and remained silent. The Buddha rejected both the nihilism and
the eternalism because both are fetters and arising out of the false idea. The main teaching of the
Buddha is Four Noble Truths, Noble Eightfold Path which are for the sake of attaining Nibbāna.

128
 THE FOURFOLD ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS AND CATEGORY OF UNANSWERED QUESTIONS (NOT
COMPLETED)

It is not altogether correct to say that the Buddha did not answer the avyākrta questions. Although
he did not answer these questions and other many such questions in 'yes' and 'no' terms, he did answer them
in different manner.

Early discourses mention four kinds of questions, which require different strategies of answering.
They are:
1. Question analyzing and separating (vibhajja vyakaraniya)
2. Question answerable directly (ekaṅsa vyakaranīya)
3. Question answerable by countre-question (patipuccha vyakaranīya)
4. Question that could be set aside (thappaniya vyakaranīya)

Of these questions the last is supposed to contain avyakrta questions as proposed to the first three
categories, which are described as answerable – 'vyakaranīya'. The last is simply described as „should be set
aside“ (thappaniya), which suggests that the fourth category was not considered a form of answering. This
seems to support the view that the Buddha did not really answer questions that belong to the forth category.
Nevertheless, there are certain other instances which suggest the opposite view. For example, in this dialogue
with Puttapadakaparibhacaka the Buddha says: „some teachings I have taught and pointed out,
Puttapada, as being definite (ekaṅsika), other as being indefinite (anekaṅsika), which are the teaching I have
taught and pointed out as indefinite. The world is eternal I have taught and pointed out as indefinite. The
Tathāgata eneither exdists nor does not exist I have taught and pointed out indefinite.

What teachings have I taught and pointed out as definite? For example, this is sufferingů I have
taught and pointed out as definite. This is origin of suffering, this is cessation of suffering, this is the path
leading to cessation of suffering, and I have taught and pointed out as definite.

According to this statement, what the Buddha set aside at times without answering (thapaniya) and
what he calles indefinite (anekaṅsika) referred to the same questions. Jayatilleka thinks that these questions
were called indefinite owing to their very nature. It is impossible to say categorically true or false.
Discussing these four categories of questions, Jayatilleka surmises that the third category of questions to be
answered by a counter question is a sub-category of the second, those answered by analysis. Matilal
improving on Jayatillaka's view suggests that even the forth category is a sub-category of the second. He
further says that these unanswered questions were not regarded by the Buddha as clearly unanswerable. It
would be a wrong interpretation. We believe that the Buddha left this question entirely unanswered. The
Buddha used in fact vibhajja method to give answeres to these questions.
Obviously there is a difference between not giving any answer and saying that the question doesn't
permit the categorical answer. The latter requires analysis of the question. Such an analytical answer was
given by the Buddha to Vacchagotta Paribājaka. Vacchagotta asked from the Buddha whether the latter
is of the view that „the world is eternal,“ this is indeed the truth or else falsehood. The Buddha says that he
is not of that view. Vacchaputta goes on asking about all ten questions in the same manner, and the Buddha
gives the same answers. Then Vacchaputta asked the Buddha all these views. The Buddha's asnwer was –

129
Vaccha to think that the world is eternal. It is going to a speculative view. Holding a view, the wilds(?) of
views, wriggling of view, the scuffing of views, the fetter of view it is accompanied by anguish, distress,
misery, fever.(?) It does not conduce to turning away from, nor to dispassion, stopping, calming, super
knowledge, awakening nor to Nibbāna. Vaccha, going to speculative view this has been got rid of by the
Tathāgata.

In this example the Buddha doesn't keep silent. When these questions were asked, instead he
described them as spectrum. Viewd them by alluding to the reason why he did not hold them. In the
subsequent discussion with Vacchagotta there is a more detailed explanation of the four avyakrta questions.

„But, good Gotama, where does a monk arise, whose mind is freed thus?“
„Arise, Vaccha, does not apply.“
„Well then, good Gotama, does he not arise?“
„Does not arise Vaccha, does not apply.“
„Well then, good Gotama, does he both arise and not arise?“
„Both arise and doesn't arise, Vaccha, does not apply.“
„Well then, good Gotama, does he neither arise nor does not arise?“
„Neither arise nor does not arise, Vaccha, does not apply.

Vaccha gets gonfused at the rejection of all four alternatives. At this point the Buddha gives the
following analyogy to him.

„What do you think about this, Vaccha: if a fire were blazing in front of you, would you know, this
fire is blazing in front of me?“
„Godd Gotama, if the fire was blazing in front of me, I should know this fire is blazing in front of
me.“
„But if, Vaccha, someone were to question you thus – this fire that is blazing in front of you, what is
the reason that this fire is blazing, what would you, Vaccha, reply when questioned thus?“
„If, good Gotama, someone were to question me thus, this fire that is blazing in front of you, what is
the reason that this fire is blazing – I, good Gotama, on being questioned thus would reply thus – this fire is
blazing because of a supply of grass and sticks.“
„If that fire that was in front of you, Vaccha, when quenched, would you know, this fire that was in
front of me has been quenched – this fire that was in front of me has been quenched. But if someone were to
question you thus, Vaccha, that fire that was in front of you and that has been quenched, to which direction
has that fire gone from here – the East or West or North or South? On being questioned thus what would
you, Vaccha, reply? It... ???

130
 THE FOURFOLD ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITION AND CATEGORY OF UNANSWERED QUESTIONS

Early discourses mention four kinds of questions, which require different strategies of answering. They
are:
(1) Question answerable directly (ekaṅsa vyākaranīya)
(2) Question analyzing and separating (vibhajja vyākaranīya)
(3) Question answerable by counter-question (patipucchā vyākaranīya)
(4) Question that could be set aside (thapaniya vyākaranīya)
Of these questions, the last is supposed to contain certain avyākata questions, as opposed to the first three
categories which are described as answerable (vyākāta). The last is simply described as should be set aside
(thapaniya) which suggests that the fourth category was not considered as a form of answering. This seems to
suppose the view that the Buddha did not really aswered the questions that belong to the frouth category.
Nevertheless, there are certain other instances found in case of Buddha and Vacchagotta Paribhājaka.
Vacchagotta asked the Buddha the ten questions, which were four questions regarding the world, two questions
regarding the soul and four questions regarding the Tathāgata or saints. The Buddha answer was: „Vaccha, to
think that such as(?) the world is eternal is going to speculative views. Vacchagotta, going to speculative views
has been got rid of by Tathāgata.“
In this example the Buddha doesn't keep silent. When these questions were asked instead he described
them as spectrume, viewd them by alluding to the reason why he did not hold them. The Buddha further asked
Vacchagotta reagrding reasons of fire blazed and quenched. The Buddha by asking this example explained
Vacchagotta that the Arahant who passed away is like a fire which extinguishes due to lack of fuel. This dialogue
should show that the Buddha was not silent nor it is the case that he refrains from answering these questions at all
times.
The above is an instance when the Buddha consideres these questions to be answered indirectly
(anekaṅsika). However in Māluṅkyaputta's case in Majjhima Nikāya the Buddha did not give even anekaṅsika
answer to the questions, he simply refused to answer.
When the two instances are combined, it shows that the same questions were regarded by the Buddha as
both indirectly answerable and to be kept aside (thapaniya). It is possible that before deciding on the type of
answer, the Buddha took into consideration the special cinrcumstances under which such questions were put to
him. This is quite clear in the case of Māluṅkyaputta. For him the Buddha plainly says that he should také what
the Buddha had said as said and what he had not said as not said. The Buddha had not said whether or not the
world is eternal etc. Because it is unbeneficial, it does not lead to cessation of suffering, to enlightenment, to
Nibbāna. And he had said that there is suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the way leading
to the cessation of suffering. Because it is beneficial, it leads to cessation of suffering, to enlightenment, to
Nibbāna.
Due to this special circumstances the Buddha does not even border(?) to analyze the question as he did
in the case of Vacchagotta, but he simply explained that knowing the answer to these questions have nothing to
do with the discipline of the order.

131
 ATTAKILAMATHĀNUYOGA – SELF MORTIFICATION
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta has mentioned the attakilamathānuyoga.
Attakilamathānuyoga, observing the rigorous practices of ṛta, the way of self-torturing belongs to
the view of eternalism. The eternalists believe that there is an ātman, which continues without
changing life after life. According to Ṛg Veda it is said that after the death the ātman becomes
immortal in man. Therefore, people prayed to the departed ones to accept the offering with the
Yama. And also further they prayed to him: „come again in the shape of material form.“ The Pāli
word attā means 'oneself', 'I am', 'I was', 'I shall be'. This is the base of ātmavāda. Here 'I' means
one who continues without changing life after the life. The view of ātmavāda has been discussed
and developed in various ways in Indian philosophy. This concept has been developed at last as the
entity of sat.
To achieve the ultimate freedom it is accepted that one should follow the path of self-
mortification. The word 'attā' is implied as the permanent ātman and one's self. Kilamatha means
'weaken'. Ānuyoga means 'one who performs'. Attakilamathānuyoga means one's self, being
weakened by following various practices. The Buddha has mentioned in Khandaraka Sutta the
attakilamathānuyogi, eternalists as attantapa. The ways of attantapa practices have been discussed
under these five groups:
1. Concerning the food (just begging etc.)
2. Using the cloth (made of hair, skin, feather etc.)
3. Under the various activities (not sleeping, just sitting etc.)
4. Various practices (not washing oneself etc.)
5. Practices which had been followed those days and the animal's behavior etc.
Although rigorous practice has been rejected in Buddhism, it is considereed as
sīlabbataparamāsa. It is a canker. According to Cūlasīhanāda Sutta this kind of sīlabbata is
reckoned as one of the upādāna. According the sutta there are many upādānas – kamma, diṭṭhi,
sīlabbata etc. Buddha preaches the Dhamma to eradicate those upādānas. Although upādāna arises
due to the taṇhā or desire, desire is the first cause of upādāna. Therefore, by ceasing the taṇhā or
desire upādāna also can be ceased. Bby upādāna nirodha there would be bhava nirodha. By bhava
nirodha it leads to jāti nirodha. Further Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta explains how the noble one removes the
suffering. Self-mortification or self-torturing is not the way of achieving the last freedom. It is
according to Buddhism reckoned as sīlabbataparamāsa. It is one of the cankers.
Sīlabbataparamāsa means one of the practices being considered as sīla and being observed in one's
life and leading the same by thinking that it is the only way to freedom and clinging to it. It is a
canker.
Buddhism formerly rejected that and accepted that the noble one should recognize it as a
canker and remove it if one wants to realize the ultimate truth. According to Aṭṭhaka and Pārāyana
Vagga in Sutta Nipāta the way of attantapa has been followed by those śramaṇas and Brahmaṇas
considereing it as the way to the highest purity of ātman. Sometimes those followers themselves
were identifies as muni. Nanda Sutta in Sutta Nipāta has been questioned about who would be the
muni, whether those who are having great knowledge or those who follow the rigorous practices
which lead to one's bodily suffering.
By following or observing all those practices no ona can cross the circle of Saṅsāra, said the

132
Buddha to the youth Punna. According to the ??? the disciples of the Buddha remove all these
rigorous practices and achieve the peaceful life. They lead the peaceful life. The way of Buddha is
rejecting the extremes without clinging to other way and following the middle path. ??? Sutta
clearly mentions how one should remove the saṅyojana. Observing the sīla also should not be
extremely followed. Sīla is needed to some extent till the mind achieves the purification.
Kukkuravatika Sutta further explains those who formerly observe the kind of practice as a result of
that they might beget birth in the particular sphere of beings (i.e. if one practices ascetism of
imitating an animal, he might be reborn as that particular animal).
Following the path of self-mortification is a tough and difficult thing. Therefore it has been
identified aslo as the path of attantapa. Buddha has rejected the observation of attantapa because
of three reasons:
1. That path, again and again makes difficulties to one who follows it
2. One will not understand any kind of wholesome or kusala dhamma
3. One will not see any kind of knowledge leading to noble life
»Ayaṃ gāminī tapassi lokajīvi. Tinimanehi karāyaho. Attāna anapeti parinpeti. Kusalaṃ ca
dhammaṃ natigaccanti. Uttari manussadhamma allamariyañānadassana visesaṃ na saccikammaṃ
karohi.«
(Saṅyutta Nikāya, Rassa Sutta)
By following the path of self-mortification one cannot achieve any spiritual attainements. It
does not help to develop one's character or personality. The path of self-mortification is an action
prescribed by person who does not have knowledge to understand the reality of this world.
Therefore it is fruitless activity of a fool. According to buddhism aall the views belong to either
externalism or nihilism. Buddha's path does not belong to either ism(?) and rejected all the
extremes. It follows middle path and dependent origination as the theory. According to Majjhima
Nikāya Khandaraka Sutta advises person to follow the middle path and behave(?) the triśikhas(?).

133
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN ON WHAT GROUND (REASON) THE BUDDHA REJECTED THE ĀTMAN THEORY.

Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta mentions about the Atthakilamathānuyoga, observing the

rigorous practices of Ṛta, the way of self-torturing which is view of eternalism. The eternalists
believe that there is ātman, which continues without changing life after life. Here I or ātman means
a constant moment(?) without a change to achieve the ultimate freedom. One should follow the path
of self-mortification. The word attā is implied as the permanent ātman or one’s self and kilamatha
means weaken.
So, attakilamathānuyoga means one’s self being weakened by following various practices.
In Khandaraka Sutta the Buddha mentioned the Attakilamathānuyogic eternalists as attantapa. The
way of attantapa practices has been discussed under the five groups:
1. Concerning the food (just begging etc.)
2. Using the cloth (made of hair, skin, feather etc.)
3. Under the various activities (not sleeping – just sitting etc.)
4. Various practices (not washing oneself etc.)
5. Practices which had been followed those days and animals’ behavior etc.

Although rigorous practices have been rejected in Buddhism, it is considered as

Sīlabbataparamāsa, the canker.
According to the suttas, there are many – upādāna, kamma, diṭṭhi, sīlabbata etc. Buddha
preached the Dhamma to eradicate those upādāna. It arises due to the taṇhā or desire, the first cause
of upādāna. Therefore, by ceasing the taṇhā, upādāna also can be ceased. Further, Sammādiṭṭhi
Sutta explains how the noble one removes the suffering. Self-mortification is not the way to achieve
the final goal. It is reckoned as sīlabbataparamāsa. Early Buddhism rejected that and accepted the
noble one. One should recognize it as a canker and remove it if one wants to realize the ultimate
truth. Nanda Sutta in Suttanipāta questioned who whould be the muni.
Whether those who are having a great knowledge or those who follow the rigorous practices
to make one’s body suffer.(?) According to the Mahāvyuha Sutta in Suttanipāta the disciples of the
Buddha removed all these rigorous practices and achieved the peaceful life. The way of Buddha is
rejecting the extremes, clinging to other way, and following the middle path instead.
One can not achieve any spiritual attainment by practicing the self-torture. It does not help
one’s character or personality in developing spirituality and it is an action prescribed by person who
does not have knowledge to understand the reality of this world.

134
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN BRIEFLY THE BUDDHA'S TEACHING THAT HELPS TO DISPEL THE BELIEF IN A PERMANENT
SELF.

The Buddha cites the belief in a permanent self or sakkāya diṭṭhi as a primary cause of
suffering. Bbecause of this belief we become selfish and selfishness generates all kinds of conflicts,
within oneself and conflicts between oneself and others and so on. It is, in order to show that there
is no such enduring self or soul (attā), that the Buddha put forwards in His anattā teaching. It is
not another view, but a description about the nature of all phenomena.
To show that there is no self or substance behind phenomena, the Buddha analyzed
phenomena in various ways. There are five such major analyses in the Nikāyas:
1. Nāma-rūpa analysis: that is the broad analysis of the whole world of existence in mind and
matter.
2. Pañca-khandha analysis: this is the most comprehensive and the best known analysis of
phenomena. In this, everything is analyzed into five groups or aggregates as form (rūpa), feeling
(vedanā), perception (saññā), mental formation (saṅkhārā) and consciousness (viññāṇa). It is seen
that this is an elaboration of the nāma-rūpa analysis. The matter is represented by rūpa and mind by
other four aggregates. These are not independent, but interdependent. Therefore, they have no
independent existence.
3. The six dhātu or elements analysis. In this, the rūpa or material is analyzed into the four mahā-
bhūta (paṭhavī, āpo, tejo, vāyo). To this is added ākāsa (space), which is neither material nor
mental. And then the sixth element of phenomena is consciousness (viññāṇa).
4. The fourth analysis is into 12 āyatanas or ‘gateways’; these constitute the six sense faculties and
six sense objects. The whole world is nothing but the interaction between these.
5. The fifth is a further elaboration of this. It is the 18 dhātu analysis. It consists of the six sense
faculties, the six sense objects and the related six consciousnesses.

By these analyses the Buddha makes it clear that there is no permanent, enduring soul or
self; that everything is compounded; that everything is a combination of different forces which are
always changing and therefore without any permanency. Hence, these analyses help to dispel the
belief in a permanent, everlasting, enduring self.

135
 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE RELEVANCE OF THE BUDDHIST ANALYSES INTO KHANDHA, ĀYATANA AND DHĀTU TO THE
ELIMINATION OF THE BELIEF IN A SOUL-ENTITY.

All major religions and philosophical traditions of the time of the Buddha accepted the
belief in a soul. On emmajor tradition, namely eternalism (sassatavāda) accepted a permanent, non-
destructible, transmigrating soul. This they considered to be different from the body (aññaṃ jīvaṃ
aññaṃ sarīraṃ). Therefore, according to their belief this soul was metaphysical.
The annihilationists (ucchedavādins) on the other hand considered the soul to be identical
with the body (taṃ jīvaṃ taṃ sarṃraṃ). Hence, according to them the soul is physical and gets
destroyed at the destruction of the body. They did not believe in transmigration of the soul.
According to the Buddha's explanation of the problem of dukkha this belief in a soul is one
of the main causes that brings about dukkha. Therefore, one of his primary objects was to show that
this belief in any kind of a soul is a misconception.
In order to show this, the Buddha analyzed the whole world of our experience in numerous
ways. These analyses are the pancakkhandha (five aggregate analysis), twelve āyatana analysis
(that is the six sense organs and six sense objects), six dhātu (elements) that is the world as being
constituted of four great elements (mahābhūta), namely paṭhavī (earth), āpo (water), tejo (heat) and
vāyo (wind), eighteen dhātu that is the six sense organs, six sense objects and six sense
consciousnesses (viññāṇa) such as cakkhu viññāṇa (eye-consciousness), sota viññāṇa (ear-
consciousness) etc.
According to the Buddha this whole existence could be reduced to any of these
constituents. These constituents, whether the five aggregates (namely, rūpa, vedanā, saññā,
saṅkhāra or viññāṇa) or any other constituents are not permanent entities. These are dependent on
each other and are always undergoing changes.
The pañcakkhandha analysis which is the best known and the most comprehensive of these
analyses shows that the man is a composition of these five inter-dependent, inter-commended
aggregates as not independent, discrete constituents. They are described as mere forces of energy,
continually changing.
Thus, these different analyses are used to show that there is no substance or entity or self or
soul that remains permanent and unchanging.

136
 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE PRACTICAL VALUE OF THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AS A GRADUAL PROCESS
The Buddha says clearly that he does not preach that the goal could be reached at the
beginning itself. He clearly says that his path is a graduated one. Hence it is described as anupubba
paṭipadā (gradual practice), anupubba sikkhā (gradual training) and anupubba kiriya (gradual
course of action).
It is also explained that the division of the path into three kinds of training called sīla
(morality), samādhi (concentration) and paññā (wisdom) is meant to show this graduated nature of
the path. The Buddha was not presenting any secret or mystic way to end dukkha. He explained
that both dukkha and its cessation is within oneself and therefore one should adopt a practical
method of understanding dukkha and eradicating it.
According to Buddhism it is said that a wise person should first cultivate morality, then
develop concentration and wisdom.
The whole path is a programme or a course of practical action or training, which a person
has to follow. Firstly, one should establish oneself in the path by developing one’s verbal and
physical behavior. When one is doing this, one finds it easier to concentrate one’s mind. When the
mind is concentrated, it becomes manageable and one finds it easier to direct it to wisdom.
The problem of dukkha is caused by kilesas or defilements. These defilements function at
three levels. These defilements are very easily seen in our physical and verbal behavior. This stage
of appearance of these defilements is called vitikama level or level of transgression of accepted way
of behavior. A person who wishes to follow the path therefore has to stop such transgression. For
this he has to control his bodily and verbal action through morality (sīla).
When so suppressed, the defilements sink deep into the mind and lay hidden and sleeping
lay latent to rise when there is opportunity. Thus it becomes very clear that the whole path has a
practical value and it is so structured.

137
QUESTION: SHOW THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH, AS A GRADUAL PROCESS, RELATED TO MORALITY, CONCENTRATION
AND WISDOM

In Buddhism the path leading to cessation of dukkha (dukkha nirodha gāminī paṭipadā) is
called the Noble Eightfold Path (ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga). This is because it constitutes of eight
factors, namely:
1. Right view
2. Right thought
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration

As this path avoids the two extreme paths namely self-indulgence (kāmasukhallikānuyoga)
and self-mortification (attakilamathānuyoga) it is called the Middle Path (Majjhima Paṭipadā). The
factors in the path are not arranged in any hierarchical order. On eis not important than the other.
All these factors in combination culminate, reach the climax in bringing about freedom from
Saṅsāric dukkha.
This is the path, however, said to be a gradual one. This does not mean that its factors are to
be cultivated one by one, little by little. What is meant is that it has to be followed in some method,
because the purpose of the path is to enablbe one to get rid of defilements. The defilements came
into operation at three levels. They operate in our verbal and physical behavior. Then they operate a
little deeper in our mind, when they are suppressed the ygo still deeper and lay dormant, hiding in
the depth of themind. To fight these defilements at these three levels of operation the path is divided
into three kinds of trainig (tisikkhā). These are sīla (morality), samādhi (concentration) and paññā
(wisdom). So, the path has to bbe treaded upon in this order.
Thus the Saṅyutta Nikāya says: „A wise person having established himself in morality
should cultivate concentration and wisdom - »sile patiṭṭhāya naro sapañño cittaṃ paññaṃ ca
bhāvayaṃ).« With practice of sīla, that cultivation of right speech, right action and right livelihood,
one is able to perfect morality (sīla) and then become better equipped to practice of right effort,
right mindfulness and right concentration (sammā vīriya, sammā sati and sammā samādhi). With
the mind well concentrated one is able to develop paññā or vipassanā (insight knowledge) by
cultivating sammā diṭṭhi and sammā saṅkappa (right view and right thought).

138
 QUESTION: DESCRIBE CLEARLY THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AND EXAMINE HOW IT BECAME THE VIA MEDIA.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the Buddhist way to the cessation of dukkha. According to Buddhist
view the world is established in dukkha or non-satisfactoriness. The cessation of this is the goal – Nibbāna.
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way (magga) recommended for the realization of this goal.

It is called Noble Eightfold Path because it consists of eight of eight items or links. Therefore in Pāli
it is called the „ariya aṭṭhaṅghika magga.“ These links are:
(1) Right view (sammā diṭṭhi)
(2) Right thought (sammā saṅkappa)
(3) Right speech (sammā vācā)
(4) Right action (sammā kammanta)
(5) Right livelihood (sammā ājīva)
(6) Right effort (sammā viriya)
(7) Right mindfulness (sammā sati)
(8) Right concentration (sammā samādhi)

These eight items represent three salient factors of the individual's personality, namely his morality
(sīla), concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). The path is meant as a way to regulate and develop
these three aspects – right speech, action and livelihood, constitute sīla aspect, right effort, mindfulness and
concentration the samādhi and right view and thought the paññā aspect. As the Saṅyutta says, a wise man is
expected to establish himself in sīla and then develop concentration and wisdom.

This means one should methodically change one's personality by developing a moral life blending
and culminating in wisdom. This will bring about a personality change, leading to a change in thinking,
views, attitudes regarding life and the world, enabling the individual to get a proper understanding of the
whole existence. This understanding will make him remain unshaken by all vicissitudes (aṭṭhalokadhamma)
of life.

This path is also called the via media or the middle way for very good reson. At that time all
religions advocated one of the two extreme paths, namely self-mortification (attakilamatthānuyoga). The
first advocated excessive enjoyment of sense pleasures and teachers like Ajita Kesakambali upheld this
path. Others like Jaina Mahāvīra advocated the second and insisted on giving pain to the body to enable the
soul imprisoned within the body to find release.

The Buddha rejected both as harmful, ignoble and condemned kāmasukhallikānuyoga even as
vulgar. He advocated a path that transcends both these extremes. It is not a combination of a little from both
these paths, but a new path, which aimed at developing morality and wisdom. As it transcends the two
extremes mentioned above it came to be described by the Buddha himself as the middle path (majjhima
paṭipadā), the via media.

139
 ??? (SALĀYATANA) (NOT COMPLETED)

There are six internal avenues – that of cakkhu, sota, ghaṇa, jivhā, kāya and mana. There are
external objects which are represented represent the object of internal avenues, namely rūpa, sadda,
gandha, rasa, phoṭṭhabba and dhamma. As those 12 āyatanas are subject to breaking, they are
impermanent. Therefore, they also can be named as world, because the world's characteristic is
impermanency. Further in Saṅyutta Nikāya the Lokapannaha Sutta reveals how the word 'world' can
be used concerning 18 elements. According to Buddhism there are 18 elements, 18 dhātus that of
cakkhu, sota, ghana, jivhā, kāya, rūpa, sadda, gandha, rassa, phoṭṭhabbba – cakkhu viññāṇa etc.
Whatever exists is called world, because 18 elements are also impermanent, breakable. Wherever is
impermanency, that is called world. In Saṅyutta Nikāya Sabba Sutta further explains what is world.
According to that sutta which is Sabba the sutta says 'sabba' is that cakkhu, rūpa, sota, sadda etc.
Here the sabba word has been used as the synonym to loka. The Abhisamaya in Saṅyutta Nikāya,
Loka Sutta explains how the world came to existence.
The eyes and form came together and generated eye consciousness, cakkhu viññāṇa. These
three come together, then there is impression of a touch. Due to that there is feeling. Vedanā
generates craving. Due to that taṇhā there can be seen grasping or clinging. Due to that upādāna the
process of becoming is generated. Then due to that bhava rebirth happens. Old age, death etc. Are
being generated because jāti is there. This process is being considered as the appearance of the
world.
According to Buddhism world's disappearance is also explained after the dependent
origination theory. Appearance of the world is ascending way of the theory. Disappearance of the
world is explained decending way of dependent origination theory. When there is no eye, form and
eye consciousness, there is no phassa. When there is no phassa there is no feeling. When the
vedanā does not come to exist, desire also disappeared. By removing desire the grasping also
disappeared. One who removes clinging there won's appear the process of becoming. When there is
no bhava, rebirth is also removed. When rebirth is stopped, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation etc.
Do not come to exist. This is the way of cessation of the world. According to this explanation the
world loka has been used to denote the contact of the subject and object. Due to this subject and
object contact the cycle of Saṅsāra is continued. Thereby craving or desire, clinging or grasping etc.
Generates in respective events. Devata Saṅyutta further explains the world that the pleasure
emphasis has been made on the dhamma which exist in the mind. That sutta says that where there is
the salāyatana, then it itself made the world in it. Salāyatana made the basement to contact the
subject and object. Always the senses influence on respective sense objects. Therefore the world
reflects in human mind. The person influence to external world and the … ???

140
 MOKṢA (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The term 'Mokṣa' is from Sanskrit. It means that release from the cycle of rebirth defined in
some dictionaries. It is also called mukti or apavarga in Hinduism and Jainism, the ultimate
spiritual goal, designating individual soul's release from the bonds bhandha) transmigration of the
soul, once entered upon a bodily existence, remains trapped in a chain of successive rebirths
(saṃsāra) until it has reached perfection or the enlightenment that allows its release, the mokṣa. The
methods by which release is sought after and attained differ from school to school, but most schools
consider mokṣa to be a person's highest purpose in life.
On the other hand, mokṣa means liberation from cycles of birth and death that can be
achieved only when you will be merged with the God. Secondly death means destruction of
physical body.
Now fyan yogi, bhakti yogi will definitely know about mokṣa before death. In Hinduism and
jainism, the ultimate spiritual goal, the soul's release from the bonds of transmigration. The soul,
once entered upon a bodily existence remains trapped in a chain of successive rebirths until it has
attained the perfection or enlightenment that allows its release. The methods by which release is
sought and attained differ from one philosophical school to the next, but most schools consider
mokṣa to be the highest purpose of life.
In Indian religions (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism) mokṣa (liberation) or mukti
(release) refers to liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth and all of the suffering and
limitation of worldly existence. In Hindu philosophy, it is seen as a transcendence of phenomenal
being, of any sense of consciousness of time, space, and causation (kamma). It is not seen as a
soteriological goal in the same sense as in the Christian context, but signifies dissolution of the
sense of 'self' as an egoistic personality: the undoing of conditioned mentality-materiality liberation
is achieved by (and accompanied with) the complete stilling of all passions – a state of being known
as Nirvāṇa or Nibbāna. Buddhist thought differs slightly from the Advaita Vedantist reading of
liberation.
According to some religions and philosophers, the world including all living things and non-
living things were created by God. As they said, the release of beings depends on their god and
gods. In order to know we have to find out them. Even thought some creeds of Christian are similar
with Buddha's teachings but the ultimate goal is different.
Jesus taught to lead heaven as a final goal where will have to rebirth from life to life in
saṃsāra (circle of rebirth).(?) It is not real release (mokṣa). Because thus one cannot get free from
suffering. The ultimate goal must be free from all suffering.

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NIBBĀNA (THE ULTIMATE GOAL OF BUDDHISM) (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The Nibbāna or cessation of suffering is the ultimate goal of Buddhism. In the

Ariyapariyasana sutta, the Buddha is said to have claimed that he realized two important doctrines,
which are difficult to understand and difficult to see. These two dhammas are paṭiccasamuppāda
and Nibbāna, the deliverance from suffering.
In the Dhammacakkappavattana sutta, Four Noble Truths were realized by the Buddha.
The third truth of the Four Noble Truths is related to Nibbāna. According to Buddha, Nibbāna is
not something which exists after the realization of Nibbāna.(?)21 There is no physical form after the
realization of Nibbāna.22 It is only the deliverance from suffering.
According to the the teachings of the Buddha no one exists forever, the only thing that we
are continuously experiencing is suffering. There are three inevitable natures in the world pertaining
not only to the living beings but also to everything in this world:
1. Aniccā (impermanence)
2. Dukkha (unsatisfactoriness)
3. Anattā („soullessness“)

The Buddha emphasized that Nibbāna is nothing but the eradication of taṇhā, ill-will and
delusion or ignorance.

»Tanhakkhayo, dosakkhayo, mohakkhayo nibbānaṁ.«

is the definition of Nibbāna.

Reality and Nibbāna are two different things, not one thing as understood by the Upaniṣads.
understanding reality is one thing, realization of Nibbāna is another. The realization of reality is the
pre-requisite for the realization of Nibbāna. Nibbāna is the ethical goal, not a philosophical goal.
The Buddha recommended ethical path leading to that ethical goal. The only difficulty with regard
to Nibbāna is that it cannot be understood through our normal experience. The sensory knowledge
or the logical reasoning is insufficient to give the knowledge of Nibbāna. Therefore, the Buddha
enumerated that the Dhamma has to be individually understood, paccattaṁ veditabbo, to be realized
personally.
Sometimes it may be thought that Nibbāna is the utter annihilation, not attainable in
Buddhist perspective. In annihilation, there is something to be freed, similar to a kind of soul which
temporarily existed. here it states that the temporary existence of the soul is annihilated forever.
Therefore, it is not agreeable in Buddhist perspective as according to their definition. Nibbāna is
called amata (immortal), ajāta (not produced), akaṭa (not done) and asaṁkhata (unconditioned).
These are characteristics of Nibbāna.

21 What a nonsense...
22 Here the lecturer is wrong. After Nibbāna form exists. Even after the Parinibbāna. If there is no form after Nibbāna,
then I would like to know what are all these teeth, bones etc. that are told to be from the Buddha's body ;) . And the
Buddha achieved the Parinibbāna, didn't he?! Only there is no rebirth and none of the five aggregates (pañca
skandha).

142
 THE INTERPRETATION OF NIBBĀNA

The ultimate goal of Buddhism is Nibbāna. The Pāli word Nibbāna is composed of „ni“ and
„vana.“ „Ni“ is the negative prefix and „vana“ means „craving.“ According to
Abhidhammaṭṭhasaṁgaha it is called Nibbhāna(?), where the „ni“ is departure from craving or
lusting called „vana.“ This craving likes a word connected one life with another.(?) Nibbāna is also
explained as extinction of fire or lust (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha).

Nibbāna cannot be actually expressed in words. It is only to be experienced. It cannot be

said to be nothingness just like it would be illogical to conclude that light does not exist simply
because blind does not see it. If we say that Nibbāna is nothingness, then it may, indeed, be the
same thing like space (ākāsa). With regard to the difference between space and Nibbāna, it may
briefly be said, that space is empty, whereas Nibbāna is not. One cannot exactly explain Nibbāna in
conventional terms. It is understood only after self-realization.

There are two kinds of Nibbāna. One attainable in this life itself, it is called
saupadisesadhātu. When an Arahat attains Parinibbāna, after his passing away of his body it is
called anupadisesanibbānadhātu.

In the Milindapañhā it is said that there is no place, either East or South, either West or
North, either above or below or beyond, where would be Nibbāna situated, yet the Nibbāna is. Just
as fire is not stored in any particular place but arises when the necessary conditions exist, so also
Nibbāna is said that it is impossible to exist in it like in a place, but it is attainable when the
necessary conditions are fulfilled.

In the Rohitassa sutta of Saṁyutta nikāya the Buddha said that the cessation of suffering is
Nibbāna. It is actually dependent upon one's fathom body. nibbna is a state where the four
elements: earth (pathavī), water (āpo), heat (tejo) and wind (vayo) are not found. Nibbāna is not a
kind of heaven where a transcendental Ego resides and which provides all forms of pleasure desired
by man, but it is an attainment of enlightenment within reach of us all.

Buddhism advocates that the so-called „being“ consists of mind and matter (nāma-rūpa)
which are always changing every moment. There exists no permanent soul or ātman, unchanging
entity and the so-called 'I' is also an illusion. Buddhism believes that a dynamic life-flux (santati)
flows definitely as long as it is fed with ignorance and craving. Only by eradicating them one can
realize Nibbāna and be able to attain Arahatship.

In order to remove all defilements and to realize Nibbāna, the only way is to follow the
Noble Eightfold Path diligently and to purify ourselves earnestly. And then we may one day realize
Nibbāna within ourselves (paccattaṃ veditabbo viññūhīti).

143
 QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF NIBBĀNA AS TAUGHT IN EARLY BUDDHISM
Nibbāna is the summum bonum in Buddhism. It is explained as the highest good, the
supreme bliss (parama sukha). This is because Nibbāna is contrasted with Saṅsāra, which is
described as established in dukkha (dukkhe loko patiṭṭhito).
Dukkha and cessation of dukkha are the two main points discussed in Buddhism. The first
two Noble Truths deal with dukkha and its arising. The second two Truths explain the possibility
and the way to its cessation. While saṅsāra or worldly life is full of dukkha, Nibbānic experience is
said to be completely free from dukkha.
Why is this so? In our saṅsāric worldly life we are being constantly burnt and scorched by
craving, hatred and confusion. Being impelled and motivated by these defiled motives we are
pushed to perform actions which make us get involved in suffering and conflicts and prolongation
of our saṅsāric existence.
It is explained how our minds are made sick (ātura citta) with craving, hatred and confusion.
Because our minds are sick, we suffer immensely. We suffer when we are disappointed, we suffer
when we get what we dislike and do not get what we like; we suffer when things change from good
to bad. Simply we are suffering due to our likes, dislikes and confusion.
Therefore, putting an end to craving (rāga/lobha), hatred (dosa) and confusion (moha) is
said to bring about happiness or cooling of ourselves, the pacification of our mind making the mind
healthy (anātuṃ citta). This realization or experience of pacification of suffering cause by rāga,
dosa, moha is called the realization of Nibbāna (rāgakkhaya, dosakkhaya, mohakkhaya).
When all this evil motives are eradicated, there is no more rebirth making kamma. hence,
kamma is destroyed. This destruction of kamma which puts an end to rebirth is also called Nibbāna
(kammakkhayoti nibbāna). When there is no rebirth then all dukkha comes to an end; for this reason
Nibbāna is defined as dukkhakkhaya – destruction of dukkha.
The absence of dukkha itself makes this experience a supreme bliss – parama sukha. Thus it
is called parama sukha not because there is more and more happiness than in saṅsāra, but because
it is completely free from all kinds of dukkha, dukkha-dukkha, viparināma-dukkha and saṅkhāra-
dukkha.
This realization of Nibbāna is accomplished while one is living. It is not therefore another
state of existence in a world beyond or in a kind of heaven. It is this very existence, devoid of all
dukkha. Therefore, one needs not to wait until death to realize Nibbāna. This realization should be
experienced here and now, while yet living. The Buddha and the Arahants continued to live after
realizing Nibbāna.
State of a Buddha or an Arahant who continues to live is called ‘sopadisesa nibbāna’. This
is because their five aggregates yet continue. When such a one passes away, the five aggregates are
no more and that is called ‘anupadisesa nibbāna’.

144
 QUESTION: „NIBBĀNA IS THE BLISS OF EMANCIPATION ACHIEVABLE IN THIS VERY LIFE.“ COMMENT.
Nibbāna (Skt. Nirvāṇa) is the final releas from dukkha, the summum bonum, the highest
good in Buddhism. What exactly Nibbāna is is difficult to explain for it is a personal exprience. For
this very reason it is often said that Nibbbāna cannot be described, or that it is ineffable. However,
early Buddhism does not say that Nibbāna is ineffable (anirvacanīya). There are many paeans of
joy (udāna) uttered by the Bbuddha himself expressing joy at the realization of Nibbāna. Similarly
Thera and Therigāthā contain many such utterances in which the Arahant monks and nuns express
their blissful feeling when they felt that they have reached the end of dukkha.
Inspite of such accounts some believe that Nibbāna is a state to be achieved after death.
They think of Nibbāna as a form of existence in some higher plane that one reaches after death. But
this indeed is a misconception. In early Buddhism it is clearly stated that one should lead the Noble
life (brahmacariya) for the ending of dukkha (cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa
antakiriyāya).
This makes it clear that the sole purpose of the realization of dukkha. It is in this sense that
Nibbāna is defined as dukkhassa anta. This dukkha is caused by rāga, dosa, moha. Therefore,
getting rid of their root causes of dukkha is also called Nibbāna, e.g., »rāgakkhayo, dosakkhayo,
mohakkhayo ca nibbānaṃ.« In the same sense the ending of kamma, which leads to continued
existence (kammakkhaya) is given as another definition of Nibbāna.
This makes it clear that Nibbāna is a state of mind to be achieved in this very life (diṭṭhe’va
dhamme) while living. It is a transformation of the character including one’s views, attitudes etc.
This transformation enables one to remain calm and undisturbed when faced with the vicissitudes of
life (lokadhamma). So, it is a state above dukkha and hence full of bliss, to be experienced in this
life, while yet living.

145
 QUESTION: SHOW HOW THE BUDDHIST TEACHING ON NIBBĀNA IS DISTINCT FROM BOTH ETERNALISM AND
ANNIHILATIONISM

Eternalism or Sassatavāda is a philosophy, which upheld the belief in a permanent,

unchanging, indestructible soul (ātman / attā). This soul was believed to be transmigrating from life
to life as it is tainted by kamma or the good and bad consequences of one’s deeds. The final
liberation was to be achieved by purification of the soul and liberating it from the body and making
it united with the universal soul (Brāhman) or enabling it to escape into the endless space to enjoy
eternal bliss. The path for this as advocated by the eternalists was self-mortification, giving pain to
the body, developing the mind and realization of the identity of ātman and Brāhman, or clearing the
soul of all pāpa and stopping collecting of new kamma.
Annihilationism is the philosophy that taught that everything comes to an end with death.
Annihilationists also believed in a soul, but this soul was identical with the body and therefore it
should not be permanent. This material soul gets destroyed with the destruction of the body. They
did not believe in continuity of life and therefore advocated total enjoyment of sense pleasures
while living (kmasukhallikānuyoga). Their view was that as there is no next life, one should enjoy
to the maximum in this life. Their goal was non-existence, non-continuity of life after death.
The Buddha rejected both these as extreme views, which do not represent the true nature of
reality. Instead he advocated dependent origination, the rising and falling of all things. According to
the Buddha it is our wrong understanding of reality that is the cause of dukkha. It is because of this
wrong understanding of dukkha, or the reality we follow a wrong view of the world and practice a
wrong way of life.
This wrong view makes us accept either permanent or impermanent soul. A soul view
increases selfishness and make us behave selfishly and act through rlga, dosa and moha. This leads
us to dukkha, making our minds get bburnt and sick. So, our minds are always in dukkha.
The Buddha teaches the cooling, calming and soothing of the mind, making it free from
dukkha. This is called Nibbāna, a state in which one is able to remain is complete equanimity
(upekkhā). There is neither a destruction of the soul as in annihilationism nor unification of it with
Brāhman. There is only total pacification of the mind, making it remain tranquil in face of all ups
and downs of life. So, it is neither eternalism nor annihilationism for there is no soul to be made
eternal by unifying it or releasing it to remain free for ever, or a soul to get destroyed at death.

146
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE NATURE OF BUDDHIST ETHICS, WHICH LEADS TO ABSOLUTE DELIVERANCE FROM
SAṂSĀRA.

According to introduction to Dhammasaṁganī written by Prof. Rhys Davids, Buddhism is

a religion of psychological ethics. The Buddha presents a way to make an end to man's dukkha and
this way (magga) is known by names: Majjhimā Paṭipadā, ariya-aṭṭhaṁgika magga,
dukkhanirodhagāminīpatipadā, ariyā sacca and so on. It is also referred to as Noble life –
brahmacariya. In this there are three kinds of trainig sikhā: virtue (sīla), concentration (samādhi)
and wisdom (paññā). It is through the fulfillment of these three trainings that one realizes Nibbāna,
goal presented in Buddhism.
The Buddha himself explains how these trainings should be followed. It should be followed
in such way that the final outcome should be the perfection of the moral or ethical life culminating
in wisdom. In fact the Buddha himself is the epitome of this perfected life and this is seen from the
epithet given to the Buddha as „the one endowed with knowledge and conduct“ (vijjā-carana-
sampanno).
In explaining how this brahmacariya should be lived the Jatā sutta of the Samyutta nikāya
says that a wise person having established himself in virtue should cultivate his mind and wisdom:
»Sīla patiṭṭhāya naro sapañño cittaṃ paññañ ca bhāvayaṃ.« Thus it is clearly said that sīla (virtue
or ethics) is the foundation. Besides, the Dhammapada directly says that the eadmonition of all
Buddhas is to abstain from evil and to accumulate good: »sabba pāpassa akaranaṃ kusalassa
upasampadā«.
These are three modes through which one does any actions whether evil or good. These
modes are: body, speech and mind. Though one cannot act without being urged by the mind,
normally one's actions get manifested through how one uses his body and speech. Therefore
regulating body and speech or kāya kamma (bodily action) and vacī kamma (verbal action) are
considered fundamental in the practice of the path. It is by regulating these two modes of actions
that one is able to stop manifestation (vītikkama) of rāga, dosa and moha in oneself.
What is noteworthy is that in the Buddhist path leading to deliverance, wisdom is not
isolated from virtue or ethics and mental culture. Virtue helps mental culture and mental culture
conduces wisdom. This is why sīla in various forms as pañca-sīla, aṭṭhaṁga-sīla, uposatha-sīla,
dasa-sīla, and so on are made integral parts of the path. Three factors of the path, namely:
1. Sammā vāca
2. Sammā kammanto
3. Sammā ājīvo
are aimed to establish oneself in ethical living. It is this ethical living that provides the
foundation for one to successfully fulfil the training in samādhi and paññā.

147
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BUDDHIST MORALITY.
The Pali term for morality is sīla. The Saṅyutta Nikāya explains the path leading to ending
of dukkha says that morality is the foundation (patiṭṭha) on which a wise person starts his
cultivation of mind and perfection of wisdom »sīla patiṭṭhāya naro sappañño ca cittaṃ paññaṃ ca
bhāvayaṃ.« It is seen that the Noble Eightfold Path is divided into a threefold training (sikkhā),
namely sīla (morality), samādhi (concentration or mind cultivation) and paññā (perfection of
wisdom).
The Buddhist path fo freedom is a graduated one and hence in this gradual process sīla or
morality play a very important role, making an individual become equipped with the necessary
moral strength to pursue the other two types of training.
In the Noble Eightfold Path, morality consists of three factors. These are right speech, right
action and right livelihood. This covers the same area covered by the five precepts or pañca sīla. It
is seen that the precepts are basic requirements expected of a Buddhist who intends to enter this
path. If the three items in the Noble Eightfold Path that contributes morality, sammā vācā is the
same as the fourth precept dealing with the abstention of lying (musā vādā), it means total
abstention from all kinds of abusive speech. It is abusive speech that leads to many conflicts among
individuals, social groups and even nation.s
Speech could be abusive in four ways. By false, harsh talk, harsh speech, slandering and idle
talk. Cultivation of right speech means absention from these and cultivation of their opposites
namely truth, pleasant, praise of others and useful, righteous talk. This will bring about good will,
mutual understanding and harmony in society.
Sammā kammanta deals with abstention from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Right
to live and right to have private property are two of the basic human rights. When each member of
the society pledges to observe the precepts dealing with abstention from killing and stealing,
everyone is guaranteed safety of life and property and this brings about stability and peace in the
society.
Similarly, abstention from sexual misconduct means protection of women and consequently
protection of family life. This also helps to add strenth to the society. When their positive aspects
are practised, the society becomes a good place for harmonium and safe living.
Sammā ājīva too has both individual and social significance. The Buddha lists five
professions which he considers bad. But this is not comprehensive. What is taught in Buddhism is
that one should abstain from all kinds of profession that is bad to oneself and to others. Thus this
naturally covers the fifth precept which deals with the consumption of liquor, for it is considered as
a source of all kinds of social problem. Thus it is clearly seen that Buddhist morality is of great
social significance.

148
 QUESTION: THE PURPOSE OF BUDDHIST ETHICS IS TO HELP AN INDIVIDUAL TO WORK FOR HIS WELL BEING AS WELL
AS FOR THE WELL BBEING OF OTHER’S. STATE YOUR OBSERVATION.

Buddhism is an ethical teaching. It aims at making individuals to develop their moral life
and turn out to be good citizens. Such good citizens are a blessing to a country, for they work for
their own well being as well as for the well bbeing of others.
Buddhist ethics teach the avoidance of evil and the cultivation of good (sabba pāpassa
akaranaṃ kusalassa upasampadā). How does Buddhism distinguish good and evil? According to
the general criterion adopted in Buddhist ethics what is good is what is for one’s well being and the
well-being of otehrs.; what is evil is what is harmful to oneself and harmful to others. This criterion
is clearly explained in the Ambalaṭṭhikārāhulovāda Sutta of Majjhima Nikāya. Thus Buddhist ethics
encouraging individuals to perform what is good is directly asking them to work for their own well-
being as well as the well being of others.
It is with this purpose that Buddhist practice begins with the cultivation of morality or sīla.
This is regarded as the foundation of the whole path to freedom. The Saṅyutta Nikāya says that a
wise man should first establish himself in morality and then cultivate his mind and wisdom. Thus
training in sīla he is given much importance in the practice of the path.
This constitutes the controlling of physical and verbal behavior. In other words, it is the
obbservance and practice of the five precepts. This practice helps an individual to get over his
tendency to harm others, to take what does not belong to him, to indulge in illegal sexual relation, to
engage in lying and getting addicted to intoxicants.
All these acts are harmful to oneself and also harmful to others in the society. A person
giving up these evil qualities is advised to develop compassion, charity, sense restraint, speaking
truth and avoid falling into intoxication. When these good qualities are cultivated an individual
would immensely benefit.
He would be disciplined and well-mannered and human life would be calm, peaceful and
happy. He will be liked by all. His social status and position will grow. This sort of good behavior
will bring about stabiblity to his social life and this will help him to develop his spiritual life.
By cultivating such ethical qualities he will be helping the others by bbeing compassionate
to them, charitable to them. Being restrained in senses he will not engage in any act that will bring
about social conflict. He will always appreciate others. His abstention from falling into intoxication
will make him prevent creating unnecessary problems for others.
It is for this reason that Buddhism says that one who protects himself protects the others too.

149
 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE ROLE OF FREEDOM OF THOUGHT IN BUDDHISM

Among the contemporaries, the Buddha was the only religious teacher who accepted
freedom of thought. Thus he was able to do because he believed neither in divine revelation or his
own divinity. The truth of the Dhamma that he has realized is the law prevailing in the Universe.
Buddhism is unique teaching bbecause it encourages inquiry and grants freedom of thought.
Buddhism is a religion for all and it has no secret in its teaching. According to Buddhism one's
salvation depends on one's own realization of the truth. To realize the truth one should be able to
think freely. Accepted belief without investigation is a blind faith. The Buddha's teaching is not to
believe in a blind faith. He is a unique teacher because he invited his disciples to investigate
whether he himself was truly enlightened or not. The Buddha said „ehipassiko“ - come and see his
teaching. He never claimed that he would be a savior. He described himself as a mere guide, a
pathfinder, a teacher, who knows the way, who bears the torch. The express of his Dhamma is free
for investigation and observation for all.
The Vimaṅsaka Sutta contains suggestion that everyone has qualified and could even inquire
into the Buddhahood. This is the only instance which shows a religious leader authoring his
followers to investigate and inquire about the leader himself. Buddhism gives importance to
understanding and not to mere belief. The belief without understanding is to cling on someone else's
belief.
A very important advice of evidence regarding freedom of thought in Buddhism is found in
Kālāma Sutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Here the Buddha says to the Kālāmas that they should not
accept what he says without thinking about it and investigating it. They should not accept anything
what merely comes as a tradition or on mere hearsay or out of respect to the teacher who preaches
it. Instead, he should ask them to verify the truthfulness of the statement, its utility, its benefit to
onej's welfare and to the welfare of others.
Buddhism accepts that the individual has the freedom to choose between right and wrong. If
such a choice was not there, there would be not purpose in living a religious life. In Buddhism there
is not only the freedom of thought to inquire the Dhamma, but also the freedom to examine and
clear doubt. Thus the Buddha invites his disciples to investigate and examine what was not clear
and what they doubted about his teaching. Unclear or doubt might be an obstacle to the
understanding and conviction.
The man is a free thinker, independent bbeing has to act on his own, practice on his own and
realize for himself the truth - „Attāhi atthaho natho kohi nātho parosiyaṃ.“

150
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN HOW BUDDHISM UPHOLDS THE INDEPENDENCE AND AUTHORITY OF MAN
Buddhism denies the belief in all powerful, creator God. In many suttas such as the Kevaḍḍha Sutta the
Buddha ridicules the belief in a creator God called Brahmā. Instead Buddhism upholds the superiority of man.
The Dhammapada says that one is one’s own master and asks how there could be another master: »attāhi attano
nātho kohi nātho parosiyā.«
Buddha in many suttas such as the Ambaṭṭha, Assalāyana completely rejects the belief in creation of the
world and the society by a supreme God. Instead he explains all these on due to an evolutionary process operating
due to causes and conditions. This view is put forward in the Aggañña Sutta whowing very well that man is not a
slave or a tool in hands of God.
Buddha very clearly shows that the man has the ability to think freely, investigate and select what is
right, giving up what is wrong. This free-will (svacchandatā) is definitely a characteristic that shows that man is
independent and that he has the authority to decide about himself.
Even the Buddhist theory of kamma does not make a man slave of kamma. Stories like that of ven.
Aṅgulimāla shows that the man has the authority to control and even regulate his kamma. The Buddha very
clearly advocates that man becomes what he is not due to the influence of any external agency or power but due to
his own deed performed due to his own free-will.
The Buddha himself does not claim to be a savior, or a lord who controls the destiny of man. He says
that he is only a guide (maggassa akkhtāro), one who knows the way (maggakovido), one who bears the torch
(ukkādhāro), and above all a teacher. He says that each one has to put forth effort by himself (tumhehi kiccaṃ
ātappaṃ). All this very clearly indicate that Buddhism holds man to be independent and superior.

QUESTION: EXAMINE THE DOCTRINAL SIGNIFICANCE OF „ATTĀHI ATTANO NĀTHO“ - „ONE IS THE LORD OF ONESELF.“
This saying is found in the Dhammapada. The statement that one is one’s own lord or master is of much
significance doctrinally. To understand its real significance one has to have some idea of the religious background
of the time of the Buddha.
At that time there were two main religious traditions, namely the Brāhmaṇa tradition and the Śramaṇa
tradition. Of these the Brāhmaṇa tradition had two stages. One is the Vedic and the other is the Upaniṣadic stage.
In the Vedic stage the belief was in a Creator God. The God was man’s Lord or Master. The man was a slave or a
tool in the hands of the God.
In the Upaniṣadic stage it was the Universal principle Brāhman, that was considered supreme. The soul in
the man which was a part of the Brāhman or the Universal soul was considered as the ‘agent’ of all action, an
individual was considered as a helpless being.
The six teachers who belonged to the Śramaṇa tradition also considered man to be a helpless creature,
whose life is determined by some external force – fate, kamma or some such force. They did not accept that man
is free, that he has free-will, he could put forth effort and make his life in the way he desires. According to this, it
means that life was pre-determined and therefore one is not one’s ‘lord’.
It was the Buddha, who for the first time in the history of religions put forward the view that man is
superior, he is his own master and that he has free will, and freedom to act and put forth effort to shape his life.
The Buddha himself did not claim to be anybody other than a teacher (satthā) a guide (maggassa akkhātāro).
The Buddha insisted that each person has to tread the path himself (tuṃhehi kiccaṃ ātappaṃ), that the teaching
should be understood personally by the wise (paccattaṃ veditabbaṃ viññūhi).
There is belief in a ‘savior’. According to buddhism what one becomes depends on ‘what one does’.
Therefore, man is his own creator/savior(?). There is no other creator/savior(?) who would shape his life.

151
 QUESTION: ELUCIDATE HOW EARLY BUDDHISM ANALYZES THE MIND.
Buddhism is both a religion of ethics and psyhcology. Hence, it explains its good as the
perfectio of ethics and cleansing and controlling the mind and perfecting wisdom. The Buddha
explains that the individual is in bondage to life because of craving, hatred and confusion. These are
all mental states. If one could clean the mind of these defiling forces, then one could develop the
mind and allow wisdom to arise.
This is not an easy task. This is because the mind is hard to control. The Dhammapada
devotes one whole chapter to explain the early Buddhist concept of mind. Thus in the Cittavagga
(Dhammapada, third chapter), mind is described as flickering, difficult to guard, control and check.
Similarly it is so swift that it is very hard to perceive, extremely subtle, going far, wandering alone.
It is bodiless and is lying hidden in a place like cave.
Elsewhere the Buddha says that he does not know of any other thing that moves as fast as
the mind. He compares the mind to a monkey. Just as a monkey gets hold of a branch and leaves it
when it gets hold of another, the mind, too, is jumping from one object to another.
Similarly the Buddha shows that the whole world is led by the mind, dragged here and
there by the mind and that there is no one that is not under the control of the mind. This is the whole
problem of mankind, they are under control of the mind. It is the mind that dictates what one should
do. If the mind is motivated by evil forces, then an individual would be led towards evil.
It is important to understand that the mind is bodiless (asarīra). The Brāhmaṇic teaching
identified the mind with something permanent, with the soul. But early Buddhism clearly says that
the mind is not a thing, not an entity like a soul.
The Buddha explained the nature of the mind and said that it arised due to causes and never
arised without causes: »Aññatara paccayā natthi viññāṇaṃ saṅbhavo.« Here the term viññāṇa is
used to denote the mind. Early Buddhism uses three terms, citta, mano and viññāṇa to denote the
mind. Though they mean three aspects of the mind, generally they are taken to be used
synonymously.
The Buddhist path aims at establishing a person in morality, and then making him control
and clean his mind to prepare it for the perfection of wisdom. This is because a developed, well-
natured mind is said to bring happiness and make one escape from the bonds of death - »cittaṃ
dantaṃ guttaṃ sukhā vahaṃ; mokkhanti mārabandhanā.«

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 QUESTION: ELUCIDATE THE EARLY BUDDHIST ANALYSIS OF THE MIND.
Buddhism completely rejects theology. Instead of theology, Buddhism deals with
psychology. Hence, bubddhism gives a special place to mind. It is said that the mind is the cause of
both bondage and freedom. According to early Buddhism the defiled mind keeps the individual
bound to Saṅsāra. This same mind when it is made pure and cultivated bbrings about the
individual’s freedom from continuous cycle of births and deaths.
Three words are used to denote the mind: citta, mano and viññāṇa. The mind is said to be
pure, and it gets defiled by outside defilements. These defilements are come by different names as
kilesa, samyojana āsava, anusaya and so on. These defilements enter the mind when the sense
organs come into contact with sense objects. Basically the three root-causes of evil - craving (rāga /
lobha), hatred or enmity (dosa), confusion or delusion (moha) - come into operation and through
this mind is said to get defiled. Therefore, sense restraint is considered as important for mind’s
culture.
A well protected mind is said to bring about happiness (cittaṃ guttaṃ sukhāvahaṃ). The
Dhammapada contains a whole chapter (cittavagga) on the mind. This chapter attempts to describe
the mind in various ways. Thus it is said that the mind is flickering (phandanaṃ), unstable
(capalaṃ), difficult to guard and control (durakkhaṃ dunnivārayaṃ). It is compared to a fish taken
out of water. It is hard to check, swift, very difficult to observe (sududdasaṃ), wandering for
(dūraṃgamaṃ) and wandering alone (ekacaraṃ), it has no physical body (asarīraṃ) and lives in a
cave-like-place (guhāsayaṃ).
In the Aṅguttara Nikāya the fast changing mind is compared to a monkey. Just as a monkey
jups from branch to branch, leaving one branch only when it gets holds of another, the mind too,
hops from object to object. The mind is so powerful that it is further said that the world is led by the
mind and dragged here and there byb the mind (cittena inyati loko – citena parikassati); there is no
one who does not come under the influence of the mind.
The Dhammapada describes the mind as asarīra, body-less. This description is important
because Buddhism does not consider, as other religions do, the mind to be an entity, a substance,
something.
Buddhism explains the mind as also being subject to rise and fall; therefore it is also
paṭicca-samuppanna, dependently arising. This is very clearly stated when it is said that without
condition there is no arising of the mind (aññatara paccayā natthi viññāṇassa sambhavo).
The Buddhist path for freedom explains how one should establish oneself in morality (sīla),
then cultivate the mind (samādhi) and make insight wisdom (paññā) arise.

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 QUESTION: BRING OUT METHODICALLY THE BUDDHIST TEACHING ON SADDHĀ
The term Saddhā in Sanskrit and Saddhā in Pāli is usually translated into English as faith.
This translation seems to give the wrong impression that Buddhism is a religion based on faith or
that faith plays a vital role in Buddhist practice.
It has to be noted that faith is a kind of dogmatic belief, a belif based on the authority of the
curch or some superior agent. The term faith suggest that something is believed without any inquiry
or examination, accepted because one believes that it is true though he has no proof of it
whatsoever. Faith is a feature of theistic religions where there is a belief in a Supreme omniscient
and omnipotent God.
Buddhism is not so. It does not accept a Supreme God. Instead it considers man as Superior,
and therefore responsible for his well being as well as ill being. It is well known that the Dhamma is
described as ‘ehipassika’ - „come and see“ - then inviting everyone to examine. Similarly, the
Buddha in the Kālāma Sutta pointed out that man has the ability to select between right and wrong
because he can think freely on his own.
In the Vīmaṅsaka Sutta the Buddha invited monks to examine the Buddha himself and
clarify whether his claim to Buddhahood is justifiable. The Buddha never posed as a savior. He
said he is only a teacher (satthā), a guid (maggana akkhātāro). The Buddha admonished the monk
called Vakkhalī who had been attached to the Buddha's physical form and told him that if he
wished to see the Buddha he should see the doctrine:
»Yo maṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati, yo dhammaṃ passati yo maṃ passati.«
In such a religion how can there be room for faith. In fact the Buddha refers to two kinds of
Saddhā. One is ‘amūlika saddhā’, which could be rendered into English as ‘blind faith’ or ‘baseless
faith’. he denounced this. The other is ‘ākāravatī saddhā’ - ‘reasoned faith’, ‘confidence’ or
‘rational faith’. This is advocated in Buddhism, it is faith or confidence based on reason.
This is very clear from Cankī Sutta. It shows how one should start his spiritual journey with
rational faith and gradually turn it into wisdom (paññā). One should adopt in developing this
saddhā, which functions like a magnet to draw one to a good teaching and a good teacher througha
methodical way to paññā. So, saddhā, in fact ākāravatī saddhā, is considered as a necessary factor
in one’s spiritual practice, but it has to be developed to paññā if one is to find freedom from
dukkha.

154
 QUESTION: DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF SADDHĀ IN BUDDHISM.
The Pāli term saddhā, which is the equivalent of the Sanskrit word Śraddhā is generally
translated into English as ‘faith’. Saddhā is very much emphasized in early Buddhism as a pre-
requisite for religious life. IF so, does this mean that ‘faith’ is a necessary factor in early Buddhism?
What one has to understand here is that the English word ‘faith’ is not a good translation of
the term saddhā. The word ‘faith’ connotes the idea that there is some external power, a God or
some other external power in whom one should have faith. Saddhā does not denote such a meaning.
It gives this meaning of confidence, self-assurance, a trust.
Besides, Buddhism distinguishes even saddhā into two – as amūlika saddhā and ākāravati
saddhā. Of these amūlika saddhā is mere blind faith, baseless faith in something, God or some
other power. Such saddhā is denounced in Buddhism as an obstacle in the path of salvation.
This is clear from the advice given by the Buddha to Vakkalī. This monk used to admire
the Buddha’s physical body and became engrossed with faith in the Bubddha not paying attention
to the Dhamma. So, the Buddha advised him by asking him to see the Dhamma, if he hreally
desired to see the Buddha.
The second type of saddhā is ākāravati saddhā – reasoned faith. This kind of saddhā is
encouraged in Buddhism. This is because the Buddha encouraged the freedom of thought and
investigation .This is clearly seen from the Kālāma Sutta and the Vīmaṃsaka Sutta. In the first sutta
the Buddha says that one should not accept anything as mere faith, however sacred the source of
information is. The second sutta encourages the disciples even to investigate about the Buddha to
see whether the latter is really Enlightened. The trust one gets through such free thinking and
investigation produces reasoned faith (ākāravati saddhā) and this is considered very essential to
start and move forwards in the religious path.
The Canki Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya clearly shows how saddhā forms the first step in
this long journey towards the final goal, Nibbāna. Herein, saddhā is presented as a magnet that
draws one towards a religious teacher. This is the initial step in the religious pilgrimage. Without
saddhā one would never get inclined towards religious life.
But one should not remain at that level of saddhā. After approaching a teacher through
saddhā, one should listen to his Dhamma, remember it, ponder over it, and think about its
usefulness or otherwise, understand it and then try to live accordingly and realize it. Thus this initial
saddhā should be gradually changed to one’s own experience culminating in wisdom. The climax is
reached when saddhā turns int paññā, making dhamma not merely an object of understanding, but
an experience itself. If not, for the initial saddhā paññā or experienceing the Dhamma would not be
possible. Hence, saddhā, precisely ākāravati saddhā – reasoned faith, is extremely important in
Buddhism.

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 YOGA MEDITATION (LECTURED BY VEN. SĪLAVAṀSA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The influence of yoga in a religious life including Buddhism is very clear. Because it is
leading to purification of the mind, it is also helpful to develop wisdom. Anyway, yoga practice in
Hinduism is known as a religious practice which is being practiced by the Hinduism giving purity to
physical exercises. According to Vedic teachings all the yogic practices are known as physical and
account practice which are understood as superlative benefits obtaining to external ordinary powers.
Various yogic practices are mentioned in the Upaniṣad and nikāya, there we can read that
Buddha's teachers and other heretics were proficient.
The Buddha learned from his teachers the attainments of sphere of nothingness
(akañcannayadana) and neither-consciousness-nor-non-consciousness (nevasaññānasaññāyadana)
as results of yoga meditation, but they were of no use for the Bodhisatta, as they were worldly
conditions. That's why he rejected them.
Yoga is one of the dominant aspects of the esoteric and mystical side of Indian religion. It
has added a uniqueness and distinctness to Indian culture. Yoga represents obvious concentration
and deep meditation on the secrets of cosmic existence. Even those systems of thought which do not
explicitly acknowledge the existence of a superior Godhead, like the Jina, the Buddha and
Sumkhaya accept the supreme validity of yoga as a technique for the realization of wisdom.
After living his ancestral home in Kapilavatthu,(?) Gautama restlessly searched for truth
and wisdom. For the satisfaction of his quest, he tried numerous methods. he also practiced yoga.
Ālāra Kālāma taught him the techniques leading to the realization of akañanya-ayadana jhāna.
Udaka Rāmaputta taught him a further state of yoga which is mystic process leading to
nevasaññā-nasaññayadana jhāna.
Gautama was not satisfied with these techniques. He regarded them inadequate for the
realization of virāga, nirodha, samgodha and Nibbāna. Hence he fell back upon his own efforts.
Buddha is revealed by his adherence to the techniques and practices of Yoga.(?)
There is a famous Aryan Eight-Fold Path refers to dhyāna (jhāna)23 and samādhi. The four-
fold dhyāna (jhāna) is one of the significant contributions to the psychical yoga. It is a systematic
presentation and its explicit mention(?) of mental categories indicate deep researches. In the field of
Buddhism, yoga is that of the four Brahma-vihāra or sublime abiding.24 Buddha in the Tevijja sutta
of the Dīgha nikāya refers to the cultivation of four exalted psychological moods; loving-kindness
(mettā), compassion (karunā), sympathetic-joy25 (muditā) and impartiality (upekkhā)26
According to Upaniṣads, the attainment of supreme wisdom is the aim of the spiritual
aspirant. According to Buddhism, the final goal of moral efforts (sīla) and concentration (samādhi)
is the attainment of congnitive illumination. Perception in yoga is consequent upon on increasing
isolation not only from the claims and obligations of the society but also from the physical
proximity of other citizens.

23 Here I want to mention, that the teacher is a schizophrenic and sometimes uses Pāli terms and sometimes Sanskrit
terms (without any caution). I do my best to convert all the Sanskrit words to Pāli in brackets, so that a non-
Sinhalese person can understand and have tidiness in his/her head.
24 In the original there was „sublime occupation,“ so that is not only quite funny, but also totally wrong.
25 In the original there was „cheerfulness,“ but that is not a correct translation of the Pāli word muditā. Muditā is a joy
about other's happiness, happiness and appreciation of other's success.
26 I think the teacher really should go and see a doctor, here he again used the Sanskrit form (upekṣā).

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 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF JHĀNIC HAPPINESS

Jhānic attainments are a feature of the Indian meditative systems. It is definitely pre-
Buddhistic. Buddhist suttas show it. The Ariyapariyasana sutta of the Majjhima nikāya clearly
states how the Bodhisatta learned these practices under thwo famed teachers called Ālāra Kālāma
and Uddaka Rāmaputta. Under the former he mastered up to the seventh jhānic attainment
(ākiñcaññāyatana); and under Uddaka Rāmaputta he mastered nevasaññā-nāsaññāyatana – the
state of neither consciousness nor non-consciousness. Yet, the Bodhisatta gave up these teachers27
and the reason for this as given by the Bodhisatta himself is that he was in search of a higher state
of peace (santi-vara-padam).
This, however, suggests that these are also states of peace, but there is a still higher state of
peace. This is why the Buddha advocated a limited one of jhāna. He knew the jhānic happiness.
The jhānic happiness is an inducement to the achievement of the higher state of peace that is
Nibbāna he was aiming. Therefore, the Buddha advocated the use of the first four jhānas as an aid
to the development of insight wisdom (vipassanā) which aspect was added to the meditative system
by the Buddha himself.
The eight jhānas are divided into two:
1. rūpa jhānas (jhānas of the form-sphere)
2. arūpa jhānas (jhānas of the formless-sphere).

The first four belong to the former and the next four to the latter. The Buddha adapted the
first four into his system of samathā, which is aimed at preparing the mind for the rise of insight
wisdom by eliminating the five hindrances which are factors that weaken wisdom.
While the Buddha advocated the practice of jhāna, though not as a compulsory component
of meditation, he warned disciples not to get attracted by the happiness produced through jhāna.
Jhānas gradually eliminate though temporarily, the pain-producing factors.28 Hence, jhānic
experiences and bliss with the attainment of each jhāna, one's body gets showered with jhānic bliss.
This bliss pervades the whole body. But if one gets attached to this bliss one goes astray. This is
why the Buddha advocates the practice of supra-mundane jhāna for higher spiritual attainment.
Mundane jhānas help one to enjoy mundane happiness; but its supra-mundane jhānic practice done
with this aim cleansing the mind of five hindrances (pañcanīvarana) and the consequent
development of jhānic factors (jhānaṁga) that is rally encouraged in Buddhism.

27 Bodhisatta reached the same level on which were his teachers, so he didn't need to stay with the teachers. What is
important, that not only that he left the opportunity to teach with them, but mainly he left these jhānic attainments,
as he recognized them as impermanent and as impermanent he recognized them as leading to suffering.
28 The most important thing regarding the jhānic bliss is, that during it there are all the fetters, all the greed, hatred and
ignorance very well suppressed. As these fetters are suppressed, the yogi gets easily misled thinking, that he/she
attained something eternal (as when there is no greed, hatred or ignorance, it should be eternal). But the fetters are
only suppressed, not uprooted. The Buddha warned against the delusion, that in jhāna fetters are fully uprooted.

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 ABOUT JHĀNA

There are two kinds of jhānas. They are:

1. Rūpa jhānas
2. Arūpa jhānas

First of all, I would like to explain rūpa jhāna. In rūpa jhāna there are three kinds of rūpa jhānas:
(a) fine material sphere - wholesome consciousness
(b) fine material sphere - resultant consciousness (?)
(c) fine material sphere - functional consciousness (?)

There are, in fine material sphere consciousness, the five types of fine material sphere wholesome
consciousness,(?) likewise, there is fine material sphere resultant consciousness,(?) in that there are also five
types of fine material sphere resultant consciousness.(?)

(a) First jhāna, wholesome consciousness together with initial application29, sustained
application, zest, happiness and one-pointedness.
(b) Second jhāna, wholesome consciousness together with sustained application, zest, happiness
and one-pointedness.
(c) Third jhāna, wholesome consciousness together with zest, happiness and one pointedness.
(d) Fourth jhāna, wholesome consciousness together with happiness and one-pointedness.
(e) Fifth jhāna, wholesome consciousness together with equanimity and one-pointedness.

There is similarly fine material sphere consciousness, which are the five types of fine material sphere
consciousness in accordance with the wholesome and resultant consciousness. There are totally fifteen of
jhāna lust(?) meaning(?) is(?) different from each other.
There are the three types of immaterial consciousness:

(a) immaterial sphere – wholesome consciousness

(b) immaterial sphere – resultant consciousness
(c) immaterial sphere – functional consciousness

There are, in immaterial sphere – wholesome consciousness four types:

(1) Wholesome consciousness pertaining to the base of infinite space
(2) Wholesome consciousness pertaining to the base of infinite consciousness
(3) Wholesome consciousness pertaining to the base of nothingness
(4) Wholesome consciousness pertaining to the base of neither perception nor non-
perception

There are, in the same way, four types of consciousness in immaterial sphere resultant
consciousness. And as well, there are four types of consciousness in immaterial sphere functional
consciousness.
So those are altogether fourteen in consciousness.

29 Heh, in the original there was „martial application,“ so that, please, is not important for attaining jhāna. Jhāna is to
be achieved in calm and relaxed meditation without any strong force.

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 ABHIÑÑĀ, JHĀNAS
According to the commentaries, these are mundane achievements (lokiya), which have been
attained by Bodhisattas and even by non-Buddhist sages (Isi). But the Buddha warned of the
danger for those who did not attained path knowledge they were looked upon as inferior, and they
remained tainted with āsavas, such a person might sometimes involve a danger.

CHAḶABHIÑÑĀ
The 2nd list of supreme knowledge attained by the disciples is the knowledge of destroying
the āsavas, is called „Chaḷabhiññā“, the sixfold super knowledge (/Dīgha Nikāya-iii 281). This
sixfold knowledge has been given above.(?) In Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya) is
mentioned about the three kinds of knowledges of the present, past and future. In this sutta, Buddha
is considered as having these three kinds of knowledges of past lives. Knowledge of divine eye and
the knowledge of the destruction of āsavas. Here sabba means the knowledge of the past, present
and of the future. Actually here what the Buddha means of tevijja, he has these three knowledge,
and whenever he needs he can utilize this knowledge. In some canonical text, sometimes sabba
means the ‘five aggregates’. In the context of Jainism, Sabbaññū means the knowledge of
everything in walking, sleeping, sitting, eating etc.

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 SHORTNOTES – BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

Part of Karma Mārga

- The Veda was considered as the absolute truth, because it was supposed to be God's utterances.
- The society was formed under a caste system. Those days Brāhmaṇic clergies or priests were of the highest
caste. They made people believe that gods lived happy life, when they prayed to gods. So, they prayed to
gods daily by offering material things. Thus happy gods would make people live better and happier. Those
prayers included religious activities. People believed everything happened due to their sacrifices (yāga). For
example if the yāga was not performed the Sun would not arise and there would be a poor harvest.
These brāhmaṇic priests introduced many kinds of sacrifices. They were very complex but
systematically arranged. Common people sang Vedic hymns world(?) originally uttered by Mahā Brahma. In
order to get the best results from these, correct pronunciation was essential, otherwise even death would
happen. Thus priests had full authority upon these religious performances.
According to shapha brāhmaṇa correct and systematical sacrifices would make people ethically
developed and make them reborn in Brahma world. The importance of the strength of the yāga was stressed,
because rebirth would depend on it. For example a good sacrifice or yāga would make one reborn in a higher
world.

The part of Ñāna Mārga

From karma mārga people gradually changed to ñāna mārga, to find the truth. Karma mārga was
too expansive and complex for common people. They criticized sacrificial system. They believed there was
a philosophical meaning to these sacrifices. So they renounced their possessions and meditated to find the
truth. These people were named as Upasana, and knowledge was known as vidyā, wchich gradually evolved.
Therefore sacrifices without vidyā were considered as useless according to Mundaka Upaniṣad.
According to Vedic literature Apra Vidyā was considered as a lower knowledge. Pravidya gained
through meditation was considered as highest and correct knowledge.
Three important characteritstic about religious background of this period are:
1. The rational and empirical part of knowledge (intelligent and practical knowledge).
2. The knowledge collected as a part of karma and knowledge gained through the state between sacrifices
and renunciation.
3. The karma mārga was the main path to happiness.

All these attemts were named as guan??? or(?) find(?) in the knowledge.
This led to understanding the ātman. One, who understands the ātman knows everything. One, who
sees the ātman as immortal.(?)
At the beginning of the Upaniṣadic period people followed rational and intellectual methods to find
knowledge. They sat in front of a person who had already gained knowledge. Further more, they went to
meditate to assimilate the truth. It was important for the teacher to be intellectual and for the students to have
faith. There should be a relationship between these two. The teacher should pronounce correctly. Thus
through the meditation one understands (assimilates) ātman and Brāhmaṇ. For this purpose one should lead a
moral life and should develop oneself spiritually. If not according to Aparada Upaniṣad one would fail to
understand ātman or Brahma. When one understands ātman and brāhmaṇ world realize the truth. Therefore
Indian philosophy recognize the realization of the ātman as the way of realization the knowledge.

160
 QUESTIONS

• Explain the significance of understanding the concept of impremanence (aniccā)

• „All philosophical aspects of Buddhist philosophy depend on soulless concept (anattā).“ Explain.
• Analyze the existence of a sentient being according to the theory of Dependent Origination.
• Describe five aggregates (pañcakkhandha) as a psycho-physical complex of a being.
• Analyze concept of sorrow (dukkha) which leads to realistic understanding.
• Enunciate the Middle Path as the path leading to successful life.
• Explain the nature of volitional action (kamma) and differentiate wholesome action from an unwholesome
action.
• Illustrate Buddhist attitude toward other religions as appeared in Buddhist scriptures.
• describe the value of ethical life for a successful social relationship.
• Point out the reason for the silence of the Buddha toward unanswered questions.
• Discuss the Buddhist explanation of the person and the world in relation to khandha, āyatana, dhātu.
• Describe the Buddhist classification of the organic and inorganic world according to the khandhāyatana dhātu
analyses.
• Show how Buddhism makes use of khandhāyatana dhātu analyses in order to discard the inner soul.
• Examine the relevance of the Buddhist analyses of belief in soul-entities.
• Examine the khandhā analyses and examine its objectives.
• The happiness and sorrow one experiences in this life is due to one’s past actions. Examine how far this
statement agrees with the Buddhist doctrine of kamma.
• Describe how the theory of sabbaṃ pubbekahetu is rejected by the Buddhist teaching of kamma.
• Explain how the deterministic theory of kamma is rejected by the buddhist teaching of kamma.
• Explain the Buddhist teaching on kamma and show how it establishes individual freedom and moral
responsibility.
• Explain briefly the Four Noble Truths and examine their inter-relation.
• The distinctive characteristics of Buddhism is reflected in the doctrine of paṭiccasamuppāda. Discuss.
• Elucidate the Buddhist theory of causality presented in the formula „imasmiṃ sati idaṃ hoti.“ The theory of
dependent origination is the causal explanation of the saṅsāric suffering of an individual. Examine.
• Examine how the teachings of dependent origination refuses all views, metaphysical theories.
• Describe the Buddhist teaching on the Paṭiccasamuppāda and show its place among other Buddhist teaching.
• Describe the nature of saṅsāric existence according to the 12 linked causal formula.
• Whosoever sees the Paṭiccasamuppāda sees the Buddha. Examine the significance of this statement.
• Analyse the existence of a sentient being according tot he theory of dependent origination.
• Describe the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination and show its position in relation to other Buddhist
doctrines.
• Examine the criterion of kusala and akusala in early Buddhism.
• Bring out the Buddhist teaching on Nibbāna.
• Nibbāna can berealized only after death. Discuss.
• Explain the Buddhist teaching: „Nibbānaṃ paramaṃ sukhaṃ.“
• Describe the nature of Nibbāna as taught in early Buddhism.
• Find out facts for and against the educational field which had been basics for early Buddhism
• Three characteristics (Tilakhana) has its assistance in understanding „reality of the world.“ Discuss.
• Explain how the cycle of birth of a being takes place according to Dependent Origination.
• Discuss how the middle path helps to lead a successful life.
• Deal in detail „Four Noble Truths“ with reference to various suttas in Pāli texts.
• Assess in terms of ethics the concept of karma in Buddhism.
• Discuss the Buddhist attitude towards other religions.
• Explain what is meant by the silence of the Buddha in reply to unanswered questions.

161
 • Discuss the distinguished factors in buddhism as a religion and philosophy with reference to other religions.
• Write short notes on 4 of the following.
1. Eighteen-fold elements
2. Egoism and generosity
3. Free-will
4. Adhiccasamuppannavāda
5. Empiricism
6. Sense perception
• Explain with reference to relevant sources the support given by the principal of three characteristics in the
comprehension of the true nature of world and being.
• Show the utility of the methodology of Analysis and Synthesis in Early Buddhism in the correct understanding
of the Middle Path.
• Explain with reference to main sources how by understanding of the Four Noble Truths suffering such as birth
and decay is ended.
• Examine whether the paṭiccasamuppāda can be considered as the central teaching of Buddhism.
• Introducing sensory consciousness point-out how it leads to Dukkha in Saṃsāra.
• Show the lasting importance of the criteria enunciated in Buddhism in the evaluation of good and bad actions.
• Elucidate with reference to sources how free-will and responsibility are essential factors in the making of
Buddhist Ethics meaningful.
• Introducing the system of „four fold resolution of questions“ show the justification for considering the Ten
Indeterminates (dasa avyākata) as thapanīya.
• Describing Materialism and Idealism explore whether there are idealistic trends in Early Buddhist teachings.
• Point out the place occupied by Buddhism among modern world religions.
• Describe how the understanding of life derived from the concept of impermanence lead one to to build up a
righteous life?
• Describe the Noble Eight Fold Path as a pre-requisite to the understanding of (Nirvāṇa/Nibbāna30)
enlightenment.
• Explain the basic characteristics of unanswered questions and related Buddhist attitude on the same.
• Examine with reference to early Buddhism whether karmic/kammic force can be considered as an active life
potentiality?
• Examine how far the analysis of aggregates, elements and sensory faculties of a being enables right
understanding.
• Discuss the applicability of Buddhist ethics for a pleasant society.
• Explain the attitude of the Buddha towards other religious teachings as shown in Buddhist sources.
• Explain five-fold visions (abhiññā) and discuss special characteristics of āsavakkhaya ñāṇa.
• Give a definition for religion and philosophy. Examine whether Buddhism can be differentiated as a religion or
a philosophy.
• Write short notes on four of the following:
(1) Twelve-fold division of causation (paṭiccasamuppāda) (4) Difference between phenomina and nomina31
(2) Theory of creation (nirmānavāda/nimmānavāda) (5) Empiricism
• (3) Truth of sorrow (dukkha sacca) (6) Early Buddhism

30 Teacher here uses the Sanskrit/Sinhalese term, after the slash you can see Pāli term from me. You can see it also further; I do it
for your better convenience.
31 I did not find these two words - „phenomina“ and „nomina“ in any of my two great dictionaries neither in the spelling-correction
dictionary of this document editor. Therefore I claim, that these two words do not exist and that the teacher should consider well
how he expresses his questions. Nevertheless, we can settle for the Pāli terms sankhāta and asankhāta.

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 P.F.I. 101 – PĀLI CANONICAL LITERATURE
A study of the following topics is expected here; structure and contents of the Vinayapiṭaka,
structure and contents of the Suttapiṭaka, structure and contents of the Abhidhammapiṭaka, ninefold
division; its basic meaning, commentarial interpretation of it and the problems arisen thereof,
Saying of the Buddha and thesaying of the disciples as found in the Pāli Canon, Pāli Canon and the
concept of the units of the Dhamma, use of verses in the Pāli Canon, literary significance of the Pāli
Tipiṭaka, the possibility of lost texts, Suttantika, Venayika and Abhidhammika.

Recommended Reading:

1. Pāli Literature and Language W. Geiger, New Delhi, 1978

2. A History of Indian Literature, VOL. i. B. C. Law
3. A History of Indian Literature, VOL. ii. M. Winternitz, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 1983
4. A History of Indian Literature edited by J. Gonda
5. Pāli Literature Vol. vii Fasc 2 K. R. Norman, West Germany, 1972

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 PĀLI CANONICAL LITERATURE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYADASSI)

Pāli canonical literature consists of the three piṭakas for word piṭaka means „a basket
containing manuscripts.“ Tipiṭaka consists of three piṭakas – the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma.

Vinaya Piṭaka:
1. Pārājika Pāli
2. Pācittiya Pāli
3. Mahāvagga Pāli
4. Cūlavagga Pāli
5. Parivāra Pāli

Sutta Piṭaka:
There are five nikāyas in Sutta Piṭaka:
1. Dīgha nikāya
2. Majjhima nikāya
3. Saṁyutta nikāya
4. Aṁguttara nikāya
5. Khuddaka nikāya

Abhidhamma Piṭaka:
1. Dhammasanganī Pakarana
2. Vibhaṁga Pakarana
3. Dhatukathā Pakarana
4. Puggalapaññatti Pakarana
5. Yamaka Pakarana
6. Pathāna Pakarana
7. Kathāvatthu Pakarana

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 THREE PIṬAKAS (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The Blessed One expected the disciplines his order would be succeeded to develop their
lives using Dhamma and Vinaya. Bhikkhus also followed that way, which was described by the
Buddha. There was not any problem during the āst year period after the Buddha’s Enlightenment
in the order.
The Buddhist Order was an interesting and calmed at the light age of the Buddha as monks
developed their lives well as they tried to make complete to others. the Buddha also had uttered in
various occasions about his disciples with happy mind. We are provided true information of early
Buddhist disciples by the Thera and Therī Gāthās.
In the 20th year after the Enlightenment of the Buddha there was some problem in the order.
the Buddha’s disciples who entered in the lives of Brahmacariya (monk) voluntarily were being
tried to understand the truth of the world and also they succeeded to reach their final goals. They
had gone to various religious leaders who were in India contemporary to the Buddha. Therefore,
they did not want to do any offense against the order and Bhikkhu-hood. They knew what are the
suitable and unsuitable things for a monk and they also do not want to perish (destroy) through the
Buddha’s Dhamma or advices.

Although, there were not rules of disciplines (sikkhāpada) we can see the early Buddhist
disciples had followed the same Sikkhāpada. They are not sikkhāpada but they are some kinds of
manners. Those are being denoted through sutta (discourse) by the Buddha; we can see those
events in the Citta Khanthaka. According to commentator it was through Bhikkhu Sudina, a
nephew of Kalanda near the village of Vesāli, who committed major offense of having sexual
intercourse with his ex-wife. That is the first Parājika being come to be promulgated. It was laid
down to deter Bhikkhus of indulging in sexual intercourse and also this was not the first time
happen an offense amongst the monks but those are not being such major offense. Therefore, the
Buddha did not lay down any rules of disciplines at those times. He had blamed to the offenders
not to do that offense again.
Once Arahant Sāriputta requested the Buddha to promulgate the rules for those disciples
but the Buddha’s answer was that “It is not the time to promulgate the Vinaya.” Arahant
Sāriputta saw the situation of the order and he wanted to protect the Saṅgha Order but the Buddha
did not want to bind the disciples in the order. But after the first pārājika the Buddha understood
that “It is the time to lay down the rules of disciples (vinaya)”.

Although, the commentator uttered like that, in some suttas supplied the facts what were the
else reasons, which were caused to promulgate the Vinaya. According to Bāddāliya Sutta; it denotes
five items or reasons as causes of corruption in monastic order. Those are:

1. Labagga mahattatā hoti

2. Yasagga mahattatā hoti

3. Bāhusacca mahattatā hoti

4. Ruttaññu mahattatā hoti

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 5. Vepulla mahattatā hoti

At the beginning there were only few disciples in the order but it has been increased in
numerically, »Bahunnaṃ vasanaṭṭhāne apāsukaṃ bhavatā.« All they entered to the Order to gain
Arahantship and some of them was learned person.

Regarding to this, there were some people who entered to the Order not because of getting
Arhantship but for the presents. They tried to argue with each other about the Buddha and his
teachings. When the order became famous, numbers of people came to visit the order with various
gifts. Some monks entered to the order in order to gain those gifts. The Blessed One could not
control them at the certain time the Order has been spread all over the India; some monks have seen
the Buddha and some were not. They then behaved in monastic order as how they wanted with
their previous habits. Therefore, the Buddha had to lay down the rules of disciplines involving the
whole Order. the Buddha declared that he lays down Sikkhāpadas to serve the following needs,

1. Saṅghaphāsutāya - for convenience of Saṅgha.

2. Saṅgha suṭṭhutāya – for well-being of Saṅgha.
3. Dummaṃgonaṃ puggalānaṃ nigghāya - for refraining of evil-minded persons.
4. Pesalānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ phāsuvihārāya – for ease of well-behaved monks.
5. Diṭṭhadhammikānaṃ āsavānaṃ paṭighatāya – for refraining of defilement of this world.
6. Samparāyikānaṃ āsavānaṃ paṭighātāya – for eradicating of defilement of the next world.
7. Appasannānaṃ vā pasādāya - for conversion of new adherents.
8. Pasannānaṃ vā bhiyyo bhāvāya – for enhancement of those have already converted.
9. SadDhammaṭṭhitiyāya – for establishment and continuity of Dhamma.
10. Vinayonuggahāya - for facilitating of the Buddhist disciplines.

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 WHAT IS TIPIṬAKA? (ORIGINAL BY VEN. HUNNY)

The Tipiṭaka is an extensive body of canonical Pāli, in which are enshrined the teachings of
the Buddha expounded during forty five years from the time from his enlightenment up to his
Parinibbāna. The discourses of the Buddha cover a wide field of subjects and are made up of
exhortations. Expositions and injunctions. The Pāli canon is divided into three divisions called
piṭakas, literally meaning 'baskets'. They are:
1. Suttanta Piṭaka (the discourses)
2. Vinaya Piṭaka (the discipline)
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka (the ultimate doctrine)

Hence Tipiṭaka means three baskets or three separate divisions of the Buddha's teaching.
The Vinaya Piṭaka mainly deals with the rules and regulations of the order of monks (bhikkhus) and
nuns (bhikkhunīs). It describes in detail the gradual development of the life and ministry of the
Buddha.
Vinaya Piṭaka consists of the following books:
1. Pārājika Pāḷi (major offences)
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi (minor offences)
3. Mahāvagga Pāḷi (greater section)
4. Cullavagga Pāḷi (smaller section)
5. Parivāra Pāḷi (epitome of the Vinaya)

The Suttanta Piṭaka consists of discourses delivered by the Buddha himself on various
occasions. This Piṭaka is divided into five nikāyas:
1. Dīgha Nikāya (collection of long discourses)
2. Majjhima Nikāya (collection of middle-length discourses)
3. Saṁyutta Nikāya (collection of kindred sayings, discourses)
4. Aṁguttara Nikāya (collection of discourses arranged in accordance with number)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (collection of smaller discourses)

The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:

1. Khuddaka Pātha (shorter texts) 9. Therīgāthā (psalms of the sisters)
2. Dhammapada (the way of truth) 10. Jāṭaka (birth-stories)
3. Udāna (heartfelt sayings or poems of joy) 11. Niddesa (expositions)
4. Itivuttaka ('Thus-said' discourses) 12. Paṭisambhidā (analytical knowledge)
5. Sutta Nipāta (collected discourses) 13. Apadāna (lives of saints)
6. Vimānavatthu (stories of celestial mansions) 14. Buddhavaṁsa (the history of Buddha)
7. Petavatthu (stories of the petas) 15. Cariyā Piṭaka (modes of conduct)
8. Theragāthā (psalms of the brothers)

In the Dīgha Nikāya there are 3 vaggas:

1. Sīlakhandha vagga (division concerning morality)
2. Mahā vagga (the large division)
3. Pāthika vagga (discourse of a miscellaneous nature)
And 34 suttas in the Majjhima Nikāya, there are 3 pāḷis:

167
1. Mūlapaññasa Pāḷi
2. Majjhima Paññasa Pāḷi
3. Uparipaññasa Pāli

and 15 vaggas and 152 suttas.

Saṁyutta Nikāya has 7762 suttas and 5 vaggas:
1. Sagatha Vagga
2. Nidāna Vagga
3. Khandha Vagga
4. Salāyatana Vagga
5. Mahā Vagga
Aṁguttara Nikāya has 9557 suttas, 11 Pāḷi from Ekaka Nipāta Pāḷi.

Khuddaka Nikāya has 18 Pāḷi:

1. Khuddaka Pātha Pāḷi
2. Dhammapada Pāli
3. Udāna Pāli
etc.

Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a deep thinking or the most important and interesting, as it contains
the profound philosophy of Buddha's teaching in contrast to the illuminating but simple discourses
in the Suttanta Piṭaka. In the Abhidhamma Piṭaka everything is nalayzed and explained in detail,
and as such it is called analytical doctrine (vibhajjavāda). Four ultimate things (paramatha) are
explained in the Abhidhamma. They are called:
1. Citta (consciousness or mind) 3. Rūpa (matter)
2. Cetasika (mental concomitants) 4. Nibbāna (the supreme bliss)

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka consists of the following words(?):

1. Dhammasaṁghani (enumeration of 5. Dhātukathā (discussion with reference to
phenomena) elements)
2. Vibhaṁga (the book of treatises) 6. Yamaka (the book of pairs)
3. Kathāvatthu (point of controversy) 7. Paṭṭhāna (the book of relations)
4. Puggala Paññatti (description of individuals)

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE HOW ALL THE WORDS OF THE BUDDHA INCORPORATED INTO DHAMMA-VINAYA AT THE
FIRST COUNCIL.

The first council was held at Rājagṛha immediately after the passing away of the Buddha. Ven.
Mahākassapa presided over the assembly where ven. Upāli and ven. Ānanda took an important part. The first council
settled the Dhamma-Vinaya:
»Handa mayam avuso dhammañca vinyoca sanghayeyāmi.«
„Oh, monks, it is better to rehearse Dhamma and Vinaya preached by the Buddha.“

There is no ground for the view that added the term Abbhi „Abhidhamma“ and „Abhivinaya.“
In this council the Vinaya texts were settled under the leadership of ven. Ānanda.
Ven. Buddhaghosa have put the entire Vinaya Piṭaka into the first Aṁga in sutta saying in his definition
Upatovibhanga, Khandhaka, and Parivāra at the first council. There was not Parivāra Pāḷi, because it is an appendix
into the Vinaya Piṭaka actually written in Sri Lanka. According to the tradition, five Vinaya books were rehearsed in the
first council, but relevant chapter of Cūlavagga Pāḷi, Pañcasatikhandhaka were rehearsed in the first council.
Upatovinaya was recited: »Etena upayena upato vinaye pucchi.« There are three main parts of Upatovinaya:
(1) Upato vibhaṁga (Pārājika and Pācittiya Pāḷi)
(2) Upato pātimokkha (Bhikkhu and Bhikkhunī)
(3) Pabbajita and Gahatthavinaya (for monks and laymen)

Ven. Mahākassapa asked question on Vinaya from ven. Upāli:

(1) Vatthu – the reasons for acted Vinaya rules (?)
(2) Nidāna – place where the particular principle took place (in Sāvatthi)
(3) Puggala – person who caused it
(4) Paññatti – Vinaya rules
(5) Anupaññatti – revised versions

There are five sections of Vinaya Piṭaka at this present time:

(1) Vibhanga
(a) 4 Pārājika (e) 92 Suddha pācittiya
(b) 13 Saṁghādisesa (f) 4 Patidesaniya
(c) 2 Aniyat (g) 75 Sekhiya
(d) 30 Nissaggiyapācittiya (h) 7 Adhikaranasamatha

(2) Khandhaka
(a) Mahāvagga (contains 10 khandhakas)
(b) Cūlavagga (contains 12 khandhakas)

(3) Parivāra Pāḷi (an appendix of Vinaya Piṭaka)

The Dhamma or the Suttapiṭaka has five nikāyas. There is a stanza in commentary:
»Thapetvā caturopete nikāyedika adite dadannaṃ budhavacanaṃ nikāyo khuddako maggo.«

Among the five nikāyas the first four are very important because at the first council 4 nikāyas were put in the
Sutta Piṭaka while the last one (Khuddaka nikāya) was not considered as the Buddha's teaching, according to
Theravāda Pāli tradition.
There are 34 discourses in the Dīgha nikāya, 152 in the Majjhimanikāya, 7762 in the Samyutta nikāya and
9557 in the Aṁguttara nikāya. There are 64 bhanavāra incorporated in the Dīgha nikāya, 80 in Majjhima nikāya, 100 in
the Samyutta nikāya and 120 in the Aṁguttara nikāya.
At the beginning Khuddaka nikāya had few books, Suttanipāta, Therīgāthā etc. But later many books
were added. After increasing books the Khuddaka nikāya became a collection of 15 books.

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 BUDDHIST COUNCIL

The Buddhist Councils took place in between the demise of the Buddha and the Asoka period. At the
first Buddhist Council, there was no Abhidhamma but they compiled the Vinaya and Sutta. Except the Vinaya and
Sutta what did they compile at the first Council for three months. In this Council, the work was approved that the
collection of the teaching, classification and agreement iin the teaching. We find in the Vinaya Piṭaka, mainly
mentioned the first and the 2nd Buddhist Councils.
The last sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya is very much doubtful, whether these suttas were really compiled in
the first council is still abstruse. In these two suttas, we find many technical terms and exaggeration of the
discources. Beside these two suttas, there is another sutta called Sampasādeniya Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya, the
Brahmajāla Sutta rejects the two views, namely Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda. While in the Sampasādaneya
Sutta, Sāriputta praised the Buddha by saying „anuttara“, and further said „sassatavāda anuttaro.“ This is a
very serious problem. We found, in Brahmajāla Sutta, the Buddha had completely rejected these two views. But
in Sampasādaneya Sutta Sāriputta says the Buddha is excellent in the view of Sassatavāda. In fact it doesn’t
mention of that Ucchedavāda anuttaro...
How to prove that Cūlavaṃsa is said by the Buddha, while it is made and recorded by his disciple. We
have to keep in mind that the cause led to hold the first Buddhist Council. The immediate cause was given the
statement of Subhadra. It relates thus „some were very painful and grief of the passing away of the Buddha,
whence Subhadra while admonishing them to not to worry and they all are freed from bondages, earlier theywere
bound under certain rules and regulations, but now (they are) free to do anything they wish.“

QUESTION: WHAT ARE THE TECHNIQUES OF THE LANGUAGE USED IN CANONICAL LITERATURE?
It is gradually believed that Pāli arised from some spoken dialect of middle Indo-Āryans. It belonged to
the first or early middle Indo-Āryan stage. It has the characteristics of the middle Indo-Āryan language. We can
mention here directly that it has never taken its origin from classical Sanskrit. Because there are some
peculiarities, which clearly signify that Vedas have some close relation with it.
With the help of the ancient Buddhists of the Hīnayāna school or the Theravāda school, the Pāli language
and its literature have developed in India. It has close connection with the Theravāda school in India, because it
was its ‘vehicle’. So, we find the flourishing condition of Pāli literature in India when the Theravāda school
played a great role in the history of Buddhism.
But after arise of the Mahāyāna not only the Theravāda school, but also the study of Pāli gradually
declined in India. Pli and the Theravāda school then took their home into Ceylon, they played a prominent part for
more than 2000 years in the religious history of that country.
From Sri Lanka, Theravāda Buddhism and Pāli were introduced into Burma, Siam, Cambodia and Laos.
According to the orthodox theory, Pāli is Māgadhi, Māgadhantrutti and Māgadhikabhasa. Pāli scholars from Sri
Lanka, Siam, Cambodia belive, that Pāli can be identified with the language of the Buddha. He used to stay in
Magadha most of his time.
It is quite natural that the language of Magadha was spoken by Him. For this reason Pāli has been
identified with Magadhi. It is quite natural that the early Buddhist scriptures were composed in Magadhi in which
the Buddha spoke. It was the language of the place where the religion of the Buddha arose.
The Buddhist tradition says that the language of the Pāli Tipiṭaka, which was the original canon, was the
language of the Buddha himself. Thus from the above facts it is clear that Magadhi was regarded as Mūlabhasa
or the ‘basic language’. It was the language in which the words of the Buddha were originally fixed.
According to the Buddhists of the Hīnayāna or the Theravāda school, the language of Magadha was the
speech of the Buddha. This was regarded as the Mūlabhasa, the primary speech of all men. This was spoken by
men of the primeval epoch, by the Brahmins and by the Buddhas. The natural speech of many which alone would
be spoken if human beings were thought(?) no other language.

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 QUESTION: GIVE THE MEANING OF THE TERM SUTTA AND VINAYA AND SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM.
(LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATANA) (1)
Sutta
According to some scholars the term ‘sutta’ is a ‘string’, ‘threat’, ‘a powertion’ of the
Buddhist scripture, ‘a rule’ etc. They mentioned further that a certain chapter or division of the
Buddhist scriptures are known as suttas. The classical meaning of the term sutta is ‘discourses’.
They may either we found in verse or in clause and in lend they very from a few lines to several
thousands.(?) Some scholars say that the term ‘sutta’, in Vedic ‘sūtra’ we state in history the path of
the Buddhist scripture which contained suttas or dialogues and it is the Sutta Piṭaka.(?) They state
that it is reule-clause dialogue of a Buddhist text, a discourse and ancient verse, a book or rule, text
bobok, a sutta, a chapter of the scripture and one of the division or the scripture. As we mentioned
before, ven. Buddhaghosa explained the meaning of the term sutta: »aṭṭhānaṃ suttacanaṃ suttato
sāvanato sūdanato suttanaṃ sutta sabhāgatoca.«
According to some scholars sutta or sūtra is ‘buddha vacana’ or the word of the Buddha.
Some scholars believed ‘a sutta’ is complete in itself consisting of a connected narrative or
collection of verses on one subject, some of them are didactic and consist mainly or wholly of a
discourse of Buddha in phrase or verse as most of the suttas of the Suttanipāta. Others are
historical, like the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, which relates the last day of Buddha. Thus the above
fact gives an account of the definition of the term sutta. From these we can conclude that the term
sutta is a rule, a discourse, dialogue of a Buddhist text. A chapter or one of the diviísions of the
scriptures the term Vinaya means putting away, subbing(?), conversion, training, discipline of a
portion of the Buddhist scripture.

Vinaya
Some scholars said that vinaya is law and it covers the Buddhist monks and it is mentioned
in the Vinaya Piṭaka. Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first
council the Vinaya Piṭaka was rehearsed first because Vinaya is the age of the Buddhist
dispensation: »Vinayonāma sāsanāsayo vinaye ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṃ hoti.« It steps further than
saṃvaraṃ and pahānaṃ are two sorts of Vinaya or discipline and they are discipline or restraint and
discipline of getting rid of evil state. He again described vinaya as removal of blame. Some scholars
gave a description of the term vinaya as the term vinaya in Sanskrit and Pāli term vinaya translated
into English – discipline – specially refers to the prescribed move(?) of conduct in convent upon
Buddhist monks and nuns. The word Vinaya is formed by combining the prefix. Vinaya meaning
‘different’, ‘distinction’, ‘apart’, ‘away from’. The word’s root -ni means to lead, when combined
they(?) meaning to lead away(?) from vinaya is the reified(?) noun four(?) of this term and meaning
that with separate or that with removed.(?) Within the context of Buddhist monasticism, it refers to
the code of behavioral discipline that at once the life to the householder and that monks together
into a comment(?) affective bond.(?) In this sense vinaya is that which separates or leads away from
the householder’s way of life.
It can also refer to the practice of mental discipline that removes unhealthy states of mind
from the monk’s disposition in either sense of the term. Vinaya is regarded as the effective
expression or primitive implementation of the Buddha's teaching. It is precept put into practice.

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 QUESTION: GIVE THE MEANING OF THE TERM SUTTA AND VINAYA AND SHOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM. (2)
According to some scholars, the term sutta is described as a ‘string’ or ‘thread’. And also a
part of the Buddhist scripture, which treaded as flower(?) is known as sutta. They further mention
that a certain chapters or divisions of the Buddhist scripture, which contain verses, prose or
dialogues, text book, are known as suttas. The classical meaning of the term sutta is a ‘discourse’.
But the term Vinaya is defined as discipline or training.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explained the meaning of the term sutta as »aṭṭhānaṃ sūcanato,
suvuttato savanatotha sūdananto, suttānā suttasabhāgato ca suttan’ti akkhātaṃ.« According to
some scholars, sutta is Buddhavacana or the word of the Buddha. they believed that a sutta is
complete in itself consisting of a connected narrative or collection of verse on one subject. Some of
them are didactic and consist mainly or wholly of a discourse of Buddha in prose r verse, as most
of the suttas of the Suttanipāta, others are historical, as the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, which relates
the last days of Buddha etc.
The term Vinaya is derived from (Vi + nī + aya), with the combining of prefix vi, the root ni
and the suffix aya form the word Vinaya. It means ‘putting away’, ‘destruction’, ‘rule’,
‘conversation’, ‘training’, ‘norm of conduct’, ‘code of ethics’, monastic discipline’, ‘rules of
morality’ or of ‘canon law’. In this sense applied to the large collection of rules which grew up ion
the monastic life and the habits of the bhikkhus and which forms the ecclesiastical introduction to
the Dhamma, or theoretical, philosophical part of the Buddhist canon.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explains: »vividhavisesanayattā, vinayato ceva kāyavācānaṃ,
vinayatthavidūhi ayaṃ vinayo vinayo’ti ākkhāto.« Because it shows precepts and principles, and
governs both deeds and word, therefore, men called this Vinaya. This was rehearsed first at the first
council, because it is the age of the Buddhist dispensation - »Vinayo nma sāsanassa āyu vinaye
ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṃ hoti.« He explains further that Saṅvaraṃ and Pahanaṃ are two sorts of
vinaya. The discipline of restraint and discipline of getting rid of evil states. He again describes
Vinaya as removal of blame.
Some scholars say that tem vinaya came from Sanskrit and Pāli, and translated it into
English as ‘discipline’. It is specially regarded as the priestly code of law, the prescribed modes of
conduct in convent upon Buddhist monks and nuns.
Vinaya is that which separates or leads away from the householder’s way of life. It can also
refer to the practice of mental discipline that removes unhealthy states of mind. In either sense of
the term, Vinaya is regarded as the effective expression or pragmatic implementation of the
Buddha's teaching, that is precept put into practice.

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 NAVĀṂGASATTHUSĀSANA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)
(The Nine fold Teachings of the Buddha)

It is to be noted here that before the compilation of Tipiṭaka the Buddhist literature was
divided into nine Aṅgas or parts which became known as Navāṅgasatthusāsana; this also called
Navāṅgabuddhasāsana “the nine fold teachings of the Buddha.” The nine divisions of the
Buddhist scripture took place according to their forms and styles, they are:
1) Sutta (the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose),
2) Geyya (instruction in mixed prose and verse),
3) Veyyākaraṇa (expositions or commentary),
4) Gāthā (verse),
5) Udāna (ecstatic utterance),
6) Itivuttaka (brief saying),
7) Jātaka (the legend of the Bodhisatta in previous births),
8) Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernatural power), and
9) Vedalla (message in the form of questions and answers).

It can mention here that these nine fold divisions are not regarded as the nine fold
classifications of the literature. Those various forms were found in the Buddhist literature at that
time when the Buddhist scriptures were compiled.
Among the scholars who gave accounts of Navaṅgasatthusāsana D.J. Kalupahana is very
especial, he says that the division of the teachings of the Buddha is divided into aṅgas or limbs,
date back to very early time Navāṅgasatthusāsana is a term used synonymously with the terms
Buddhavacana, Pāvacana and Dhamma-Vinaya, to denote the teachings of the Buddha
collectively (commonly).
A person who possesses great learning (bahusutta - erudite) is said to be one who has heard
much of the Nine-fold-division of the Buddha’s teachings. At very early stage, the word of the
Buddha which was committed to memory by his disciples was denoted by the
Navāṅgasatthusāsana.

1. Sutta (prose)
According to Buddhaghosa all the words of Vinaya Piṭaka including even Parivāda four
suttas from the Sutta Nipātha, the Mahāmaṅgalla, Ratana, Nālaka and other sayings of the
Tathāgata bearing of name Sutta Nipātha should be included under this category, while the better
known as suttas. The Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya were found and mentioned here four
suttas from the Suttanipāta; those are cited (quoted) from the four suttas, especially mentioned, are
verse compositions. Hence they should strictly have been included under gāthā.

2. Geyya (mixed prose and verse)

The similar explanations have been given to the term Geyya by Buddhaghosa and the
Sanskrit tradition, suttas containing stanzas particularly like the Saggātavagga of Saṃyutta Nikāya
are called Geyya by Budhaghosa. The Sanskrit, too, holds that it is a type of composition where the
prose is functioned in middle or in the end by stanzas.

3. Veyyākaraṇa (exposition or commentary)

173
 According to Buddhaghosa the whole Abhidhamma Piṭaka falls into these categories but
this is more than doubtful for the Abhidhamma as separate Tipiṭaka developed only later. On the
other hand, the Sanskrit tradition afforded (provide) us a clue to unravel (resolve) the problem.
According to this tradition the exposition of the meaning of the suttas, as given by the disciples,
could be included under Veyyākaraṇa. The Vibhaṅga Vagga of Majjhima Nikāya contains 10
discourses where we come across analysis or enlargement of brief statements of the Buddha, in
enlargement by eminent disciples particularly by Mahā Kaccāyana.

4. Gāthā (verses)
These included verse found in the Dhammapada (way of truth), Theragāthā (psalms of the
brethren, Therīgāthā (psalms of sisters) and these isolated verse which are not classed amongst the
suttas.

5. Udāna (solemn or solemn utter)

The extend of other Udāna it is identified with the Aṅga bearing the same name. The
collection 82 suttas that has come down to us as a separated word. All Udānas are considered the
authentic teaching of the Buddha. The Udāna included in nine fold divisions probably refers to
some of the in spite sayings found and scattered through out the Pāli.

6. Itivuttaka (brief sayings)

These are the 112 discourses which commence with the phrase, thus the Blessed One has
said, Itivuttaka is one fifteen books that comprises the Khuddaka Nikāya.

7. Jātaka (legends of Bodhisattva in previous birth)

These are the 547 birth stories related to the Buddha in connection with his previous birth.

8. Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernormal power)

These are few discourses that deal with wonderful and marvelous things, as for example, the
Acchāriya Abbhūtadhamma Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya (No.123).

9. Vedalla (the message in the form of questions and answers.)

Vedalla – These are the pleasurable discourses, such as Chulla Vedalla, Mahā Vedalla
(Majjhima Nikāya No. 43, 44), Sammā Diṭṭhi Sutta (Majjhima Nikāya No. 9), etc. in some of these
discourses, the answers given to certain questions were put with a feeling of joy.

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 NINE-FOLD DIVISION (NAVĀṀGASATTHUSĀSANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

The term Navāṁgasatthusāsana is found in the canonical texts and in the commentaries to
indicate the entire words of the Buddha. This term is not covered without giving elaboration. The
early text referred to concept of the Veranjakandha, Vinaya Piṭaka. Pāli text in which Buddha
preached the Dhamma was as follows:
1. Sutta 6. Itivuttaka
2. Geyya 7. Jāṭaka
3. Veyyākarana 8. Abbhūtadhamma
4. Gātha 9. Vedalla
5. Udāna

Ven. Buddhaghosa explains these as follows:

The dual Suttavibhaṁga, the Niddesa, the Khandhakas and the Parivāra, the Maṁgala
sutta, the Ratana sutta, the Nālaka sutta. Tuvattaka sutta of the Sutta Nipāta and any other words of
the Tathāgata bearing the name of 'sutta' should be regarded as 'Suttas'. All the suttas with verses
should be understood as 'Geyya'. In particular, all the chapters with verses in the Saṁyutta Nikāya
form Geyya. The entire Abhidhamma Piṭaka, Sutta without verses and any other words of Buddha
that are not included in the eight parts should be understood as 'Veyyākarana', exposition.
Dhammapada, Thera gātha and Therī gātha, those pieces of the Sutta Nipāta are not called 'Suttas',
and entirely in verse should be known as 'Gātha'. Eighty-two suttas connected with verses due to
knowledge and joy should be understood as 'Udāna'. One hundred and twelve suttantas finishing
with this verse:

»Thus was it said by the Blessed One.«

etc. should be understood as Itivuttaka (the 'Thus-said'). Five hundred and fifty birth stories
beginning with the Apannaka constituted the Jāṭaka. All suttantas connected with wonderful and
marvelous things from ven. Ānanda, should be understood as Abbhūtadhamma. All suttantas in the
form of questions asked through repeated attainment of delight and understanding, such are suttas:
Cūlavedalla, Mahāvedalla, Sammādiṭṭhi, Sakkapañhā, Saṁkhārābhajaniya, Mahāpuññāma should
be understood as Vedalla.

In these statements we find some confusion. For instance, Maṁgala sutta and Ratana sutta
are related to Suttas, while all suttas preached in verse are known as Gātha. Actually, Maṁgala
sutta and Ratana sutta are preached in verses. So, it is likely to admit that Sutta and Geyya are the
same each(?) other(?). In my opinion, as long as we look upon weakness of someone, that will be
endless. What is truth to him, what is not, what is truth or untruth, let it be.32

32 This reminds me the ascetic Bellaṭṭhiputta ;-).

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE NAVĀṀGA SATTHU SĀSANA

The Buddhist literature was divided into nine angas, or „parts,“ which became known as
Navāṁga Satthu Sāsana. This is also called „Navāṁga Buddha Sāsana, the nine-fold teaching of
the Buddha, i.e. the nine divisions of the Buddhist scriptures took place according to their form and
style. They are:

1. Sutta (the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose)

2. Gātha (verses)
3. Geyya (instruction in mixed prose and verse)
4. Itivuttaka (brief sayings)
5. Veyyākarana (expositions, commentaries)
6. Udāna (ecstatic utterances)
7. Jāṭaka (legends of Bodhisatta in his previous births)
8. Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernatural power)
9. Vedalla (message in the form of questions and answers)

It can be mentioned here that this Nine-Fold-Division is not regarded as the nine-fold
classification of the literature. It only refers to nine types of composition in the literature. These
various forms were compiled.
The division of the teachings of the Buddha into nine angas or „limbs“ dates back to very
early times. Navāṁga Sattu Sāsana is a term used synonymously with the terms Buddha-vacana,
Pā-vacana or Dhamma-vinaya to denote the teachings of the Buddha collectively (Majjhima
nikāya), Alagadhupama sutta mentions this first division of the Buddha-vacana portion
Alagadhupama sutta.
The list of nine limbs of the Buddha-vacana is a mere description of literary types and not a
division of textual compartment. It does not refer to nine different groups or literature but to nine
types of composition to be found in the collections of the ancient Buddhism. In a single sutta or
suttanta there may be portions, which can be described as these nine parts. This list of works of a
far later data is deviously inserted by the compilers. On the other hand, we see here a very old
tradition, going back to the time of the Buddha, with regard to the classification of the Buddha-
vacana, meaning or sense of which had gone into obscurity at the time of constitution of the canon
in its present form.
The difficulty seems to come down to us within these nine categories of the various texts of
the canon. Even though the great commentator ven. Buddhaghosa seems to have met with the
same difficulty in his attempt to do so. His explanations of Navāṁga show his difficulty in
discriminating any particular section of the canon as corresponding to the Navāṁga. It is interesting
to note in his exposition that for two of the nine angas, Vedalla and Abbhūtadhamma, he could not
find any work or group of works which could be classified under these headings and so he named
some suttas as coming under them. This is because by the time ven. Buddhaghosa began to record
the Theravāda Dharmapravaracana mentioned in the book of Abhidhamma samuccaya and
Mahāvyutpatti.

»Mjj(?)-Idhekacco pulla putto, dhammanpariya punanti, suttaṃ, geyyaṃ, veyyakaranaṃ,

gātha, udānaṃ, itivuttakaṃ, jāṭakaṃ, abbhutadhammaṃ, vedallanti...«

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 THE BASIC MEANS OF NINE-FOLD DISPENSATION AND ITS COMMENTARIAL INTERPRETATION – NAVĀṀGA-
SATTHUSĀSANA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)

It has been divided Buddha's teaching into nine as 'angas' in the commentary of Buddhaghosa;
Samantapāsādika, Atthasālinī and Sumaṁgalavilāsinī. The list of nine-fold divisions has been mentioned in
several places of Pāli canon. It is mentioned about these nine angas in Alagadūpama sutta, in Aṁguttara
nikāya and Veranjakanda of Pārājika Pāḷi, but it is not mentioned in any place that angas are nine in
number. It is very clearly mentioned about these nine angas in the canonical of Dīpavamsa from Sri Lanka:
»Sabbe pañcasatā therā navaṁgaṃ jinasāsanaṃ,
Uggahetrāna vācesum buddhasetthassa santike.«
»Suttaṃ geyyaṃ veyyākaranaṃ gāthūdāniti vuttakaṃ,
Jātakabbhuta vedallaṃ navaṁgaṃ sattusāsanaṃ.«

According to above mentioned verses of the report of first council, we can understand that Buddha's
sāsanā is ninefold. Those nine angas are:
(1) Sutta (the teaching of the Buddha mostly in prose)
(2) Geyya (instruction in mixed prose and verses)
(3) Veyyākarana (expositions, commentaries)
(4) Gāthā (verses)
(5) Udāna (ecstatic utterances)
(6) Itivuttaka (brief sayings)
(7) Jāṭaka (legends about Bodhisatta's previous births)
(8) Abbhūtadhamma (description of supernatural power)
(9) Vedalla (message in the form of questions and answers)

From the above definition is quite clear that the commentator have taken the nine limbs as
representing the entire word of the Buddha. However, the following observation should be surely taken into
the extend of exam definition. There are three elects in counting:
1. The Udāna is defined as a text with complexes of 82 discourses, but actually Udāna Pāḷi consists of only
80 discourses.
2. The number of Itivuttaka is given as 110, but actually the number of discourses of Itivuttaka Pāḷi is 120
but there are 122 in Samantapāsādika.(?)
3. The Jāṭaka are given as 550, but actually there are only 547. The reason is not known, perhaps they may
be in as advent taintless entire into commentarial remarks.

The angas Udāna, Itivuttaka and Jāṭaka have been definitely with the Khuddaka text. They are not
incorporated in the Udāna Pāḷi, Itivuttaka Pāḷi and Jāṭaka Pāḷi. The angas of sutta are defined as
Ubhatovibhaṁga, Kandhaka and Parivāra with traditional texts Ubhatovibhaṁga, Khandhaka and Parivāra
which are the source contents of the Vinaya Piṭaka.
The limb of Veyyākarana is taken as represent duly the entire Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The
Abhidhamma Piṭaka was completed after the third council, but Buddhaghosa included the whole
Abhidhamma Piṭaka comply since seven books into Veyyākarana. It is clear that two Piṭakas our of Tipiṭaka
come under two angas (Sutta and Vinayakarana), only very few remain for other seven angas. This remark
is a good riving that the commentator was not sure of this classification and also there is no legal ground
classification lef out in the Veyyākarana. On the other hand, there are discourses which were recognized as
Veyyākarana in the discourses themselves. Like for an example, the first sermon of the Buddha is
Veyyākarana as it is given in the Mahāvagga.

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 QUESTION: WRITE A CRITICAL NOTE ON NAVĀṄGA SATTU SĀSANA (NINE-FOLD DIVISION)
The Buddhist literature was divided into nine aṅgas or ‘parts’, which became known as
‘Navāṅga Sattu Sāsana’. This is also called Navāṅga Buddha Sāsana – the Nine-fold Teaching of
the Buddha. The Nine-fold Division of the Buddhist scriptures took place according to their form
and style. They are:
1. Sutta 4. Gāthā 7. Jātaka
2. Geyya 5. Udāna 8. Abbhūtadhamma
3. Vyākarana 6. Itivuttaka 9. Vedalla
It can be mentioned here that this Nine-fold Division is not regarded as the nine-fold
classification of the literature. It only refers to nine types of composition in literature. This various
forms were found in Buddhist litearture at that time when the Buddhist scriptures were compiled.
The division of the teachings of the Buddha into the nine aṅgas or limbs dates back to very
early time. Navāṅga Sattu Sāsana is a term used synonymously with the term Buddhavacana,
Pāvacana or Dhamma-Vinaya to denote the teachings of the Buddha collectively. Majjhima
Nikāya, Alagaddūpama Sutta mentions this first division of the Buddhavacana. While speaking
about the method by which the Dhamma was learnt by the people and their purpose in doing so, the
Buddha himself stated as describing the Dhamma as consisting of the nine limbs, aṅgas.
A person who possesses great learning(?) is said to be one who has heard much of the Nine-
fold Division of the teaching. In a single sutta or suttanta there may be portions, which can be
described as these nine parts. This list of works of a far later data is obviously inserted by the
compilers. On the other hand, we see here a very old tradition, going back to time of the Buddha,
with regard to the classification of the Buddhavacana, meaning or sense of which has gone into
obscurity at the time of constitution of the canon in its present form.
The difficulty seems to lie in the attempt to include within these nine categories the various
texts of the canon as they have came down to us, some of which are compositions of the later date.
Even the great commentator, ven. Buddhaghosa, seems to have met with the same difficulty in his
attempt to do so. It is interesting to note in Buddhaghosa’s exposition that for two of the nine
aṅgas, vedalla and abhūtadhamma he could not find any work or group work, which could be
classified under these headings and so he named some suttas as coming under them. This is because
by the time ven. Buddhaghosa began to record the Theravāda commentarial tradition, the real
significance of the early Navāṅga classification, whose existence is echoed even in the very words
of the Tathāgata, was lost.
With the intention of givin canonical and antiquity and authority to their texts, Sanskrit
schools of Buddhism even added three more terms to these nine limbs. They are: nidāna, avadāna
and upadesa, making a total of twelve, mentioned in the book Abhidharma Samuccaya and in
Mahāvyutpatti.
In this way many other opinions have been formed from different angle concerning the
Navāṅga Sattu Sāsana.

178
 SUTTANTA PIṬAKA (DISCOURSES) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY)
(2009)

The Suttanta Piṭaka is a collection of the discourse in their entirety delivered by the
Buddha on various occasions. (A few discourses were delivered by some of the distinguished
disciples of the Buddha, such as the venerable Sāriputta, Mahā Moggallāna, Ānanda, etc.. as
well as some narratives are also included in the books of the Suttanta Piṭaka.) The discourses of the
Buddha compiled together in the Suttanta Piṭaka were expounded to suit different occasions, for
various persons with different temperaments. Although the discourses were mostly intended for the
benefit of Bhikkhus, and deal with the practice of the pure life and with the exposition of the
Teaching, there are also several other discourses which deal with the material and moral progress of
the lay disciples.
The Suttanta Piṭaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha’s teachings, expresses them
clearly, protects, and guards them against distortion and misconstruction. Just like a string which
serves as a plume-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers
from being scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise by means of suttas, the
meaning of Buddha’s teachings may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly an
given perfect protection from being misconstrued.
The Suttanta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections known as Nikāya. They are
Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Saṃyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya and Khuddaka Nikāya.

179
 SUTTA PIṬAKA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. HUNNY)33

The Sutta Piṭaka is a collection of all the discourses as they were entirely delivered by the Buddha
on various occasions. A few discourses delivered by some of distinguished disciples of the Buddha, such as
ven. Sāriputta, ven. Mahā Moggallāna, ven. Ānanda etc. As well as some narratives were also included
in the book of the Sutta Piṭaka. The discourses of the Buddha compiled together in the Sutta Piṭaka were
expounded to suit different occasion, for various persons with different temperaments.
Although the discourses were mostly intended for the benefit of bhikkhus, and deals with the practice
of the pure life and with the exposition of the teaching, there several other discourses deal with the material
and moral progress of the lay disciples. The Sutta Piṭaka brings out the meaning of the Buddha's teaching,
expresses them clearly, protects and guards them against distortion and misconstruction, just like a string
which serves as plumb-line to guide the carpenters in their work, just like a thread which protects flowers
from being scattered or dispersed when strung together by it, likewise, by means of sutta, the meaning of
Buddha's teaching may be brought out clearly, grasped and understood correctly and given perfect
protection from being misconstrued.

This Sutta Piṭaka is divided into five separate collections known as nikāya, among are:
1. Dīgha nikāya (collection of long discourses)
2. Majjhima nikāya (collection of middle-length discourses)
3. Saṁyutta nikāya (collection of kindred sayings)
4. Aṁguttara nikāya (collection of discourses arranged in according with number)
5. Khuddaka nikāya (small collection)

In the Suttaka Piṭaka are also found not only fundamentals of the Dhamma meaningful applicable to
daily life. All observances and practices are practical steps in Buddha's noble path of eight constituents lead
to spiritual purification at three levels, they are:
1. Sīla (moral purity through right conduct)
2. Samādhi (purity of mind through concentration – samathā)
3. Paññā (purity of insight through vipassanā meditation)

To begin with it, one must make the right resolution to take refuge in the Buddha, to follow the
Buddha's teaching and to be guided by the Saṁgha.

The first disciples who made the declaration of faith in the Buddha and committed themselves to
follow his teaching were the two merchant brothers, Tapussa and Bhallika, they were traveling followed by
500 carts, when they saw the Buddha in the vicinity of the Bodhi tree after his enlightenment. The two
merchants offered him honey-rice cakes. According to their offering and thus breaking the fast he had
imposed on himself for seven weeks, the Buddha made them his disciples by letting them recite after him:
»Buddhaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi,
Dhammaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi.«

This recitation became the formula of declaration of faith in the Buddha and his teaching. Later
when the Saṁgha became established, the formula was extended for the third commitment:
»Saṁghaṁ saranaṁ gacchāmi.«

SUTTANTA PIṬAKA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)

33 This lecture is actually an excerpt from the introduction to Suttanta Piṭaka in the book „Guide to Tipiṭaka“ from
Burmese U Ko Lay. To be precise, this lecture is excerpt from pages 34 and 35 of that book.

180
 Piṭaka means „basket, which is contained in Tipiṭaka:“ Sutta Piṭaka, Vinaya Piṭaka and Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
Of these, Sutta Piṭaka is considered to consist of five Nikāyas. These are:
1. Dīgha nikāya 4. Aṁguttara nikāya
2. Majjhima nikāya 5. Khuddaka nikāya
3. Samyutta nikāya
They are the „collections of suttas“ or „suttantas“ i.e. of speeches and dialogues of the Buddha.
The Sutta Piṭaka is the chief source of our knowledge of the Dhamma. It is therefore often directly called
dhamma as opposed to Vinaya. The Dīgha nikāya is 34; it is divided into three parts (vagga):
1. Sīlakkhandhavagga
2. Mahāvagga
3. Patikavagga

The most important sutta of Dīghanikāya is the Mahāparinibbāna sutta which is a running description of the
events of the last weeks of the Buddha.
The Majjhima nikāya „middle collection“ contains suttas of middle length. Their value is very unequal; some
belong to the most beautiful pieces in the canon. The number of suttas in Majjhima nikāya is 152, divided into three
groups of fifty:
1. Mūlapaṇṇāsa
2. Majjhimapaṇṇāsa
3. Uparipaṇṇāsa

And the rest: there are 7762 discourses in Samyutta nikāya and Aṁguttara nikāya contains 9557 discourses.
The Khuddaka nikāya is a collection of 15 books of texts.
The numbers of Bhānavāra Dīgha nikāya are 64. The numbers of Bhānavāra Majjhima nikāya are 80. The
number of Bhānavāra Samyutta nikāya and Aṁguttaranikāya are 100 and 120 respectively. The number of Bhānavāra
of Khuddaka nikāya is not mentioned in the Pāli commentary. The number of Mahāvāra increased by 20 as mentioned
above. The division Bhānavāra is also done logically, because there are 120 Bhānavāra of Anguttara nikāya which has
9557 suttas. When Dīgha nikāya has only 34 discourses with 64 Bhānavāra and the problem that had to look it.(?) The
number of discourses in Samyutta nikāya and Aṁguttaranikāya. These are 100 and 120 Bhānavāra.
When these questions are examined one should not forget that the person/previous(?) versions of Samyutta
nikāya and Aṁguttara nikāya were accepted that were none to the commentated. The commentated do not speak of any
elation or any section that were lost as for as these two nikāyas were concerned. The first group is called Catunekāyika
Bhikkhu. The other group is called Pancanekāyika Bhikkhu. This group that there were Bhikkhus who consider that the
fifth nikāyas did not belong to authority as the other nikāyas. The Khuddaka nikāya contains fifteen books that were
defined as:
»Pannarasappavādo Khuddaka nikāya.«

According to this definition Khuddaka nikāya is 15-fold:

1. Khuddakapāta 9. Theragāthā
2. Dhammapada 10. Therīgāthā
3. Udāna 11. Jāṭaka
4. Itivuttaka 12. Niddesa
5. Suttanipāta 13. Apadāna
6. Vimānavatthu 14. Buddhavaṁsa
7. Petavatthu 15. Cariyāpiṭaka
8. Patisambhidā Magga

This is Khuddaka nikāya. In this figure the commentary said that there are 84000 units of the Dhammas in the
entire Tipiṭaka out of which 2000 units are of the disciples. But they were preached according to the guidelines
provided by the Buddha.

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 SUTTANTA PIṬAKA AND SAYINGS OF THE BUDDHA, SAYINGS OF THE DISCIPLES (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA)
(ORIGINAL BY VEN. TEZANIYA)

According to commentator »Sabbampi etaṁ buddhavacanaṁ.« That means that all doctrines in the Tipiṭaka were delivered
by Buddha himself. But when we discuss that idea with care of attention we can understand that there are teachings in Tipiṭaka not
only by the Buddha, but also by his famous great disciples. Also when we examine Sumaṁgala Vilāsinī and Samantapāsādika
Aṭṭhakathā we can find as following what sayings of the Buddha and sayings of the disciples are:

»Dvasiti buddhato gamhi dvesahassani bhikkhuto, saturasiti sahassani ye me dhama pavattita.«

That means, that out of these 84 000 dhammakkhandha, 83 dhammās were delivered by Buddha and 2000 dhammās by his
disciples. While we examine nikāyas, we can see that there are many sayings of other disciples, who associated with the Buddha
very closely and others such as kings, Devas and Brahmās.
However, the Buddha's teachings and the disciples' have been accepted by the Theravāda tradition. This is too difficult to
distinguish the Buddha's teachings from the disciple's. There are few, which can be recognized as teaching not belonging to bthe
Buddha Tipiṭaka. Parivāra Pāḷi is considered as not the Buddha's teaching. Almost all of Abhidhamma Piṭaka are accepted as
teaching of composition of Abhidhammika Thera/Theras(?).
Many schools try to show Kathāvatthu Pakarana as a book of ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera. They explain, that ven.
Moggaliputtatissa Thera composed Kathāvatthu Pakarana by the method given by Buddha. We examine as we known there are 34
suttas or discourses in the Dīgha Nikāya at least five of them were preached by ven. Ānanda. Payasirajnna sutta by ven.
Kumārakassapa. Sampasadaniy, Saṁgīti, Dasuttra by ven. Sāriputta.
Attaniya sutta by four gods approved by Buddha.(?) there are 152 suttas of Majjhima Nikāya, out of 25(?) were preached
by disciples: Mahā Hatthipadopama sutta, Ratha Vinīta sutta, Mahāvedha, Anaṁgana, Sammādiṭṭhi were delivered by ven.
Sāriputta. Gopakamoggallāna, Bāhitaka, Sandaka, Sekka these were delivered by ven. Ānanda. Matupiṭaka was delivered by ven.
Mahā Kaccāyana, approved by Buddha. Maratajjaniya, Anumāna by ven. Moggallāna, Bahuvedaniya by Udayi; Ghatamakha by
Udena; Bhikkhu by bhikkhu Anuruddha (?) by ven. Anuruddha.
In the Khuddaka Nikāyai, Thera Gāthā and Therī Gāthā were all delivered by the men and female disciples. Vimānavatthu
and Petavatthu were composed by ven. Moggallāna. The Niddesa was consented as a text composed by ven. Sāriputta and
Paṭisaṃbhidāmagga is also assigned to ven. Sāriputta. In fact, half of the Khuddaka Nikāya text represented the verses of disciples.
Besides that there are many questions presented to the Bddha and bhikkhus by various gods. But examined above
examples we have to accept the order-ships of many suttas go to disciples. The Theravāda tradition has made a great effort to
attribute all the Tipiṭaka. Kathāvatthu Pakarana also has considered as Buddha's teaching even what we usually know as sāvaka's
teaching:

»Moggaliputtatissa thera idaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ desento attano nanyena na desito, bhagavata dinnanayena
thapitamatikaya desitatta idaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ buddhabhāsitaṁ nāma jātaṁ.«

The disciples preached all complain/sermons(?) not according to their own knowledge, but according to the guide provided
by Buddha. The Matupiṭaka sutta in Majjhima Nikāya is given as an example. It was preached by Buddha. When monks wanted to
know the details of what the Buddha taught they met ven. Mahā Kaccāyana and requested him to irrigate(?). ven. Mahā
Kaccāyana explained it. So the present Matupiṭaka sutta is(?) stands(?) nothing but the explanation of ven. Mahā Kaccāyana. But
commentator says it should be regarded explanation of the Buddha, the reason given for it is, that it was not ven. Mahā
Kaccāyana's explanation.
Therefore, Matupiṭaka sutta is 'buddha vacanaṁ'. But in some places the Buddha has appreciated ven. Mahā Kaccāyana.
In the Matupiṭaka of Majjhima Nikāya there is:

»Etadeghaṁ bhikkhave mama sāvakanaṁ bhasitassa vitharena atthaṁ vibhajanaṁ yadidaṁ mahā kaccāyano.«

In the Aṭṭhasalīni Nidanakathā:

»Bhantitaṁ kho bhikkhave mahā kaccāyano yadikareyyaṁ etamatthaṁ patiphujedya ahampi evamevaṁ bhyakaredya
yadidṁ mahā kaccāyano.«

But according to the tradition we have to accept that there was historical process by talking the sermon of the disciples and
the Dhamma of the Buddha.

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 SAYINGS OF THE BUDDHA AND SAYINGS OF THE DISCIPLES AS FOUND IN THE SUTTA PIṬAKA
(lectured by ven. Uparatana) (original by ven. Nai Soma)

It is believed that the whole Tipiṭaka was delivered by Buddha himself, and therefore the
aim of that concept is to give the historical importance to the Dhamma. According to the
commentator:
»Sabbampi etaṃ buddhavacanaṃ evaṃ caturāsītisahassamidaṃ buddhavacanaṃ.«

The whole Buddha vacana; all 84000 Dhammakhandas were preached by Buddha himself
but when we examine Sumaṁgalavilāsinī and Samantapāsādikā, we can recognize sayings of the
disciples of the Buddha.
»Dvāsīti buddhato gaṇhiṃ dve sahassāni bhikkhuto; caturāsīti sahassāni, ye me dhammā
pavattino.«

This means, that out of 84000 Dhammakhandhas 82000 Dhammakhandhas were delivered
by the Buddha and 2000 Dhammakhandhas by his disciples. But when we examine nikāyas, there
are many sayings of others also. In addition to the words of disciples who associated with the
Buddha very closely, there are words of the king devas and brahmins also in the Sutta Piṭaka as we
mentioned earlier.
It is very clearly seen that there are at least five discourses preached by the disciples in
Dīgha nikāya, these are Subha sutta by ven. Ānanda, Pāyāsirajañña sutta by ven.
Kumārakassapa, Sampasādanīya Sangīti Dasuttara by ven. Sāriputta, Ātānāti sutta by four great
gods approached to the Buddha.
In Majjhima nikāya, the Sammā diṭṭhi, Gulissāni, Dhanañjāni, Saccavibhaṁga,
Mahāgosinga, Anāthapindikovāda, Channovāda were delivered by ven. Sāriputta. The
Gopakamoggallāna, Bāhitika, Sandaka, Sekha, Atthakanāgara, Anumāna suttas were delivered by
ven. Ānanda. Madhura, Uddesavibhaṁga, Madhupindika suttas were delivered by ven.
Mahākaccāyana. Māratajjaniya, Anumāna were delivered by ven. Moggallāna, Bahuvedaniya by
ven. Udāyi, Ghatamakkha by ven. Udena, Bakkula by ven. Bakkula and Anuruddho by ven.
Anuruddha.
Theragāthā and Therīgāthā were delivered by male and female disciples, Vimānavatthu and
Petavatthu are supposed to have been delivered by ven. Moggallāna and Patisambhidāmagga is a
singe(?) in(?) ven. Sāriputta. In fact, half of the Khuddaka nikāya texts represent words of the
disciples. The Mundarājavagga of Aṁguttara nikāya was preached by the disciples, because the
Buddha had been denied(?) when(?) this(?) chapter(?) delivered(?) to(?) ven. Sāriputta.(?)
Nakulapitu chapter of Samyutta nikāya was delivered by ven. Sāriputta to the froup of
Paccābhūmaka bhikkhus. The suttara of Avijjāvagga is a discussion of ven. Sāriputta and
Mahākoṭṭhita. The suttaras of Sanlāyatana chapter preached by Bindorabhāradvāja, Ānanda,(?)
Kaccāyana to the householder of Udena Ghosita Lohicca respectively,(?) besides there were many
questions from bhikkhus and gods who inquired the Buddha.
The commentarial remark is based on the assumption of the Theravāda tradition. It says that
most of the words of the disciples could be attributed to the Buddha on the basic and they preached
according to the guidelines of Buddha. The examples of the Madhupindiaka sutta were preached
by Buddha but the details were explained by Mahākaccāna to the monks and so it is the Buddha-
vacana. But according to the tradition we have to exist(?) that there was a historical process by
taking the sermon of the disciples as the sermon of the Buddha.

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 SUTTANTA PIṬAKA AND THE TEACHINGS OF DISCIPLES

When we consider the whole Tipiṭaka, almost all the doctrines are mentioned as the Buddha's teaching. The
object of this trail is to give authority to the Tipiṭaka. Normal texts also had been accepted. All doctrines in the Tipiṭaka
are the Buddha's teaching:
»Sabbampi etaṁ buddha vacanaṁ.«

But when we discuss that idea in a critical manner, we can understand that there are teachings in Tipiṭaka not
only from the Buddha but also from his famous great disciples. this idea can be found in the Sumaṁgalavilāsinī and
Samantapāsādikā Aṭṭhakathā with the following words:

»Dvāsīti buddhato gannho dvesahassāni bhikkhuto,

Caturāsīti sahassāni ye me dhammā pavattito.«

The meaning is: „There are 82 000 dhammakkhandha from the Buddha and 2 000 dhammakkhandha
belonging to his disciples.“ The commentary shows that both together there are mixed 84 000 dhammakkhandha. there
one of the measurement had been used to measure the teaching in Tipiṭaka. Even though we cannot distinguish the
kinds of the dhammakkhandha, this problem was not solved in Buddhist literature. However, the Buddha's teaching
and the disciples' had been accepted in Theravāda tradition. this is too different(?) to recognize the Buddha's teaching
and his disciples'. There are a few fields which can help us to recognize which teaching does not belong to the Buddha
in Tipiṭaka (Cullavagga Pāḷi 11-12 Capāta, Pañcasattikakhandhaka and Sattasattikakhandhaka), Parivāra Pāḷi is not
the Buddha's teaching. Almost all of Abhidhamma Piṭaka are accepted as teachings of composition of Abhidhammika
Theras.
They like to attribute this authorship of Abhidhamma to Katyayanitutra, Kauśtila, Wgusera, Devaśārma,
Pūrna, Sāriputta and Moggallāna etc. many schools try to show Kathāvatthu Pakarana as a book of ven.
Moggallānaputtatissa Thera. They explained that ven. Moggallānaputtatissa Thera composed Kathāvatthu
Pakarana with the method given by the Buddha:

»Iti sattarā diññānayena ṭhapitamātikāya desitattL imaṁ kathāvatthu pakaranaṁ buddhabhāsitaṁ nāma
jātaṁ.«

There are a lot of disciples' teaching in Tipiṭaka, Majjhima Nikāya and more than half of Khuddaka Nikāya
belongs to the disciples. In Dīgha Nikāya there are 34 suttas. Subha sutta of ven. Ānanda Thera, Pāyāsirājañña sutta
of ven. Kumārakassapa Thera, Sampasādanīya sutta, Saṁgīti sutta and the 3 suttas from ven. Sāriputta Thera.
Other discourses were given authorship to the Buddha's disciple.(?) There are 152 suttas in Majjhima Nikāya. Mahā
Hatthipadomapa sutta, Raṭhavinīta sutta, Mahāvedalla sutta, Anāthapiṇḍikovāda sutta, Samādhi sutta, Channovāda
sutta, Cheka sutta were preached by ven. Sāriputta Thera. Gopakamoggalāna sutta, Bhāhitika sutta, Santdka(?),
Cheka sutta and Aṭhakanagara sutta are from ven. Ānanda and Madhura sutta and uddesa Vibhaṁga Madhupinḍika of
ven. Mahā Kaccāyana. Some other suttas were attributed to disciples.
According to the scholars Maratajjmiya sutta and Anumāna sutta also belongs to one of the Buddha's
disciples. According to some Eastern scholars, Dīgha and Majjhima Nikāyas are from the Buddha. Commentary also
have made a strong effort to the Madhupiṇdika sutta.(?) once, the Buddha started to preach on defilements and went
back without explaining. Monks wanted to know the meaning why the Buddha preached shortly. Then they went to
ven. Mahā Kaccāyana Thera and asked him to describe in detail. Ven. Mahākaccāyana Thera described them
something and he said that they rather should go to the Buddha.This way some of the distiples' suttas are approved to
be from the Buddha and they are considered as the Buddha's teaching. There are a lot of suttas which are approved to
be from the Buddha.
there are only a few sāvaka suttas in Aṁguttara Nikāya. however, Muṇdarāja Vagga of Aṁguttara Nikāya is
considered to be a later development of the Dhamma, because Muṇdarāja ruled in India after the Buddha's passing
away. The Theravāda tradition has made a great effort to attribute all the Tipiṭaka.(?) Kathlvatthu Pakarana is also
considered as the Buddha's teaching even though we usually take it for sāvaka's teaching.

»Moggaliputtatissa thero idiṁ kathāvatthu pakaraṇaṁ deseṇto attano ñāṇena na desito bhagavatā
dinnanayena ṭhapitamātikāya desitattā idiṁ kathāvatthu pakaraṇaṁ buddha bhāsitaṁ nāma jātaṁ.«

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 DĪGHA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

As among scholars believed that the suttas are the first discourse of the Buddha, Disciplines and
deep Dhamma or the highest Dhamma (AbhiDhamma) also have been included there. According to five
divisions of the Sutta Piṭaka, the names were given to those five Nikāyas as considering their surface
characteristics. The long formula (sutta) was included to the Dīgha Nikāya. According to the
Sumaṅgallavilasinī, the commentary of Dīgha Nikāya of Buddhaghosa, it mentions there that why it is
called the Dīgha Nikāya; there are many very long suttas, which were preached by the Buddha in Dīgha
Nikāya. So it is called the Dīgha Nikāya.
Yes, it is true, we can see the sutta like Sāmaññaphala (the Fruits of the Life of a samaṇa) in the
Dīgha Nikāya and Mahāparinibbāna (the Great Passing) in the Mahā Vagga, etc. are very long suttas. The
Dīgha Nikāya mainly can be divided into three divisions as chapters or vaggas. They are:
1) Sīlakkhanda Vagga (Division Concerning Morality)
2) Mahā Vagga (the Large Division)
3) Pāthika Vagga (the Division beginning with the discourse on the Pāthika, the Naked Ascetic)

1) Out of 34 suttas, 13 suttas are in Sīlakkhanda Vagga. In this chapter the Buddha talks about the
morality of lay people and monks; the morality is also divided into three stages in gradually, Culla sīla,
Majjhima sīla and Upari or Mahā sīla. When we examine this chapter very carefully, it seems that it is
expected the morality (Sīla), concentration (Samādhi) and wisdom (Paññā); these three qualities are the
principle teaching of the Lord Buddha.
The first sutta in this vagga is called Brahmajāla which can be explained into English as the “The
Net of Perfect Wisdom or the Excellent Net.” According to Rhys Davids, it is the Perfect Net; the Buddha
himself, in the sutta, refers to its others. Alternative titles which are Atthajāla – the Net of Advantages,
Tamonajāla – the Net of Doctrine and Diṭṭhijāla – the Net of Views. The main purpose of this sutta is given
an account of Religious heritage views, which were existed contemporary to the Buddha in India. The
Brahmajāla Sutta, further, mentions various systems of life arts, handicraft, folklore, anthropology sports,
and the pass time of sacrifices which were different types of professions of the people. Anthropology,
astrology, arithmetic, accountancy, royal policy, medicine, architecture, and so on. The Blessed One has
paid his attention on as super life well as prosperous. He had spread his preaching in various directions
representing several of social status of society.
2) Mahā Vagga is the second chapter of the Dīgha Nikāya, means “Great” and Vagga means
“Chapter”. The ten suttas in this division are some of the most important ones of the Tipiṭaka, dealing with
historical and biographical aspects as well as the doctrinal aspects of Buddhism. The most famous sutta is
the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta which gives an account of the last days and the passing away of the Buddha and
the distribution of his relics. Mahāpadāna Sutta (the Great Discourse on the Lineage) which deals with brief
account of the last seven Buddhas and the life story of the Vipassī Buddha. Doctrinally important are the
two suttas: the Mahānidāna Sutta which explains the Chain of Cause and Effect, and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna
Sutta (the Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness) dealing with the four Methods of Steadfast
Mindfulness and practical aspects of Buddhist meditation, etc. these are only some of them.
3) Pāthika Vagga begins with Pāthika likewise, it was called Pāthika Vagga. This division is made
up of eleven shorter discourses of a miscellaneous nature. They deal with the Buddha’s rejection of wrong
and severe asceticism practiced by followers of many sects; they deal also with the periodical evolution and
dissolution of the universe, the accounts of Universal Monarch and the thirty-two physiognomic
characteristics of a great man. There is one discourse, Siṅgīti and Dasuttara, are discourses given by the
Venerable Sāriputta and they contain lists of doctrinal terms classified according to subject matter and
numerical units. The style of their composition is different from the other nine suttas of the division.

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 DĪGHA NIKĀYA
The Pāli canonical literature consists of three Piṭakas. The word Piṭaka means a basket
containing manuscripts. It is preserčved in three systematic collections:
1. The Vinaya Piṭaka
2. The Sutta Piṭaka
3. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka

The Buddha's teachings are contained in the Sutta Piṭaka which consists of five nikāyas or
‘collections’, namely: Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Saṅyutta Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya and
Khuddaka Nikāya. Here an account of onyl the Dīgha Nikāya is given.
Dīgha Nikāya is regarded as the first book of the five Sutta Piṭakas. The Dīgha Nikāya,
which is a collection of longer discourses deals with various subjects of Buddhism. It is divided into
three sections, which are:
1. Sīlakkhandha
2. Mahāvagga
3. Patheyya
It has thirty-four suttas.
The first sutta in the first book of Dīgha Nikāya is called the Brahmajāla Sutta, which
means ‘Excellent Net’. The Brahmajāla Sutta refers to sixty-two wrong views and the various
doctrinal and philosophical speculations in vogue at that time. The second, Sāmaññaphala Sutta
states the doctrines of the six heretical teachers and the benefits derived in an ascending order by a
monk of the Buddhist Saṅgha.
Some other suttas such as the 11th – Kevaḍḍha Sutta discuss the practice of miracles and
shows that the Buddha was superior to the gods headed by Brahma in as such as he alone was able
to answer a question which gods were not able to. And the Kassapasīhanāda Sutta speaks of
various ascetic practices prevalent during the time of the Buddha while the ninth introduced us to
the type of discourses usually delivered to the wanderers etc.
The first sutta of the second volume is the Mahāpadāna, which discussed the lives of the
seven Buddhas whose aqrrival took place before Gautama Buddha. It mentions in detail the life of
Vipassī, who was the first of the seven previous Buddhas. The mahāparinibbāna Sutta is the 16th
sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It is regarded as the best sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It deals with the
Buddha's last days and his last speeches and sayings and gives an account of the past greatness of
Kusinagara etc. The Mahā Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta deals with the path of mindfulness.
The 3rd volume contains eleven suttas, of which the first four deal mainly with non-Buddhist
views and ascetic practices etc. The last two suttas summarize the teachings of the Buddha as in
the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Of these, the Dasuttara, which is the last, follows the catechetical method.

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 MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The Majjhama Nikāya is mentioned as the second book of the Sutta Piṭaka and also it is one
of the major parts of. It is called “The Middle Collection or The Collection of Discourses of
Medium Length.” It is so called because the suttas it contains are generally, of Middle Length,
compared with the longest suttas of the Dīgha Nikāya. Most of suttas of Majjhima Nikāya refer to
the refutation of the views of others.
The Majjhima Nikāya consists of 152 suttas; these are divided into three parts called
“Paṇṇasa - sets of fifty” though the last set actually contains 52 suttas within each part. The suttas
are further grouped into chapter or divisions “vagga’ of 10 suttas each. The next to the last division
“Vibhaṅga vagga” contains 12 suttas. The name assigns to those divisions considering their title of
opening suttas or some cases, pair of sutta.
Naturally, the greatest number of these discourses in the Majjhima Nikāya addresses to the
piṭaka. The monks since they lived in close proximity to the master. In the Majjhima Nikāya we
don’t meet the Buddha only in his rules as the head of the Order; repeatedly, we see him engaged
in living dialogue with people from many different strata (sing. stratum) of ancient India society
like; kings, princes, Brahmans, ascetics, simple inhabitants and erudite philosophers.
It is not the Buddha alone who appears in the Majjhima Nikāya, the role of his teaching and
work also introduced as to the accomplish disciples who carried on the transmittance of his
teachings. Of 152 suttas in the connection are spoken by the ven. Sāriputta, general of Dīgha
Nikāya, by the Ānanda, the Buddha’s personal attendant, during the last 25 years of his life,
delivered suttas and participated in many more and four suttas were spoken by the ven.
Mahākaccāyna and two by the Second Great chief disciples, the ven. Mahāmokallāna.

SAṂYUTTA NIKĀYA (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The third division of the Sutta Piṭaka is Saṃyutta Nikāya, according to Mrs. Rhys Davids it
is called “Grouped Suttas or the Book of kindred sayings.” The saying has 56 groups or Saṃyuttas;
there are five Vaggas; those are Sagāthā, Nidāna, Khandha, Saḷāyatana and Mahā Vagga. The
Sagāthā Vagga has 12 suttas, Nidāna Vagga consists of 10 suttas, the Khandha Vagga contains 13
suttas, there are 10 in Saḷāyatana Vagga, and Mahā Vagga refers to 12 only.

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 QUESTION: WRITE A SHORT ACCOUNT ON THE TOPIC SAṀYUTTA NIKĀYA.

The Sutta Piṭaka's third nikāya is the Samutta nikāya. After the first Buddhist council the Dīgha nikāya
was submitted to ven. Ānanda and his disciples in order to preserve it and Majjhima nikāya was submitted to the
disciples of ven. Sāriputta as well as this Saṁyutta nikāya was submitted to the leader monk, ven. Mahākassapa
and to his disciples. According to Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, it is „grouped suttas“ or „the book of the kindred
sayings.“ It is mentioned as „a compilation of suttas with their main bearing on psycho-ethical and philosophical
problems.“ She describes that the suttas of these collections are concise prose-discourses. She mentions further
that the mass of these little suttas, slight and concise sketches, with the verses which sum them up, or which they,
the suttas, explain – many of them very poor poetry as such – dealing with legends of fairies, gods and devils,
with royal and priestly interviewers of the sublime teacher, may seem tantalizing jungle to the traveler bound for
the hills of thought more austere. But let him enter with open mind and sympathetic imagination awake. So, will
he wander not unrewarded. He will find himself for the most part in the woodland of faerie, opening out here on a
settlement of religious brethren, there on scenes of life in rural communities such as might well be met in India of
today or indeed in other countries. Mythical and folklore drapery are wrapped about many of the sayings here
ascribed to the Buddha. Nevertheless, the matter of them is of the stamp of the oldest doctrine known to us, and
from them a fairly complete synopsis of the ancient Dhamma might be compiled. And, short and terse as are the
presentations of both sayings and episode, they contribute not a little to body out our somewhat vague outline of
India's greatest son, so that we receive successive impressions of his great good sense, his willingness to adapt his
sayings to the individual inquirer, his keen intuition, his humor and smiling irony, his courage and dignity, his
catholic and tender compassion for all creatures.
The Saṁyutta nikāya has 56 „groups“ or „saṁyuttas.“ There are five vaggas, which are divided into these
saṁyuttas. These five vaggas are:
1. Sagathavagga (has 11 saṁyuttas)
2. Nidanavagga (has 10 saṁyuttas)
3. Khandhavagga (has 13 saṁyuttas)
4. Salāyatanavagga (has 10 saṁyuttas)
5. Mahāvagga (has 12 saṁyuttas)

The vaggas are so called after the name of the first in the group or interlocutor's name. The Sagathavagga
has eleven saṁyuttas, the Nidānavagga consists of ten, next has thirteen, next has ten and the last one has twelve.
Māra and Bhikkhunī saṁyuttas which are mentioned as ballads in mixed prose and verses have occupied an
important place in the Saṁyutta nikāya, because they are work of great poetical merit. They are but sacred ballads,
counterpart of those Akhyanas, with which the epic poetry the Indian originated.

It is known that on the basic of three principles:

1. those that mention Buddhist doctrine,
2. those that give an account of gods, men and demons,
3. those that describe very famous persons,
the arrangement of the suttas of Saṁyutta nikāya has taken place. The first vagga deals with ethics and
the Buddhist monk's „ideal“ like, but remaining vaggas speak out metaphysics and epistemology. It is to be noted
here that, the Saṁyutta nikāya describes subjects which mention ethical, moral and philosophical matters.

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 AṄGUTTARA NIKĀYA (NUMERICAL SAYINGS OR GRADUAL SAYINGS) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA)
(ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The Aṅguttara Nikāya is the fourth division of the five groups of Sutta Piṭaka. In
Encyclopedia of Buddhism we find an account of the Aṅguttara Nikāya; it described in this
division, the suttas are grouped in “Uttara – High and Aṅga – Part” that is in groups of numerical
ascendancy. It is translated into English as numerical Saying or Gradual Saying. This particular way
of grouping is an additional assistant for memorizing to contents; it is very clear that when we
compare and contrast with long suttas, which were existed in Dīgha Nikāya. It is easy to commit to
memory; the suttas are short and numerical in Aṅguttara Nikāya.
There are many translations for Aṅguttara Nikāya for instance, numerical saying and gradual
saying in Sanskrit canon; it was mentioned to be Ekutarāgama and also Milindapañhā mentions
that it is named as Ekutarā Nikāya.
The suttas of Aṅguttara Nikāya are divided into 11 divisions known as nipāta or 'collection'.
Each nipāta is divided again into groups called vagga which usually contains 10 suttas, 11 nipātas
named Ekaka Nipāta and Dukkha Nipāta and so on. In Ekaka Nipāta it contains one item of
Dhamma; it is increased up to eleven. Item of Dhamma, it is said that collections of discourses of
Aṅguttara Nikāya is containing 9557 short suttas. There are many ideas about this number. Among
scholars they denoted various numbers according to their own thoughts. This collection is very
famous amongst students as well as teachers.
We can find much information about the great disciples of the Buddha like; ven. Sāriputta
in Intuitive Wisdom and Knowledge (paññā), Mahā Nogallāna in supernormal power (Iddhi), etc.
through this source or suttas specially visitors who came to visit the Buddha and queried the
questions. the Buddha had dwelled and Buddha’s answers all these questions are available in
Aṅguttara Nikāya.
The Aṅguttara Nikāya has following nipāta;
5) Ekaka Nipāka contains 21 chapters in A.N. I. 1 to 46.
6) Duka Nipāta contains 16 chapters in A.N. I. 46 to 100.
7) Tika Nipāta contains 16 chapters in A.N. I. 101 to 304.
8) Catuka Nipāta contains 26 chapters in A.N. II. 1 to 257.
9) Pañcaka Nipāta contains 26 chapters in A.N. III. 1 to 278.
10) Chakka Nipāta contains 12 chapters in A.N. III. 279 to 452.
11) Sattaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 1 to 149.
12) Aṭṭhaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 150 to 350.
13) Navaka Nipāta contains 9 chapters in A.N. V. 351 to 466.
14) Dasaka Nipāta contains 22 chapters in A.N. IV. 1 to 310.
15) Ekādasaka Nipāta contains 3 chapters in A.N. IV. 311 to 361.

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 KHUDDAKA NIKĀYA (SMALLER COLLECTIONS) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN.
SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

According to the source of the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka states that the Sutta Piṭaka which
consists of five nikāyas were completed at the first council held at Rājagaha immediately after the passing
away of the Buddha. But according to other traditions and some chronicles of Sri Lanka it is said that in the
first council only the First Four nikāyas have been composed. Having completed the rehearsal of the Dīgha
Nikāya which consisted of ū4 discourses and 64 Paṇṇāvāra; it was entrusted to the ven. Ānanda after recital
of Dīgha Nikāya, the Majjhima Nikāya. which consists 152 suttas and 80 Paṇṇavāras was rehearsed and
entrusted to pupils of ven. Sāriputta. The Saṃyutta Nikāya which consists of 100 paṇṇavāra was rehearsed
and entrusted to ven. Mahākassapa; finally the Aṅguttara Nikāya which contains 120 paṇṇavāra was
recited and entrusted to ven. Ānurudha.
It should be noted that the Mahāboddhavaṅga, a work was written in Pāli 1st century BC in Sri
Lanka, also informs us the prosperity of the first council. the account found in the Mahābodhivaṅga more or
less corresponds to the account of Sumaṅvisālinī in the account also the Khuddaka Nikāya is not mentioned.
Each group who was entrusted in the four nikāyas known as Paṇṇākāra; the monk who continued
the Dīgha Nikāya was known as Dipākassa, Majjhima Nikāya in the same way but there are not references to
recite of Khuddaka Nikāya Pāṇākassa in Pāli commentaries.
The Khuddaka Nikāya is the fifth division of the Sutta Piṭaka; it has ā6 independent treatises but
Ven. Buddhaghosa enumerated them as 15. It is known as collection of miscellaneous or collection of short
pieces. According to some scholars the texts of Khuddaka Nikāya. were compiled after the Four nikāyas and
also besides Attakapāra Vagga of Sutta Nipāta; other pieces were considered as have been compiled after the
first council. It is known that some of the part belonged to the earliest period but other parts belonged to the
last stratum of the Pāli canon. It is to be noted here that when we judge the subject matter of this Nikāya we
see that among the different texts there was similarity and they can be mentioned as independent texts and
also we can see most diverse characteristics and it is significant that among the Buddhist of Ceylon, Burma,
Cambodia and Siam. There is no completed agreement as to pieces belonging to it. The 15 texts are;
5. Khuddaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)
6. Dhammapada (The Way of Truth)
7. Udāna (Paeans of Joy)
8. Itivuttaka (“thus said” Discourse)
9. Suttanipāta (Collected Discourses)
10. Vimānavatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
11. Petavatthu (Stories of Petas)
12. Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren )
13. Therīgāthā (Psalms of Sisters)
14. Jātaka (Birth stories of Bodhisattva)
15. Niddesa (Expositions)
16. Paṭisambhidā Magga (Book of Analytical Knowledge )
17. Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)
18. Buddhavaṃsa (History of the Buddha)
19. Cariyā Piṭaka (Modes of Conducts)

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 KHUDDAKA NIKĀYA

The Khuddaka nikāya is the fifth division of the Sutta Piṭaka. It has sixteen independent
treatises, but Buddhaghosa enumerated them as fifteen. Some of its parts belonged to earliest
period while other parts belonged to the later stratum of the Pāli canon. It is composed for the most
part in verses and contains almost all the important words of Buddhist poetry. The sixteen books
included in Khuddaka nikāyas are as follows:
1. Khuddakapātha 9. Therīgātha
2. Dhammapada 10. Jāṭakas
3. Udāna 11. Mahāniddesa
4. Itivuttaka 12. Cullaniddesa
5. Suttanipāta 13. Patisambhidāmagga
6. Vimānavatthu 14. Apadāna
7. Petavatthu 15. Buddhavaṁsa
8. Theragātha 16. Cariyāpiṭaka

According to Burmese tradition, there are four other works besides above mentioned texts,
namely:
17. Milindapañhā
18. Suttasaṁghaha
19. Petakopadesa
20. Nettipakarana

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 QUESTION: WRITE INFORMATION TO ONE OF FIVE NIKĀYAS.

Khuddaka Nikāya

Of the five Nikāyas, Khuddakanikāya contains the largest number of treatises (as listed
below) and the most numerous categories of Dhamma. Although the word „khuddaka“ literally
means „minor“ or „small“ the actual content of this collection can by no means be regarded as
minor including as it does the two major divisions of the Piṭaka, namely, the Vinaya Piṭaka and the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka according to one system of classification. The miscellaneous nature of this
collection containing not only the discourses by the Buddha but compilations of brief doctrinal
notes mostly in verse, accounts of personal struggles and achievements by Theras and Therīs also in
verses, the birth stories, the history of the Buddha etc. may account for its „Bible.“
The following is the list of treatises as approved by the International Buddhist Synod:

Khuddaka nikāya
1. Khuddakapātha 10. Jāṭaka
2. Dhammapada 11. Niddesa
3. Udāna 12. Patisambhidāmagga
4. Itivuttaka 13. Apadāna
5. Suttanipāta 14. Buddhavaṁsa
6. Vimānavatthu 15. Cariyāpiṭaka
7. Petavatthu 16. Netti
8. Theragāthā 17. Petakopadesa
9. Therīgāthā 18. Milindapañhā

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 KHUDDAKAPĀTHA

Khuddakapātha or „the short lesson“ is mentioned as the first text of the Khuddaka nikāya. It is also known as
lesson heading. Mr. Rhys Davids called it the text of minor sayings. The Khuddakapātha consists of nine texts
according to commentary. The book divides its names from the first four passages which are shorter in compilation with
the remaining five passages of suttas.
1. Saranāgamana (taking the refuge of Triple Gem)
2. Dasa Sikhāpada (ten precepts to be observed by the novices to enter the order)
3. Dvattimsakara (the list of 32 parts of the body)
4. Sāmanera Paññhā (a set of questions given to a sāmanera)
5. Mahāmangala sutta (38 auspicious to anyone)
6. Ratana sutta (it is said to have been summed by the Buddha in the place of Vesālī to preaching Triple Gem and
blessing)
7. Tirokudda sutta (about petas (departed spirits), transferring merits to one's kinsmen)
8. Nidhikanda sutta (the result of good deeds)
9. Karaniyamettā sutta (mettā meditation)

Mahāmangala sutta

Mahāmangala sutta was preached at Jetavana in answering the questions asked by a deva as to which are the
auspicious things in the world. This sutta describes 38 auspicious things including such things as the evident of four
associations with wise, honoring those worthy human etc. This commentary explains that at the time this sutta was
preached, there was a great discussion over the whole of Jambudīpa regarding the constitution of mangala. The deva
heard the discussion and argued among themselves till the matters spread to the pious Brahma world. Then it was that
Sakka's suggestion, that a devaputta should visit the Buddha and ask him about it. In the Sutta Nipāta some sutta called
Mahāmangala was discussed. It is one of the suttas at the preaching of which countless deva were present and countless
beings realized the truth. This sutta is often recited and formed one of the commons of paritta. To have it written down
in a book is considered an act of great of merit. It is said, that one king Duṭugemunu intended to preach this sutta at the
Lohabhasada, but he was too nervous.

Ratana sutta

This sutta is one of the precious in early Pāli poetry. A charming hymn of praise of the Buddhist holy triple
Gem is recited to ward off dangers and secure prosperity. The poem as we, now have it consists of two separate groups
of stanza. The one of the five stanzas (first two and the last three) has been traditionally known as the original structure
(atīte pañca gātha). The remaining stanzas of poem are to have been inserted into the original a scheme of five.
Whatever treasure there is in the world or in the next and whatever excellent jewels there were in heaven, there is none
equal to the Buddha. There is nothing equal to unceasing meditation preached by the Buddha. Those being free from
desire with a steadfast mind are firmly established in the religion of Gautama. He who obtains Arahantship as the pillar
of a city gate standing on the earth is immovable by the wind from the four directions. So I called him a righteous man
who realized the Four Noble Truths. They, who clearly meditated on the Four Noble Truths laid down by the wise one,
however much, they may be lead to Nibbāna, cannot obtain the real birth in the Niraya (hell) and finally obtain blessing
of the Triple Gem.

Tirokuddha sutta

One of the five suttas included in the Khuddakapātha. Petas (departed spirits), having their old dwelling places
and their compassionate kinsmen should feed on them in due time food, charring etc. and also give gifts to monks in
their names. Thus will they be happy. This sutta was preached on the third day of the Buddha's visit to Rājagaha,
because on the previous night petas made a great uproar in the king Bimbisara's palace.

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 NIDDESA
The Niddesa is the eleventh book of Khuddaka Nikāya. It has two parts – the Mahā Niddesa
and Cūla Niddesa. These two books are considered as commentaries belonging to the canon. The
Mahā Niddesa is mentioned as collection of word-by-word annotations of 210 verses of 16 suttas in
the Aṭṭhakavagga of the Suttanipāta. The Cūla Niddesa caontains comments on 118 verses of 18
suttas of Parāyana Vagga and 41 verses of one sutta in the same Suttanipāta.
The Niddesa is commentarial work and is ascribed to ven. Sāriputta. It has a detail
explanation by ven. Sāriputta of 32 suttas of Aṭṭhaka and Parāyana vaggas of Suttanipāta, and the
Khaggavisana Sutta of the Uraga Vagga of the Suttanipāta. It contains no coments on the 56
Vatthugātha introductory stanzas with preface.(?) The Parāyana Vagga as presently found in the
Sutta Nipāta.(?)
This lends support to the suggestion, that the time of Cūla Niddesa was written the
Parāyana Vagga was a spread(?) and anthology, and that the Khaggavisana Sutta did not belong to
any particular group, similarly with the Mahā Niddesa and Aṭṭhaka Vagga. The comments in the
Niddesa seem to have been methodical, exegetical explanations such as are attributed here and there
in the Piṭakas to Mahā Kaccāyana and ven. Sāriputta. The Niddesa refers to several schedules of
the mind-qualities which are based on the three divisions – action, speech and thought.

DHAMMAPADA

The Dhammapada is the second book of the Khuddaka nikāya. It deals with the sublime
teachings of the Buddha. It is a short manual of Buddhist teaching. It has 423 verses and is
arranged according to topics into 26 vaggas or „chapters.“ They are:

1. Yamaka vagga 14. Buddha vagga

2. Appamāda vagga 15. Sukha vagga
3. Citta vagga 16. Piya vagga
4. Puppha vagga 17. Kodha vagga
5. Bala vagga 18. Mala vagga
6. Pandita vagga 19. Dhammaṭṭha vagga
7. Arahanta vagga 20. Magga vagga
8. Sahassa vagga 21. Pakiṇṇaka vagga
9. Pāpa vagga 22. Niraya vagga
10. Danda vagga 23. Nāga vagga
11. Jarā vagga 24. Taṇhā vagga
12. Atta vagga 25. Bhikkhu vagga
13. Loka vagga 26. Brāhmaṇa vagga

The meaning of the Dhammapada is „the religious words“ or „saying according to

Buddhism.“ It contains the teachings of the Buddha and mentions the essential principles of
Buddhist philosophy and the Buddhist way of life.

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 QUESTION: WRITE A SHORT ACCOUNT ON DHAMMAPADA

All these characteristics are featured in the Dhammapada, one of the thirty-one books that
comprise the Tipiṭaka, the three „baskets“ which contain the quintessence of the Buddha's
teachings.
The Dhammapada is not a book to be read superficially like a novel and shelved aside. It
should be read and re-read so that it may serve as a constant companion for inspiration, solace, and
edification in times of need.
The Dhammapada was not preached by the Buddha in the present form. Three months
after the passing away of the Buddha, the Arahants, who assembled at the first convocation to
rehearse the teachings of the Buddha, collected some of the poetic utterances of the Buddha,
which he expounded on different occasions, arranged and classified the treatise in its present form,
naming it the Dhammapada.
The Pāli term „Dhamma,“ in Sanskrit „Dharma,“ is one of the most difficult words to be
translated into English as it has many meanings. It has to be understood according to the context.
Were it is used in the sense of saying or Teachings of the Buddha. „Pada“ implies „sections,“
„portions,“ „parts,“ or „way.“ Dhammapada may be rendered „sections or portions of the
Dhamma.“ „The way of the Dhamma.“ It is somewhat difficult to offer a graceful English
equivalent according to its literal meaning. The way of Truth „The way of righteousness,“ „The
path of virtue,“ are renderings that have been suggested by various scholars.
The Dhammapada consists of 423 melodious Pāli verses uttered by the Buddha on about
300 occasions to suit the temperaments of the listeners in the course of His preaching tours during
His ministry of forty-five years. Circumstances that led to these noble utterances are presented in
the form of long or short stories, together with traditional interpretations of the Pāli verses and
technical terms, in the voluminous commentary written by ven. Buddhaghosa. This valuable
commentary has been ably(?) translated by E. W. Burlighame for the Harvard Oriental Series. It
may be remarked that most of these verses are better understood when read with the context.
The gems of truth embodied in these texts aptly illustrate the moral and philosophical
teachings of the Buddha.

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 DHAMMAPADA
From ancient times tot he present, the Dhammapada has been regarded as the most concise
expression of the Buddha's teching found in the Pāli canon and the chief spiritual evidence of early
Buddhism.
In the countries following Theravāda Buddhism, such as Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand,
the influence of the Dhammapada is continual. It is an ever-fruitful source of themes for sermons
and discussions, a guidebook for resolving the countless problems of everyday life, a primer for the
instruction of novices in the monasteries. Even the experienced, contemplative, withdrawn to forest
hermitage or mountainside cave for a life of meditation, can be expected to count a copy of the
book among his few material possessions. Yet the admiration the Dhammapada has obtained has
not been confined to avowed followers of Buddhism. Wherever it has become known its moral
earnestness, realistic understanding of human life, aphoristic wisdom and stirring message of a way
to freedom from suffering have won for it the devotion and veneration of those responsive to the
good and the true.
The expounder of the verses that comprise the Dhammapada is the Indian sage called the
Budda, an honorific title meaning ‘the Enlightened One’ or ‘the Awakened One’. The title
‘Dhammapada’ which the ancient compilers of the Buddhist scriptures attached to our anthology,
means portions, aspects or sections of Dhamma. The work has been given this title because, in its
twenty-six chapters, it spans the multiple aspects of the Buddha's teaching, offering a variety of
standpoints from which to gain a glimpse into its heart.
The work is simply a collection of inspirational or pedagogical verses on the fundamentals
of the Dhamma, to be used as a basis for personal edification and instruction. In any given chapter
several successive verses may have been spoken by the Budda on a single occasion, and thus
among themselves will exhibit a meaningful development or a set of variations on a theme. But by a
large, the logic behind the grouping together of verses into a chapter is merely the concern with a
common topic. The twenty-six chapter headings thus function as a kind of rubric for classifying the
diverse poetic utterances of the Master, and the reason behind the inclusion of any given verse in a
particular chapter is its mention of the subject indicated in the chapter’s heading.
As a great releigious classic and the chief spiritual testament of early Buddhism, the
Dhammapada cannot be judged in its true value by a single reading, even if that reading is done
carefully and reverentially. The reader should reflect on the meaning of each verse deeply and
thoroughly, investigate its relevance to his life, and apply it as a guide to conduct. If this is done
repeatedly, with patience and perseverance, it is certain that the Dhammapada will confer upon his
life and new meaning and sense of purpose. Infusing him with hope and inspiration, gradually it
iwll lead him to discover a freedom and happiness far greater than anything the world can offer.

196
VINAYA PIṬAKA (BASKET OF DISCIPLINE) (LECTURED BY VEN. MAHINDARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)

The Pāli canon is known under the term Tipiṭaka, three fold baskets, because it consists of three main
parts; those are:
1) Vinaya Piṭaka (Basket of Discipline)
2) Sutta Piṭaka (Basket of Discourse)
3) AbhiDhamma Piṭaka (Basket of Ultimate Doctrine).

In the early Buddhist works we met the word Vinaya with the word Dhamma when the Vinaya was being
compared and contrasted; the word Dhamma came first and the Vinaya is second. According to Theravāda
commentaries it said that there were three Piṭakas have been collected in the first Buddhist council, which was
held at Rājagaha but when we investigate deeply we realized that there were only two collections of Piṭaka in the
first council. the Buddha also said that »Maya dhammo ca vinayo ca desito paññatto.« However, Vinaya was a
special basket it contains monastic rules of disciples of the Buddhist monks and nuns but others are included to
Dhamma. The Vinaya was developed as the Piṭaka in the first Buddhist council but before that there were plenty
rules by the name Siksā amongst the eighty of great monks. Arahanta Upāli was the specialized in the Vinaya. At
the first council Arahanta Upāli answered every questions asked by Arahanta Mahākassapa like;

“Ye venerable men, let the congregation hear me if the congregation ready I will question Upāli in
respect of the Vinaya.”
“Ye venerable men, let the congregation hear me if the congregation is ready I will answer all the
questions asked by Ven. Mahākassapa”, etc...

Vinaya (Discipline)

There are five contents of Vinaya Piṭaka,

1). Pārājika Pāli (Major offenses)

2). Pācittaya Pāli (Minor offenses)
3). Mahāvagga Pāli (Greater sections)
4). Cullavagga Pāli (Lesser sections)
5). Parivāvagga Pāli (Epitome of Vinaya)

These are known as Ānādesāsana.

The Vinaya Pitaka is made up of rules of disciplines laid down for regulating the conduct of the
Buddha’s disciples who have been admitted as Bhikkhus and Bhikkunīs into the Order. These rules embody
authoritative injunctions of the Buddha on modes of conduct and restrains on both physical and verbal actions.
They deal with various categories of restrains and admonitions in accordance with the nature of the offense.
The Buddhist monastic community always have been depended on Vinaya »Vinayo hāma sāsanassa
āyu.« If the developments are story of disciples; is there the order would establish very well? Other, the
disciplines, could be perished then there is no more called Sāsana. According to classification of Pāli
commentators we can see the Vinaya Pitaka has been divided into five divisions as mentions above; those five
categories are summarized again into three divisions as following;
a) Pārājika Pāli
1. Sutta Vibhaṅga
b) Pācittaya Pāli

a) Cullavagga Pāli
2. Khandhaka

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 b) Mahāvagga Pāli

3. Parivāra Parivāra Pāli

Here, Vibhaṅga is based on the Pātimokkha; it contains the rules of disciplines of Bhikkhus and
Bhikkhunīs, which included in Pārājika and Pācittaya Pāli. This is very probably one of the order’s texts. The
formula for ceremony of confession as it was a performance in the Uposatha day in the monastic order. The Sutta
Vibhaṅga is the commentary on the texts (Pātimokkha). In the individual transgression are divided into following
categories in the order of their seriousness,
Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī

1. Pārajika 4 8*
2. Saṅghādisesa 13 17
3. Aniyata 2 -
4. Nissaggiya 30 30
5. Suddha Pācittiya 92 166
6. Pātidesanīya 4 8
7. Sekkhīya vatta 75 75
8. Adhikaraṇa samaṭha 7 7
227 311

These rules are numerical 227 in Bhikkhu Pātimokkha. This Pātimokkha is called Ānāpātimokkha; there
are other Pātimokkha named Ovāpātimokkha. Some Blessed Ones who lived long period in the world doesn’t
establish the rules of disciplines for their disciples. They only advised their disciples in verbal action at the present
time, this is called or known as Ovādapātimokkha. This Pātimokkha was preached only by the Perfect Ones. Some
Blessed Ones who lived nor longer period laid down the rules of disciplines after ī0 years from their
Enlightenment, their disciples also could preach this Ānāpātimokkha; those stanzas are:

»Sabbapāpassa akaraṇaṃ “To do well,

Kusalassūpasaṃpadā Not to do evil,
Sacittapariyodapaṇaṃ To purify the mind,
Etaṃ buddhāna sāsanaṃ« This is the teaching of all the Buddhas”

»Khanti paramaṃ tapo tītikkhā nibbāna Nibbāna is supreme, said the Buddha, He,
paramaṃ vadanti buddhā na hi pabbajito verily, is not a recluse who harms another,
rūbaghātī samaṇo hoti baraṃ viheṭhayanto« Nor is he an ascetic who oppresses others.”
“Forbearing patience is the highest austerity.

»Anūbavādo Anūpaghāto pā6imokkho, “Not insulting, not harming, restraint according

ca saṃvaro mattaññutā ca bhattasmiṃ, to pātimokkha, moderation in food, secluded
bantañca sayanāsaṃ adhicitte ca āyogo etaṃ abode, intend in higher thoughts –
buddhāna sāsanaṃ« This is the teaching of all the Buddhas.”

* For more detail please read Guide to TiPiṭaka, written by Uko Lay, page 12.

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 VINAYA PIṬAKA

„Vinaya“ means „discipline.“ The Vinaya Piṭaka really means „a basket containing
manuscripts,“ vinaya or the rules of discipline. It contains rules and regulations for the management
of the Buddhist Saṁgha and for the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns, rules for reception
into the order, for the periodical confession of sins, for life during the rainy season, for house and
clothing, medicine, creeds and legal Procter(?) in case of schism are also included in it.
These rules are support which has been laid down by the Buddha himself as ovation. There
is strong having also found place in it.(?) Some of them give us fragment of the Buddha-legend,
while other through(?) of life on the daily life of ancient idea there strops(?) are olestra(?) live of the
occasion when the Buddha was constrained to have recourse to his pupil.(?) The greater portion of
the Vinaya Piṭaka appears to be dry and technical. Therein have rendered the work and unpleasant
reading in spite of the narrative of events in life of the Buddha. The Vinaya Piṭaka is in one word on
account of the Buddhist Saṁgha. Vinaya as known as known in middle Burma is the monastic code
handed down by the Theravāda sent in Sri Lanka.
According to ven. Buddhaghosa all the text of Vinaya Piṭaka was rehearsed ??? in the first
chanting. He deskilled(?) Vinaya Piṭaka and Pacittiya Pāli belong to Khandaka means 22 chapters,
Cūllavagga Pāli 12 chapters and Mahāvagga Pāli 10 chapters.

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 VINAYA PIṬAKA

The Vinaya Piṭaka clearly means a basket containing manuscripts of Vinaya or rule of
discipline. It is containing rules and regulations for the Bhikkhu Saṁgha and Bhikkhunī Saṁgha.
Ven. Buddhaghosa explained that Vinaya by them(?) Suttavibhaṁga, Khandaka and Parivāra.
These are containing:
1. Pārājika Pāḷi (in Suttavibhaṁga)
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi (in Suttavibhaṁga)
3. Mahāvagga Pāḷi (in Khandaka)
4. Cullavagga Pāḷi (in Khandaka)
5. Parivāra Pāḷi (Parivāra)

Here Sutta Vibhaṁga means Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. Khandaka means Cullavagga
Pāḷi and Mahāvagga Pāḷi. Parivāra means Parivāra Pāḷi. Here Suttavibhaṁga means 'the
explanation of the sutta'. The sutta means the precepts laid down by the Buddha for Bhikkhus and
Bhikkhunīs. The Suttavibhaṁga lays down and explains all the Vinaya rules which are contained in
the Pātimokkha. It is divided into two books – Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. Pārājika and
Pācittiya contain rules for guidance of the Bhikkhu (227 Vinaya rules) and Bhikkhunī (311 Vinaya
rules) Saṁgha. Pātimokkha is divided in 8 sections:

Section Bhikkhu Bhikkhunī

1. Pārājika 4 8
2. Saṁgādisesa 13 17
3. Aniyata 2 -
4. Nissaggiya 30 30
5. Suddha pācittiya 92 166
6. Patidesaniya 4 8
7. Sekhiya 75 75
8. Adhikaranasamatha 7 7
(all together) (227) (311)

The Pātimokkha seems to existence to the India custom of holding secret(?) two periods
each month, on the full moon and fourteenth or fifteenth day, the new moon day. The Bhikkhus and
Bhikkhunīs used to gather and meet to confess their sins and faults which they committed towards
their Vinaya. Bhikkhu Saṁgha are towards one another and exclusion form the Pātimokkha
ceremony.(?)
The Cullavagga deals with 12 cases of the peocceding(?) kamma, that which is against the
law, act of superstition, who speaks in disprove of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṁgha.
Ukkepaniya kamma and formal acts of superstition(?) to be taken against those who have committed
an offense do not want to admit.
The Parivāra Pāḷi is the biggest part of the Vinaya Piṭaka. It explaines how rules of the
Order (Saṁgha) are drawn up to regulate the conduct of the Bhikkhus as well as administrative
affairs of the Order. The Parivāra Pāḷi provides general principles and guidance in the spirit of
which all the Saṁgha Vinicchaya.

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 QUESTION: GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THE VINAYA PIṬAKA

The Vinaya Piṭaka is the „basket of the discipline of the order.“ That means the basket, which contains
manuscripts of the rules of the discipline. It mentions the rules and regulations, which not only guide the Buddhist
Saṁgha, but also mentions the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns.
During the early period the Buddha himself introduced these rules and regulations for the progress and
development of his religion. The Vinaya Piṭaka deals mainly with moral practices, sīla is the code of morality, it is
important subject matter. Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first council the
Vinaya Piṭaka was rehearsed first, because Vinaya is „the age of the Buddha's dispensation.“ »Vinayonama sāsana
sayo. Vinaye thite sasanaca thitam hoti.«
The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called Mulapaññatti. Those supplemented later are
known as Anupaññatti. Together they are known as „sikkhāpadas“ (rules of discipline). The Vinaya Piṭaka has three
texts:
1. Suttavibhaṁga
2. Khandhakas (has two parts)
3. Parivāra (has ten parts) (as much as Theravāda has)

But R. C. Childers describes, that the Vinaya Piṭaka has five books:
1. Pārājikaṃ 4. Cullavagga („the smaller division,“ has 12 chapters)
2. Pācittiyaṃ 5. Parivāra (the concluding text of Vinaya Piṭaka)
3. Mahāvagga („the greater division“)

The Sutta Vibhaṁga discusses all the rules which are given in Pātimokkha sutta. The Suttavibhaṁga –
Buddhists understand this word as „division of discourse“ or „a chapter.“ It mentions first how, when and the particular
rule in question came to be laid down. The Khandakas is divided into two parts; the Mahāvagga consists of ten
chapters. The Cullavagga twelve, the Mahāvagga is known as „the greater division“ and the Cullavagga means „the
smaller division.“ The Parivāra is known as the concluding text of the Vinaya Piṭaka. It was written much later than the
Suttavibhaṁga and Khandakas. It is a digest of other parts of the Vinaya, which has 19 chapters.
In the Theravāda Vinaya, Pātimokkha has two parts. Bhikkhu Pātimokkha has eight sections, whereas
Bhikkhunī Pātimokkha has seven sections. The monks are expected to follow 227 precepts, while nuns 311 precepts.
The precepts for monks are divided into categories:
1. Pārājika offences (4) 4. Sekhiya-dhamma offences (75)
2. Suddha Pācittiya offences (9) 5. Adhikarana samatha offences (7)
3. Pāṭidesanīya offences (4)

The precepts for the nuns are also categorized:

1. Pārājika offences (8) 5. Pāṭidesanīya offences (8)
2. Sanghādisesa offences (17) 6. Sekhiya dhamma offences (75)
3. Nissaggiya-pācittiya offences (30) 7. Adhikaranasamatha offences (7)
4. Suddha pācittiya offences (166)

The offenses for which penalties are laid down may be classified under seven categories depending on their
nature:
1. Pārājika 5. Pāṭidesanīya
2. Sanghādisesa 6. Dukkaṭa and Dubbhāsita
3. Thullaccaya
4. Pācittiya
Originally, the Pātimokkha had 152 rules, but they were extended to 227, and these 227 rules of conduct were
recited by the monks during the uposatha ceremonies. In Sanskrit there are 263 rules and in the Tibetan tradition we
find 258 rules.

201
 THE VINAYA PIṬAKA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. HUNNY)

The Vinaya Piṭaka is the basket of discipline of the order, it means a basket which contains manuscripts of the
rules of discipline. It mentions the rules and regulations which not only guide the Buddhist Saṁgha but also mentions
the conduct of the daily life of monks and nuns. During the early period the Buddha himself introduced these rules and
regulations for the progress and development of his religion. The Vinaya Piṭaka deals mainly with moral practices. Sīla
is the code of morality, important subject matter.

Ven. Buddhaghosa explained after passing away of the Buddha at the first council the Vinaya Piṭaka was
rehearsed first, because Vinaya is the age of the Buddhist dispensation.

»Vinayo nāma slsanasayo vinaye ṭhite sāsanañca ṭhitaṁ hoti.«

The rules of discipline first laid down by the Buddha are called mūla paññati. Together they are known as
sikkhāpadas, rules of discipline.
The Vinaya Piṭaka has three texts:
1. Suttavibhaṁga
2. Khandhaka
3. Parivāra

as much as Theravāda Vinaya has. But R. C. Childer describes that the Vinaya Piṭaka has five books, they
are:
1. Pārājika 4. Cullavagga
2. Pācittiya 5. Parivāra
3. Mahāvagga

The Suttavibhaṁga discusses all the rules, which are given in the Pātimokkha sutta. The word Suttavibhaṁga
is by Buddhists understood as a division of discourse or a chapter. It mentions firstly how, when and why the particular
rule in question came to be laid down.
The Khandhaka is divided into two parts:
1. Mahāvagga (consists of 10 chapters, known also as 'the greater division')
2. Cullavagga (consists of 12 chapters, known also as 'the smaller division')
The Parivāra is known as the concluding text of the Vinaya Piṭaka, it was written much later than the
Suttavibhaṁga and Khandhaka. It is a biggest of all other parts of the Vinaya, which has 19 chapters.
In the Theravāda, Vinaya Pātimokkha has two parts:
(a) Bhikkhu Pātimokkha (has 8 sections)
(b) Bhikkhunī Pātimokkha (has 7 sections)

The monks are expected to follow 227 precepts, while the nuns 311 precepts. The precepts for monks are
divided in 8 categories of offenses:
1. 4 Pārājika 5. 92 Sutthika Pācittiya
2. 13 Saṁghādisesa 6. 4 Pāṭidesanīya
3. 2 Aniyas 7. 75 Sekhia Dhamma
4. 30 Nissaggiya Pācittiya 8. 7 Adhikaranasamatha

The offenses for which penalties are laid down may be classified under seven categories depending on their
nature:
1. Pārājika 5. Pāṭidesaniya
2. Sanghādisesa 6. Dukkhatā
3. Thullaccaya 7. Dubbhasita
4. Pācittiya

Original Pātimokkha had 152 rules, but they were extended to 227, and these 227 rules of conduct were recited
by monks during Uposata ceremony. In Sanskrit there are 263 rules, but in Tibetan we find 258 rules.

202
 THE STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS OF VINAYA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI SOMA)

Even though there were no Vinaya rules at the beginning in the Buddha-Sāsana, there should have been rules when ven.
Sāriputta asked about the Vinaya rules. But the Buddha said »When time comes to be, Buddha will promulgate the Vinaya rules
for the well behavior of monks and stability of the Sāsana.“ Dhamma is the foundation of Vinaya rules and monks in the Buddha-
Sāsana, followed Dhamma in the early period. Therefore, the Buddha didn't impose Vinaya rules at the beginning. Vinaya rules
marks represent spirit or essence of the Dhamma, connecting with Dhamma.
When the time has come, Buddha started to promulgate Vinaya rules in his 20th vassa and gradually these were developed.
It is the fact, that on the first Buddhist council:

»Vinayo nama sāsanassa āyu.«

Vinaya is the life of Buddha-Sāsana, without the Vinaya rules it is difficult to maintain a monastic organization. There are
two divisions of sikkhāpada (rules):
1. Ādibrahmacariyaka
2. Ābhisamācarika

Ābhisamācariyaka sikkhāpada is built for the day-to-day's behavior of the monks. This asked two different things in the
Vinaya reproaches Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi bring with Ādibrahmacariyakasīla. Mahāvagga Pāḷi and Cūlavagga Pāḷi bring
with Ābhisamācarikasīla. Ābhisamācarikasīla is more delighted to well behavior. Ādibrahmacariyakasīla is more dedicated to
ethical and proper behavior.

Use of Vinaya rules:

1. Saṁghasutthutāya – for the welfare of the monks
2. Saṁghaphāsutaya – for the comfort of the monks
3. Dumaṁkūnaṃ puggalānaṃ niggahāya – for the control of unsteady monks
4. Pesalānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ phāsuvihārāya – for the well-being of well behaved monks
5. Diṭṭhadhammikānaṃ āsavānaṃ saṁvaraya – for the restraint of the present defilements
6. Saṃparāyikānaṃ āsavānaṃ paṭighatāya – for the regarding against pollution liable to arise in a future life
7. Appasannānaṃ pasādāya – for pleasing of those not yet pleased with Dhamma
8. Pasannānaṃ Bhiyobhāvāya – for the development of these pleased with Dhamma
9. Saddhammaṭhitiya – for the preservation of the Dhamma
10. Vinayanuggahāya – for the favor of the Vinaya

The Buddha taught Vinaya as the utmost important thing for monks to lead their holy life. That is the system of residing in
Pātimokkha, embodying formal draft lection(?) and as unseemly(?) behavior in the uphold ceremony had fourth night in a select side
of a monastery.(?) 34 These rules state that they were to compact draft lection(?) if any in the ceremony and punishment also over
there as the granite of offense.(?) These rules indicate that Buddha lead great emphasis on refinement in conduct and
gentlemanliness in personal behavior including the splice of seven of good paleness.(?)

The Vinaya Piṭaka is made up of five books:

1. Pārājika Pāḷi (in Vibhaṁga) 4. Cūlavagga Pāli (in Khandaka)
2. Pācittiya Pāḷi (in Vibhaṁga) 5. Salasa Parivāra (in Parivāra)
3. Mahāvagga Pāḷi (in Khandaka)

Although Buddhaghosa mentioned five books of Vinaya, according to the report of Pañcasattikakkhanda of Cūlavagga
Pāḷi that idea is not acceptable. According to the Pañcansattikakkhanda Vinaya Piṭaka means that this place of reheard and none
reheard everything was considered as Vinaya Piṭaka here it is not mentioned which were not rehearsed. According to sub-
commentary of Sāratthadīpanī non-rehearsed parts are: Pañcasattikakkhanda and Sattikakkhanda of Cūlavagga Pāḷi, but in
Cūlavagga Pāḷi:

»Etena upāyena ubhato vibhaṁge pucchi.«

According to this, Ubhato Vibhaṁga means Pārājika Pāḷi and Pācittiya Pāḷi. If so, we have accepted that Mahāvagga Pāḷi,
Cūlavagga Pāḷi and Parivāra Pāḷi were not rehearsed.

34 I really do not understand this nonsense. Anyway, here is my version: Pātimokkha was told to be recited every
fourteen days in a selected place of monastery (called sīma).

203
 PARIVĀRA PĀLI

Ven. Buddhaghosa has used a term „sutta vibhaṁga“ to introduce the Ubatovibhaṁga. There sutta
vibhaṁga means the explanation of a sutta. There sutta means rules laid down by the Buddha. „Vibhaṁga“ means
„commentaries.“ We can see this patent (obvious?) of preaching in Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli. The Vinaya
as known in Burma is the monastic code handed down by the Theravāda seat(?) in Sri Lanka. Sutta Vinaya means
Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli. It explains the rules the display the word sutta correct pounds to the Sanskrit
sutta and literary mean the text it is apply to kind of book the contain of which are as if were attired (clothed?)
given the summary of subtend (opposite?) of more than is expressed in them in word.(?) This short(?) of book was
the letters development in wides leverage (impact?) set before and after the rise of Buddhism. The Buddhists use
this word „sutta“ with the meaning of „discourse“ or „a chapter“ and „sutta gātha“ means Vinaya. The Sutta
Vibhaṁga tells us precisely how and when and why the particular rules in question(?) come(?) to be laid down.
This historical interdiction always closes with the word of the rule in sutta. Then follows a very action(?) word for
word coming so old that it was already about before Christ too the probably app(?) rot(?) mate(?) date of the sutta.
Vibhaṁga was considered so sacred, that it was included in the command. The old commentary as
succeeded here necessary by fare(?) the explanation and discourses on dutiful words. These are some time of very
good historical value. The discourses for intent in the rule. As to molder(?) and tempt(?) of what Constatia(?) to
molder(?) and what constitute(?) theft(?) antis(?) per(?) and very removable(?) degree the kind of send(?) throw(?)
distinction found in modern low(?) book(?) the peerages(?) when made easylink(?) translate to Western scholars
must be great as to interest to student history a low(?) as they are Quit(?) the older(?) document of that pedicle(?)
kind in the world.(?) The Sutta Vinaya let down(?) and explain all the Vinaya rules which are contained in
Pātimokkha. Pātimokkha has divided two parts – Bhikkhu Vibhaṁga and Bhikkhuni Vibhaṁga, while there were
227 rules of Bhikkhu Vibhaṁga and 311 of Bhikkhunī Vibhaṁga. Pārājika Pāli and Pācittiya Pāli explain these
rules. Then there are explained Pārājikas, for which there was expulsion from the order, and Pācittiya where
some pardon could be given. Both the Pārājika and Pācittiya deal with 227 rules. Vinaya for the guidance of
Bhikkhus in determining the offenses and the disputes of the Bhikkhus and formulating punishment. These rules
are divided again into 8 section gizzard(?) first one.

1. Pārājika dhamma (for rule concerning those acts which bring about defeat)
2. Sanghādisesa dhamma (rules which resaved/reserved(?) formal meeting of the order)
3. Aniyata dhamma (rules regarding auditor mind matters)
4. Nissaggiya pācittiya dhamma (rules involving for gilding Pācittiya Dhamma)
5. Pācittiya dhamma 92 (rules recreating repentant worry)
6. Patidesaniya dhamma (rules regarding matters which ought to be compost(?))
7. Sekhiya dhamma 75 (rules of soles manners)
8. Adikarana dhamma 7 (rules regarding the gentlemen(?) of cases(?) which(?) from (?) )

What is known as the Pātimokkha codes of the Vinaya Piṭaka? This Pātimokkha seems to have owed its
existence to the ancient India custom of holding sacred two periods each month. The time of the full moon the
Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunīs used to meet together twice each month „catuddassa paññārassa“ on the 14th and 15th
day to campest(?) to assembly the Sims(?) and smalls(?) which they had committed. The object of the
compaction(?) was to take and poem(?) themselves the punishing which they believed give pardon there.(?)

The Pātimokkha contents the following sections:

1. Pucchavissajjana (infer adaptation relation to the react visits for capture (?) )
2. Nidāna (interferon)

204
 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE HISTORY OF PARIVĀRA PĀḶI

The Parivāra Pāḷi is known as the concluding text of the Vinaya Piṭaka. It was written much later
than the Suttavibhaṁga and the Khandhakas. It has nineteen chapters. It can be mentioned as a manual of
instruction in the Vinaya Piṭaka. It is regarded as „a short manual comprising a short of catechism on the
whole Vinaya arranged for the instruction.“
But it occupies an important place in the history of Pāli literature. Because it contributes much to the
study of the Vinaya literature, it is like a key which unlocks the subject-matter of the Suttavibhaṁga and the
Khandhakas. Most probably it was composed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) by a monk Dīpa. The Paravarapatha
describes that it was composed by „the highly wise, learned and skillful Dīpa, after he had inquired here and
there into the methods followed by former teachers.“

»Pubbacāriyamaggañca pucchitvā va tahiṃ dīpa nāma mahāñña sutadhara vicakkhane

imaṃ vitthārassaṃ khepaṃ sajjhāmaggena majjhime cintayitvā likhāposi sissapānaṃ sukhāvahaṃ.«

In a verse towards the close of the Parivāra it is mentioned that Dīpa composed it after making
investigations about the path followed by the respectable persons who belonged to the earlier period. In an
introductory verse of the Parivarapatha there is a description of Mahinda in Sri Lanka. It also refers to
certain noted Theras like Arittha, who was the sister's son of Devānampiya Tissa, the king of Sri Lanka..
Its first chapter gives an account of the Vinayadhara. This list is important no doubt in the history of the
Buddhist Saṁghas of India and Sri Lanka.
M. Winternitz says: „It is very similar to the Anukramanis and Parisistasof and Veda and the Vedāṁga
texts.“ I. B. Horner mentions the Parivarapatha. He says he has seen the Parivāra called „a digest of the
entire Vinaya Piṭaka, setting forth the method of teaching the Vinaya.“
The word „Pari“ is „all round,“ „surrounding“ and the word „vara“ means „time,“ „opportunity.“ In
Sanskrit the word „vara“ means „anything which covers or surrounds,“ „a cover,“ „a multitude,“ „quantity“
and „covering,“ „surroundings.“ Thus the Parivara covers, surrounds, encircles and encompasses the various
matters mentioned in the Suttavibhaṃga and the Khandhakas.

PARIVĀRA PĀḶI

Parivāra Pāḷi which is Book V and the last book of the Vinaya Piṭaka serves as a kind of manual. It
is compiled in the form of a catechism, enabling the reader to make an analytical survey of the Vinaya
Piṭaka. All the rules, official acts, and other matters of the Vinaya are classified under separate categories
according to subjects dealt with.
Parivāra explains how rules of the Order are drawn up to regulate the conduct of the bhikkhus as
well as the administrative affairs of the Order. Precise procedures are prescribed for settling of disputes and
handling matters of jurisprudence, for formation of Saṅgha courts and appointment of well-qualified Saṅgha
judges. It lays down how Saṅgha Vinicchaya Committee, the Saṅgha court, is to be constituted with a body
of learned Vinayadharas, experts in Vinaya rules, to hear and decide all kinds of monastic disputes.
The Parivāra Pāḷi provides principles and guidance in the spirit of which all the Saṃgha Vinicchaya
proceedings are to be conducted for settlement of monastic disputes.

205
 KATHĀVATTHU PAKARANA (LECTURED VEN. PIYADASSI)

The Kathāvatthu Pakarana is the third book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It is called the Viññānapada by
the other six. It is known as a Buddhist book of debate on matters of theology and philosophy. It is to be noted
here that it is the only work of the Tipiṭaka, which can be ascribed to a definite author – ven. Moggaliputtatissa
Thera, who was the chair person during the third Buddhist council, which was held at Pātaliputta (the capital of
Magadha province). Under the patronage of the Maura ruler Asoka in the third century B.C. the Kathāvatthu
Pakarana was composed.

It is younger than the Dhammasaṅganī Pakarana. A close investigation will make it evident, that this
book of controversy is looked upon in one way as no more than a book of interpretation. A few a specimen of
controversy which the Kathāvatthu Pakarana has embodied show that both sides referred to the Buddha as the
final court of appeal. The Kathāvatthu Pakarana should be included in the Vinaya collection. From the nature of
discussion relating to Saṅgha affairs we are inclined to think that the Kathāvatthu Pakarana should be
incorporated with the Vinaya collection, because it deals with the Vinaya affairs and is so closely allied with the
topic discussed in the Cūllavagga Pāli.

The Kathāvatthu Pakarana has 23 chapters. In these chapters, there are discussions and refutations 219 in
number (different doctrines items of the various schools). This book seems to have grown gradually and most of
the heretical views discussed are ascribed to various schools, some of which are later than the other. The texts
themselves don't mention the names of schools, so that is supplied by the commentator of the Kathāvatthu
Pakarana. The doctrines of the various schools could be better understood by study of that book in association
with texts belonging to Northern schools.

It is wonderful that commentator ven. Buddhaghosa said, that this book was also rehearsed during the
first council. But it is clear that this book was composed after the third council by the chief monk ven.
Moggaliputtatissa Thera (the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was completed after writing this book). Ven. Buddhaghosa
Thera said: „Ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera brough this book having taken the topic (or Māṭikā) which were given
by the Buddha foor the benefit in the future for the monks. To debate lift(?) other said(?).“ Therefore all the
Abhidhamma was preached by the Buddha. This view is the traditional belief of Theravāda.

In this book many texts quoted from the Suttapiṭaka give authority to the argument. As far as the
terminology used and the theories set foth are conceived, this seems to belong to the later period. Some scholars
agree with tradition and concept the book is belonging to the latest period. Other make the paṭṭhāna the latest
book of all. The various heretical views represented in this book, the commentary says, including those of the
Vijjiputta, the Sammitiya, the Sabbatthivāda (Sarvastivāda), the Mahāsaṅghika, the Kasapiya/Kasyapiya(?), the
Adaka, the Pubbasliya, the Aparaseliya, the Rjagirika/Rājagirika(?), the Siddhatthika, the Gokulika, the
Buddhayanika, the Mahiṅsaka, the Uttarapathaka, the Hetuvāda and the Mahāsuññavāda. Some of these are
Northern schools known to the Mahābhasa-sāstra. Some are Southern schools unknown to Northern Buddhism.

The first chapters of the Kathāvatthu discusses puggala or „personal entity,“ falling away of an Arahant,
their life among the devas, the putting away corruptionsor vices by one portion at a time, the casting off kāma-
rāga and vyāpāda, everything as persistently exiting, some of the past and future as still exiting, applications in
mindfulness. The language of this book has relationship with the Kathāvatthu Pakarana theory.
He vatthi heva natthiti he votthi heva natthiti nahevan = vottabbhe.
Ce vatthi ceva natthiti = amanta.
(This is the Magadisace(?) language)

The second chapters mentions that Arahant, the knowledge of the Arahant, the excellence of the Arahant,
doubt in the Arahant is specified progress in penetration, the Buddha's everyday usage, and duration of
consciousness, two cessations (dvenirodha) etc.

206
 KATHĀVATTHUPPAKARANA
Kathāvatthu is one of the seven Theravāda Abhidhamma books. The Theravāda tradition
says that Abhidhamma are the words of the Buddha. Theravādin, therefore, considers all the
Abhidhamma texts as being preched by the Buddha himself. But the Kathāvatthu shows that this is
not the real truth.
Now it is accepted that Kathāvatthu was compiled at or after the 3rd Buddhist council held in
the 3rd century BC under the patronage of king Asoka. The president of this council was the famous
monk ven. Moggaliputta Tissa. The kathāvatthu is said to be his work. It is to be noted here that it
is the only work of the canon, which can be ascribed to a definite author. Ven. Buddhaghosa said:
„Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa composed this book having taken the topic mātikā, which were given by
the Buddha for the benefit of the monks in the future.“ So, all the Abhidhamma was preached by
the Buddha. This is the tarditional belief of the Theravādins.
The Kathāvatthu was compiled for a particular purpose. It is for the refutation of the views
of other schools and the establishment of the views of the Theravāda or Vibhajjavlda views. This
was the need of the time. During this time various schools were presenting theri views and debating
among themselfves. Such schools as Andhakas, Vajjiputtakas, Sarvastivāda and Sautrāntika were
presenting different interpretation to suttas. The Theravādins presented their own view.
There were at least 16 such schools whose views were taken up for discussion and debated
in the Kathvatthu. These views are rejected as being not in accordance with the original teachings of
the Buddha. There are 217 or 219 viewpoints that are taken up for discussion and debate. The text
starts with the position taken up by the Sammītiyas or the Puggalavdins, who put forward the view
that there is a ‘person’ over and above the five aggregates. In this manner most of the important
doctrinal problems are discussed in details in the Kathāvatthu.
Kathāvatthu is considered by some scholars as the earliest book of logic or more precisely
the book which uses logic to establish the Theravāda point of view. Hence it is considered very
important. Besides, it is of great significance as a source book to understand the details of different
Buddhist schools and their philosophies.
As the Theravāda Abhidhamma text it served a great purpose in refuting the opposite
viewpoints and establishing the Theravda (or Vibhajjavāda) position. In this respect it can be
considered as a very important contribution to Theravāda Buddhist thought as well as to the
furtherance and strengthening of Theravāda Buddhism in India.

207
 KATHĀVATTHUPPAKARAṆA (SHORT NOTES)35
It is the last book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. As the Theravāda tradition considers
Abhidhamma to be the word of the Buddha, Kathāvatthu too is considered as being such. But it has
now been proved beyond doubt that Kathāvatthu was composed in the 3rd century BC and it was
done by none other than ven. Moggaliputtatissa.
This is a very important text as regardds the development of Buddhist history of thought.
Some even consider this as the first book written using a logical system of thought.
The main purpose of the book is to refute the views – over two hundred of them hold by
schools other than Theravāda.(?) Herein Theravāda is referred to as Sakavāda – meaning 'our
teaching'. Thus it is seen that the Kathāvatthu played a very vital role in establishing the Theravāda
tradition that was being challenged by other buddhist schools of thought mainly by such schools as
Puggalavāda, Sarvāstivāda and so on.
The logical system adopted in the Kathāvatthu is based on a scheme consisting of three
books, namely Thapana, Pāpana and Āropana. Thapana denotes the main arguments presented to
refute the opposing views. The result reached by Thapana is referred to as Pāpana. The
reflection(?) and the finel rejection(?) of the opponents' view was meant by Āropana. Though the
opponents are not directly identified in the Kathāvatthuppakarana itself the commentary names
about 16 of them. Therefore, kathāvatthu when taken along with its commentary throws much light
on the development of Buddhist thought of the time.

35 This note was among the notes for second yearr, but I believe that for first year students it will be more usefull.

208
 THE PAṬṬĀNAPAKARANA (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SUVARA)
Paṭṭhāna Pāḷi, the seventh and last book of the Abhidhamma, is called the Mahā Pakarana,
the ‘Great Book’ announcing the supreme position it occupies and the height of excellence it has
reached in its investigation into the ultimate nature of all the dhammas in the Universe.
The book of causes is the seventh book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The Sarvlstivāda school
mentions it as the Jñānaprasthāna. It is regarded as the most important and voluminous book of the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It deals with causation and mutual relationship of phenomena. It discusses
various kinds of relationship between phenomena. It is known as Mahāpakarana. It is sometimes
called the great discourse book. Like the Yamaka, this book is very difficult to be understood. It has,
therefore, ben said that he who masters this book masters all the doctrines of the Abhidhamma.
The Paṭṭhāna gives a detailed account of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. It in the form of 24
paccayas mentions the 12-fold system of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. These 24 paccayas or modes of
relationship between things are called the 24 paṭṭhānas. The 24 paccayas are:
1. Hetu
2. Arammana
3. Adhipati
4. Anantara
5. Sammanantara
6. Sahajata
etc.
It is to be noted here that some of the paccayas have already been described in the
Kathāvatthu. But this book can be mentioned as the first to group them into a body of twenty-four.
It is a book of the late period and that is why some resemblance to the Sāriputta Abhidhamma
Sāstra, in which six conditions are recorded.
The Abhidhamma constitutes the results of an inquiry into the nature of human experience,
both sensory and extra sensory. Since the results are stated and interpreted in terms of language and
logic, it allows the Abhidhamma the justification to be considered as philosophy, the function of
philosophy. If the latter is to be practically useful and ethically the understanding cannot be
obtained or developed without refence to the observation of the world within and around us in the
way it actually functions. So, the greater part of the content of Abhidhamma is an analysis and
understanding of phenomena. In this regard the Abhidhamma can be introduced as a critical and
descriptive philosophy.

209
 THE PAṬṬHĀNAPAKARANA

The book of causes is the seventh book of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. The Sarvastivāda school
mentions it as the Jñānaprasthāna. It is regarded as the most important and voluminous book of the
Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It deals with causation and mutual relationship of phenomena. It discusses
various kinds of relationship between phenomena. It is known as Mahāpakarana. It is sometimes
called „the great book of discourse.“ Like the Yamaka, this book is very difficult to understand. It
has, therefore, been said that he who masters this book masters all the doctrines of the
Abhidhamma.

The Paṭṭhāna gives a detailed account of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. It, in the form of 24
paccayas, mentions the 12-fold system of the Paṭiccasamuppāda. These 24 paccayas or „modes of
relationship between things“ are called the 24 Paṭṭhānas. The 24 paccayas are:
1. Hetu 9. Upanissaya 17. Jhāna
2. Arammana 10. Purejata 18. Magga
3. Ādhipati 11. Pacchajāta 19. Sampayutta
4. Anantara 12. Asevana 20. Vippayutta
5. Sammanantara 13. Kamma 21. Atthi
6. Sahajata 14. Vipāka 22. Natthi
7. Annamanna 15. Āhāra 23. Vigata
8. Nissaya 16. Indriya 24. Avigata

It is to be noted here, that some of the paccayas have already been described in the
Kathāvatthu. But this book can be mentioned as the first to group them into a body of twenty-four.
It is a book of the late period and that is why there is some resemblance to the Sāriputta
Abhidhamma-sāstra, in which six conditions are recorded.

The Abhidhamma constitutes the results of any inquiry into the nature of human experience,
both sensory and extra-sensory. Since the results are stated and interpreted in terms of language and
logic, it allows the Abhidhamma the justification to be considered as philosophy, the function of
philosophy. If the latter is to be practically useful and ethically the understanding cannot be
obtained or developed without reference to the observation of the world within and around us in the
way it actually functions. So the observation of the world within and around us in the way it
actually functions. So the greater part of the content of Abhidhamma is an analysis and
understanding of phenomena. In this regard the Abhidhamma can be introduced as a critical and
descriptive philosophy.

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 ABHIDHAMMA

Abhidhamma is divided into two parts: Analysis and Synthesis, as are:

1. Analysis (whole of experiences, explained and examined in many parts)

2. Synthesis (combination of separate parts, elements, substances etc. into a whole or into a system,
which results from this process)

In order to fully understand the knowledge, one must 1. understand the facts and 2. the
relationship between these facts.
The Abhidhamma is the wisdom by means of analysing and take the relationship of a whole,
then everything is inter-dependent, that we are not attached to it. For example, as a meditator, by
knowing the facts and correlation, these became the raw material for a meditator as a guidance. It is
not an intellectual study. It is a fully practical and methodical by explaining the mind one after
another. It is a „paññā bhūmi“ (basics of wisdom).
If there is a new method to be introduced, it must be logic. It bases on:
1. Yotti (argumenst)
2. Āgama (quoted from the early Buddhist discourses)

211
 ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA (NATURE AND CONTENTS OF ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA)

Abhidhamma Piṭaka is considered as the third one of the three Piṭakas. It was never assigned
either at the first place or second place. The third division of the Piṭaka consists of seven books:
1. Dhammasaṁganī Pāḷi (classification of Dhamma)
2. Vibhaṁga Pāḷi (divisions)
3. Dhātukathā Pāḷi (discourse of elements)
4. Puggalapaññatti Pāḷi (the book of individuals)
5. Kathāvatthu Pāḷi (points of controversy)
6. Yamaka Pāḷi (the book of pains)
7. Paṭṭhāna Pāḷi (the book of causal relations)

All of these books are designated by the name pakarana. The definition of Abhidhamma is:

»Dhammatireka dhammavisesatthena atirekavisesatthadipako hetthāti abhi saddo.«

This suggests, that Abhidhamma is something additional to the Dhamma. It also suggests,
that Abhidhamma is something especial(?) compare(?) with(?) the(?) Dhamma(?).(?) Normally
what is mentioned in Sutta Piṭaka is considered as Dhamma.
It has been suggested the word Abhidhamma standing alone is not found in the Sutta Nipāta,
the Saṁyutta or the Aṁguttara and only once or twice in the Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya. It
properly came into usage at the end of the period in which the four great nikāyas came up. The
Mahā Saṁghika refused to include the Abhidhamma in the Tipiṭaka at all, as they did not take it for
the word of the Buddha. According to the Dīgha Bhanaka, the Abhidhamma also included the
whole Khuddaka Nikāya.
According to another division the Saṁyutta Nikāya is not a division of the Dhamma, but of
the whole canon and in the fifth are included both the Vinaya and Abhidhamma. There is another
legend recorded by Buddhaghosa that the Abhidhamma was first preached by the Buddha in
Tāvatiṁsa at the foot of Pariccataka tree, when he was seated on the Sakka's throne during his
visit to his mother in the Tāvatiṁsa, later it was taught by him to Sāriputta Thera on the bank of
Anotatta lake. The legend further relates that after the enlightenment the Buddha spent in the
Yatanagara reliving his mind the doctrine of the Abhidhamma in all its details.
According to the Cullavagga Pāḷi, the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was not rehearsed at the first
council. The fact that Abhidhamma is not mentioned in the suttas and that only Dhamma and
Vinaya are referred to only prove that at one time the Abhidhamma Piṭaka was not a separate
piṭaka, but Kathāvatthu was composed only at the third council.
As far as the content of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka concerns, it does not form a systematic
philosophy, but especially form of Abhidhamma found in the Sutta Piṭaka. On the other hand, there
were direct controversial ideas with the Abhidhamma, whether it was promulgated by the Buddha
or not. When we refer to other Piṭakas, we can find many details to prove that the Abhidhamma is
creation of the Buddha. On the other hand, there are many details to show that Abhidhamma is a
later development or not the preaching of the Buddha.

212
 QUESTION: GIVE AN ACCOUNT OF THE ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the third division of the Tipiṭaka, or „the Three Baskets.“ It is a
basket of transcendental doctrine. From the Pāli tradition we learn that the Buddha first delivered
the Abhidhamma to the Tāvatiṁsa gods. At that time he was living with them on the Pandukambala
Rock at the foot of the Paricchattaka tree in the Tāvatiṁsa heaven during his visit to his mother in
there. He then preached it to his chief disciples ven. Sāriputta, who very often used to meet the
Buddha when he for meals came down to the Manasasoravara. Then Bhaddaji got it from his
teacher, ven. Sāriputta. Ven. Revatta and others then received it through a succession of disciples.
It took its final form in the third council which was held during the reign of Asoka, the Maurya
ruler. The Buddha as a mark of gratitude to his mother, who was born in Tusita realm, departed
thither and preached the Abhidhamma to the mother Deva and others for three months. The topics
(mātikā) of the discourses were later rehearsed to ven. Sāriputta, who subsequently elaborated
them and composed the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
According to Mahāyāna tradition the Buddha gave his sermons to different persons at
different places and at different times. Afterwards the Arahats and Śrāvakas collected them and
they then arranged them into Abhidhamma treatises. Buddhists believe, that the suttas were
composed on observing the faces of the people while the Abhidhamma was compiled on observing
the suttas. From it we conclude that the Abhidhamma was composed on the basis of the suttas. Thus
we can say here, that the suttas give the foundation of the Abhidhamma. The Abhidhamma deals
with the same subject as the Sutta Piṭaka. But its treatment is more scholastic than the latter.
It is compiled in the form of questions and answers. As far as the contents of the
Abhidhamma are concerned, they do not form a systematic philosophy, but are a special treatment
of the Dhamma as found in the Sutta Piṭaka. Most of the matter is psychological and logical, the
fundamental doctrines mentioned or discussed are those already propounded in the suttas and
therefore taken for granted. The Abhidhamma may be regarded as a systematization of the doctrines
contained, or implied, in the Sutta Piṭaka. It formulates these sutta doctrines in strictly paramattha
(truly realistic) language. There are seven divisions of books in Abhidhamma Piṭaka. They are:
1. Dhammasaṁgaṇī Pāḷi 5. Paṭṭhāna Pāḷi
2. Vibhaṁga Pāḷi 6. Puggala Paññatti Pāḷi
3. Dhātukathā Pāḷi 7. Kathāvatthu Pāḷi
4. Yamaka Pāḷi

The Pāli word Abhidhamma is composed of the prefix „bhi,“ and the term „Dhamma“ ;
„Abhi“ signifies „great,“ „exceeding“ (atireka) or „subtle,“ „noble,“ „ultimate,“ „ultra“ (visittha).
Thus the Abhidhamma means „enlarged/subtle/ultimate doctrine.“ It also means „a higher religion.“
Ordinarily the word of the Buddha was known as the Dhamma.

213
 THE NATURE AND CONTENT OF ABHIDHAMMA PIṬAKA (LECTURED BY VEN. UPARATANA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI
SOMA)

Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the third division of Tipiṭaka. It consists of seven books as follows:
1. Dhammasaṁganī pakarana which is the classification of Dhamma that contains detailed enumeration of all
phenomena with analyses of consciousness and its fastest mental concomitants.
2. Vibhaṁga means „divisions“ or „books of analysis“ where as the first book provides a bird-eyed view with
systematic arrangement.
3. Dātukathā pakarana is the discourse on elements and separated into treatises on the thorough analysis of dhātu.
4. Puggalapaññatti pakarana is the book of individuals, a small treaded/treatise(?) giving a description of various parts
of individual where acumens(?) along the parts.(?)
5. Kathāvatthu pakarana are the points of control, it is the second parathion by ven. Moggaliputtatissa Thera, there he
discussed and refused doctrines of other schools of taught in order to approach all the points of controversy on the
Buddha's Dhamma.
6. Yamaka pakarana means the book of pairs. Yamaka sets out to define and analyse the interrelationship of Dhamma
and Puggala.
7. The last one is Paṭṭhāna pakarana, which are the books of cause-relationship. It brings together all relationships in a
coordinative form to show that Dhamma does not exist as isolated in detail but that it is constituted by a well ordered
system.

All these books are designated by the name of pakarana - only in the canonical and the commentary is that
word used for the third Piṭaka defiantly(?). Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the last one. The definition of Abhidhamma:

»Dhammātireka dhammavisesattena abhidhammoti.«

That suggests, that it is something „additional to the Dhamma.“

The three main Abhidhamma traditions were Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika. There is a huge
Abhidhamma literature for Sarvāstivāda tradition, where all the books were designated by the name of pada:36

1. Ñānaprastāna pada – Aryakūtaāyana 1. Sangīti-pariyāya pada

2. Sangītiparyāya pada – Aryamoudgalyāyana 2. Dharmaskandha pada
3. Prājñaptikāya pada – Vasumitra 3. Viññāṇa pada
4. Vijñānakāya pada – Devasarman 4. Prajñā pada
5. Dhātukāya pada – Vashumitra 5. Dhātukāya pada
6. Dharmaskhanda pada – Aryamoudgalyāyana 6. Prakaraṇa pada
7. Prakarana pada - Vashumitra 7. Jñāna prasthāna pada

When we examine the Abhidhamma Piṭaka of any tradition, it is a huge collection of systematical, tabulated
and classified doctrine of the Buddha that represents the quintessence of his teaching. In Abhidhamma, Dhamma's are
no longer taught in conventional term making references to person and objects as „I,“ „we,“ „he,“ „she,“ „man,“ „dog,“
„tree,“ etc.
Here Dhamma's are treated entirely in terms of its ultimate reality. Analyses of each phenomenon are to its
ultimate constituent and all relative concept such as „man,“ „mountain“ etc. Thus, in Abhidhamma everything expresses
in terms of khandhas, āyatanas, dhātu etc.
Of these texts, Paṭṭhāna is the last of Abhidhamma Piṭaka. It is the greatest because it is bigger inside and
supreme in essence. The Abhidhamma texts excluding pakarana were composed between the period of first and third
council, while Kathāvathu was completed at the third Buddhist council.

36 In the original paper from which I was copy-writing this topic there were two kinds of lists, so I write here both. The
second one was written by hand, it is just different order of the first one.

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE PARA-CANONICAL TEXTS OF ABHIDHAMMA LITERATURE (NOT THE CANON)

Actually when we speak about Abhidhamma literature, first we should know why it is called
Abhidhamma. The Buddha taught only the Dhamma and Vinaya. So, is it different from Sutta and Vinaya
Piṭaka? Simply speaking, Abhidhamma, as the term implies, is the higher teaching of the Buddha. It
expounds the quintessence of His profound doctrine.

The Dhamma, embodied in the Sutta Piṭaka is the conventional teaching (vohāra desanā), and the
Abhidhamma is the ultimate teaching (paramatthā desanā). There is a curious question about Abhidhamma,
that whether Abhidhamma is essential to realize Nibbāna. Undoubtedly, Abhidhamma is extremely helpful to
comprehend fully the words of the Buddha and realize Nibbāna, as it presents a key to open the door of
reality. It deals with realities and a practical way of noble living, based on the experience of those who have
understood and realized. Without knowledge of the Abhidhamma one at times(?) might find it difficult to
understand the real significance of some profound teachings of the Buddha. To develop insight (vipassanā)
Abhidhamma is certainly helpful.

Abhidhamma is believed to be originally from the Sutta Piṭaka itself. Let see the sutta of Dīgha
Nikāya – Dasuttara and Saṅgīti Sutta and text of Aṅguttara Nikāya. Abhidhamma has 5 stratas as follows:
1. Canonical 4. Saṅgaha (compendium)
2. Commentarial 5. Sub-commentarial on compendium (ṭīkā)
3. Sub-commentarial

When we discuss the canonical texts of Abhidhamma it is clear to us that Abhidhamma Piṭaka was
made up of 7 texts, namely:
1. Dhammasaṅganī 4. Puggalapaññati 7. Paṭṭhāna
2. Vibhaṅga 5. Kathāvatthu
3. Dhātukathā 6. Yamaka

According to Mrs. Rhys Davids, Abhidhamma is a recount of suttanta doctrines, with analysis and
elaborations and comments, hence not a positive contribution to the philosophy of earl Buddhism, but an
analytic, logical and methodological elaboration of what was already given in the discourses. Within Sutta
Piṭaka Abhidhamma is already found in the dry and schematic enumerations in the Aṅguttara Nikāya and the
last suttas of Dīgha Nikāya.

The Dhammasaṅganī, Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā, Puggalapaññati and Yamaka, generally deal with the
analysis of phenomena and the Paṭṭhāna with synthesis.

The Pāli canon of Abhidhamma (?) The most important sources are the Pāli commentaries and
sub=commentaries, which were written in Sri Lanka as well as in Burma. According to Indian tradition it
was Mahinda who brought Buddhism to Ceylon along with the canon and aṭṭhakathā (commentary) on it.
When we trace the original sources, almost all the Pāli commentaries explain the early Buddhist discourses
on an Abhidhammic basis.

215
 QUESTIONS
• Clarify, with evidence, how the Buddha's teaching has been classified as Nine-fold Division.
• Examine briefly the structure and contents of the Pāli Vinaya Piṭaka.
• Probe what was meant by the term „the two fold discipline“ (ubhatovibhaṅga) at the first council.
• Write a detailed account on classification of the whole the Buddha's teaching into five Nikāyas.
• Clarify, with evidence how the Buddha's teaching has been classified as Navāṅgasatthusāsana
(Ninefold portion).
• Survey the composition of the Dhammapada with special reference to its poetical value.
• Write a critical introduction either for Saṅyutta Nikāya or Aṅguttara Nikāya.
• Examine how far simile and metaphor are used in the Pāli Canon.
• Write comprehensive notes on two of the following.
I. Patimokkha
II. Khuddakapāṭha
III. Parivāra Pāḷi
IV. Kathāvatthuppakaraṇa
V. Dhammavinaya
• Critically examine the traditional classification of the Pāli Canon.
• Examine how all the words of the Buddha were incorporated into Dhamma and Vinaya at the first
council.
• Write a detailed introduction to any (one) of the first four Nikāyas on your choice.
• Write a short account of the texts comprising the Pāli Vinaya Piṭaka.
• Make a survey of the contents of the Khuddaka Nikāya.
• Name the books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, and write a substantial account on any (one) of them.
• Appreciate the poetical merits of Theragāthā.
• Write short notes on two of the following:
I. Suttanipāta
II. Apadānapāḷi
III. Navāṅgasatthusāsana
IV. Paṭisambhidāmagga
• Examine the reliability of commentarial interpretations of Nine Fold Division of Dhamma when
analyzing them.
• Clarify the historicity and content of Dīgha nikāya and assess the importance of Brahmajāla sutta as
the first one of Sutta Piṭaka.
• Elucidate the use of Vinaya rules paying special attention to „Dasa atthavase.“
• Evaluate the significance of nidhānakathā of Atthasalīni when examine the origin and historicity of
Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
• „Dvāsitaṃ Buddhato ganhi,
Dve sahassāni bhikkhuto.“
Is this view reliable? Examine paying attention to sayings of the Buddha and sayings of the

216
 disciples of Pāli canon.
• Review critically the place of verses in Pāli Tipiṭaka.
• Discuss, to what extent applicable the cleverness of languages of the Buddha to be sharpen the
literary significance of Pāli Tipiṭaka.
• Clarify your opinion for the possibility of lost texts.
• Give an overview of the Nine-Fold-Division of buddhism. Show whether the classification is
systematic.
• Comment on development of the Sutta Piṭaka.
• Does the Cullavagga Pāḷi statement »Eteneva upāyena pañcapi nikāye pucchi.« mean that all of
Buddhism was included in 1st council deliberation? give your reasons for this view.
• Discuss the manner in which Theravāda schools attempted to include the Abhidhamma Piṭaka in the
Buddha's original teachings.
• Explain how the code of discipline in Vinaya Piṭaka was composed.
• Use the Thera and Therī gāthas to demonstrate the literary aspects of the Tipiṭaka.
• Show how the disciples' teachings were validated and became part of the main body of Buddha's
teaching.
• Write short notes on any two of the following:
I. Ubhato vibhaṁga
II. Suttanipāta
III. Dhammapada
IV. Kathāvatthuppakarana
V. Dhamma Vinaya

217
 P.F.I. 102 – PĀLI LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
A general knowledge of the fundamentals of the traditional Pāli grammar with special emphasis on
the following topics is expected here: Alphabet, Nouns, Verbs, Indeclinables, Secondary
Derivations, Primary Derivations, Combinations, Compounds, Adjectives, Syntax and Pālisentence
patterns. In addition, a general knowledge on the following topics should be acquired: origin,
growth and expansion of Pāli language, position of Pāli among old and middle Indo-Aryan
languages, development of Pāli as a written dialect, various stages in the development of Pāli
language with special reference to the characteristics specific to each stage, Sanskrit influence on
Pāli and similarities and dissimilarities between phrase and verse in Pāli.

Recommended Reading:

1. New Pāli Course, Vol. i., ii. A. P. Buddhadatta, Colombo, 1954 – 1962
2. Introduction to Pāli A. K. Warder, London, 1963
3. Pāli Made Easy B. Ānanda Maitreya Thera, Japan, 1993
4. Pāli Reader L. W. Adikaram, Colombo, 1947
5. A Graduated Pāli Course (Part 1) Sumangala Suriyagoda Thera, Second Edition,
Nedimala, 1994

218
 HISTORY OF PĀLI LANGUAGE (PĀLI GRAMMAR)

The grammarians have divided Indian languages into three divisions:

(1) Old Indo-Aryan languages, which are called Vedic languages, it was from the
beginning until the 6th century BC.
(2) Middle Indo-Aryan languages (Prākrit, Sanskrit, Magadhī, Arthamagadhī and so on),
it was from 6th century BC until 1000 AD.
(3) Modern Indo-Aryan languages (consisting of Hindī, Bengali, Brahmini, Sinhala and
Nepali languages), from 1000 AD until the present day.

Pāli language is considered as the middle Indo-Ariyan that derived from Sanskrit. But there
is consensus of opinion regarding the fact that Pāli is not derived from classical Sanskrit, but rather
from old Vedicand therefore Pāli is not later than Sanskrit. It is generally accepted that Pāli and
other forms of Prākrit which constitute the Middle Indo-Aryan languages in the history of
development of Indo-Aryan languages represent the immediate result of evolution of old-Indo-
Aryan. It is also accepted through both Pāli and other Prākrit forms constitute the middle Indo-
Aryan groups of languages.
According to the orthodox theory, Pāli is Magadhī. Ven. Buddhaghosa commenting in his
commentary says: »ettha sakaniruttināma sammāsambuddhena vuttapakāro magadhīko vohāro.«
Sakanirutti here means the Magadha dialect as used by the Buddha. It is clearly seen that the
Buddha was not a Magadha, but a Kosallan, and hence his mother tongue could not have been the
Magadha dialect. However, it is argued that as the Buddha spent most of his time in the Magadha
region he may have used Magadha as the medium of his discourses. Besides, as the Magadha
kingdom was the most powerful at that time, it is also probable that Magadha dialect was the lingua
franca of the time and hence the Buddha used it as the medium of instruction.
But, the Buddha allows monks to use their own dialects. During 6th century BC India was
influenced by philosophical and religious thought and people had to use different dialects. This
means the origin of Pāli language depends on various dialects of contemporary languages. The
Buddha states that quarrel over the particular dialects is not worthy:

»Janapadaniruttiṃ nabhiniveseya samannaṃ netidhaveya.«

(Aranavibhaṁga sutta, Majjhima nikāya)

It is useless to dogmatic the words but the meaning is the most important.(?) All this
incident leads us to one conclusion, that the Pāli language was a lingua franca or mixed language.

219
QUESTION: OPINIONS GIVEN BY SCHOLARS ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF PĀLI LANGUAGE SHOULD BE GIVEN. (HISTORY
OF PĀLI LANGUAGE) (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. EIDARIYA (MYINGYAN))

It is generally believed that Pāli arose from a spoken dialect of people living in the early or
first „Middle Indu Aryan“ era. It has the characteristics of the Middle Indo-Aryan languages. We
can mention here directly that it had never took its origin from classical Sanskrit, because there
were peculiarities which clearly signify, that Vedic Sanskrit has some close relation with it.(?) It is
close not to the Sanskrit but to the Vedic language.
According to orthodox theory, Pāli was the language of Magadhi. Ven. Buddhaghosa used
the term 'Pāli' which he himself called 'Māgadhībhāsā' to introduce Buddha's words,
Dhammapada etc. The Buddha used to stay in Magadha most of his time. It is quite natural that the
language of Magadha was spoken by him. Otherwise after the passing away of the Buddha the first
council was held near the capital of Magadha, Rājagaha. For this reason, Pāli Buddhist scriptures
were composed in Magadhi. It was the language of the place, where the religion of the Buddha
arose. This was considered as mūlabhāsa, the original language of man. It was spoken by man of
the early time of this on by the Brahmins and by the Buddha.
The speech of Magadha took its shape in Sri Lanka, when ven. Mahinda brought Buddhist
canon from magadha to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BC. We do not know exactly what dialect he
brought with the canon to Sri Lanka during the first time. It may have been Pāli language or some
other dialects, but the undoubted fact was that the canon was sent by the king Asoka, emperor of
Magadha. And it embodied the 'Buddha vacana'. Pāli and Theravāda school took their home in Sri
Lanka. They played a prominent part for more than two thousand years in the religiouis history of
the country. From Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism and Pāli language were instroduced to
Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
Dr. Oldenberg does not accept ven. Mahinda's mission to Sri Lanka and he thinks that it is
not a historical fact. The people of kalinga played a great role in the introduction of Pāli into Sri
Lanka. He says that Pāli was the language of Kalinga. The home of Pāli was in the South. R. O.
ranke mentioned that form of literary Pāli was not in the Eastern part of middle India. According to
the Wester Gaard and Kuhn, Pāli was the dialect of U-Jeni and of Gujarat, because it fully agrees
with the language of Asoka's inscriptions of Girnar. It is said, that the dialect of Ujjeni was the
mother tongue of ven. Mahinda. He took Buddhism as his religion and knew the dialect Ujjeni,
which he studied when he was staying in Ujjeni.

220
QUESTION: EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE THE CLASSIFICATION OF ALPHABET, VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. (LECTURED
BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

The classification of alphabet, vowels and consonants, vagga, avagga, the place of formation (ekaja, dvija) and their
utterances – voice, voiceless (ghosa, aghosa).

(1) According to the Kaccāyana tradition, there are 41 letters in the Pāli alphabet – 8 vowels and 33 consonants. They are:
vowels:
a ā i ī u ū e o
consonants:
k kh g gh ṁ
c ch j jh ñ
ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
t th d dh n
p ph b bh ṃ
y r l v s h ḷ ṁ

(2) According to Moggallāna tradition, there are 43 letters – ten vowels and 33 consonants. The vowels are: a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, e, ē,
o, ō. The rest are consonants. The vowels are divided into short and long:
(a) Kaccāyana: (b) Moggallāna
short: short:
a i u a i u e o
long: long:
ā ī ū e o ā ī ū ē ō

Prosaically, the short vowels before a double consonant or ṇ (niggahīta) are counted as long. It is to be observed that e and
o are pronounced short before a double or conjunct consonants (like in khettam, bhonto, etc.).
The consonants are divided into:
(a) vagga (grouped)
(b) avagga (non-grouped)
(a) 25 consonants (in the table given above) from k to m are called 'grouped', because they are divided into five
groups of five letters in each group:
(i) Kavagga (ka-group): k kh g gh ṁ
(ii) Cavagga (ca-group): c ch j jh ñ
(iii) Ṭavagga (ṭa-group): ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
(iv) Tavagga (ta-group): t th d dh n
(v) Pavagga (pa-group): p ph b bh ṃ
These groups are named after the first letter of each vagga. The last five letters of the vagga, viz. ṁ, ñ, ṇ, n, ṃ are called
vagganta, or 'nasals'.
(b) The remaining seven consonants: y, r, l, v, s, h, ḷ are called avaggas as they are not grouped like the above. The
consonant ṇ is called niggahīta. It always comes after a short vowel. Again, all the vowels and consonants are divided according to
the place of their formation and utterance. The places of formation:
38 letters called ekaja:
(i) k, kh, g, gh, ṁ, h, and a, ā are 'gutturals' (iv) t, th, d, dh, n, ḷ, s are 'dentals'
(ii) c, ch, j, jh, ñ, y and i, ī are 'palatals' (v) p, ph, b, bh, m and u, ū are 'labials'
(iii) ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh, ṇ, r, l are 'linguals' (vi) ṁ is merely a nasal breathing found only after short
vowels, e.g.: rathaṁ, maniṁ, yaguṁ.
3 letters called dvija:
(i) e is 'guttural' and 'palatal'
(ii) o is 'guttural' and 'labial'
(iii) v is 'dental' and 'labial'

According to utterance (voice, voiceless – ghosa, aghosa):

(i) The first and the third letter of each of the five vaggas are called 'unaspirates' (voice, ghosa), because they are pronounced
without a strong breathing h-sound.
(ii) The second and the fourth letters of the same are aspirates (voiceless, aghosa), because they are pronounced with a strong
breathing h-sound added to them.

QUESTION: WILL BE HAVE DECLENSION OF RĀJA (KING) (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

221
Rājā (king):
Singular Plural
nom. rājā rājāno
acc. rājānaṁ, rājaṁ rājāno
ins. raññā, rājena rājūbhi, rājūhi, jājebhi, rājehi
dat.,gen. rañño, rājino raññaṁ, rājūnaṁ, rājānaṁ
abl. raññā, rājamhā, rājasmā rājūbhi, rājūhi, rājebhi, rājehi
loc. raññe, rājini, rājamhi, rājasmiṁ rājusu, rājesu
voc. rāja, rājā rājāno

Attā (self):
Singular Plural
nom. attā attāno
acc. attānaṁ, attaṁ attāno
ins. attanā, attena attanebhi, attanehi
dat., gen. attano attānaṁ
abl. attanā attanebhi, attanehi
loc. attani attanesu
voc. atta, attā attāno

Gunavantu (virtuous):
Singular Plural
nom. gunavā gunavanto, gunavantā
acc. gunavantaṁ gunavante
ins. gunavatā, gunavantena gunavantebhi, gunavantehi
dat., gen. gunavato, gunavantassa gunavataṁ, gunavantānaṁ
abl. gunavatā, gunavantamhā, gunavantebhi, gunavantehi
gunavantasmā
loc. gunavati, gunavante gunavantesu
gunavantamhi, gunavantasmiṁ
voc. gunavaṁ, gunava, gunavā gunavanto, gunavantā

222
 QUESTION: SHOULD BE HAVE CONJUGATION „GAMU-GAM“37 (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

Answer:

1. Present (vattamānā) – (he) goes

Parassapada (active) – (he) goes Attanopada (passive) – (he) is gone
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st (ā)gacchāmi (ā)gacchāma (ā)gacche (ā)gacchamhe
2nd (ā)gacchasi (ā)gacchatha (ā)gacchase (ā)gacchavhe
rd
3 (ā)gacchati (ā)gacchanti (ā)gacchate (ā)gacchante

2. Past (ajjatanī) – (he) went

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 (ā)gaccho, (ā)gamo, (ā)gacchittha, (ā)gacchise, (ā)gacchivhaṁ,
(ā)gacchim, (ā)gamittha, (ā)gamise, (ā)gamivhaṁ,
(ā)gamim, (ā)gacchimha, (ā)gacchaṁ, (ā)gacchimhe,
(ā)gamasim (ā)gamimha (ā)gamaṁ (ā)gamimhe

2nd (ā)gami, (ā)gamasi (ā)gamum, (ā)gama (ā)gamu

(ā)gacchimsu,
(ā)gamimsu,
(ā)gamamsu

3rd (ā)gacchi (ā)gacchuṁ (ā)gaccha (ā)gacchu

3. Future (bhavissanti) – (he) will go

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 (ā)gamissāmi (ā)gamissāma (ā)gamissaṁ (ā)gamissamhe
2nd (ā)gamissasi (ā)gamissatha (ā)gamissase (ā)gamissavhe
3rd (ā)gamissati (ā)gamissanti (ā)gamissate (ā)gamissante

4. Imperative (pañcamī) – go! / let (him) go!

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st (ā)gacchāmi (ā)gacchāma (ā)gacche (ā)gacchamase
nd
2 (ā)gaccha, (ā)gacchatha (ā)gacchassu (ā)gacchavho
(ā)gacchahi
3rd (ā)gacchatu (ā)gacchantu (ā)gacchataṁ (ā)gacchantaṁ

5. Optative potential (sattamī) – (he) would go

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st (ā)gaccheyyāmi (ā)gaccheyyāma (ā)gaccheyyaṁ (ā)gaccheyyamhe
2nd (ā)gaccheyyasi (ā)gaccheyyatha(ā)gacchetho (ā)gaccheyavho
3rd (ā)gaccheyya (ā)gaccheyyuṁ (ā)gacchetha (ā)gaccheraṁ

37 I added to every form of the verb „(ā)“, so that it can be clearly seen, that with the verb āgaccha is the conjugation
same, only that „ā“ should be added at the beginning of each word.

223
 QUESTION: SHOULD BE HAVE MODES.. (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

1. Present (vattamānā)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st mi ma e mhe
2nd si tha se vhe
3rd ti nti te nte

2. Past (Ajjatanī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st iṁ mhā aṁ imhe
2nd o tha ise ivha
3rd ī uṁ, iṁsu ā ū

3. Future (bhavissanti)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st issāmi issāma issaṁ issāmhe
2nd issasi issatha issase issavhe
3rd issati issanti issate issante

4. Imperative (pañcamī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st mi ma e āmase
2nd hi tha ssu vho
3rd tu ntu taṁ ntaṁ

5. Optative potential (sattamī)

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st eyyami eyyama eyyaṁ eyyamhe
2nd eyyasi eyyatha etho eyyavho
3rd eyya eyyuṁ etha eraṁ

6. Imperfect (hinyatani)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st a, aṁ mha iṁ mhase
2nd o tha se vhaṁ
3rd ā ū ttha tthuṁ

7. Perfect / Past infinitive (parokkha)

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st a mha i mhe
2nd e tha ttho vho
3rd a u tha re

8. Past conditional (kalatipatti)

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st ssa ssamhā issaṁ ssāmhase
2nd sse ssatha issase ssavhe
3rd ssā, ssa ssaṁsu ssatha ssiṁsu

224
 QUESTION: SHOULD BE HAVE CONJUGATION „BHU“ (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

1. Present (vattamānā)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
1st bhavāmi bhavāma bhave bhavamhe
nd
2 bhavasi bhavatha bhavase bhavavhe
rd
3 bhavati bhavanti bhavate bhavante

2. Past (ajjatanī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 bhaviṁ bhavimha, bhavimhā bhavaṁ bhavimhe
2nd bhavo bhavitha bhavise bhavivhaṁ
rd
3 bhavi, bhāvi bhavum, bhavimsu bhava bhavu

3. Future (bhavissanti)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 bhavissāmi bhavissāma bhavissaṁ bhavissamhe
nd
2 bhavissasi bhavissatha bhavissase bhavissavhe
3rd bhavissati bhavissanti bhavissate bhavissante

4. Imperative (pañcamī)
Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 bhavāmi bhavāma bhave bhavāmase
nd
2 bhava, bhavahi bhavatha bhavassu bhavavho
rd
3 bhavatu bhavantu bhavataṁ bhavantaṁ

5. Optative potential (sattamī)

Parassapada Attanopada
Person Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
st
1 bhaveyyāmi bhaveyyāma bhaveyyaṁ bhaveyyāmhe
nd
2 bhaveyyāsi bhaveyyātha bhavetho bhaveyyavho
rd
3 bhaveyya bhaveyyuṁ bhavetha bhaveraṁ

225
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE VOWEL (SANDHI) WITH EXAMPLE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

Combination of vowels is affected by elision or change of one of the two contiguous vowels.

(1) A vowel before another vowel is sometimes elided:

a before a : vandiya + aggaṁ = vandiyaggaṁ
a before ā : tā eva + asanani = tan evasanani
o before a : tayo + assu = tayassu

(2) When two contiguous vowels are dissimilar, the second is sometimes elided:
i after ā : chāyā + iva = chāyāva
a after i : iti + api = itipi
a after o : so + ahaṁ = so'haṁ

(3) The vowel a or ā combines with a following i or ī to e; with a following u or ū to o

(i.e., a + i or ī = e ; a + u or ū = o):
bandhussa + iva = vandhuss'eva
canda + udayo = candodayo
na + upeti = nopeti

(4) When the first vowel is elided, the second is sometimes lengthened:
tatra + ayaṁ = tatr + ayaṁ = tatrāyaṁ
tadā + ahaṁ = tad + ahaṁ = tadāhaṁ
sace + ayaṁ = sac + ayaṁ = sacāyaṁ

(5) Sometimes the first vowel becomes long when the second is elided:
deva + iti = deva + ti = devāti
sādhu + iti = sādhu + ti = sādhūti
lokassa + iti = lokassa + ti = lokassāti

(6) i, ī or o before a dissimilar vowel is sometimes changed to y; then in some places the second vowel is
lengthened:
aggi + agāro = aggy + agāro= aggyāgāro
me + ayaṁ = my + ayaṁ = myāyaṁ
sattamī + at the= sattamyatthe

(7) o or ū before a dissimilar vowel is changed to v; sometimes the second vowel is lengthened:
so + ahaṁ = sv + ahaṁ = svāhaṁ
su + akkhāto = sv + akkhāto = svakkhāto
na tu + eva = natveva

(8) Consonants y, v, m, d, n, t, r, l, h are sometimes inserted between two vowels to avoid a hiatus.
na + idaṁ = nayida
pa + uccati = pavuccati
ajja + agge = ajjatagge
su + ujū ca = sujū ca

226
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN DIGU SAMASA WITH EXAMPLE IN PĀLI (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

When a numeral and a substantive is combined, it is called digu. The numeral must be the
first number.
The numerals being a kind of adjectives this compound may be included in kammadnāraya.
But it is separated and given a different name for the convenience of students(?).

There are two kinds of digu:

(1) Samahara – collective (which expresses a whole and takes the form of the neuter singular)
(2) Asamahara – individual (which does not express a whole, but takes the plural form)

Here the objects indicated by the last member are considered individually:
Samahara-digu: dve + anguliyo = dvangulaṁ (two inches)
tayo + loka = tilokaṁ (three worlds)
catasso + disa = catuddisaṁ (four-quarters)
pañca + silani = pañcasīlaṁ (five precepts)
satta + ahani = sattahaṁ (a week)
sataṁ + yojanani = satayojanaṁ (hundred leagues)

Asamahara-digu: tayo + bhava = tibhava (the three states of existence)

pance + indriyāni = pancindriyāni (five senses)

227
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN WITH EXAMPLE THE CONSONANT SANDHI. (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

(1) A consonant after a vowel is generally reduplicated. An aspirate is reduplicated by an

unaspirate, and an unaspirate by itself:
rupa + karaṁ = rupakkhandho
pari + cajati = pariccajati
upa + davo = upaddavo
ni + malo = nimmalo
du + karaṁ = dukkaraṁ
tatra + thito = taratthito
ni + phalaṁ = nipphalaṁ
appa + suto = appassuto

(2) A long vowel before a reduplicated consonant is often shortened:

para + kamo = parakkamo
tanha + khayo = tanhakkhayo
ā + sado = assado
ā + khāto = ākkhāto
maha + phalaṁ = mahapphalaṁ

The exceptions to this rule are:

vedanā + khandho = vedanākkhandho
yathā + kamaṁ = yathākkamaṁ
paññā + khandho = paññākkhandho

(3) A vowel before a consonant is sometimes lengthened and sometimes shortened for the sake
of prosody.
(a) Lengthened: khanti + paramaṁ = khantī paramaṁ
jāyati + soko = jāyatī soko
mannati + balo = mannatī balo
nibbattati + dukkhaṁ = nibbattatī dukkhaṁ

(b) Shortened: bhovadi + nama so hoti = bhovadi nama so hoti

yitthaṁ va + hutaṁ va + loke = yitthaṁ va hutaṁ va loke
buddhe yadi va + savake = buddhe yadi va savake

(4) o in so, and eso, before a consonant is sometimes changed into ā:

eso + dhammo = esa dhammo
so + muni = sa muni
so + silava = sa silava
eso + patto = esa patto
eso + idani = esa dani

228
 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE KICCA SUFFIXES WITH EXAMPLE AND SHOW HOW TO USE THEM IN SENTENCES.
(lectured by ven. Piyaratna)

We treat kicca suffixes first because they are few in number:

-tabba, -aniya, -nya, -niya, -tayya and -icca – these are kicca suffixes

(1) -tabba or -aniya may be annexed to all the roots to form potential participles expressing a passive meaning:
kara + tabba = kattabba or kātabba (that should be done)
Explanation: In a place'r of the root is similar to the first consonant of the suffix in the other'r is elided and the
first vowel is lengthened.(?)

kara + aniya = karanīya (that should be done)

su + tabba = sotabba
su + aniya = savaniya (that should be heard)
Explanation: In both places the vowel of the root is strengthened; and in the second instance the strengthened
vowel becomes av.

kara + tabba = kātabba

hara + aniya = haraniya (should be carried)
paca + aniya = pacaniya (should be cooked)

(2) -nya and -niya are suffixed to some roots to form passive participles (ṇ is is the sign indicatory of
strengthening). The changes they undergo are:
dhya becomes jjha
dya becomes jja
mya becomes mma
jya becomes jja
gya becomes gga
cya becomes kya

Examples: vada + nya = vadya = vajja (what should be said)

gamu + nya = gamya = gamma (what should be understood)
vaca + nya = vākya (what should be spoken)
garaha + nya = gārayha (what should be despised)

(3) -nya after the roots ending in ā, i and ī become eyya.

dā + eyya = deyya (what should be given)
ji + eyya = jeyya (what should be conquered)
nī + eyya = neyya (what what should be led)

-niya
kara + niya = kāriya (what should be done)
mara + niya = māriya (what should be killed)

(4) -icca and -tayya are suffixed only to form a limited number of words:
kara + icca = kicca 'that should be business)

Ar(?) of the root is elided before the suffix:

ñā + tayya = ñātayya (what should be known)
pada + tayya = pattayya (what should be arrived)38

38 Actually this verb does not make sense, because „arrive“ is a verb that cannot be in a passive form.

229
 QUESTION: WILL BE ABSOLUTIVES... (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

(1) Indeclinable active past participles or gerunds or absolutives according to some modern
grammarians are formed with the suffixes -tvā, -tvāna, -tūna, -ya and -tya.

(i) These may be joined to the roots or bases by means of a connecting i:

paca + i + tva = pacitva (having cooked)
bhunja + i + tva = bhunjitva (having eaten)

(ii) Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before these:
kara + tva = katva (having done)
chida + tva = chetva (having cut or broken)

(iii) The final long vowel of a root is sometimes shortened or strengthened before these:
da + tva = datva (having given)
ni + tva = netva (having carried)

(iv) t of the suffixes is dropped or changed together with the last consonant of the root in
a few cases:
disa + tva = disva (having seen)
ladha + tva = laddha (having got)

(v) Where nothing but the elision of the final vowel of the root has taken place:
hana + tva = hantva (having killed)
gamu + tva = gantva (having gone) – m is changed to n

(2) -ya is assimilated, in many cases, to the last consonant of the root; it is directly added to the
roots ending in a long vowel.

(i) Directly added: ā + da + ya = ādāya (having taken)

(ii) Assimilated with the preceding consonant:
a + gamu + ya = agamya = agamma (having come)
vi + bhaja + ya = vibhajja (having divided)
(iii) -y is interchanged with the last consonant if the latter is h:
gaha + ya = gahya = gayha (having taken)
(iv) Sometimes -y is reduplicated:
vi + ci + ya = viceyya (having considered)

(3) -tya is always changed to -cca together or without the last consonant of the root:
upa + hana + tya = upahacca (having vexed)
ava + i + tya = avecca (having understood)

QUESTION: WILL BE, THE INFINITIVE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

The sign of the infinitive is -tuṁ. It is used like in English:

230
 pacituṁ (to cook) laddhuṁ or labhituṁ (to get)
pātuṁ (to drink) harituṁ (to carry)
pivituṁ (to drink) dātuṁ (to give)
gantuṁ (to go) āharituṁ (to bring)
bhottu or bhunjituṁ (to eat)
kātuṁ (to do)
-tuṁ is simply added to the roots of one syllable to form the infinitive. An extra i is added
before -tuṁ in the case of the bases consisting of more than one syllable.

(1) -tuṁ and -tave are suffixed to the roots or the bases in order to form infinitives.
(i) Thy are joined with an additional i, to the roots ending in a and u:
paca + i + tuṁ = pacituṁ (to cook)
dhāvu + i + tuṁ = dhavituṁ (to run)
jana + i + tuṁ = janituṁ (to know)
(ii) They are directly added to the roots ending in ā:
dā + tuṁ = dātuṁ (to give)
thā + tuṁ = thātuṁ (to stand)
Root kara becomes kā before these; then it is treated as a root ending in ā:
kā + tuṁ = kātuṁ (to do)
kā + tava = kātave (to do)
(iii) The last consonant of some roots is assimilated to t of the suffixes:
kara + tuṁ = kattuṁ (to do)
chida + tuṁ = chettuṁ (to cut)
buja + tuṁ = bhottuṁ (to eat; to enjoy)
(iv) Strengthening the first vowel sometimes takes place before these:
nī + tuṁ = netuṁ (to lead; to carry)
su + tuṁ = sotuṁ (to hear)

(2) To the causal bases and the bases of the seventh conjugation ending in a these suffixes are
joined with the help of i. They are directly added to those bases ending in e.

(a) Causal bases:

kāre + tuṁ = kāretuṁ, kāreya + i + tuṁ = kārayituṁ (to cause to do)
mārāpe + tuṁ = marapetuṁ, mārāpaya + i + tuṁ = marapayituṁ (to cause to kill)

(b) Bases of the seventh conjugation:

core + tuṁ = coretuṁ, coraya + i + tuṁ = corayituṁ (to steal)
dese + tuṁ = desetuṁ, desaya + i + tuṁ = desayituṁ (to preach)

QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE NIGGAHITA Ṇ SANDHI WITH EXAMPLE (LECTURED BY VEN. PIYARATNA)

(1) ṇ before a vagga-consonant may, sometimes, be transformed to the 'nasal' or the fifth letter
of the group to which that consonant belongs.
dipaṇ + karo = dipaṇkaro
taṇ + dhanaṁ = taṇdhanaṁ

231
(2) ṇ before l is sometimes transformed to l:
saṇ + lahuko = sallahuko
puṇ + lingaṁ = pullingaṁ
saṇ + lapo = sallapo

(3) ṇ before e or h is sometimes changed to n; ṇ before e is duplicated:

paccattaṇ + eva = paccattaṇṇeva
taṇ + hi tassa = tan hi tassa
evaṇ + hi vo = evan hi vo

(4) ṇ followed by y combines with y to form ññ:

saṇ + yogo = saññoga
yaṇ + yad eva = yaññad eva
saṇ + yojanaṁ = saññojanaṁ

(5) ṇ followed by a vowel sometimes becomes ṁ or d.

taṇ + ahaṁ = taṁ ahaṁ
etaṇ + avoca = etad avoca
kiṇ + etaṇ = kiṁ etaṁ

(6) ṇ followed by a vowel or a consonant is sometimes elided; then the vowel in some cases is
lengthened:
tasaṇ + ahaṁ = tasahaṁ
evaṇ + ahaṁ = evahaṁ
adasiṇ + ahaṁ = adasahaṁ

(7) A vowel after ṇ is sometimes elided; then ṇ undergoes the change stated in most instances:
abhinanduṇ + iti = abhinanduṇ ti
halaṇ + idani = halaṇ dani
idaṇ + api = idaṁ pi

(8) ṇ is sometimes inserted before a vowel or a consonant:

cakkhu + udapādi = cakkhuṇ udapādi
manopubba + gama = manopubbaṇgamā
ava + siro = avaṇsiro

232
 QUESTION: WHAT IS SAMASA? HOW MANY KINDS OF SAMASA? GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF EACH KIND OF SAMASA.

When two or more nouns are combined together to form a grammatical unit it is called a samasa
(compound).
There are six kinds of samasa (compounds):
(1) Kammadharaya (adjectival compound)
nilaṁ + uppalaṁ = niluppalaṁ (blue water-lily)
sariputto + thero = sariputtatthero (the elder Sāriputta)
cando + viya + mukhaṁ = mukhacando (moon-like face)
mahanto + muni = mahamuni (great sage)
khattiya + kumārī = khattiyakumārī (princess of the warrior caste)
na + ariyo = anariyo (ignoble, low)

(2) Digu (numeral determinative):

(i) samahara (collective):
dve + anguliyo = dvangulaṁ (two inches)
(ii) asamahara (individual):
teyo + bhava = tibhava (the three states of existence)

(3) Tappurisa (dependent determinative)

gamaṁ + gato = gamagato (gone to the village)
buddhena + desito = buddhadesito (preached by the Buddha)
yaguya + tandula = yagutandula (rice for gruel)
gantuṁ + kamo = gantukamo (desirous to go)
rukkha + patito = rukkhapatito (fallen from the tree)
ranno + putto = rajaputto (king's son)
vane + puphani = vanapupphani (flowers in the forest or wild-flowers)
manasi + karo = manasikaro (keeping in the mind, attention)
dhammaṁ carati ti = dhammacari (observer of the Dhamma)

(4) Dvanda samasa (copulative or aggregative)

(i) Asamahara dvanda
mātā ca pitā ca = mātāpitaro (parents)
(ii) Samahara dvanda
cakkhu ca sotañ ca = cakkhusotaṁ (eye and ear)

(5) Avayibhava (adverbial compound)

rathassa + anu = anurathaṁ (behind the chariot)
sotaṁ + pati = patisotaṁ (against the current)
jivo + yava = yavajivaṁ (as long as life lasts)

(6) Bahubhihi (relative or attributive compound)

chinna + hattha (yassa, so) = chinnanatho ((a man) whose hands have been cut off)
bahavo + nadiyo (yasmiṁ, so) = bahunadiko ((a country) where there are many rivers)
mahanti + panna (yassa, so) = mahāpanno ((a person) who has many wives)

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QUESTION: GIVE A DESCRIPTION BRIEFLY ON THE SECONDARY DERIVATION AND DESCRIBE APACCATHA SUFFIXES
WITH EXAMPLES.

Taddhita or secondary derivative is formed from a substantive or primary derivative by

adding another suffix (denoting some special meaning) to it.
These derivatives are adjectives in their nature, but in most cases used as substantives. The
final vowel of a word is often elided before a taddhita suffix. The first vowel of the word, to which
the suffix is added, is often strengthened when it is not followed by a double consonant. In this case:
a becomes ā,
i becomes ī,
ī becomes e,
u becomes o,
ū becomes o.

To indicate, that some suffix requires strengthening an indicatory letter (anabandha) is

affixed by the grammarians to it. This indicatory letter is generally n.
Appaccatha, suffix -na is added to some nouns to denote a lineage (not, that n is indicative
of strengthening.)
Example: vasithassa apaccan = vāsittho(?)

QUESTION: EXPLAIN NUMERICAL DERIVATIVES WITH EXAMPLE.

-ma is suffixed to the cardinal numerals to form ordinals.

Example: pañca + ma = pañcama.

-tiya is suffixed to dvi and ti to form ordinals: dvi becomes du and ti becomes ta before that
suffix.
Example: dvi + tiya = du + tiya = dutiya

-ttha is suffixed to „catu“ and „ttha“ to „cha“ in order to form the ordinals.
Example: catu + ttha = catuttha

i is suffixed to dasa when it is preceded by some other numeral, to form ordinals denoting a
longer day(?). In that compound the last vowel of the preceding numeral sometimes becomes a.
Example: eka + dasa + i = ekadasi

-ka is suffixed to the numerals to form the collective nouns.

Example: dvi + ka = dvika

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN BHAVA COMPOUND WITH EXAMPLE.

Bhava (gerundial) – taddhita. -ta, -tta, -ttana, -nya and -neya are suffixed to some nouns to
denote the state, nature or quality of being:

-ta: lahu + ta = lahuta

-tta: manussa + tta = manussatta
-ttana: puthujjana + ttana = puthujjanattana
-naya: aroga + naya = arogya

n in naya is indicative of stregthening of the first vowel. Many consonants before -nya
change their forms together with -ya suffix:

t + nya = tya becomes cca.

l + nya = lya becomes lla.
d + nya = dya becomes jja.
b + nya = nya becomes bna.
j + nya = jya becomes jja.
s + nya = sya becomes ssa.

Examples:
pandita + nya = panditya = pandicca
kosala + nya = kosalya = kosalla
suhada + nya = sohadya = sohajja
nipuna + nya = nepunya = nepuñña
bhisaja + nya = bhesajja = bhesajja

-neyya: adhipati + neyya = ādhipateyya. -na is suffixed to a few nouns to denote the state.

Examples:
patu + na = pātva
garu + na = gārava

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 QUESTION: ??? (VOWELS)

.... ??? ....

2. Where there are the consonants l, k, s and y

between the two consonants, „i“ is inserted ASSIMILATION
between them for the benefit of easy
pronunciation as in the example: Vowel assimilation

Glana -) gilana Examples

Mlana -) milana Shishu -) susu
Sloka -) siloka Iksu -) uccu
Sarya -) suriya Aynsmat -) ayasma
Arya -) ariya, ayya Nshanna -) nisinna
Viriya -) viriya Srungavera -) singavera
Sri -) siri
Hri -) hiri Consonant assimilation.
Vajra -) vajira - Two consonants are similired(?)
Maryada -) moriyada Examples:
Ātma -) attā
3. Inserting „u“ where there are „v“ and „m“ Bhadra -) badda
among the double consonant „un“ is inserted Asva -) assa
between them in order to pronounce without any Ramya -) ramma
effort: Varga -) vagga
Cakra -) cakka
Padma -) paduma Shakra -) sakka
Sva -) suve misra -) missa
Dve -) duve sarpa -) sappa
Suksma -) sukhuma
Usma -) usuma (Group letters are more powerfull.)
Smarati -) sumarati

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 QUESTION: SHOW WITH EXAMPLE THE FEATURES OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGE PRESERVED IN PĀLI?

The Pāli language is included in the middle Indu Aryan language. So, it has many features of Prakrit language. Pāli
language is not so rough as Sanskrit and not so smart as Prakrit language. When compared Pāli and Prakrit language many
similarities can be seen. According to the alphabet of both Pāli and Prakrit languages there are no differences. Iru, Irū(?), Iu, Eu –
these letters are dropped in both language. They are somehow difficult to pronounce. So, they disappeared and other vowels and
consonants represent them. For example: the letter iru, irū(?) are too difficult to pronounce.

Examples:
mruga -) miga „ri“ becomes „iru“ :
tsuna -) tina rigveda -) irugveda „ei“ becomes „i“ :
drusthi -) diṭṭhi dheira -) dhira
krata -) kata „iru“ becomes „ana“ :
nrupatih -) narapati „ou“ becomes „o“ :
Sometimes „iru“ becomes „u“ : oushadha-) osadha/oshadha(?)
riju -) uju „ilu“ becomes „u“ : ourasha -) orasa
ritu -) utu klutta -) kutta mourya -) moraya
sruta -) suta ubhou -) ubho
„ai“ becomes „e“ : kousalaya -) kosalla
„iru“ becomes „a“ : airavana -) eravana
fraha(?) -) geha(?) maitrī -) mettā „ou“ becomes „u“ :
caitya -) cetiya pouggalika -) puggalika
„ru“ becomes „ra“ : vaira -) vara(?) soundarya -) sundara
bruhad -) braha taila -) tela oudhatya -) udhacca
roudra -) ruda
„iru“ becomes „ri“ : „ai“ becomes „i“ :
rite(?) -) ??? aiswarya -) issariya „ou“ becomes „a“ :
saindhara -) sindhara nouka(?) -) nava(?)
„iru“ becomes „ru“ : sailasana-) silasana gourava -) garava
viruksha -) rukkha

1. The visarga disappeared. That is divided in three ways. It is difficult for pronunciation:

(a) The visarga after the ending vowels becomes „o“:

deva -) deva
narah -) nara

(b) The visarga is ended after the „e“ ending and „u“ ending stems.
agrih -) aggi
pituh -) pitu
bhikshuh -) bhikkhu

(c) The consonant after the visarga is reduplicated.

duhka -) dukkha
nihsoka -) nissoka
duhsata -) dussata

2. Consonant ending stems are not in both Pāli and Prakrit languages:
ātman -) attā
bhagavan -) bhagavā
rājaṃ -) rāja
pratipat -) prapatti(?)
saret -) sārada

3. The number dual is dropped in Pāli and Prakrit:

agnih -) agni, aggi, agnayah, aggayo

4. Dative and possessive case forms are similar in Pāli and Prakrit language.

5. Imperative and pot mrical/interrogative(?) mood verbs used commonly kaungeya, vade.

237
6. When we conjugate the routs/root(?) the attanpada forms are much more:
vapate; bhajeta

7. The past participle forms are used instead of finite past and verbs:
so gaman agami
so gamaṃ gato

8. ???

9. In old Indu Ariyan languages o ending make nouns with nominative singular endings – with „ah.“:

devah -) devo

But in Prakrit „a“ becomes „e“ deve(?) feature in the canon:

vanappa gumbhe yathā phussitagge sukhe dukkhe jive

10. „ra“ becomes „la“ in Prakrit:

raja -) laja
marata -) malata
taruna -) talama
sukaman(?) -) sukumala(?)

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 ??? (BONUS: HISTORY OF PĀLI (BOOK: PĀLI LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, P. 42-45)) (NOT COMPLETED)
???
occur as in Pāli; in adaṇḍāraho we have a as the epenthetic vowel, not t as later; duguṇa shows du-
for dvi-, later di- alone is allowed, while Pāli has both forms: Aśvaghosa again uses turaṃ as in Pāli
for the later tumaṅ, and has tava for tuha; he has also karotha common in Pāli, in later Prākrit
unknown and for gerund kariya, found in Pāli. Moreover we find pekkh (Sanskrit prekṣ-) as in Pāli,
and gamissiti may be compared with such Pāli forms as sakkiti, dakkhiti.
As against this evidence no stress can now be laid on the argument of Oldenberg who did
not accept as historical the mission of Mahinda, and held instead that Pāli came to Ceylong from
Kaliṅga, a view accepted also by E. Müller, who pointed out that the oldest settlements in Ceylon
were founded from the mainland opposite, and not – as the Magadhan theory of Pāli suggested –
from Bengal. Oldenberg supported his view by comparing Pāli with the dialect of the Khaṇḍagiri
inscription. But the comparison yields nothing decisive, and there is now a substantial body of
evidence which points to western India as the prime source of the Āryan element in Ceylon. Lāṭa,
Gujarat, is associated with the legend of Vijaya, and, however slight is the value of that legend in
other respects, there is no reason to dispute the importance of the place name, when it is found that
the affinities of Sinhalese lie with the western dialects.
We must, therefore, conclude that the basis of Pāli is a western dialect; but in its literary
form, in which alone we have it, it is a very mixed language of the literary type, far removed from a
vernacular, and under a strong Sanskritic influence. The date of the development of this literary
speech and the evolution of the Pāli Canon, doubtless on the base of older tradition largely in
Magadhan dialects, cannot be ascertained with any certainty; probability points to a date posterior
to Aśoka, the silence of whose inscriptions on the existence of the Pli Canon is most naturally
explained by the assumption that it did not then exist. The ascription of a comparatively late date is
greatly supported by the fact, which must be stressed as against Rhys Davids, that the forms of Pāli
are not historically the oldest of those Prākrit forms known to us. These are to be found in the north-
western dialect of the Aśokan inscriptions where the maintenance in some measure of the three
sibilants, the transformation of r into ir or ur, the maintenance of r in conjunction with other
consonants, and the retention of im are, among other points, indications of a state of affairs
linguistically older than the facts of Pāli. Even in the case of the Girnār dialect of the Aśokan
inscriptions, it would be impossible to establish the priority of Pāli. Girnār manifests such
phenomena as the retention of long vowels before double consonants and traces of the retention of r
in certain consonantal combinations, as well as the use of sṭ which Pāli assimilates. Moreover, it
appears that it preserved for a time the distinction between the palatal and the lingual sibilants.
There is accordingly nothing in the linguistic facts to throw doubt on the view that the dialect on
which Pāli is based was one current some time after the Aśokan period.
To sum up the conclusions suggested by our deplorably scanty evidence we may say (1) that
the Buddha's language cannot be definitely ascertained from the records, and it is only by
conjecture that we can assert that it was of Kośalan rather than Magadhan type. Similarly it is
purely a matter of speculation how far the Kośalan or Old Ardha-Māgadhī (if for convenience we
so style it) and the Magadhan or Māgadhī corresponded with the Ardha-Māgadhī of the Jain texts
as we have them and the Māgadhī of the grammarians. In the former case certainly, and in the latter
probably, we should allow for much dialect mixture in the later forms. (2) The teachings, or the
supposed teachings of the Buddha were handed down in various dialects and in one at least of

239
these the process of phonetic change had advanced further than is normal in our Pāli texts. (3) The
Pāli texts represent the doctrines accepted by a special school which used as the language of their
Canon the dialect of the educated classes of some western area whether Kauśāmbī or Ujjayinī or
some other place cannot be determined with any certainty. (4) The date of this Pāli Canon cannot be
defined with any exactitude. The one source of tradition on which we have to rely insists that a
Council under Aśoka determined the Canon including as an essential element the Kathāvatthu. The
Aśokan inscriptions ignore entirely the Council and, when Aśoka in his Bhabra edict mentions
passages of special importance in the teaching of the Buddha, grave difficulties arise when
supporters of the existence of the Pāli Canon in Aśoka’s time seek to identify the passages,
suggesting the obvious conclusion that Aśoka knew nothing of the Canon. Further, it is certain that
the language of the texts known to Aśoka was not the Pāli of the Canon. Again, it is significant taht
even those who are inclined to greater faith in the tradition than it is easy to feel have much
difficulty in believing that the Kathāvatthu is of Aśokan date, but what is clear is that this is an
essential element in the tradition of the Council, and that if it is not accepted as true, it becomes
extremely difficult to attach any value to the legend of the Council. We may well believe that the
views embodied in the Pāli Canon were current in certain circles in Aśokan time – it is clear that
they were not the points which appealed to Aśoka himself whose Dhamma is far more popular –
and we can, if we like, suppose that in Aśoka’s reign some steps were taken towards formulating
these views in definite form and commencing the perparation of the Canon in the language we now
know as Pāli. But there is no reason to accept the alleged patronage of Aśoka, and we cannot be
absolutely certain that even so much respect should be paid to the tradition current in Ceylon.“

Periods of the Development of Pāli

Pāli can be mentioned as an archaic Prākṛt, a middle-Indian idiom. It is said that directly it
has not come from Sanskrit. From its several characteristic features we learn that a close
relationship existed between Pāli and Vedic. For example, we see in tvāna (besides tvā) the forms
tehi, yehi – Vedic tobis, yebhis (as opposed to Sanskrit (ais, yais) etc. Pāli cannot be described as a
homogeneous language. Pāli has numerous double forms which give us an idea that it is a mixed
dialect. H. Kern says that it is a compromise of various dialects. Minayeff agrees with him. E.
Kuhn describes: „Even an artificial and literary language which an occasions draws materials from
all possible dialects, must have had as its foundation a particular dialect.“ There are many
dialectical peculiarities in Pāli. W. Geiger mentions four different stages of development which
took place in the history of the Pāli language. He describes: „... stages of development associated
with periods following one after another can be clearly distinguished in the history of the Pāli
language. There are four stages:
(1) The language of the Gāthās, i.e., the metrical pieces: It is of a very heterogenous character. On
the one hand, it contains many archaic speech forms which are distinguished from the old-Indian
form only phonologically; on the other hand, these are also used in it, in large numbers such new
formations as are wholly characteristic of Pāli, and they are often crossed by the archaic forms
which may occur side by side with them, not seldom, even in one and the same verse. In some cases
the exigencies of metre might have determined the choice of the forms to be used. Particularly in
those cases where verses out of an older language were translated into a later one, the use of archaic
forms was liberal, because it afforded a closer approximation to the original.

240
(2) The language of the canonical prose: It is more homogeneous and uniform than the language of
the Gāthās. The archaic forms diminish more and more in number and partly disappear altogether.
The use of new formations is no longer accidental or arbitrary as in the oldest period of the
language, but is governed by more rigid rules.
(3) The later prose of the post-canonical literature, as of the Milinda-book, the great commentaries
etc.: It is based on the canonical prose and reflects its artificial and erudite usage. The differences
between the first and the second period is therefore much greater than that between the second and
the third. The latter is further characterised by a still more restricted use of the archaic forms.
(4) The language of the later artificial poetry, no longer possesses a homogeneous character. The
authors derived their knowledge of the language and borrowed the speech-forms indiscriminately
from older and later literature, and their propensity to archaism and Sanskritism is more pronounced
or less in different cases.“

Prof. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee also gives an account of a development in the Pāli
language in the earliest stage when it was closely associated with ancient India’s spoken dialects.
This Pāli language, which flourished from the Buddhist times and is still continuing it up to our day,
has a history of 2000 years. It cannot be mentioned as a uniform speech. Numerous double forms
inform us that it has a mixed character. There are many dialectal deposits in it. Prof. Suniti Kumar
Chatterjee gives four stages of its development. He states:
„(1) The speech of the metrical portions (gāthās) is canonical literature, is of a very heterogeneous
character. On one hand, it retains many old speech forms separated from those of the old Indo-
Āryan only through sound change, while, on the other hand, ???

241
 QUESTIONS
• Examine, on what basis the Pāli alphabet was classified and show voiced and voiceless letters
separately.
• Describe with examples the vowel sandhi in Pāli.
(a) Decline fully the stem ‘Jantu’ or ‘Bhikkhu’ in Pāli.
(b) Conjugate fully the Pāli root ‘gamu’ (to go) or ‘sara’ (to remember) in Parassapada of present
tense and potential mood (Sattamī).
• Clarify secondary derivatives (taddhita) in Pāli and describe with examples Apaccaṭṭha suffixes.
• Explain with examples Tappurisa Samāsa or Kammadhāraya Samāsa in Pāli.
• Describe the syntactical uses of either the accusative case or dative case in Pāli.
• Examine the various opinions of the scholars on the origin of Pāli language.
• Parse and explain the four of the following.
I. Niggahīta combination
II. Dvanda Samāsa
III. Past participles
IV. Prefixes
V. Bhāva Taddhita
VI. Pañcamī Vibhakti (verbs)
• Point out the various classifications of the Alphabet according to the traditional Pāli grammarians.
• (a) Show the combination and name of the following 10 disjoined words:
Tīni + imāni, Tatra + ayaṃ, Anu + eti, Tāva + eva, Pañca + indriyāni, Rūpa + Khandho, So +
muni, bahu + suto, abhinanduṁ + ti, Ati + antaṁ, Yadi + evaṃ, abhi + okāso
• (b) Disjoin the following 10 words and clarify their combination.
Pariccajati, Pancakkhandha, Chalabhiññā, nimmalo, Sabbeva, Cakkaṁvā, Bandhusseva,
abbuggato, tāvadeva, Svākkhāto, Jaccandho, Bojjhangā
• (a) Decline fully masculine 'i' ending the stem 'muni' in Pāli.
• (b) Conjugate the root bhū (to be) in both parassapada and attanopada.
• (a) Parse and explain 10 words of the following.
Buddhacaritaṁ, Antogāmaṁ, Samaṇabrāhmaṇā, Paññāratanaṁ, Ānandatthero, Upanagaraṁ,
rājaputto, Pñcasīlaṁ, Puṇṇanadī, Jarāmaraṇaṁ, Khīṇāsavo, Sīladhanaṁ
• (b) Parse and explain 10 words of the following.
Manussattaṁ, tadā, Samaṇero, Janatā, Panītataro, bhāgineyyo, dhanavā, catukka, mānavo, kāyika,
medhāvi, māgadhiko
• Write an account on prefixes in Pāli and show with examples how is the meaning of the Pāli verbs
changed by the prefixes.
• Show with examples the process of assimilation as depicted in the Pāli language.
• Describe the classification of Pāli alphabet according to the Kaccāyana tradition.
• Explain with example the Niggahita combination in Pāli.
• (a) Decline fully the stem 'Muni' or 'Pitu' in Pāli
• (b) Conjugate the root 'Bhū' (to be) or 'Pā' (to drink) in Parassapada and Attanopada of present
tense and imperative mood.
• Define briefly the meaning of the word 'compound' and clarify with examples the 'kammadhāraya
samāsa' in Pāli.

242
• Define briefly the meaning of the word 'taddhita' and clarify with examples the bhāva taddhita in
Pāli.
• Observe the Vedic features that preserved in Pāli language.
• Write grammatical notes on any two of the following:
I. Consonant combination
II. Dvanda samāsa
III. Apaccattha taddhita
IV. Absolutives
V. Janapadanirutti

243
 R.S.F. 101 – INTRODUCTION TO RELIGIOUS STUDIES
Objectives
The aim of this course unit is to make a survey of religion in general and to make an
introductory study of all key religious traditions of the world.

The study is basically doctrinal and conceptual, historical or comparative aspects will be
brought in only in so far as they are necessary to understand the phenomenon of religion.

Course Contents
What is Religion? value of religious studies in present day context, origin of religion, origin
of religion in early India, China, Greece, Egypt, Africa and Latin America, main characteristics of
religion, characteristics at its early initial stage and subsequent advanced stages (eg. Pre-axial and
post-axial stage), expansion of main religious traditions, how each religion has spread in different
geographical areas and reason behind it, religions in the modern world, nature of modern religion,
modern features of ancient religions, role of religion in the contemporary human life.

Recommended Reading:

1. The World's Religion Beaver R. Pierce, Lion Publishing Plc. Oxford,

England, 1992
2. Buddhist and Freudian Psychology De Silva Padmasiri, Lake House, Colombo, 1973
3. Fundamentals of Buddhist Ethics Dharmasiri Gunapala, The Buddhist Research Society,
Singapore,
1986
4. The Introduction to the Study of Religion Hall T. William, Harper & Raw Publishers, New York,
1978
5. An Introduction to Buddhism Harvey Peter, Munshiram Manoliaralal Publishers (Pvt)
Ltd., New
Delhi, 1990
6. Religions of the Ancient World Rawlinson George, Amaru Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1980
7. The Concept of Mind Ryle Gilbert, Barnes and Noble Books, New York,
1949
8. The World's Religions Smart Ninian, Cambridge University Press, 1992

244
INTRODUCTION OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES (LECTURED BY MR. JAYANTA BOGODA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)

The aim of this course unit is to make a survey of religion in general and to make an introductory study of all key
religious traditions of the world.

The study is basically doctrinal and conceptual, historical, or comparative aspects will be brought in only in so far
as they are necessary to understand the phenomenon of religion.

1) What Is Religion?

Prof. Rhys Davids writes:

“What is meant by religion? The word, as is well-known is not found in languages not related to our own, and
its derivation is uncertain. Cicero, in one passage, derived it from re and lego, and held that its real meaning was the
repetition of prayers and incarnations. Another interpretation derives the word from re and logo, and makes its original
sense that of attachment, of a continual binding (that is, no doubt to the gods). A third derivation connects the word
with lex, and explains it as a law-abiding, scrupulously conscientious frame of mind”

Paradoxical concepts of human beings are revealed by the religious belief. Various religious institutions,
belonging to various religions, have been established all over the world. Religious concepts can be understood in many
dimension and degrees and they seem to defect contradictory ideas, which may pave the way to contradictory views. A
particular religion is possible to care suffering of human beings, as well as it may create new sorrowful condition also.

In addition, to prevent miserable conditions of the human beings and unsatisfactory nature of the human mind,
it paves the way to create religions to inculcate spiritual qualities and to get rid of sorrows. Some wrong views erupted
from some religious concepts may complicate and bewilder one’s life and sometimes it may be the ultimate therapy for
the metal diseases.

This history of humanity exemplified clearly how religious concepts growth some dangerous results and they
prevented right understanding (sammā diṭṭhi).

Anyways, in primitive society the word “Religion” was introduced as an intellectual refuge of inexpressible
mysterious which they were confronted in their life.
Religion provided them remarkable solace spiritual and intellectual development. Various people, various
social groups, and societies are the basic recommend of adherence of a particular religion. But goals corresponded to
some religious thoughts seem to be voyage. For example, the concept of God could not be explained; otherwise religion
is also the only concept that is there to ally the fear of death and the inevitable end of all life. This happened when the
concept of Gods, Heaven, Mokṣa or Nibbāna, is interpreted or meant to be future goals, particularly after death the
metaphysical nature beyond world nature. Those goals encourage the ordinary people to be faithful on particular
religion. The great Blessings of religions are that when man comes to absolute helplessness, religion is the only solace
available and it’s the ultimate therapy further ultimate illness or death.
 QUESTION: EXAMINE WHETHER ONE CAN INTRODUCE BUDDHISM AS A RELIGION OR AS A PHILOSOPHY

Religion is not belief in spirituality, religion means authority. God means authority too, so,
we cannot come over the God. In Islam we cannot ask about God. But in Buddhism we can ask
about Buddha. Bible, ten commands, Qur’ān and Veda are religious holy scriptures. We cannot ask
or change anything also, we cannot change according to needs of society anything there. But in
Buddhism we can ask and examine the Buddhist scripture. In religions where the God is accepted as
the main authority people did not ask about their scriptures, as it is considered to be the word of the
God. In religions there are mediators to activate the religion – they act as representatives of the
God. Durkheim said, that religion is a unified system, where God has the supreme power. So, we
believe that God has the power, so we have to obey him. Man is always depending on the religion.
Mainly we can say that there are three features of the God:
1. Supremacy (being a Supreme being)
2. Omnipotence (having all kinds of power)
3. Omniscience (having all kinds of knowledge)

We have to follow the path of God, because we have no power:

God is like father ; men are like His children.
We have to do everything according to need of the God. We have to follow the directions
given by the gods. In religion we can see holy scriptures such as Bibble, Qur’ān and Veda. These
are the holy scriptures. They have come from the heaven. So, we cannot change them according to
the needs of the society.
Brāhmaṇas believe in ‘Bhusura’ and ‘Bhudeva’ as gods in the world. They act like
mediators , so, they convey the mesage to the man. Reverends are not servants of the God. In
religion we find performance of reituals and yāga. God expects yāgas twice a week. There are holy
places in religion. They are: church, mosque, synagogue and temples and we find material(?) too.
Religion has been built up on the blind faith (bhakti). There are two kinds of saddhā:
1) Amūlika saddhā (bhakti)
2) Ākāravati saddhā (wisdom(?))

Philosophy: phileo – sofia : love – wisdom

According to above words we can say that philosophy is love for wisdom. In philosophy
there is no place for faith (amūlika saddhā). Philosophy always aspires for higher thinking.
Philosophers did not believe in God. Philosophers always aanalyzed. Philosopher rejected
Brāhmaṇas’ classification of the society.
In philosophy we don’t find a leader and no teachers. We find only idea, but the teaching are
there in philosophy, no gods and no saviors. Everything is based on the man, max(?) discriminated
religion but not Buddhism. Philosophers are very honest. They speak truth. In philosophy the
believe is not considered. Philosophers don’t quarrel each other, just they show their ideas, and they

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don’t argue with others to establish their own. view.
Karl Marx criticized therems(?), but not the Buddhism. In Buddhism there is no God and
no Creation. Buddhism discusses current problems which are common to all beings. ‘Dukkha’ that
we all have, so, it is the duty of man to overcome suffering. Buddha said, that we all suffer.
There is no savior in Buddhism. But in Christianity we can find a savior. In Dīgha Nikāya
there is pointed out: »Tumhehi kiccaṃ atappaṃ.« That means that man had to work for his
enlightenment himself. In religion God can take to salvation.(?) There is no magic and no magical
power in Buddhism as well.39 In Buddhism we do not find magical power such as healing sick
people. According to the Buddhism one can attain Nibbāna in this life. Nibbāna is not a distant god,
as it was explained above, that Buddhism is not based on faith or devotion.
Buddhism is based on right or reasoning. It is very clear from Vīmaṅsaka Sutta in Majjhima
Nikāya. In Buddhism we have freedom to think our opinion.40 It is opened to all, anyone can
criticize. Alagaddūpama Sutta in Majjhima Nikāya has pointed out it very clearly. Neither
philosophy nor religion – at last, Buddhism says that it is just about leading a correct life.

39 Of course there are such things, but they are not included in the main teaching of the Buddha.
40 There is no real freedom of opinion in Buddhism, as we all must unconditionally believe in kamma – vipāka, next
birth, possibility to attain Nibbāna, opapātika beings etc. If we do not have the „right view“, we go to hell.

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 WHAT IS RELIGION?
The word „religion“ is derived from the Latin noun religio, which denotes both earnest
observance of ritual obligations and an inward spirit of reverence. In modern usage, „religion“
covers a wide spectrum of meanings that reflect the enormous variety of ways the term can be
interpreted. At one extreme, many committed believers recognize only their own tradition as a
religion, understanding expressions such as worship and prayer to refer exclusively to the practices
of their tradition. Although many believers stop short of claiming an exclusive status for their
tradition, they may nevertheless use vague or idealizing terms in defining religion—for example,
“true love of God,” or “the path of enlightenment.” At the other extreme, religion may be equated
with ignorance, fanaticism, or wishful thinking.

By defining religion as a sacred engagement with what is taken to be a spiritual reality, it is

possible to consider the importance of religion in human life without making claims about what it
really is or ought to be. Religion is not an object with a single, fixed meaning, or even a zone with
clear boundaries. It is an aspect of human experience that may intersect, incorporate, or transcend
other aspects of life and society. Such a definition avoids the drawbacks of limiting the
investigation of religion to Western or biblical categories such as monotheism (belief in one god
only) or to church structure, which are not universal. For example, in tribal societies, religion—
unlike the Christian church—usually is not a separate institution but pervades the whole of public
and private life. In Buddhism, gods are not as central as the idea of a Buddha (fully enlightened
human being). In many traditional cultures the idea of a sacred cosmic order is the most prominent
religious belief. Because of this variety, some scholars prefer to use a general term such as the
sacred to designate the common foundation of religious life.

Religion in this understanding includes a complex of activities that cannot be reduced to any
single aspect of human experience. It is a part of individual life but also of group dynamics.
Religion includes patterns of behavior but also patterns of language and thought. It is sometimes a
highly organized institution that sets itself apart from a culture, and it is sometimes an integral part
of a culture. Religious experience may be expressed in visual symbols, dance and performance,
elaborate philosophical systems, legendary and imaginative stories, formal ceremonies, meditative
techniques, and detailed rules of ethical conduct and law. Each of these elements assumes
innumerable cultural forms. In some ways there are as many forms of religious expression as there
are human cultural environments.

Religion, sacred engagement with that which is believed to be a spiritual reality. Religion is
a worldwide phenomenon that has played a part in all human culture and so is a much broader,
more complex category than the set of beliefs or practices found in any single religious tradition.
An adequate understanding of religion must take into account its distinctive qualities and patterns as
a form of human experience, as well as the similarities and differences in religions across human
cultures.

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DEFINITION OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. JAYANTA BOGODA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

There are number of definitions on the word “Religion.” Professor Lanba has mentioned 48
definitions in his book named “A Psychological Study of Religion” So it is very obvious that
religion has various definitions which are given by various scholars. Some well-known definitions
are as following:

1) Religion is the daughter of Hope and Fear. (By Ambrose Bierce).

2) Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul
of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. (By Karl Marx).
3) Religion is the belief of spiritual beings. (By Edward Tylor, anthologist).
4) Religion is what individual does not with his own solitariness. (By A.N. White Head).
5) Religion is a unified system of belief and practices, relative to sacred things. (By Émile
Durkheim, a sociologist).

There are various definitions given and introduced by several scholars including theistic,
atheistic, and materialists. In this point I tried to ask the lecturer in order to dispel my vague idea
but the lecturer said that one cannot be clear whether which the proper definition is. Those
definitions were given and interpreted according to different standpoints and circumstances by
Western scholars and East. Taking this aspect into account we can say that religion can be divided
into two kinds, i.e. 1) theistic religion and 2) atheistic religion.

Prof. Ninian Smart

Sir Ninian Smart is a well-known professor of philosophy of religion. He has given an

influential definitional approach to the religion. He has given 8 dimensions of the word “religion”
They are:

20. Religion is ritual or practical,

21. Religion is doctrinal or philosophical,
22. Religion is mythic and narrative,
23. Religion is experienced or emotional,
24. Religion is ethical or legal,
25. Religion is organizational or social,
26. Religion is material or artistic, and
27. Religion is political and economic.

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 DEFINITIONS OF „RELIGION“ (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NYĀNEINDA)

Definitions of religion from the scholars are that a ???. Dictionary defines „religion“ as
„commitment,“ „integrated system“ and „reverence.“ It is good to say that religion is spiritual and
also connected with the belief in a super-man life of God. A dictionary may see a religion as the
organization of the person in a religious order. Religion is accepted as the values and practices by
the order, based on the teaching of spiritual leader.
According to the point of view of the scholars, Max Weber pointed out that religion is not
an easy task and to say what it is. So it is not possible to start of a presentation such as a being.
Referring to this reason, he identified religion as a complex phenomenon. James Frazer defined
that religion consisted of two elements:
1. Belief in power higher than man,
2. Pleasing the belief.41
Johnston said that religion can be defined as a system of belief practiced by a group of
people toward their feeling a supernatural and sacred thing.
According to Emile Durkheim, religion then is a unified system of belief and practice
related to sacred and forbidden thing. By using the different definitions, the sociology has shown
four elements of religions. Thy are:
1. sacred things
2. system of belief
3. rituals
4. organization of belief

Karl Marx defined that religion is „the sigh of the oppressed creature,“ as „the opium of
people“ and „an illusory son.“ When people are feeling serious pain, they need someone to help
them to be comforted. Ludwig Feuerbach defined that in a negative perspective religion is a
dream, in which our own conception and emotion appear to ask as separate existence.

41 I think that it rather should be „pleasure from the belief,“ otherwise the above mentioned version doesn't make much
sense to me.

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 WHAT IS RELIGION? (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

A dictionary may define religion as a bond, obligation and relationship between two parties.
it goes on to say that religion is spiritual, and is also connected with „a belief in a super-human
God, who created the Universe and all life in it.“

(1) F. B. Tylor:
„The belief in spiritual things.“

(2) Ludvig Feurbach:

„Religion is a dream in which our own conceptions and emotions are to us as a separate existence
being out of ourselves.“

(3) Emile Durkheim:

„A religion is a unified system of belief and practices and related to sacred things that is to say
things set apart and forbidden. Beliefs and practices which unite into ??? ??? moral community
called a church, all those who adhere to them.

(5) James G. Frazie (anthropologist):

„Religion consists of two elements – abelief in powers higher than a man and attempt to please
them.“

(6) Johnstone:
„Religion can be defined as a system of beliefs and practices by which a group of people interpret
and responds who, what they lead as supernatural and sacred.“

(7) Max Weber

„About religions to say anything is not possible at a state of presentation such as this. Definition can
be attempted at all only at a conclusion of a study.“

Some scholars argue that religion is a premature science, which means that religions have
provided same theories to understand the nature and things itself. Religion provides answers to all
following questions:
1. Who am I?
2. Where do I come from?
3. Why am I here?
4. How did the world begin?
5. Am I important in this vast universe in which I live?
6. Why did some people suffer much more than others?
7. What will happen to me after I die?
8. Is there such a place like a heaven or hell?
9. What kind of a world I am living in?

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 WHAT IS RELIGION?42

Religion is not known clearly in languages and it is derivation(?) religion(?) and go(?)
means reputation of prayer. Another interpretation of religion is attachment, its original sense may
be the attachment or devotion to the god when this god is connected with devotion.
Various religious institutions belonging to various religions have been established all over
the world. Religious concepts can be understood in many dimensions and they seem to defect(?)
contradictory ideas. A particular religion is able to care for suffering of human beings, as well as it
may create new sorrowful condition also, in addition to prevalent miserable conditions of human
beings. Unsatisfactory nature of the human mind paves the way to create religion to calculate
spiritual quality to get rid of sorrows.
The history of humanity exemplified clearly, how religious concept grew some dangerous
results and they prevented right understanding, anyway in private society religions work as an
intellectual refuge for its mysterious experience. They comfort one's life. Religions provided
remarkable solace, spiritual and intellectual development, various people and various social groups
and society are the basis for adherence to a particular religion.
Some religious thought seems to be a voyage, for example the concept of god could not be
explained, otherwise religion is also the only concept that is free of death, the inevitable end of all
life. This happens when the concept of gods, heaven, mokṣa or Nibbāna is interpreted or leads to
future goals, particularly after death, the metaphysical nature beyond the world nature. These goals,
blessings of a religion is come when a man comes to absolute helplessness, religion is the only
solace available and it is the ultimate truth.
Religious teachings lead to humanity, however stand for explanation of everything. Man
could not explain otherwise, therefore people know how the life can be essential and incline to
religious thought. Human situation is also significant feature of devotion intelligence, the power of
transcendent thought. Although some religions have started as revolutionary quashes of illness, they
are hardly possible to fulfill that task.
Therefore it is an urgency needed to formulate them in new perspective. As the result of
establishment social institution in religious background people were interested in fulfilling their
mundane affairs. A religion may be instructed for the success of mundane affairs of society.
Anyway, the purpose of religion are not mundane affairs.
Finally as well as working places or schools and other institutions in this sense also empty
rituals and ceremonies are effective as they produce good habits. So we can understand that religion
is very important for human society.

42 Above this „What is religion“ in the original there was a Question: „Explain the resin call the imagines of write
religion concept say path definition of sociology on religion.“ It sounds rather like a riddle than like a question. The
sentence does not give any sense, even though I try to think hard and use most of my brain I do not understand it.

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 ELEMENTS OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

1. Sacred objects and places

2. A system of belief
3. Rituals
4. An organization of believes

Dimension – differences separate; characteristics; attributes

Ninian Smarts recognized eight aspects in a religion. These are intended to apply for all
religions:
1. Rituals and practices
2. Doctrine and philosophy
3. Magic and narrative
4. Experiences and emotions
5. Ethics and law
6. Organization and society
7. Materiality and art
8. Relativity and economy

Those dimensions held to characterize religions as they exist in the world. Religions differ in
their emphasis on these dimensions.
They may differ within a single religious faith, for instance, the doctrinal and legal aspects
of Islam and Judaism are well developed. On the other hand societies are without written scriptures.
Emphasis the role of myths, rituals and rites within Christianity some branches place great emphasis
on personal experience and emotions, on the other hand, some more focus at laws and rituals, and
have in many places a highly developed material and artistic dimensions. For example, churches,
music, economic, symbols, buildings etc.

There are two types of religions in the world. They are as follows:
1. Primitive religions (lower)
2. World religions (higher)

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 ORIGIN OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. JAYANTA BOGODA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

According to the theistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Muslim – religion was born
with man. The first man “Adam” was created by God and the first woman is “Eva” it is said that they had
seen and talked with God; it implies that the first man and woman had relationship with their created God.
Therefore, we can conclude that religion was born with man. But scientists do not believe this theistic
interpretation of origin of Religion.
When Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published his controversial account of human evolution “The
Origin of Species” and again in 1871, he published another book titled “The Descent of Man” by those two
books Darwin appeared to claim that human beings were descended from apes, and to leave no room for God
in his account natural selection and species adaptation. Where was the order in creation of a random
interaction between the natural environment and ecological organisms led to the variety of living creature
now in existence? While Darwin’s ideas appeared as and affront, the notion of social evolution (later known
as social Darwinism) was well established by the 1870s, and much less objectionable.
Contrary evidence of Charles Darwin’s ideas, Herbert Spencer said that religion arose from the
observation that in dreams the self can leave the body. The human person therefore has a dual aspect, and
after death the spirit or soul continues to appear to living descendants in dreams. The ghost of remote
ancestors or prominent figures eventually acquired the statues of gods. The widespread practices of pouring
libations on the graves of ancestors and offering them food developed into sacrifices for the gods. Ancestor
worship was therefore at the root of every religion.
British anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor, who gave the anthropology of religion some of its key
terminology, agreed with Spencer’s social evolutionary views and his notion of the dream origin of religion.
Tylor, however, preferred to emphasize the role of the soul in his account of religious origins, giving rise to
term animism to describe the belief that animate and inanimate objects, as well as human beings, can have a
soul (or life force and personality). The term is still used with different nuances as a general descriptive term
for “primitive,” “indigenous,” or “tribal” religions.

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) was from a London Quaker family (which,
due to the religious tests still in operation, prevented him from attending a university)
and came to anthropology by chance. He traveled to Mexico and the United States for
the sake of his health, and became fascinated by the lives of indigenous Inhabitants.
On the basis of his observations, Tylor formulated his theories of ancient and simple
societies, which were published in numerous works; including Primitive Culture
(1871) in the year in which he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1884 he
became a Reader in Anthropology at Oxford University, the first recognized university
position in anthropology in English-speaking world. In Primitive Culture Tylor
developed the notion of three stages of social evolution from:
Animism polytheism monotheism

Tylor also formulate a concept of culture (which was to become influential in the
USA) and the notion of diffusion, the transmission across time and space of culture
elements or traits. Where these elements commonly coincided they were referred to as
adhesions. Supposedly primitive traits found in a more “advanced” society were
though to be survivals form an earlier evolutionary stage.

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PRE-HISTORIC RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. JAYANTA BOGODA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Pre history is a term used to describe the period before written history. Pre historic religion
means the religious believes and practices of pre-historian man.
The literate period started about 3000 B.C. in the world. The main difficulty to approach pre-
historical religion is the absence of written resources. Therefore, we study pre-historic religion; we
have to get the assistant of silent survivals in the past such as bone material, stone figures, stone
arrangements, and rock drawings; these silent materials seem as connected with religion. Therefore,
the survivals and evidences can be identified through following lines:
10) Burial place,
11) Burial finds,
12) Remains of disposition of offerings,
13) Remains of construction such as Altars and Temples,
14) Representation of spirit and cultic figure such as image and rock paintings,
15) Rock drawings and cave idols.

The pre-historical man lived with hunting, food-gathering and fishing but historical man basically
was a farmer.

Note: The end of this species-lecture; the lecturer provided us a short paragraph under following;

1. Stone Age
Pre-history: 2. Bronze Age
3. Iron Age

The Stone Age is divided again into three periods, as following;

1) Paleolithic Stone - Lower
The Stone Age 2) Mesolithic Stone - Middle
3) Neolithic Stone - Upper

Explaining difficult words

Paleolithic [¸pæ liə’ li θik] (adj) from or connected with the early part of Stone Age.

Mesolithic [`məzə ` li θik] (adj) of the part of the Stone Age between the Paleolithic and Eolithic
period.
Neolithic [,ni: ə `li θik] (adj) of the later part of the Stone Age.

6) Origin of Religion of early China, America and Africa

Many pre-historians have assumed that Peking man who lived about half a million years ago
(500,000) had some concepts of religion or magic in his cave near Chou Kov Tien in China; he

255
assembled human’s skull, which were broken at the foreman magnum (it is the species of the brain)
this gives easy access to brain and it would seem that Peking man extracted out and ate the brain; if
this was the case pre-historians can never be sure. The motive was the religious and magic rather
than for food, Peking man has many animals to hunt. Such cannibalism usually implied the
cooperation of the dead man vigor and power.

Pre-historians have found similar skulls arrangements form North America in historical
Times, the circle of buffalo skulls on the planes which were important in worship and they had also
discovered of circle mammoth skulls in Russia and the Ukraine also similar evidences. The
Balangoda man (in Sri Lanka) also had practiced some Burial arrangements of their dead people.

Neanderthal man buried his dead with proper ceremonies and he seems to have believed in
some kinds of life after death. In the cave of Shanidara in Iran, a dead person was buried under
earth heap of stones resting on bed decorated many flowers. In Turkistan, a child was buried
surrounded by fire pairs of horns of the mountain goat placed in a circle. In Italy, a cave contains a
human skull within a small circle of stones.

Modern Man
The burial custom gives evidences of a clear belief in life after death; a skeletons found from
South-East France, Italy and Russia proved that the dead people were buried their most precious
property (no doubt, they thought to take it with them to another world.

7) Origin of Religion in Early India

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 ORIGIN OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA; ORIGINAL FROM VEN. TEJANIYA)

The answer for what is the religion depends on what view is taken from which person.
According to the Bible religion was not eventual, but discovered by man from the day of his
creation. Man knew the one creator God, who had made him to worship Him.
The original religion was a form of monotheism. According to the evolutionist theory, the
creation is denied, as there is the view, that the man evolved from ancestors. According to E. B.
Tylor, the original form of religion was a kind of animism. This view represented the belief in a
vague, terrifying force. Then that view developed in animism.
Modern anthropological and sociological researches into the origins of religions have
brought to light astounding propositions, conclusions. The old orthodox view had been that
religious truths were revealed by some supra-cosmic, divine agency at the beginning of creation or
at some particular time to some prophets. Christianity and Islam also accepted the revelation of their
religious teachings to Jesus and Mohammad. But philosophers of religion in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries began to challenge authenticity of revelation at the specific time and place.
Modern cosmology has destroyed the foundation of the physical world-view of religions. To
conceive that the creation of the world took place at a certain date appears too unreliable to students
of physics. Freudian psycho-analysis is another terrific challenge to traditionally venerate gods,
legends and myths. Freud would be repelled by the notion, that God created man in his own image.
He, to the contrary, would sponsor that religious symbols are the projections of man's psychic
demands.
Modern anthological/anthropological(?), sociological and psychological researches also
emphasize ancestors-worship or magic of the known and unknown forces of nature or the fear of
capital (in Lenin's view) as the source of religious belief and practice.
Durkheim regarded God as only the symbolic magnification and transfiguration of society
and in his view the clan was identified with an animal or a plant conceived as the totemic divinity.
According to his view rites, cults, and secret beliefs of society were the original religions. Khama
also accepted, that the religion was unmated(?) souse(?) needs in the original form of religion.
The problems of the origin of religions are the main controversial issues of social science.
Religion has been variously defined. Broadly speaking, it can be defined as a belief in the spiritual
value of things.
The anthological investigations into the origins of religion are more applicable to the Indu
Valley religion and the earliest of the strata of the Vedic religions than to the Tipiṭaka Buddhism.

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 THE ORIGIN OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NYĀNEINDA)

What is the original religion of the man? To answer this question, it depends on what view is
taken of the man's origin. According to the Bible, religion was not discovered by the man. After
creation the man knew the one creator, the God, who had made him. Then man paid respect to this
God to be satisfied. So the origin of religion was a form of monotheism. According to the
evolutionary theory, the creation is denied and the view starts with that the man evolved from
ancestors. According to E. B. Tylor the original form of religion was a kind of animism. Therefore,
a view represented by a belief in a vague terrifying force developed in animism.
According to Sigmund Freud, a father was assassinated by his own son, because that son
wanted to monipolize all females of the tribe. That incident led son to feel guilty after that murder
of this father. The father then became „a totem,“ so Freud regards to it as the original form of
religion. According to anthropologists, the religion of the hundred of isolated tribes such as a belief
in the creator, God, with the form of male also was not primitive in the sense of being original. But
according to some scholars, they said that God was introduced later than the concept of goddess
Venus too.
According to sociological theory, they view the various human interaction rather than
individual need. Therefore the faith was the first of all the relationships between interaction and
individual need. The basic faith in human relation is born from the security given to a child by his
parents. According to Durkheim, it is mentioned that the rite, cult and belief of society are the
original characteristic of religion. Regarding to the origin of religion, Karl Marx asserted that the
religion was invented by the man as a social need. To developing the origin of religion, scarify(?),
myths, priests, rituals and religious places were very important too.

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 QUESTION: EXAMINE THE RELIGION OF PRE-HISTORIC MAN (CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGION)

Characteristics of early initial stage and subsequent stage when one pushing(?) back into
human pre-history, one can speculate about the predecessor, which leads to speculate about origin
and characteristics of human religion.
It is very difficult to infer religious thought of primitive society from bones or feeling(?)
fragments of skeletons partly touched by fire.
Some scholars incline to infer the beginning of religion from hunters(?) gather(?) like
Australian aborigines. That effort is also unsuccessful. Because people had lived for many centuries
and necessarily undergone changes. Anyway we can learn something from hunting and gathering
society.

There had been very divergent patterns of rituals and believes through the very cultures and
were developing after 3 000 BC in Australia, Africa and Europe and later in America. In this
regions there is a brilliant display of rocks and carved paintings of which cows, horses, crows and
eagles, vibrate(?) of ancient(?) sun(?) forces and sometimes there are figures and arrows of the
hunters.
These pictures are mysterious to interpret and sometimes they are buried in the recesses of
the ground like painted wombs in the Mother Earth. This is mimic skill of ancient human, but we
possess no record, we can only guess from these great artistic endeavors.
So it is that question about the initial stage of religion. Anyhow, one of the famous authors
Sir Jame Frason saw a creation evolution of idea beginning with the use of the magic which used a
secret formula trying to cohere the operation of nature and leading to religion which sought
satisfaction to propitiate unseen forces in the man's view. This way of dealing with the world were
replaced in the modern time, which is the most rational and effective way of harnessing the power
of nature. Edward Tylor, early anthropologist saw premature religion conceiving early in the
believe in practices toward spirits. He claimed that animism pertained to religions belonging to
premature society.
Often this powers referred to a kind of some correct(?) powers, hearing and anything unsure,
an unsure human a chief a beautiful woman.(?)
It was a theory that religion first started with believe in man, then progressed in believe in
moral(?) personal(?) is(?) spirits(?), then moved into polytheism where the(?) goes(?) cure(?)
even(?) fully(?) personal life and then into monotheism and atheism.

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 PRE-HISTORIC RELIGION

Most religions are known to us through written sources. Pre-history means that we are
dealing with the time before recorded history that is before there were written records about myths,
rituals and beliefs. The literate era started about 3 000 BC in the old world. So we may designate all
religions before 3 000 BC as pre-history.
It was believed that there had been an original non-religious phase (period) in human
history. But it is proved to be false because some groups appeared to have belief in life after death.
So man's religious idea was born during the time when man first appeared. Even though w don't
have any written scriptures of pre-historic man, there are some materials found connected to pre-
history. They are:
1. Burial places and burial finds
2. Depositions of offerings
3. Deities and cultural figures (carved idols, rock-paintings, rock-drawings)
4. Remains of constructions, such as temple religious premises (places)

Pre-historic religion was organized around the perspectives of hunters, food gatherers,
features, fishermen or early farmers. Pre-history religions were at home in a small scale, tribal
societies where one family of kin-groups, means(?) a small organizations.
It can be assumed that pre-historic man had a religion or a form of religion. However, their
religious ideas if anyone unknown to other, many historians have assumed that Peiking man who
lived about half a million years ago had some concept of religion or magic in his cane/cave(?) near
Chuetien(?). He assembled human skulls which were broken. This gives easy access to the brain
and it would seem that Peiking man extracted and ate the brain if this was the case, the motive was
religious or magical rather than for food. He had many animals to hunt. Cannibalism, when
practiced in present day present society usually implies the incorporation of the dead man's power.
Neanderthal man was buried after his death with proper ceremonies and he seems to have
believed in some kind of life after death in a cave of Iraq.(?) A death person was buried undr a heap
of stones resting on a bed of many flowers. A cave in Italy contains a human skull within a small
circle of stones, so the skull buries(?) continued(?) throughout the pre-historic period.(?)
The modern man, Homo Sapiens, had a developed religious idea, such as totemism, belief in
a high God, ancestors' worship and bear/bare(?) nature worship. The burial customs give evidence
of a clear belief in life after death. The death with their precious property, no doubt, thought to take
it with them to another world. A figure called Venus had been found in Siberia. It is known as the
'mother goddess'. The parts of the body which served sexual and child bearing functions from the
breasts, the hips, the buttocks, the tribal caste one(?) enlarged but little attention was paid to the
face, the arms and legs – she was supposed to represent the god of fertility, growth and fruitfulness.
But we can assume that there were some male gods, but they were not depicted because the
supreme being was never represented in art.43 For example, the sky-god was not easy to picture.

(type of muti(?)-gods belief, therefore, led to the sake(?) God belief, later Christianity and Islam)44

43 That is not true. In Roman, Greek and in many, many other religions the supreme God or the supreme being was
depicted.
44 This illegible sentence was written by hand under the typed text. It doesn't seem to be important, but anyway, it's
here.

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 PRE-HISTORICAL RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NYĀNEINDA)

Pre-historic means „the time before recorded history.“ There were written records about
religion developing in ancient civilization of China. The period of the record starts about 3000 years
BC. Therefore all religions before 3000 BC are called pre-historical. Earlier there was thought that
there was a non-religious phase in human history. But there is not evidence to prove it. We then can
say that religious consciousness was born during the time when the people appeared in the world.
According to the animal scientists, they point out that religious behavior can be seen in animals'
actions too. But it is very difficult to accept that opinion.
The main of pre-historical religion is laid down the reading sources by the historians to
mention.(?) In the history of mankind, the historians referred to the remaining things such as bones,
stones, rock caves, paintings, drawings, burial places, figures and so on. In pre-history, the mans'
action was rather hunting, food gathering, farming and also catching fish. In other word, at that time
for their religion the people worshiped big trees and offered meant at home in a small scale. The
leader of the tribal society with the family was also dominant in the aspect of celebrations and
instructing others according to the tradition.
There is the image of goddess Venus from about 25,000 BC. At that time most people paid
respect to her. Her pre-historical images can be found from France to Eastern Siberia. The parts of
this image look very sexy. The breasts, hips and the buttock are large and the attention to sculpt this
image was paid to the face, the arms and the legs more than other parts. Therefore this image was
supposed to represent fertility and fruitfulness. This is the first time to mention a female form of
goddess. In Romania the archaeologists found a snake goddess. The snake was the fertility symbol.
In historical time in Europe, India and China there was another fertility god representing the cult of
bull. That belief was spread in the Middle Eastern world.

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 CONCEPTS OF HISTORIC (PRIMITIVE) RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

God
Primitive people believed in a large number of gods each dwelling over a family, clan,
village or certain area such as a river or a mountain. This belief has been called belief to a certain
god while worshiping the others. Most primitive people believed in one supreme high god who was
the first source of existence. These gods were generally connected, in the same way, dead ancestors.
After death they had to become Gods.

Man and Universe

Primitive trusted the universe was under control of a god. Droughts, illnesses and deaths
were threaded of primitive man. His religion provided him a feeling of security and control. It was
thought that ancestors and gods associated with them controlling human testing(?). many primitive
people prefer that to follow customs and rituals without knowing why the tradition was told to be
working in the past.

Salvation and after-life

Primitive religions teach us that a savior will come on a day to bring salvation generally
related to a group and to this world. There is little doctrine concerning the next life. A primitive
man expects to merge with his ancestors in another world. When he dies the other world isn't
vividly described and it is just full of trouble and confuse in this world.

Morality
Primitive people had developed codes of conduct to be suited to their tradition. The
members of the group had to adhere codes of conducts. In many basic areas, moral standards are
much the same throughout the world. Lying, cheating, stealing and murdering are generally
forbidden, but those rules are applied only within a group. Primitive morality is thus largely a
matter of transition of acting in ways that will benefit oneself and community. Since usually it was
that meritorious deeds were appreciated.

Worship
Worship has the purpose of binding members of the community together in a sense of
community purpose. Totemism used of certain animals, plants and even human artifacts such as
skulls to contact the spiritual world, idolatry (worshiping an image) was a developed way of
worship, most after these are symbolic.(?)

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 RELIGION AND SCIENCE (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON)

Today we are living in the age of science. Everything that is scientific appeals us and we
accept it as true. Scientific development have provided in our hands such tools and instruments that
we can secure the good life in all its aspects.
Science is a systematic knowledge. By scientific knowledge we mean that what is certain,
exact and fully organized, a real knowledge. Religion is not opposed to knowledge, rather it is
complementary to knowledge. Science aims at all-round development of a person and it provides
happy living, which does the religion too. However, there are some differences between religion
and science.
Science is the complete and consistent description of the fact of experience in the simplest
possible terms. On the other hand a man of religion takes faith, aspiration, truth etc. as his religious
experiences. The subjective experiences of religion help to get intensive knowledge. Therefore
science is an objective field and religion.
But these differences should not lead us to suppose that the two are opposed to each other.
Science and religion differ with regard to problems, attitudes, methods, activities and effects, but
they have many elements in common. Both search for truth and seek to explain life and the world.
Religion is the revealed word of God that we find in the scriptures of the world; and science is the
revealed word of Nature that we see in the real things of the world.
In the modern era, great physicists like James Jeans and Eddington have proved that even
after the science have gone to the furthest extent of their investigations the main world's problem
remain still unsolved and apart from religious reflection it is not possible to say the last word on the
nature and the significance of reality.
Another scientist Sir Oliver Lodge says: „Science which began as the arch-enemy of
religion, has ended by becoming her humblest hand-maiden.“ Albert Einstein did not condemn the
religious impulse as such. According to him science can neither confirm nor deny the existence of
God.

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 RELIGION IN THE MODERN WORLD
(Discuss the necessity of a religious philosophy for the modern world and explain why
Buddhism has found its suitability – importance of religion in the modern world, special attention to
Buddhism)
In the ancient world religion was the single factor that greately influenced the life of the
people. Religion and its practice was a part and parcel of day-to-day life of all. It covered not only
the spiritual aspects but also vast range of other aspects including even arts. Science, ascetic and
other forms of righteous enjoyment but with the passage of time modern action religion has lost it
wide spreading in perform as force that influence the lives of the people.(?)
In modern times religion has been isolated on a particular institution, wich no direct social
authority for any other institution as legal, economic or political. Many other separate social
institutions have arisen divesting religion of their functions and then replacing religion and these
new institutions themselves taking for the role civil religion.(?) Unlike before where religion was a
collective possession and it have bbecome a totally private affair. Individuals are now in practice of
adapting themselves to religious ideals.
The modern world is a very compere(?) one. On the one hand it has almost recalled the peak
of its development in science and technology. If many in available people are able to creat heaven
on earth. But this on the other hand has led the people forget social value, moral behavior, mutual
respect and understanding and so on. The whole life is full of competition, rivalry, tension, anxiety
and worry. With the unprecedented material development was has lot enslaved to a life of luxury
and comfort, and everyone is enjoying in a mad rat-race to reach the top of success.(?)
In a situation where one is in control of everything except oneself, Buddhist teaching on
supreme way of man and its admonition as the peaceful control of one’s mind and oneself becomes
very relevant. So, in the freedom of thought and investigation taught in Buddhism it is very relevant
and applicable to the modern world where everybody is led by the other. No one thinks by himself,
but blindly follows what he is made to believe. In such a context, Kālāma Sutta’s teching is very
important.
It is time for the modern world to rethink their utter scriptures, the habit of blindly following
what they are told, and about the bent towards running after wealth and pleasure and adopt the
simple, balanced, enlightened life taught in Buddhism.

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 QUESTION: DISCUSS THE COMMON FACTORS THAT ARE SIGNIFICANT IN THEO-CENTRIC RELIGIONS IN THE EAST AND
WEST
Almost all religions but Buddhism were based on the belief in gods. And so some common
factors which bear similarities among themselves can be seen when we come to the study and
comparison of the teachings of these Theo-centric religions which equally bear the matter of the
concept of God, heaven and hell.
Out of the four major religions of the world, excluding Buddhism three of them which are
Hinduism. Christianity and Islam will be worth consideration in this issue. Of the three Hinduism of
the East is the oldest religion without having first originated or founded on basic religious texts. It
has been developed spontaneously at various stages of civilization. Generally Hinduism includes
varying beliefs, practices. The belief in many gods in the early stage of Hinduism paved the way to
the belifs in one single god, monotheistic beliefs which are common amon g Christianity and Islam.
God in Hinduism is believed by Hindus to be above time and space and eternal and infinite.
But he has three aspects within him – the creative, the preservative and the destructive. His creative
aspect is personified as Brahmā, the presentative aspect as Viṣnu and the destructive aspect as Śiva.
These three aspects are so often taken as the three deities. Although within the one supreme Lord.
Viṣnu and Śiva (Maheś) therefore constitute what may be the Hindu Trinity. This Trinity signifies
that God, Brahmā in his different aspects is responsible for all the three acts of creating, sustaining
and dissolving or destroying the world.
In Christianity, God is the Creator, Sustainer and Destroyer of the world. Islam believes in
one and only one God, called Allah. It is regarded as omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent45.
The theory of creation of the world is also known in the history of Genesis of Christianity which is
related in the Old Testament of the Bible. According to this story the world was created by the God
within six days. On the 7th day this synchronizes the end of the cross of creation and finally he
created men. The world is created in time by God and may end at anytime according to God’s will.
The creation theory in the Qur’ān of Islam is also similar to that of Christianity.
In addition to monotheism and the theory of creation, the teachings of soul theory played a
significant role as well. In Hinduism -soul- is the essential nature of man, which transmits as an
immortal subsistence. This transmitting soul is regarded as the bondage which begets continued
suffering. Liberation from this soul of world is real goal of man. Christianity and Islamism believe
in immortality of soul and therefore believe in a life after death too.
The above mentined contextas show us clearly the most common, significant factors in the
said(?), famous Theo-centric religions of the world.

45 Instead of ‘omnipresent’ in the original there was written ‘all mysterious’, which is of course also true, but then the
important aspect ‘omnipresent’ would be missing, whereas the not-important aspect ‘all mysterious’ would be
present...

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QUESTION: EXAMINE THE REASON FOR THE RAPID EXPANSION OF PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF THE BUDDHA IN INDIA

During the advent of the Buddha and after his demise(?) Buddhism was expanding very
rapidly and it has become very popular among the indian community. During the advent of the
Buddha various categories of religious performance and philosophical speculations were prevailing
in Indian society. Approximately 62 dogmas were active in Indian society at that time. Those
religious dogmas were regarded as heretical, as those which taught wrong views. These religious
teachings were very familiar among the Indian community of that time. Buddhism comes into being
amidst these religious environments. Anyway, the people were exhausted practicing these religious
ideas which caused the emergence of Buddhist thought.

Although the Buddha introduced his message in Pāli language, the Buddha considered his
disciples to teach Buddha-Dhamma in provincial languages, which led also to the rapid expansion
of Buddhism. At that time two monks named Yamelu and Tekula requested the Buddha to
concede them to preach Buddha-Dhamma in Sanskrit only. But Buddha did not approve it as he
wished that anyone may teach Buddha-Dhamma in his own language, which was a significant result
for rapid expansion of Buddhism.

When some teachers of that time taught how to succeed the worldly life only, some of them
taught only how to succed in the next life only. But the Buddha taught how to succeed in the
household life and preached the method how to detach from the world – that was also very popular
teaching at that time. The specific social structure of the time also made people exhausted. Brahmin
caste was regarded as the highest and deprived other lower castes such as sūdra and women. The
Buddhism rejected the caste systém and said that one is one's own master. This social philosophy
also can be considred as a reason for the rapid expansion of Buddhism.

Middle pathe as an exceptional path leading to emancipation was also one of the reason to
popularity of Buddhism, because the extreme paths leading to emancipation which were introduced
by Jainism and Brahmanism were unsatisfactory. Most of religious persons who practices
austerities as a method of self-mortification and luxurious life as a method of self-indulgence were
unsatisfactory ways of life (anassasika), which never led them to get rid of wordly bondages. Many
religious persons inclined to follow the middle path.

Simplicity and moderate nature of Dhamma was attracted by common poeple. Buddha
avoided philosophical problems and emphasized the moral aspect of religion which was very
popular among the common people who were more confused than enlightened by the philosophycil
discourses of contemporary thinkers. Buddha's systém has avoided extreme types of asceticism and
self-mortification.

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 GREEK CIVILIZATION (LECTURED BY MR. JAYANTA BOGODA) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The Greek civilization was started 2800 B.C. it is a combination of “Minoan” and
“Mycenaean” civilization. Minoan civilization is the first step of Greek Civilization; Minoan people
were very famous in shipping and they were very clever carpenter especially they were famous in
fishing. Fishing also was a main part of their lives and sometimes, they were sporters. In 1400 B.C.
Minoans were defeated by Mycenaean. But Mycenaean period was limited only 2300 years.
In 1100 B.C. Dorian invaded Greek and defeated Mycenaean. The Dorian ruling was also
limited only to 300 years. Dorian period was dark period to the Greece. Assassination and
struggling could be seen common to that period. Around 800 B.C. the provincial leaders started to
emerge, as a result of that Greece civilization took a new start. There provincial leaders and their
people introduced themselves and Hellenes and Greeks then Greece state polis. There were number
of small states called Polis among them Sparta and Athens were most powerful cities. The Pericles
period is normally believed as the golden period of Greece. In this period (430 B.C.) we can clearly
observe that there was Polytheism among the Greek people.

Greek Theology

Greek religion is a collection of believes and rituals practices in ancient Greek; in the form of
popular public religion and the cult practices; there are different cities and different deities
worshiping and many Greek people recognized 14 major Gods and goddesses. They are:-

5. Zeus and Hera

6. Poseidon and Phallas Athena
7. Ares and Aphrodite
8. Phoebus and Hestia
9. Hephaestus and ??

Ancient Greek theology was polytheism; it means they believed many gods and goddesses
and there we can see hierarchies of deities among these numbers of gods Zeus was the king of gods
and he had a control power over all others. Each deity had dominant over certain aspect of nature.
For example, Poseidon ruled over the sea and the earthquakes and Hyperion ruled over the sun;
others ruled over an abstract concept. For example, Eros controlled cove and scholars divided these
pantheon into three groups of all Greek gods and goddesses namely;

j. Olympian God
k. Lesser God
l. Primordial God

1) Olympian deities

The most powerful gods were known as Olympian gods; there were 11 in number. It is said
those Olympian abided on the top of the Mount Olympian.

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Those 11 in pairs are:

Greek Roman

Male God Female God Male God Female God

1. Zeus Hera Jupiter Juno

2. Poseidon Pallas Athena Neptune Minerva
3. Ares Aphrodite Mars Venus
4. Phoebus Apollo Artemis Apollo Diana
5. Hephaestus Hestia Vulcan Vesta
6. Hermes Demeter Mercury Ceres

2) Lesser Gods

Lesser Gods were somewhat related to Olympian gods but lesser gods were not treated as
great as Olympians. One of the most popular lesser god was Dionysus (another name for him is
Bacchus), he was the god of wind and spiritual ecstasy and he was a son of Zeus.

Another lesser god was Pan. He was horned god of shepherds and folk music and another
goddess was Hecate – a goddess of witchcraft and crossroads.

Greek people believed that there is a possibility for a mortal human to become immortal
god. The lesser god Heracles was a good example for that; his father was God-Zeus and his mother
was mortal woman but Heracles finally was able to become an immortal god by doing many heroic
deeds and through his semi-divine heritage.

3) Primordial Gods

The third group of deities was primordial deities. These were considered to be the first to
deity and they were not popular as Olympian gods. For example, Chaos and goddess Gaya (Earth
goddess) are primordial deities.

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 THE GREEK AND ROMAN GOD (RETYPED BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY FROM PAPER GIVEN BY MR. JAYANTA
BOGODA) (2009)

The Greeks and Romans worshipped twelve great gods and goddesses. Hidden form human view,
their abode was on Mount Olympus. It was never shaken by the winds or wet with rain. These twelve
divinities were in six pairs. Each divinity had many attributes and was honored with temples and festivals.

Greek Roman

Male God Female God Male God Female God

1. Zeus Hera Jupiter Juno

2. Poseidon Pallas Athena Neptune Minerva
3. Ares Aphrodite Mars Venus
4. Phoebus / Apollo Artemis Apollo Diana
5. Hephaestus Hestia Vulcan Vesta
6. Hermes Demeter Mercury Ceres

Zeus or Jupiter, meaning the bright sky, was the King of Heaven and had numerous surnames,
titles, attributes, and seats of worship. He had power over everything and was called the father of gods and
men. His throne was of gold and ivory. The oak tree was sacred to him. One of the Seven Wonders of the
World was the colossal statue of the god made of ivory and gold. The throne was adorned with gold, ivory,
ebony, and precious stones. His chief attributes were the sceptre, thunderbolt, eagle, and a figure of victory.
Hera or Juno was the Queen of Heaven. One of her chief functions was to preside over married life.
The mint was in her temple at Rome. The peacock, the goose, the crow, and the goat were sacred to her. The
poppy and the lily were among her favourite flowers.
Poseidon or Neptune was the God of the Sea. He had a trident with which he could cause
earthquakes and produce islands. One of his titles was Earth-Shaker. His horse with brazen hoofs and golden
manes were kept in his palace which was in the deep sea.
Pallas Athena or Minerva as the Goddess of Wisdom and War and patroness of all
accomplishments and arts, including spinning and weaving. She was jealous of her powers. She was the
protectress of schools. When schoolboys had holidays during one of her festival at Rome, they brought gifts
for their master. The owl, the serpent, the cock and olive tree were sacred to her. The spider was hateful to
her. One of the most magnificent pieces of architecture in the world called the Parthenon was the temple at
Athens dedicated to the goddess.

Ares or Mars was the God of War and was called the Avenger. There are several forms of the name
Mars. Greater homage was paid to him by the Romans than by the Greeks. He was the father of Romulus,
the founder of Rome. The wolf was sacred to him. A remarked piece of architecture called the Pantheon was
the temple at Rome dedicated to Mars and Venus. It was circular in shape with a magnificent dome 142 ½
feet in diameter.

Aphrodite of Venus was the Goddess of Love and Beauty. She had numerous surnames. One of her
titles was Queen of Language. Eros, known to the Romans as Cupid, was her son. Her chariot was drawn by
a team of doves. Several animals, such as the ram and the deer, were sacred to her. Her favourite plant was
the myrtle. The famous statue of Venus found in the year 1820 in the island of Melos, the modern Milo, is
called Venus of Milo.

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 Phoebus Apollo or Apollo was identified with Helios, the Sun God, called Sol by the Romans. He
was the patron especially of athletics, medicine, music, poetry and prophecy. The dolphin, the griffin, the
wolf, the mouse, the laurel crown, the bow, the lyre and the tripod were associated with him. He was in the
trinity of high divinities Zeus and Athena.

Artemis or Diana was the Goddess of Hunting and patroness of unmarried girls. She was the female
counterpart of Apollo and had many attributes, among which were fruitfulness and childbirth. She was also
identified with the Moon Goddess Selene, called Luna by the Romans. Various animals were sacred to her.
One of the Seven Wonders of the World was her grand temple at Ephesus.

Hephaestus or Vulcan was the God of Fire and patron of metal workers. He was also known as
Mulciber. He was lame from his birth. He had a forge under Mount Aetna in Sicily. He built the palaces of
the gods. His workmen were the Cyclopes, a race of giants with a circular eye in the middle of their
foreheads.

Hestia or Vesta was the goddess of the hearth and was a maiden deity. The hearth represented
domestic life and happiness. In her temple burned a fire which was never extinguished. If it was, it had to be
lit with fire drawn from the rays of the sun or caused by friction. The extinction of the fire was prophetic of
disaster.

Hermes or Mercury was the Messenger of the Gods. As such he was the God of Eloquence. He
carried a staff and wore golden sandals with wings. He was the patron of tradesmen and travellers. Since he
was crafty, thieves prayed to him for protection.

Demeter or Ceres was the Goddess of Corn, Harvests and Agriculture. She wore a garland or corn-
ears or a riband and carried a sceptre or a torch and a basket.

The powers of these divinities were distributed by Zeus and his brothers Poseidon and Hades and a
division of the world. That is how Poseidon got the sea. Hades, also called Pluto, became the God of the
Nether World which was the world of the dead, a gloomy, sunless region within the earth where the shades
of the departed resided. Hades was also known as Dis and Orcus to the Romans. The region itself thus came
to be called Hades or Orcus. Another name was Erebus. The entrance to Hades was Lake Avernus.

There were also numerous other deities who performed special services. Mountain, meadow, stream,
and grove also had their divinities. In addition, there were household gods of the state as well as the private
family. The state gods had a temple in Rome. The spirits of departed ancestors kept watch in every house.
The good spirits of the departed were the special protectors of families.

The domestic deities were worshipped at the hearth where a fire burned all the time. There were
daily prayers and offerings of food from the table for them. They were garlanded and sacrifices were made to
them at important family gatherings.

The Romans worshipped the household gods along with Vesta. The worship of household gods
seems to have arisen from an ancient custom according to which the Romans buried their dead in their
houses, and the spirits gave their blessings to the living descendants by being their guardians. The Greeks
combined the worship of the household gods with that of the greater gods.

The Greek gods differed from mankind in three important ways: they were immoral and did not
grow old and had superior power. But they were human in form and had the same human feelings. The
Greeks believed that the realities were seen. Roman religion was influenced very considerably by the

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religious ideas of the Greeks.

The Concept of After-life or hereafter

The Greek believed in an under world where the spirit of dead person went after a funeral; if a
funeral was never performed the spirit of dead would never reach to under the world and such a person’s
spirit would haunt as a ghost forever. One of the most wide spread areas of under the world as known as
Hades and this was ruled by a god, also called Hades and the second realm of under the world is called
Tartarus. Tartarus was the place where the damned (sinned person) thought to go a place of torment. The
third realm of the under world held Elysium it was pleasant place where virtual dead dwelling.

THE ANCIENT RELIGIONS OF GREECE AND ROME (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NYĀNEINDA)

The ancient history of Greece was over 6000 years. But the last 2000 years the language of
Greece appeared. On the other hand, the ancient history of Rome began in the eighth century BC.
Latin language appeared in Rome in 5th century AD. The life-style of Greeks and Romans depended
on the trade in the sea-way. The wanderers of the Greece used positions of planets in the sky which
guided them to the particular place in the sea. Because of this mark, in Greece we can get to know
gods like Zeus, Aphrodite, Ares, Hermes and Cronus who defined time and reasons for their
economics.
According to religion of Greece, to honor a person after his death, it was the corpse that was
used for it. Further they believed, that as a honor to the person, the soul was living under the god's
patronage. Therefore if someone would make a funeral and burn it, that god would punish him.
According to religion of Romans, they were personal and provided law in their documents
belonging to a god. For example, according to the law relating to woman, if she would marry with
her husband, children would be based on a religious custom according to the function of religious
leaders. At that time, it was also appropriate to worship agriculture deities for their control over
agriculture.
The Romans accepted some deities specially. These were Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, who
were together called as „Ale Capitoline Triad.“ They were set and paid worship in large tenmple on
the Ale Capitoline hill. Due to these deities, several philosophers asked the religious people three
questions:
1. That is the nature of the world?
2. How do I know the world?
3. How am I to live I the world?
These questions are meaning that they began with similar to a function and they did not
begin with religious believe.(?) Therefore in epicurean possession world,(?) they believed that gods
and deities assisted in everything but they had no concern to that possession world.(?)

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 ANCIENT RELIGION OF GREECE AND ROME (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

Ancient history of Greek religion started about over 6000 years ago, from the first permanent settlement
based on grain until the Greek were invaded by Rome. The history of Greek religion may be divided into three
periods:
1. 900-500 BC, beginning with the Homer's poems and the colonial expansion of Greece, ending before
the Persioan invation
2. 500-338 BC, including the greatest century of Greek history and closing with the battle in Chaeronea
and the establishment of Macedonian supremacy.
3. The Hellenistic and Graeco(?)-Roman period. The evidence of Greek inscriptions begins around 700
BC, about 450 years before the oldest Asoka inscriptions.

Much of the religious reflexion in the epic poems are of an advanced type: thus Zeus at the beginning of
the Odyssey,46 that not gods are those, who bring evil to man, but that it is the wickedness of the man's
heart, that is the cause of all their evil.
The Homeric ritual is also on a higher level of theism. It shows no trace of savagery and little
contamination of religion with magic. The sacrifice is more then a mere bribe. It is a friendly communion
with gods; and the service is solemn and beautiful with hymn and dance.
The religious customs are based on life-style of people. Ancient life-style of Greeks and Romans
depended on transport and profit lead by stars and wind, which were unpredictable elements, because they
were doing transport by sea. It became gradually for man's religion. Therefore wanderers in the sky
thought that the wanderers upon the sea to be greater force power, which guided them. The word „planet“
means „wander“ in Greek. Thus Greek and Romans use: Ares for Greeks, but Mars for Romans; Hermes
for Greeks, but Mercury for Romans etc. Those along with the Sun and the Moon define times and
season, regulating human life and its economical base. Those Gods live on mountain Olympus, ruled by
the issue of ancient Romans. But construction was not clearly defined. When the Romans conquered
Greeks, they took over the Greece, giving them new names and identifying them with their own Gods.

Greek god Roman god That god's function

Ares Mars the god of the war, a son of Zeus and Hera
Aphrodite Venus the goddess of love and beauty.
Apollo Apollo the god of light, healing, music, poetry, prophecy and manly beauty, the son of
Leto and brother of Artemis.
Artemis Diana the goddess, daughter of Leto, the sister of Apollo, characterized as a virgin
hunter and associated with the Moon
Athena Minerva the goddess of wisdom, fertility, the useful arts and prudent warfare
Demeter Ceres the goddess of the fertility of the earth and the protection of marriage and the
society or order, identified
Hephaestus Vulcan the god of fire, mortality, working and handicrafts
Hera Juno the queen of heaven, a daughter of Cronus and Rhand and the wife sister(?) of
Zeus
Hermes Mercury the herald and the god of road, commerce, invention, cunningness and theft

46 That is an epic poem from Ancient Greece. It mainly describes the travel of Odysseus in the Mediterranean sea.

272
 GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

The main feature of Greek religion is worshiping of nature. Greeks did not at any rate worship the
storm, Sun, the Earth, the ocean etc. as Indians did, but by the power of imagination they invested all these
things with personality. Everywhere around them in all different localities and departments and divisions,
sub-divisions of physical world, they recognized the unseen beings endued with life, volition and design.
Nature was for them with counter multitude of such invisible power, some inhabiting the earth, some the
heaven, some the sea, some the darkness, some dreadful religion(?) beneath the earth into which Sun light
could not penetrate.
Of such beings there were numerous varieties and many gradations both in power and attributes.
There were differences in age, race, local residence etc. The system of classical Greek religion is term of
belief and worship. Polytheistic gods from the Great Olymp were in fact the most exalted among them. They
were aggregate of quasi-human or ultra-human personages, as demons, heroes, myths. In the pantheon of
Greek gods there are several significant gods: Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo and Athena.
Zeus is the god as he is cached into later times as the father of gods and God of gods. Zeus was said
an ancient poet.(?) Out of Zeus, all things have been made. He was lord of appeared religions of the highest
mountain and the clouds gathering about him, air shooked with his thunder and lightening wielded as the
instrument of his wrath. Specially the God Zeus was worshiped and deified by main states situated on or near
the coast. Apollo was significant for healing, sikll and of musical and poetic production.
Some of the gods and goddesses of Greece follow:

Aphrodite, also known as Cytherea, Cypris and Venus governs desire, human fertility, sexuality
(or sexual passion) and is often pictured with a scepter or a mirror, doves, apples, seashells, cupids or nude.

Eros rules over falling in and out of love and is shown with a bow and arrow, wings or nude.

Dionysus is the god of wine, intoxication, mysteries, theater, and creative ecstasy, and is often
depicted with a drinking vessel, an ivy wreath, grape wine or the thyrsos (a long fennel stalk topped with ivy
leaves) or panther.

Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and animals as well as of children. Her attributes include the bow
and the fawn, and she is often shown with her brother Apollo, who appears as a youth, beardless, with a bow,
lyre and laurel, in power upon disease, music, prophecy and rationalism.

Hephaestus is a lane builder and craftsman for all the other gods. He rules fire and crafts and is
often portrayed with the axe and tongs. Hephaestus is also shown with bald, hammer and anvil.

Hera, wife of Zeus is the patron of marriage and family, appearing with a pill-box hat, life of
women or peacock.

Demeter rules the harvest and can be found with the animals in the shape of a matron, Moon, or ears
of corn.

Artemis also appears as a Moon, though rules wild animals, children and chastity and is often also
shown with a bow or skirt.

Persephone, daughter or Demeter and Queen of the underworld, is often shown with a torth, a scepter
and stalks of grain.

273
 ROMAN GODS AND GODDESSES (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

Roman gods originated in the ancient „village“ of Rome as the faceless and formless deities, that
supported farmers in their efforts with the land. The large number of Roman gods can most likely be
explained by the pantheistic belief of „Numina,“ which holds, that gods and spirits inhabit places, objects and
living things. The early Romans believed, that everything in nature was inhabited by Numina.
Even though the early Romans placed little importance on the personalities of their gods, they did
care about their functions. The early Romans integrated their worship of gods into all aspects of their
personal and public lives. In this system every family had a guardian spirit known as the Lar Familiaris. This
spirit was honored at all family functions, including sacrifices and funerals. This spirit stayed with and
individual until his death. The worship of Roman gods in Dii(?) Familiaris went to assign a protector spirit
to different areas of the house. For instance, Forculus protects the door, Limentinus the threshold, Cardea
the hinges and Vesta the hearth.
Roman gods began taking on the forms, that we would recognize today, during the dynasty of the
Etruscan kings, who ruled the city of Rome in the 6th century BC. During that period, the Romans adopted a
group of three Etruscan gods as the focus of state worship. These gods were worshiped at the grand temple
on the Capitoline Hill and as such, became known as the „Capitoline triad.“ It consisted of Jupiter (Zeus),
Juno (Hera) and Minerva (Athena).47 When the rule of the Etruscan dynasty ended (in 509 BC), Rome
became a republic. The Roman republic was ruled by two chief magistrates, each of whom was elected for a
year term. During this period, the Capitoline temple became the focus of public worship.
As Roman's power grew and its sphere of influence expanded, the Roman Empire's religion became
greater and richer than religious beliefs of the Greeks. The Romes also came into contact with the beliefs of
other eastern Mediterranean Sea cultures. As result, Romans began to adopt various foreign gods and
religious customs. In many cases, gods and heroes from foreign cultures were given temples in Rome. The
acceptance of Greek gods had the biggest influence on Rome religion. The earliest Greek gods adopted by
the Roman were Castor(?) and Polydeuces(?) in 484 BC. The Greek god Apollo was introduced. Apollo
would eventually symbolize Roman virtue and austerity. Other Roman gods that took on Greek
characteristics including Diana (Artemis), Mercury (Hermes), Neptune (Poseidon), Venus (Aphrodite)
and Vulcan (Hephaestus).
Roman gods and goddesses are combination or blend of several religious influences of the day. The
Romans were a very superstitious culture, who hosted festivals and celebrations in order to worship their
gods. There were 179 gods and goddesses mentioned on most lists and many are fairly minor. I have selected
3 to detail here:

1. Ops means „plenty“ and she was known as a fertility and/of(?) earth goddess. Occasionally she is
reffered to as Opis. She was the wife of Saturn. Her famous temple was located in the Capitolium.
2. Janus was the god of door, beginnings, endings and doorways and often called as the custodian of
the universe. January (the month) is named after him. He was worshiped during planting and harvest
times as well as during occasions of other „beginnings“ like marriage. The gate of his temple were
opened during war and closed during times of peace.
3. Quirinus was known as a god of mystery. He became a high of the state and embodied the
military strength of Rome.

47 In brackets there are the Greek names of these gods.

274
ORIGIN OF EGYPTIAN RELIGION WITH MYTH AND FIRST FAMILY (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL
BY VEN. NYĀNEINDA)

In Egypt the tradition had great variety of gods, over 2000. Many of them were similar in
their characteristics, but the name was different. All gods common gods had a counterpart of the
opposite sex. They were depicted as animals such as a hundred of birds, crocodiles, snakes and cats
etc. Therefore according to their tradition, the human life was covered by gods. There were gods,
who took care of their duties for love, hatred, female sexuality, parties(?) etc. They could be
sometimes depicted in many forms, e.g. goddesses were painted with joined legs.
At the beginning of Egyptian Myth, belonging to the origin of the universe, there was
nothing but water called Nun. Then the Atum god came to this universe to create himself and the
earth. After that, god Geb and his wife Nut, the goddess of the sky, made the sky full in the
universe.(?) They had two children too. The boy named Shu was the god of the air and a girl
Tefnut, goddess of the moisture and rain. These four gods were the foundation of the world,
because they represented the four basic elements namely earth, sky, air and water. A very old
legend in Egyptian myth of creation of man, told that mankind was divided into four types:
1. Romat (the men from Egypt)
2. Aamu (people from the desert)
3. Temehu (people from the Libya)
4. Nehesu (black people from the South Egypt)

As it is mentioned above, the first family in the world, god Geb, his wife Nut and their two
children built up the earth and the sky. In another legend, it is said, that the Sun god Ret became
angry with his sister Nut. Then he cursed and punished her. Finally Nut and Geb were planning to
be Ret family too.(?) To please Ret, they went to his superior Moon god Aah. So the origin of
Egyptian religion with myths and the first family is very interesting.

275
 ORIGIN OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION

Egyptians had a great variety of gods. They can be labeled as 'spirits' and 'fairies'. The total
of them was over 2 000, but many of them had similar characteristics and appeared all over the
country by different names. The huge diversity is due to the fact that before the country was united.
The Nile valley was divided into about forty self-ruling areas where the ruling tribes had their own
deities. Almost all gods had one thing in common – they had a counterpart of the opposite sex and
manifested themselves on earth through animals.
Thus, hundreds of birds, crocodiles, snakes, frogs, turtles, cows, cats etc. were considered to
be the living images of a particular god and a natural and indestructible part of the environment in
which people lived. All parts of life were covered and there were gods for beer, plants, digestion,
the high seas, female sexuality, garden, feasting etc. Many of them had lots of duties and were in
time combined with each other in a great number of ways. They could also appear in many forms
like a goddess having a head of wasp and body from a hippopotamus. The goddesses are easy to
single out iin depictions – they always had their legs joined together, while the gods used to be
shown striding.
Different towns struggled to have just their local gods as the prime deities in the state
religion and thus we have many different religious legends over the years. These gods were
responsible for vital thing like love, joy, dancing, justice, cemeteries, after-life, writing, childbirth,
mummification etc.
All aspects of daily life was covered by at least one of these deities and like people on earth
they were members of families, were married and had children. They did most of the things that
ordinary people did, like harvesting, hunting, eating, drinking, partying and even dying. Most of
them were depicted as males and females combined with the heqad of the animals and represented
by several forms of Egyptian fauna.
The Egyptian gods appeared in many ways and yet some of them were so alike it's
impossible to identify them without reading the connected text. They used various names for their
gods. They had their original Egyptian ones like Re, Ptah, Amon and the Greek forms like Isis,
Anubis and Horus. According to the old tradition from Heliopolis in lower Egypt the creator of all
the gods was Kheper, who was another form of their local Sun god Re. He was self-produced and
made the other gods out of the matter of his own body, he was father of many gods like Osiris, Isis,
Set, Horus, Nepthys and others.

(It is clear that Sun god Re tried to overwhelm other gods and later on Egyptians only allowed one
thing and one god when all parts of the country came under an umbrella of unity.)48

48 This part in the brackets was written by hand under the typed text. Fortunately I could easily unriddle it and submit
it here.

276
 ORIGIN OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

In Ancient Egypt, there were a variety of stories, telling about how the world and all its inhabitants came to be. The legends
varied from province to province along the Nile, but after the unification a handful of them grew more popular and other were
forgotten. The priesthood in the cult centers of the creator God supported their own version and thus we can get to know about gods
like Atum, Re, Ptah, Khnum and Kheper performing the act as the Maker, but in slightly different ways.
Th most common and probably one of the oldest written records tell us, that at the dawn of time there was nothing but the
aster(?) called Nun and the first ground coming out of the water, symbolized by fetish called the Ben Ben Stone from a slightly
irregular shape in time, it turned into a board and short obelisk with a pointed top in four-side shaped pyramid tombs, whereas in
other it did not.
On the Ben Ben Stone, stone stood made Atum and he coughed and spat out Shu and Tefnut. There are no deluge-legends
involved in any of the creation stories of the everything couldn't possibly involve a banality like that.

The world creators in short:

Atum from Heliopolis made everything (even himself) of his own sperm through masturbation or spitting. He then
created woman from a bit of flesh from his hand.
Ptah from Heliopolis in Lower Egypt made the world by simply saying words and made earth raise from the water
(very similar story to that one in the Bible).
Re (also from Heliopolis) is told by the late poetic legend to be the creator by using a tear from his eye to build all
the world.
Khnum from the island of Elephantine in Aswan in the South, was the creator who made the world and its entire people on his
potter's wheel. The stuff, which he used, was the mud from the Nile.49
Kheper (representing Re) made all other gods from matter taken from his own body. He also created life (symbolically) every
morning by commanding the Sun to rise.
Amon from Thebes was during the New Kingdom vaguely connected to the creation of the world, saying that he once
(like Atum) had created himself at the dawn of time.
Thoth was in Khemenu (Hermopolis) in Upper Egypt, the maker of the world. The first Egypt had by tradition a greater
variety of gods who can be today labeled as „spirits“ and „fairies.“

In here, it is impossible to describe all of gods and their creation because the total of them was over 2000, but many of them
had similar characteristics and appeared all over the country by different names. The huge diversity is due to the fact, that before the
country was united. The Nile valley was divided into about forty self-ruling areas, were the ruling tribes had their own deities.
Almost all gods had one thing in common. They had a counterpart of the opposite sex and manifested themselves on earth
through animals. Thus hundreds of birds, crocodiles, snakes, frogs, turtles, cows, cats etc. were covered and were considered to be
the living images of a particular god and a natural and indestructible part of the environment in which people lived.
All parts of life were covered and there were gods for beer, plants, digestion, the high seas, female's sexuality, gardens,
feasting etc. Many of them had lots of duties and were in time combined with each other in a great number of ways. They could also
appear in many forms like a goddesses, having a head like a wasp and body from a hippopotamus. The goddesses were easy to single
out in depictions. They always had their legs joined together, while the gods used to be shown striding.

Taueret – Different towns struggled to have just their local gods as the prime deities in the state religion and thus we have many
different religious legends over the years depending upon which town had the greatest influence for the moment. Because of this over
the years different gods came into fashion and later went out of style, with exception of a group that was in front fight from the
beginning and never lost its population. These were responsible for vital things like love, joy, dancing, childbirth, justice, cemeteries,
after-life, writing, mummification etc. All aspects of daily life were covered by at least one of these deities, and like people on earth
they were members of families, were married and had children. Many ingredients made it possible for common people to identify
themselves with them since their personalities were made of both divine strength and human weakness. They did most of the things
that ordinary people did, like harvesting, hunting, eating, drinking, partying and even dying. Most of them were depicted as men and
women combined with costumes and were represented by several animals in the Egyptian fauna. In other words – they could appear
in many ways and some of them were so alike looking that it's impossible to identify them without reading the connecting text. Just
looking at the dresses and the regalia they carry along isn't always enough, because they used to borrow objects from each other. This
guesswork is a part of the charm when looking into their in many ways, to us, unlikely world. As to their names today we use a blend
of both their original Egyptian ones like Re, Ptah and Amon and the Greek forms like Isis, Anubis and Horus.

49 Nil is a river in Egypt.

277
 THE MYTH OF OSIRIS50 (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NYĀNEINDA)

In the beginning of time, Osiris was the king of Egypt and his queen was Isis. Osiris was
beloved by the people, because he told them how to worship the God and how to grow up and plant
crops, corn and paddy rice in the field having good consequences for them and the country. He also
loved his people and his country extremely, therefore he ruled the country in a correct way without
corruption and problems. During the reign of this king the life was very peaceful for all the people
there.
His brother named Set became jealous of him and tried to get rid of him to become a king to
rule the city at that time. Set got a chance to describe a beautiful coffin that he had built and asked
his followers to carry it out to the Osiris's palace. Set told them that after killing the king to put him
into the coffin, because then it would be easy to carry it out. When the killed king was placed into
it, Set nailed the coffin and threw it into Nile. The queen Isis was overcome by sorrow and started
to search for her beloved husband. Later she disguised herself as a slave and searched around the
seashore. She found the coffin and opened it. After that she began to search for a suitable place to
bury him. But at that time Set stole the coffin and cut the previous king's body into fourteen pieces.
The pieces then were spread all over Egypt. Isis became furious with Set and asked
Nephthys and Anubis to help her to regain the pieces of her husband's body. Finally all the parts
were found except the penis, which had being thrown into the Nile. Isis made a wooden
replacement for it and then put the whole body together. She then asked the Sun god and Rain god
to make her husband alive for one night. If gods did that, Isis and Osiris would be able to have a
chance for last night of making love. On the next day, Osiris died and his body was burnt by
Anubis and it was the first such event according to history in Egypt. Isis later gave birth to a son
named Horus. According to history of Egypt related to this king, Osiris after death mentioned
above became the king of „the world under,“ where all the dead people are subject to go through the
last judgment. That judgment (they say) is done by Osiris.

50 It is an Egyptian myth.

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 THE MYTH OF OSIRIS (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

In the very beginning of time Osiris was the king of Egypt and his queen (and sister) was the
goddess Isis.

Osiris He was beloved by the people whom he told how to worship the gods and grow their crops
for their daily bread. his brother Set became jealous and tried to overthrow him describing how beautiful
coffin he had, in a way that made the other guests curious. He was asked to fetch it and so he did and that
was according to his plan.
Isis Everyone agreed on that the coffin was a magnificent piece and Set told them that he would
give it away to whomever who would fit for it exactly. Since he had made the coffin himself it was measured
to fit one person only – his brother Osiris. When he placed himself in it Set and his fellows quickly nailed
the lid and threw it into the Nile. Queen Isis was overcome by sorrow and began to search all over the land
for it, but in vain.
One day she heard that a wonderful tree had sprung on the shores of Byblos in the North on the
eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. A king had cut it down and built a palace there.
Horus Isis understood that it was the place where the coffin had come to shore and she went there
in disguise. She got job at the court as a hairdresser for the queen and now hen she could walk freely inside
the castle she began to look for the coffin, and finally she found it. She took it and left for Egypt by boat and
came to the marshlands in the delta. There she opened it and took a last farewell of her beloved husband
Osiris and began searching for a suitable place to bury him. But Set was aware of all this and was hiding
nearby. When Isis went to rest for the night he snatched the coffin and cut his brother's body info fourteen
pieces and spread them all over Egypt. Isis became furious and asked her sister Nepthys and her son Anubis,
the jackal, to help her to regain the pieces of her husband's body.
Set They now started a nation-wide search that lasted for many years and finally all the parts
were found except the penis which had been thrown into the Nile where it was devoured by a catfish.
Isis made a wooden replacement for it and then put the whole body together. She now asked the Sun
god Re to make her husband alive just for one day, which Re did and they could have a last night of love
together. The next day Osiris died and his body was embalmed by Anubis who thus made him the first
mummy. Isis later gave birth to a son who was named Horus and she did all she could to keep it a secret
from Set, but he found them and almost killed them in an ambush.
Thoth They were saved by the god of wisdom – Thoth, who told them to hide in the reeds in the
marshes. But again the evil Set found their hiding place and he transformed himself into a snake and gave
the child a deadly bite. When Isis came back she found Horus lifeless, and took him to the nearest village to
get help. A wise old woman examined the child and found out that it must had been Set as a snake who had
bitten him. Thoth came to them to rescue Horus one more time and drove out the poison from Horus' body,
so that he could recover. Horus and his mother stayed hiding in the delta until Horus was mature man and
one day took the form of a hawk and called Set for the final showdown – the revenge for his murdered
father. When that moment came they fought for three days until Thoth stopped the fight. They were both
taken to the Court of Law in the Underworld and presented their versions of the story. The Court did not
believe Set, who was sentenced to pull the boat with the Sun across the sky forever. Horus then became king
of Egypt like his father Osiris before him and the good had finally conquered evil.
Isis put the body of her dead husband in a coffin and had nineteen identically coffins made in which
she put duplicates. Priests from Egypt's twenty biggest towns then were given one each and could all
thereafter claim that they had Osiris' tomb in their town. Thus many places in Egypt were (and still are)
called Abusir – the place of Osiris.

279
 TRIBAL RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NYĀNIDA)

Tribal people in Andes and the Andean highlands are like the hall land of the wave coast of
South America. From the longer mountain range, on the corner of some spots in the mountain, there
are the villages living with many tribes. For them the language, culture and religious belief are
created by themselves. But some basic religious traditions are similar to the belief of God, as
possession supernatural power.
Netu people are living in the mountain region of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. There are two
groups of people, namely Ayman and Quinchu. The languages of two groups are different but
religion is the same. The people of Andes are farmers and used to live in the place near the sea
permanently. There a natural land surrounded a cult connected with the worship of a feline animal
sprat. Therefore, in Peru, it is appeared to have originated from a stone. In Chavin then there is a
temple made out of stone with an image of a tribal village. In Chavin it is full of such temples with
galleries. They were located as in a different date and time. In the other parts of the temple, there is
a feline in human form on a gallery containing a culture stone. They believed that the feline is the
staff of God from heaven.
The people in Moche from the North Peru made many pots showing that the feline was
depicted a Moon God. Therefore one part is human and another part is animal. But some images are
different too. The people in Chimu believe that the Moon god is more powerful than the Sun god,
because the sea was very important for the feline. The people of Inca believed that it was concerned
with organization of food supply and ritual divination was essential before taking any action. As I
mentioned above, regarding with the Tribal Religion, there are some differences in their beliefs.

280
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN TRIBAL RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

There are several tribes in North America. In the east were woodland tribes, who both
hunted and planted. South-Eastern tribes cultivated extensively, Mid-Western plains tribes were
primarily buffalo hunters and South-Western tribes lived in pueblos or were nomads. Along the
pacific each case, the tribal economy determined the life-style. Depending on the buffalo meant a
life quite different from that which depended on salmon or corn. Nonetheless, scholars think, that
some basic attitudes were held by all North America.
The North Americans' original myths, rituals and beliefs likely developed in a culture
centered on hunting, warfare and shamanistic activities. For the most part, ancient North Americans
did not worship a supreme God. For them, the categories 'nature' and 'divinity' were largely
indistinguishable. Some of the agricultural tribes thought of a supreme power associated with the
sky or the Sun, but most people worshiped several powers.
For instance, scholars, studying Indian myths, find a variety of creator spirits. Earth Diver
(an animal or bird who brings the earth up out of the water) is a common one, but the Zuni speaks
of numerous workers who disappeared once the world was organized. According to the creation
myth of the Maidu of California, a turtle collaborated with a heavenly spirit, called „Earth Initiate“
to pull the land up out of the waters. The turtle wanted a place to rest from his ceaseless swimming,
so he volunteered to dive down for some earth. Earth Initiate held a rope tied to the turtle's left
arm. The turtle went down, stayed six years and returned covered with green slime. Under his
fingernails was some sand, which Earth Initiate rolled into a ball that swelled up and became the
earth. In the slightly different version of the Yauelmani Yokuts of California, a duck and an eagle
replace the turtle and Earth Initiate.
Super-human figure in many tribal mythologies is the spirit, who owns the animals. Unless
the people revere the spirit, they will not have good hunting or fishing. A third character in North
American mythology is the antihero called Trickster. American Indian people interacted with
spirits, divinities, and animals since their principal goal was to be in balance with them. No North
Americans seem to have thought in terms of original sin or a fall, but all tribes recognized a need
for discipline and renewal. A religious ceremony such as the sun dance combined such social and
personal functions, renewing the tribe's good standing with sacred nature and giving warriors stoic
courage.

281
 AFRICAN TRIBAL RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

In traditional African religion, one first notes that most tribes have had a Supreme Being. In
East African, its most common name has been Mulugu, which connotes an impersonal spirit that
far away. Mulugu is creative, omnipotent and omnipresent. It may be heard in thunder and seen in
lightning. Originally Mulugu was intimate with the world, but in later days it withdrew. When
personified, Mulugu is envisioned as having a wife and family. He molds human bodies and gives
all life its breath.
West Africans have families of gods and build temples. They tend to pray every day, using
simple, personal words and frequently they pray at one of the many shrines with which the
countryside is dotted. African religions are especially rich mythologically, so studying the tribes'
tales has become a preferred way of understanding the African social outlook. In a Yoruba creation
myth, the supreme God sends to a marth an artisan, who is carrying a bag that lay between the great
God's thighs. From this bag he shakes out soil and until the marsh is covered. Thus, their land is
holly, given from above. The Dogon says, that God created the Sun and Moon like pots with copper
rings. To make the stars he flung pellets of clay into space and he also made the earth of clay. The
Fon think, that a great snake gathererd the earth together after God made it and that the earth still
rests on this snake's coils. For the Gikuyu of Kenya, God is the divider of the universe. He made
Mount Kenya, the „mountain of brightness“ as evidence of his wanders and as a divine resting
place. The Luyia say, that god first made the Monn brighter and bigger than the Sun. The Sun
became jealous and the two fought. The Moon was thrown into the dart/dark(?), resulting in its
muddy face.
A South African asks his God Gauwa for help in hunting, complains that Gauwa is
cheating him, but concludes on a note of hope: „Gauwa will bring something for us to kill next day,
after he himself hunts and has eaten meat, when he is full and feeling well.“
The African God, then, is both far and near, both inscrutable and able to be petitioned. In
general, he is considered kind and good, a father or friend. he creates and sustains all things but no
one has ever seen him. In a number of myths, he creates humans out of the ground.
The Zulu of South Africa and the Thonga of Mozambiue(?) both have a tradition that the
first man and woman came out of an exploded reed bed. A Pygmy story says, that the chameleon
heard a strange, whispering noise in a tree. When it cut the tree open, a flood of water came out,
which spread over the earth and the first humans, who were light-skinned. The Ashnti of Ghana
revere Mondays and Tuesdays, because the leopard, who is sacred to some clans, emerged on those
days. Also, the first human leader consoled his followers, who were frightened on coming out from
under the earth. Because the leader was killed on Wednesday, Wednesday is a feared day.

282
 AFRICAN TRIBAL RELIGIONS (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NYĀNEINDA)

The results of studies on African traditional belief had shown that African idea and religious
conviction view are in any taught and belief. In ritual and life attribution, there are foolish logical
Madimo, Xio, Zulu, Mulungu and Bantu. Some names of thraditional African religion mean the
spirit. Others are linked with the sky and what come from it. The tribal people of southern Africa
believed that in a Being, there is in some seeing part created and made the power of the universe. In
many societies, they have been living as the worship of this Being. He was too grate, too powerful
and two different from the normal people but He was not a God.
Because of this belief we can see a consideration of God. Consequently, a certain group
appeased to him when they needed help in emergency event, such as that their group was strange
among of many groups. This consideration should be rather related to Bantu people. Zulu people
who lived in the course of South Africa can be a good illustration of power belonging to this belief.
African traditional religion can adduce and accommodate itself to new idea and simple one as they
want to be. Early in Zulu religious idea was taking back from the hundred years ago. Here it can be
seen to indicate that Zulu hardly had taught about God. In website(?) due to Cristian mission they
had developed thinking and ideas regarding the Lord of the Sky.
The Lord of the Sky is a belief which should be considered as an external one. Thereupon
He was the source of both good and bad. He was a kind and generous god, but he was unpredictable
in various kinds. So Zulu people came to him, but at such times he also disguised himself as a
normal one. He scribed the nature and He could be approached by someone but the famous form
was voided from.(?) But a certain one was known him.(?) In Zululand, the people recognized Him
as a prayer-source why they are from this Being.(?) For instance, it is a praying for them.(?) When
anyone went to visit a mountain, first he had to face(?) and pray. Then when everybody was ready
with cattle, it was sure that they were offering something.(?) As for them they knelt down and asked
to cease results what they did/their sins(?).

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 ORIGIN OF KOREAN RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RAHULA) (ORIGINAL FROM VEN. PANNA)

Korean traditional religion Sinkyo has been called the religion without a name, it has five
magnetic points:

(1) I and the Cosmos

Man is freedom with the world the forces of nature controlling religion,(?) Sterlity(?)
become personified in gods, this world as a religious area is inhabited by spirit of heaven in
the soil(?)

(2) I and the norms

The mythical Tongun, the founder of Korea underlines that senses of cosmic norms to reach
the Korean mark conform.(?)

(3) And destiny

man is active(?) and a victim of his fate, destiny. Sinkyo finds an answer in a cosmic factor
happened(?) man and nature make and nature make a harmony of opposite which complements
each other. They are a great force of Yin and Yang.

(4) I and salvation

Since this harmony is often token, Sinkyo must also have been man's craving(?) called(?)
salvation like is under a curse(?). The way back to paradise is by the ritual, sacrifice, when
they also offer food to their own ancestors and believe to be born in an ultimate paradise.

(5) I and the Supreme Being

Among the spirit of nature the spirit of heaven has special place, not(?) as a high supreme
God, he is said to bring Sun light and rain and disasters are his judgment on the wicked by his form
we human breath.(?)

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 DISCUSS THE ORGANIZED ARRANGEMENTS THAT LED TO THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY THROUGHOUT THE WORLD

Christianity not only went to the Mediterranean countries but acruiered its organized
framwork from Greek and Roman philosophy. Anglican Church is an offshoot of Church of Rome.
Christianity liek Buddhism was in origin essentially ethical reform, born of the generous ardour, the
lofty aspiration, the tender compassion of its noble founder.
In order to spread the Christian faith, it was essential to spread the language of the gospel
(message), so the church found itself obliged to enter the educational field in a systematic fashion.
The missionaries brought Latin literature, thus early English literature was under Latin influence.
The character of Jesus is the best possible evidence of the super-natural origin of this
religion as it is a unique and perfect union of human and divine natures. Jesus began a public
ministry with base of operation at the basement in the house of his disciples Simon and Peter.(?)
His teaching was in the form of parables, short stories and narratives in relation to religious reality.
The parables were on morals, but more on how God acts.
The event of Jesus' resurrection was viewed as a mighty act of God, by which Jesus was
actually physically raised up from death and exalted from his position of mighty glory at God's
right, victory over death. The doctrine then was deliverance of believer from sin and the restoration
of humanity and the world to communion with God.(?)
Christian communities were soon established even among non-Jesus – Damascus and
Antioch in Syndic(?) became important Christian centers. Jesus taught potent(?) principles of
religious belief and life which have been applied variously in the growth at the Christian church.
The teachings of Christianity concerning the forgiveness of sins constitute a very important part of
Christianity.
Bible (late 4th century A. D.) was the primary source of information concerning the founder,
the origin of Christian church and authoritative compendium of the principles of Christianity and
most valuable for maintenance of Christian life.
In spite of hindrances the Christian doctrine has been written in various parts of the world.
Christianity was written throughout the centre and southern parts of Africa by the activity of
Christian missionary in the 19th and 20th century. African religion does coexist with both Islam and
Christianity. Their contact and mutual interaction is a major factor in contemporary African life.
Native American religions have gone through significant change iin the past 4 centuries
because of their contact with Christianity. The conception life after death among Eskimo changed
after their coming into contact with Christianity.
Thus we can see that the spread of Christianity throughout the world is due to the proper
organized arrangements of the teachings and the societies concerned in various parts of the world.

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 QUESTION: DISCUSS THE SERVICES OF BUDDHIST CLERGY WITH REGARD TO THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
WORLDWIDE.

1. Having become the Buddha, He decided to teach His philosophy to group of monks ,
who had once become His disciples and then left Him in despair. Then he made Uruvela Kassapa
along with His followers to join the Saṅgha. Accompanied by them, the Buddha went to the hill of
Gayasisha and delivered the Sermon on Fire. Then He went to Rājagaha, the capital of Magadha to
pay His visit to king Bimbisāra.
2. He met king Bimbisāra who presented his Bamboo grove to the Buddha to use as a
place for the Saṅgha. Then the community of monks became bigger and bigger. Sañjaya, an ascetic
with a large number of pupils including Sāriputta and Moggallāna lived in the capital of Magadha.
Having heard the teachings of the Buddha from Assaji: »Ye dhammā hetuppabhavā tesaṃ hetuṃ
tathāgato āha.« - „Conditioned things arise due to their causes, those causes have been well
explained by the Buddha. Their separation and the great release too had been revealed.“ Sāriputta
became the follower of the Buddha.
3. Years passed by the Buddha and his disciples traveled all over the country by conversing
all superstitious beliefs. As a result, the value of animal sacrifice too became weaker.
4. The number of the community became more and more. The Buddha's arguments were
persuasive, but sometimes he performed miracle to support his claim to the disappointment of
Brahmins and other sectarians. They tried to traduce the Buddha with the help of Ginga(?).
Anyway, the Buddha faced these difficulties. Many of his disciples like Sāriputta and
Moggallāna and others helped spreading the teachings of the Buddha during His life-time.
5. In the 3rd century BC the calmness of a novice named Nigrodha made king Asoka to
become a Buddhist. After listening to the brief sermon of that sāmanera, Asoka wanted all monks
and laity to understand the Buddha's teachings. In his edicts, mention is made that by inculcating
the teaching of the Buddha both men and women would become good people. He wanted people to
cultivate moral virtues, such as observance of truth, kindness, charity, purity, gentleness, respect,
obedience to one’s elders and teachers, loyalty to friends, kinsmen and even servants and slaves as
advocated in Pāli sutta known as Sigalovāda of Dīgha Nikāya.
6. It was because of the effort and patronage of emperor Asoka, the Saṅgha was able to
propagate Buddhism not only in all parts of India, but also all parts of the world. It was during his
reign, nine missionary groups of monks had been sent to nine different countries, such as
Suvaṇṇabhūmi (Burma), Sattapanni (Sri Lanka) and so on.

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 ZOROASTRIANISM
Zoroastrianism is one of the oldest religions of the world, which has immense influence for the
development of Judaism. Christianity and Islam. Persees(?) of ancient Persia followed this religion, was
introduced by prophet Zarathustra, also known as Zoroaster and Zendavesta or Avesta are the basic
sacred texts of this religion.(?) Because of the influence of Vedic teaching, it is believed that the founder
of this religion was contemporary of the ancient sages of Vedic India. The first gātha of Avesta inserts
the religious confusions prevalent before the emergence of this religion in Persia, which were known as
ritualism, ceremonialism, priesthood and polytheism. The God, the supreme creator was requested to
send an angel to the earth to undertake heik(?) the reformation. When the angel(?) showed his ability in
this regard, the Lord himself named him Zoroaster, the savior of mankind. Zoroaster led his life as an
ordinary householder with his wife and at the age of his 30 he received a message from God. Zoroaster
met the angel Vohu Mana who appeared nine times of the size of a man, who told to Zoroaster that
there was only one God – Ahura Mazda and that he (Zoroaster) was to serve as his prophet. Although
he was condemned by the people formerly, his effort was successful as he converted his own cousin.
Ultimately the monarch was also converted, which was helpful to propagate this religion. Zoroaster
was murdered at the age of 77 at the hands of an enemy soldier.

Basic features of Zoroastrianims as a religion

1. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion with a kind of internal dualism in God head.(?)
2. Ahura Mazda is the one supreme God, who is regarded as all powerful, all vise and all good. He is
also regarded as the creator and ruler of the world.
3. God is subtle and therefore he is not to be given to ordinary knowledge of human beings. However,
he sometimes reveals himself to men through his angels.
4. The world is pictured as a battle ground of two forces – the force of good as represented by Spentas
Mamyu of the evil spirit which is also called Ahriman. The battle will go on until finally the force of
good prevails over that of evil.
5. Man has been granted free-will and he is to exercise his freedom of choice preferably by choosing the
side of the force of good fighting against that of evil. For this man has to do nothing else than to lead a
life of righteousness. Nevertheless, what each man will choose lied absolutely up to him.
6. Zoroastrianism believed in a future life after death. In this life man’s place is determined strictly in
accordance cwith the law of retribution. Those who righteously excel the evil ones are sent to heaven, a
place of rejoice, while those who did evil, balance heavily over the righteous ones are sent to hell, a
place of fearful suffering.(?)
7. However, damnation to hell is not eternal and Zoroastrianism promises an ultimate happy and good
life to all.
8. It also believes in the existence of angels who always stand surrounding God and wait for His order.
9. There are also evil spirits who acompany Ahriman51 in his spreading of evil in the world.
10. It is a religion of perfect ethical purity and dedication devoid of ceremonialism. The basic ethical
virtues that men are to incarnate are good thought, good words and good deeds.

51 Ahriman probably means Satan, Māra

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 SHORTNOTES: RELIGION – INTRODUCTION

Jainism as the oldest religion in India

- The scholars' view until 19th century was that Jainism was nothing but divided sect from Buddhism. Now
archaeological and historical discoveries proved that Jainism has longer history than Budhism and all other religions in
India.
- John Marshall was the one who first discovered that dynamic meditation was a developed religious practice in Indu-
Valley-Civilization's human figures found in a meditation posture.
- It is popular view that śramaṇa tradition, Indu-Valley-Civilization's Upaniṣadic and other yogic practices in other
religious were delivered from the ancient Indu-Valley-Civilization's tradition. (Vrushabhanatha → Parshvanatha)
Mahāvīra was not the founder of the Jainism, but he was the contemporary of the Buddha during last chain of
the long historical tradition.
According to this matters of the Jainism's origin go back to prehistoric period.

Egyptian myth of origin of the universe

Atun(?) come – who had created himself. He had created the earth and God and his sister and wife Nun the
goddess of the sky to hold up and fill the sky. They had two children:
1. Shu (boy) – the god of air
2. Jefnut (girl) – the goddess of moisture

This family of four, this family of the very foundation upon with the world existence as they refrested(?) earth,
sky, air and water. These are true for basic elements of the universe.

Egyptian myth of creation of man

The whole religion in Egypt spoke about that mankind was divided into four types. When they were made by
the creator Khunum he made them all out of mud of various colors from the Nil valley. The first was Romut, which
means man and these were the Egyptians. The second was Aamu. The people from the river Temhu were the people
from the Libya, the last Nehesu was the ... (?)

Origin of Egyptian religion

Egypt by tradition had a great variety of gods and the total number of them was over 2000, but many of them
had similar characteristics and apart all over the country by different names almost all gods had one thing in common –
they had a counterpart of the opposite and manifested themselves on earth through animals. Hundreds of them,
crocodiles, snakes, frogs, cats were considered to the living images of a particular god.
All parts of the human life were covered with gods. Deyer (god of plants), Highsus (female sexuality),
Gordence, Datice etc. Many of them had lots of duties and were combined with each other in a number of ways. They
could also appear in among forms like a goddess. The goddesses were easy to identify, but in defection they all had (on
pictures of them) their legs joined together while the gods had their legs straight.

Black people of South Egypt

Romut (= men, Egyptians)
Aamu (= people from the third ??? )
Temehu (= people from the Libya)
Nehisu (= black people from South Egypt)

The first family

Geb's wife Nut – they had twins Shu and Jefnut. One legend tells that Sun gods had been angry with Nut and
laid a curse upon Nut and and get(?) who were just planing(?) to race(?) a family. They torned to the gods of wisdom,
Thoth for advice. He went to his superior Moon god, Aam, who was in charge of the Egyptian calendar.
Historical Relationship among Judaism, Christianity and Islam

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- Judaism, Christianity and Islam belong to one family of religions.
- They can be known as homogeneous religions since they belong to one family.
- Nicholas de Louge says, that Judaism, Christianity and Islam are so close in believe and being a family of religions.
- These religions have developed in close counteract with one another for each religion.
- Judaism, Christianity and Islam are prophetic religions. The prophet of Judaism is Moses, Jesus is the prophet of
Christianity and the prophet of Islam is Mohammad.
- They are monotheistic religions in its full sense. They unanimously believe in one supreme God, who is omnipresent
and the creator of the world and mankind. He exists beyond the world.
- The fundamental belief of these religions is remarkably same. The God is the creator of the world and mankind.
- One of the main fundamental objectives common to these three religions is having unwavering faith. Judaism
recognizes acting according to covenant (= agreement). Faith in Christianity is different from faith of Judaism and
Islam. Having faith in Jesus as equal to God is understood as the path to the final salvation.
- As well as to achieve everything desired, reward is equal to faith.
- Judaism is a religion rich in traditions and rituals rather than in faith.

Origin of Religion

What was the first ever religion of man? The answer depends very much on what view is taken regarding man's
origin. According to the Bible, religion was not invented by man from the day of his creation by God. Then he
worshiped this God through sacrifices.
Origin of religion was in a form of monotheism.
According to E. B. Tylor the original form of religion was the end of animitism(?). This view developed to
animism. It is a belief in supernatural power in plants and supernatural beings.
Sigmund Freud regarded totemism as the original form of religion.
Karl Marx said, that religion was invented by man as a social need of oppression.
Most ancient literature of the Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Hindus and the traditions of many races agree, that
the first man bowed to animals to represent and substitute for them in three(?) worship of God.
There are some attributes relevant to original religions, These are: sacrifices, gods, myths, priests, rituals and
religious places.

What is the Religion; Definitions of Religion

A dictionary may define word „religion“ as „a bond,“ „an obligation,“ and „a relationship“ between two
parties. It goes in to say, that religion is spiritual and is also connected with belief in a super-human God, who created
the universe and all life in it.
According to E. B. Tylor religion is belief in spiritual beings.
According to Immanuel Kant religion is recognized of all our duties as divine commands.
Ludwig Feurbach(?) said: „Religion is a dream in which our own conceptions and emotions affect us as a
separate existences being but of ourselves.
According to Jnoustone(?) religion can be defined as a system of beliefs and practices by which a group of
people interpret and respond who what the full as super-natural and secret.
By using different definitions denuts(?) of religion can be identified as:
1. A sacred thing or place
2. A system of beliefs
3. Rituals
4. Organization of believers

Karl Marx defined religion as „the sigh of the oppressed creature,“ „a protest against real suffering.“ „It is the
opium of people,“ „the illusory son, which revelues(?) around man for as long as he does not evolve a(?) around
himself.

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 BONUS: ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA: PREHISTORIC RELIGION

Prehistoric religion comprises the religious beliefs and practices of early man. In the absence of any written records,
statements about the nature of prehistoric religion are necessarily dependent on a complex body of theory, concepts, and
data, and on inferences and reconstructions from archaeological remains.

Basic problems and methods of study

Problems: nature and scope of prehistory

The term prehistory refers to the course of human events and to the study of these events, in so far as they were
decisive in shaping contemmporary and later conditions, before the invention of writing. As a subject of inquiry,
prehistory comprises both the course of events in preliterate times and man as a cultural being in a state of illiteracy.
Similarly, the study of prehistoric religion comprises two subjects: the history of early man's religion and the study of
religion as a part of human culture or human nature or both.
(The significance of material remains)
Reconstruction of the past from material remains. As the British prehistorian G. E. Daniel has noted, „prehistory is
written from many sources – the material remains of the past, deductions from language, physical anthropology, place
names, and comparative ethnology. All these are sources that in historical times are auxiliary to the written sources. But
in prehistory they are the main sources,“ and, he emphasizes, material remains are „by far the most important of them.“
The „reading“ of such material remains requires, in the main, a functional interpretation; i.e., discernment of their
cultural and spiritual function in the life of prehistoric man. Above all, this functional interpretation makes use of
comparisons with objects, circumstances, and processes that are directly known or that have been transmitted in written,
pictorial, or oral form. Since the major part of prehistory leads back into the realm of so-called primitive cultures,
comparative studies must take into account the conditions and behaviour patterns that research on contemporary
„primitive“ people has revealed. Such studies also serve to demonstrate the fragmentary character of archaeological
finds. In addition, they show that for many archaeological objects, various functional interpretations are possible.
Problem of discerning cultural and religious phenomena. Religion is a mental or spiritual phenomenon in which the
sacred or supernatural „word“ plays an important part. Obviously, this essential expression of religion cannot be
investigated archaeologically – the remains are wordless. Religious meanings can only be inferred directly and in
exceptional circumstances from the material finds. The investigation of prehistoric religion faces the problem of
determining which objects and finds are to be taken as signs of religious intention, experience, and activity. Not all
unusual and puzzling finds necessarily reflect something religious; moreover, there are some remains that may have had
a profane as well as a religious or magical function.
Conjectural nature of scholarly statements. In all probability, only a small number of the material remains of
prehistoric religious practices have been preserved and still fewer of them discovered and adequately documented. This
intensifies the necessarily fragmentary nature of all statements about prehistoric religion. Uncertainties about
methodology further aggravate disputes among scholars as to the reliability or probability of their interpretations. As
with historians in general, there is a positivistic position, the proponents of which desire little more than to classify,
desribe, and define their specific finds and findings. That stance is opposed by another position that, in addition,
considers it important to relate these findings to common human experiences and to seek out analogies with situations
in more recent times; that is, to attempt a reconstruction of prehistoric spiritual life.

Methods

Material remains. Although religion is largely a mental phenomenon, it involves numerous material
accessories: artifacts and places of cultic and ceremonial significance, pictures and symbols, sacrifices, and votive
offerings. In many cases religion makes use of are and, to some degree, certain inferences about religious conceptions
can be drawn from burial sites. the interpretation of such sources from analogies with present-day religious practices
means, in effect, that a more or less complete congruence or similarity is being inferred from a partial congruence that is
observed. Not infrequently, particular findings can be explained in various ways. It is often unclear, for example, to

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which religious category a find belongs, since a sacrifice and a burial, cannibalism and human sacrifice, or animal
sacrifice and an animal cult are frequently not distinguishable archaeologically. Thus, it is not enough to select some
particular present-day „primitive“ religious phenomenon and apply it automatically to archaeological material; rather, it
is first necessary to carry out extensive comparative studies in order to ascertain connections of sufficient scope and to
establish a basic congruence of meanings. Usually only general trends, rather than concrete particulars, can be
comprehended in this fashion. Nevertheless, the find may be interpreted in various ways and, hence, it becomes
necessary to select the most workable, or the most probable, interpretation.
(Archaeological finds and cultural stages)
Archaeological concepts. The first step in interpreting prehistoric finds consists in relating them only to those recent
phenomena that are truly comparable, that is, that have basically similar or congruent structures. A historical religious
phenomenon that is connected with the cultivation of domesticated plants, for example, cannot be employed, without
further inquiry, to explain an object from a Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) hunting and gathering culture. Such an
explanation, if it is to be valid, presupposes that the chronological sequence of the archaeological phenomena has been
determined and that certain stages of the cultural development can be worked out. Today this task may be considered as
solved in its main outlines, although the reconstruction as a whole still needs some refinement.
Less clear, and still disputed, is the reconstruction of corresponding stages on the basis of modern „primitive“
phenomena, as well as the connection of the latter to the prehistoric stages; i.e., the answer to the question of whether
and how phenomena that still exist may be correlated with those of the past. Even where this can be done only
tentatively, constructing comparable cultural stages or structures in the past is important for the interpretation of the
phenomena. This is even more the case if the phenomena can be attributed to certain smaller units within the stages,
such as „culture circles.“ The best way to establish such connections is a direct demonstration of continuity; e.g.,
connecting the content of North African rock-pictures with recent religious conceptions within the „culture circle“ of
„Eurafrican hunter-collectors“ of past and present times. Even where continuity or diffusion cannot be demonstrated,
conformity or analogy in cultural structure or style furnishes valuable clues.
Methods of interpreting archaeological materials. Criticism of the use of historical-cultural analogies – particularly
that of prehistoric phenomena to modern „primitive“ religions – points especially to the large time span between
prehistoric and contemporary „primitives,“ the numerous possibilities for changes in meaning, and the present
proliferation of phenomena. At the same time, numerous examples show that a long elapsed time does not necessarily
mean that fundamental changes have occurred, but rather that there are very strong tendencies toward stability. During
all of prehistory, for example, the first truly epochal transformation, in terms of the total culture (i.e., the new form of
developed hunter-collector cultures of the Upper Paleolithic Age), took place around 30,000 BC; thus, in comparison to
the hundreds of thousands of years of early humanity, the time elapsed since then is rather insignificant. Consequently it
is less unimaginable than one might think that primary elements of very early conditions have endured to the present
time. In addition, in contrast to the present multitude and diversity of phenomena, it can be shown that the number of
possibilities that can be realized under simple conditions is really rather limited. Further, a mental phenomenon, such as
religion, does not develop entirely freely but is also governed by functional interdependencies and limitations, e.g., even
by economic or ecological conditions (see below). Temporal duration, the interaction of the tendencies of stability and
change, the multiplicity of possibilities and limitations through general conditions, independent development, and
functional interdependence are all to be weighed carefully one against the other. The different conceptions of the value
of each of these criteria are to a large extent the basis for disputes among scholars over the meaning and persuasiveness
of the inferences they draw from them.
(Assumption of the psychic unity of mankind)
A fundamental prerequisite for the use of historical-cultural analogies is the assumption of the psychic unity of human
nature (i.e., that human beings in all times and places are essentially the same mentally); hence, the basic question
arises as to whether or not early prehistoric humans can be included in that unity. The particular answer on gives to this
question corresponds to a great extent to his particular approach, whether from the point of view of biology or the
humanities, of biological evolutionism or history. The biological sciences tend to view early man – even psychically –
as hals animal, while human studies emphasize more strongly the fundamental similarities that connect even the earliest
humans and cause them to stand apart from the animals. Whatever the case, it can no longer be doubted that earliest
man stands closer to present-day man from the evolutionary and biological aspect than to any of the animals known
today (including the „highest“ apes), and that the quality of early man's mental accomplishments separates him from
other animals and binds him fundamentally to present-day humans. For that reason it is generally sound – at least as a
guiding principle in empirical research – to view prehistoric man as essentially human, to understand him in terms of
human nature, and to proceed from the assumption of the psychic unity of mankind without thereby excluding further
evolution and development.

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Inferred practices and beliefs

Burial customs and cults of the dead.

(Implication of life after death)

The oldest known burials can be attributed to the Middle Paleolithic Period. The copses, accompanied by stone
tools and parts of animals, were laid in holes in the ground and sometimes the corpses were especially protected. In
some cases, the findings give the impression that the dead were to be „held onto.“ Whether or not that meant that the
dead were to be cared for lovingly or that their return was to be feared, it implies, in any case, a belief in life after death
in some form. But it is not necessary to infer a belief in separate souls; rather it could also indicate the concept of a
„living corpse.“
From the Upper Paleolithic Period on, the burials manifest richer grave goods; however, it is not possible to conclude
from this that religious concepts had changed. The same holds for the adoption of other burial practices, as, for
example, secondary burials, in which the bodies were first allowed to decompose fully and then the bones were buried,
or in the burning of bodies (evident from the Neolithic Period). From these facts it is not possible to infer the existence
of a definite belief in souls; it is also not possible to determine the advent of such concepts from archaeological
evidence. Even the increase in the discoveries of grave goods, occasionally also including other human remains, is
evidence not for a change of religious concepts but for increased needs of the dead in the beyond – i.e., needs after
death, that are dependent on economic and social status in life. Analogies to recent (primitive) phenomena demonstrate
that it is not possible to connect particular burial customs with particular notions of the beyond, or to any other religious
conceptions.
(Burial of skulls and skull cults)
Other than the burial of the whole body, the disposition of the individual parts of the body, and especially the skull, is
important. Ritual deposition of skulls is confirmed for the Middle Paleolithic Period. From even earlier periods,
however, individual or multiple human skulls and long bones have been found within a single site (for example, with
Peking man). It is not necessary to interpret these findings as remains of headhunting or developed skull cults; for even
today some simple hunting and gathering societies have the custom of preserving such parts of corpses for long periods
of time and even of carrying them around on their bodies. The same practice is observed also in the Upper Paleolithic
and even later periods; but it is not possible to infer an elaborated ancestor cult directly from such prolonged
connections of the living with the dead.
The situation is different with findings from permanent settlements of agrarian people, in contrast to constantly
shifting hunter-collectors. Evidences for ancestor cult practices dating to the 7th century BC were first discovered at
Jericho in Palestine, where several skulls were deposited in a separate room, some of them covered with a plastic
modelling of faces similar to that found on the ancestral skulls of present-day agrarian peoples of South Asia and
Oceania. An elaborated skull cult is usually connected with the veneration of ancestors. An important theme of ancestral
cults is the belief in a connection between the dead and the fertility of the land of their descendants.
(Megalithic graves)
An especially noteworthy kind of burial is that of the megalithic (huge stone) graves that appear in various areas from
the Neolithic Period on. It is probable that in this practice there was also a vital believed link between the living and the
dead, and that occasionally sacred areaqs and gathering places were connected with such graves. The practices of the
megalith builders were probably rooted to a considerable extent, in ideas about the dead and in ancestor cults to which
their stones gave a particular durability and a monumental form. It is more difficult to explain the individual erect
stones (menhirs), which, of course, could be the symbol of seat of ancestors, especially where they show indications of
being sculpted in human form. It surely would be a mistake, however, to look for a uniform interpretation of all
megalithic monuments or even to speak of a distinct megalithic religion. The megalithic monuments are rather to be
understood as a complex of grandiose manifestations of ideas that could well have been diverse, but among which the
cult of dead, nevertheless, played an important role.

Cannibalism

In finds belonging to the Paleolithic Period, pieces of human bodies as well as the bones of other animals are

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found scattered throughout the archaeological layers and are sometimes broken or charred. This is often taken as
evidence for cannibalism, but other interpretations are just as likely (eg., the action of carrion-eating animals [such as
hyenas] turning up the bones to the surface and thus causing their burning by later fires at the same place). To be sure,
the finds allow the interpretation of cannibalism; however, they do not necessarily or intrinsically require it but rather
permit that explanation if one proceeds from the prior conviction that cannibalism already existed at that time. This
obsolete conception, still held by some scholars today – i.e., that cannibalism is an especially „primitive“ phenomenon
and therefore very ancient – must be abandoned. Ethnological studies show clearly that cannibalism appears almost
exclusively in the practices of agrarian peoples, that is, in a later cultural stage, and evidently is essentially bound up
with religious or magical conceptions in which cultivated plants play a large role. Even if a Paleolithic cannibalism
existed on a large scale, it could not be explained by means of concepts that originated in a cultural stage so differently
structured.
The situation in later periods, especially in the Neolithic, is different. Here, rather than isolated parts of human skeletons
scattered about a settlements, human remains occasionally are found in association with remains of foodstuffs in waste
pits or in holes and tunnels that served as sacrificial sites.
Especially where human skulls have been broken open and the hollow bones split, the interpretation of cannibalism is
unavoidable. Since this inferred practice occurred in the realm of agrarian cultures, it is more feasible to make
comparisons with present-day cannibalism, where the meaning is generally the acquisition of the powers and other
qualities of the victim.

Sacrifices.

Sacrifices (i.e., the presentation of offerings to higher beings or to the dead) appear as early as the Middle
Paleolithic Period. Pits with some animal bones have been found in the vicinity of burial sites; thus, it is a likely
possibility that they represent offerings to the dead. There is a dispute over the interpretation of the arrangement of the
skulls and long bones of bears, since they are deposited in such a manner that it is hardly possible to discern a profane
explanation.
(Cultic and magical significance of sacrifices)
It is assumed that they had a cultic or magical significance. Most likely, certain parts of the prey, suc as the head and
the meaty shanks, or at least the bones with brain and marrow, were sacrificed. Even if it cannot be definitely stated
who the recipient of these sacrifices was, analogies with present-day „primitive“ phenomena make it likely that a part of
the prey was offered to a higher being who was believed to dispense nourishment. It could also, however, have been a
matter of preserving parts of animals in order to resurrect the entire animal and preserve the species. Further more, finds
of bones and drawings show that the preservation of skulls with still attached vertebrae, ribs, and front legs of oxen are
reindeer played a certain religious or magical role. The sinking of whole reindeer into lakes is hard to explain other than
as a sacrifice. This might be traced to the idea that what occupies the centre of attention is not the individual hunted
animal but the whole herd; no longer only a part of an animal but a whole animal as pqart of a herd is sacrificed. The
custom also existed in recent times among hunters and herders of central and north Asia. As such finds become more
numerous, it seems evident that certain specific animals and parts of their bodies are selected for sacrifice.
It is difficult to differentiate between animal sacrifices and the immediate cultic veneration of an animal at the burial
sites of animals. In the Neolithic Period, the sites become especially profuse and are usually found in connection with
human burials; nevertheless, there are such burial sites of animals that are not related in this manner and that occur with
pronounced frequency, characteristically in particular groups or cultures. In these cases, domestic animals almost
exclusively are involved, and among them the dog and the ox predominate.
The question of human sacrifice is of special significance here. Human sacrifices often were related to cannibalism
and to the sacrifice of animals. With conspicuous frequency victims discerned in ceremonial remains are females and
children, sometimes along with young pigs. This practice is similar to fertility and agricultural rites that are known to
have been practiced in the early Mediterranean civilizations. It is also similar to beliefs and practices observed among
present-day „primitive“ agrarian peoples (in which pigs are often substituted for humans), such as in ceremonies of
secret societies, initiation rites, sacrifices, celebrations of feasts of the dead, and notions about fertility, especially in
connection with the growing and ripening of cultivated plants.
In comparison, the inclusion of servants or women in the burial sites of highly placed persons can hardly be called
sacrifice in a strict sense – that is, an offering to a higher power or deity. Such inclusions most likely reflect the social
status of the deceased leader and his need for servants in the afterlife, rather than an offering. It is a sacrifice in the
wider sense of respect and awe for the person and status – and all that this conveyed – of the deceased leader. This

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practice becomes more important only where correspondingly differentiated social conditions are found (such as in the
royal graves at Ur in Mesopotamia and in those of the Shang dynasty in China). Sometimes it took on almost
unbelievable forms, especially in terms of the numbers of persons and animals interred with the deceased leader.
(Ritual preservation of objects)
The ritual preservation of objects also must be included in the realm of sacrifice (in a wider sense). This can be
demonstrated for the first time in the Neolithic Period (for instance, the ritual depositing of axes); in later periods, it
plays a large role. In finds from the Bronze Age on, weapons and jewelry frequently are found in wells and springs. In
Iron Age finds, such objects are found in almost unbelievable quantities in a number of swamps and other bodies of
water. It seems probable that they represent the sacrifice of war booty.

Hunting rites and animal cults.

In the oldest known examples of graphic art, the representations of animals play a large part; humans appear
rarely and then frequently with animal attributes or as mixed human-animal figures. In the context of the whole
situation, the view that these representations were merely ornamentations or served a purely artistic need may be
dismissed; they are found without boundaries and background on rock walls and are not part of an interrelated scene. It
is evident that animals played a predominant role in the mental world of the Upper Paleolithic Period insofar as
represented is, first of all, that which is essential to the animal, partly in its relation to the hunt, but also in relation to
anthropomorphic figures showing the inter-mixing of human and animal forms. This indicates a special and intimate
relationship between humans and animals that transcends and overcomes the boundaries between different realms of
being that modern concepts and understanding require.
This phenomenon is similar to what is still known today as animalism (or nagualism or therioscentrism). It is
characterized by close magical and religious ties of humans with animals, especially with wild animals. It is also
characterized in terms of otherwordly and superwordly realms and practices, such as placating and begging for
forgiveness of the game killed, performing oracles with animal bones, and performing mimic animal dances and fertility
rites for animals. Animals were thought to be manlike, to have souls, or to be equipped with magical powers.
Animalism thus expresses itself in various conceptions of how animals are regarded as guardian spirits and „alter egos,“
of the facile and frequent interchangeability between human and animal forms, and also of a theriomorphically (animal-
formed) envisioned higher being – one who changes between human and animal forms and unifies them. Higher, often
theriomorphic, beings are gods who rule over the animals, the hunters, and the hunting territory, or spirits in the
bushland and with the animals. It is obviously not possible to identify special occurrences or forms of such higher
beings during the Peleolithic Period, but their general features may be safely assumed.
Animalism is, to a large extent, a basis for totemism, which involves various permanent relationship of individuals or
groups to cetain animals or other natural objects; hence animalism is occasionally called „proto-totemism.“ Individual
and cultic totemism, as opposed to group totemism of an almost solely social function, are particularly cose to
animalism, whereas religious and cultic meanings in group or clan totemism are usually poorly developed. It is not
possible to determine to what extent animalism had already assumed the character of true totemism in the Paleolithic
Period; the early existence of clan totemism is improbable because it occurs primarily among peoples who are to some
extent agrarian, and possibly a certain kind of sedentary life was prerequisite to its development.
Also, special sacrificial traditions were closely connected to game, particularly the custom of preserving the animal
skeleton or a part of a skeleton in order to placate the ruler of the animals (see above) and to provide for continuation of
the species.
A certain kind of bear ceremonialism is rooted in this conception and is to be recognized in several finds and pictures
from the Upper Paleolithic Period on. A skin with attached head was evidently draped over the body of a bear made out
of clay; the skull and long bones of the bear were buried separately (a practice begun in the Middle Paleolithic Period);
the bear was shot with arrows and killed by a shot or a thrust into the lungs; the animal or a bearlike figure was
surrounded by dancers. Similar phenomena are documented for more recent periods, above all for the hunting cultures
of Neolithic Siberia. These observations can be effortlessly fitted to the practice of bear ceremonialism that is still
widely distributed in northern Eurasia and North America.
The question of whether animals were the immediate objects of a cult is extremely difficult to judge in each particular
case. Nevertheless, with the beginning of the Neolithic Period, animal phenomena appear that probably go beyond
functioning merely as a sacrifice and symbol. This applies especially to representations of oxen and bulls and to the
symbolism of bull heads and bull horns.

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 Female fertility deities.

(Fertility statuettes)
Small female figures, the so-called Venus statuettes, appear for the first time in the Upper Paleolithic Period. In
some cases they are very schematically formed, and it is often difficult or impossible to recognize female attributes. In
other cases, however, they are naturalistic representations of corpulent women whose secondary sexual characteristics
(their breasts and buttocks) were given special prominence, though their faces, feet, and arms were almost completely
neglected. Such strong emphasis on the anatomical zones that are related to the bearing of children and nourishing them
easily conveys to one the idea of female fertility. Nevertheless, it is not necessarily true of all these small figures.
Ethnological analogies with present-day primitive phenomena offer the equally plausible view that such figures were
regarded as the representations of the abodes of spirits whose function was to help and protect, and especially during
hunting. They also may have been conceived, among other things, as mothers or rulers of the animals, goddesses of the
underworld, helpers during hunting and donators of game, and as sovereigns of the land and other regions and of natural
forces, including that of fertility.
No known direct continuum connects these earlier Paleolithic figures to similar ones of the early Neolithic and later
periods. In settlements and shrines of these alter periods are found large numbers of female figurines of widely differing
types. They may have been representations of deities and symbols or, perhaps, votive offerings, somehow connected
with femal fertility. This can be safely assumed for figurines that show an obvious indication of fertility or are
connected with children, and even more for shrines containing figures with sculptured pairs of breasts, and figures on
the walls of women in childbirth. Not all female figures can, however, be understood merely as fertility symbols; rather,
in many cases they are assumed to be house gods or representations of ancestors, and, especially when appearing in
graves, as substitutes for the bodies of maids, wives and concubines. An appearance of a large number of smaller
figures suggests a votive or magical usage.

Shamanism, sorcery, and magic.

(Belief in guardian spirits)

Shamanism is a rather variable and highly stratified complex of practices and conceptions; characteristic
among these are the use of ecstasy, the belief in guardian spirits (who are often thin animal form, with the function of
helping and guiding the dead on their voyage to the beyond), and beliefs concerning metamorphosis (change of form)
and travelling to the beyond. Pictures from the Upper Paleolithic Period indicate the existence at that time of ecstatic
practices and of beliefs in protective and helping spirits, which assume the form of birds and other animals. On the other
hand, it is doubtful whether shamanism existed in fully developed form at that time. Also, in the course of prehistory,
objects appear that may well have belonged to the paraphernalia of shamanism. Noisemaking objects (to drive away
evil spirits) are often found in the material remains of the Iron Age and probably are connected with shamanism.
Recent studies stress the religious character of shamanism, though in practice it is related to sorcey and magic.
Shamanism is not to be identified with sorcery and magic if they are understood as attempts to manipulate the
supernatural through certain human techniques, in contrast with religion, in which man approaches higher beings (gods)
in an attitude of supplication. Magic or sorcery thus appears as the opponent of true religion and gains importance when
religion declines or is overwhelmed. In fact, magic and sorcery may take over cultic forms and rob them of their
religious meaning when this occurs. For these reasons, it is often difficult to decide whether prehistoric phenomena
were of religious or magical character.
Magic also can be practiced to a large degree without the use of material objects, and it is, therefore, as hard to grasp
archaeologically as true religion. In the interpretation of the art of the Upper Paleolithic, scholars have given great
importance to magic because, for example, missiles (spears and arrows) were drawn on the pictures of animals. This has
been interpreted to mean that an effort was made to insure and compel the success of hunters through magical action.
But this interpretation is higly speculative and it remains uncertain what these drawings mean. It is just as difficult to
decide whether or not other pictures, sculptures, abstract symbols, amulets, and similar objects were used to make
magic in this and later periods.

Historical development

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 Religious patterns and economic stages.

Religion is always closely related to other realms of life, such as economic activities. These relations are partly
direct and partly mediated by social forms. The latter are, on the one hand, at least partially dependent on economic
conditions; on the other hand, social structures influence the formation of religious phenomena and often serve as
models for their elaboration. In a negative sense, then, it is often possible to eliminate certain religious phenomena as
inappropriate to a particular society. It is inconceivable, for example, that the religious conception of simple hunters and
gatherers included an elaborately organized hierarchy of gods with detailed division of labour between the individual
figures. Similarly, it is a mistake to attribute to hunters and gatherers conceptions that are bound up with agriculture and
the fertility of fields. In a positive sense, however, certain economic and social conditions will encourage the
development of certain corresponding religious conceptions. Animalistic notions will be especially effective in
situations where animals play a large role as partners of humans. Nevertheless, the spiritual ties to animals will be
considerably different among hunters or agrarian peoples who still find it necessary to rely heavily on hunting for their
meat supply as compared with pastoral peoples. In fully agrarian cultures, on the other hand, ideas about the fertility of
fields and cultivated plants play an important part; they are connected with other notions about fertility and influence
other spheres of life.

Religious patterns in the various periods.

Lower or Early and Middle Paleolithic.

(Burial sites that indicate a belief in life after death)
The oldest burials that attest to a belief in life after death can be placed in the period between about 50,000 and 30,000
BC. The earliest evidence of human activity in any form, on the other hand, goes back more than 1,000,000 years. Yet,
since religious conceptions are not always bound to material objects, and since there is evidence that truly human beings
existed even during early Paleolithic times, it is inadmissible to infer that earliest man had no religion from the mere
fact that no identifiable religious objects have been found.
A study of very simple hunters and gatherers of recent times shows that several religious conceptions generally
considered to be especially „primitive“ (e.g., fetishism) hardly play an important part, but rather that, among other
things, the supposedly „advanced“ conception of a personal creator and preserver of the world does play an important
part. Such a belief could never be discovered by examining archaeological sources-the material remains- and hence
cannot be ruled out for the Early Paleolithic Period. Whether or not the sacrifices in that era involved divine creators or
preservers or other beings can only be a matter of conjecture. Features of animalism, magic, and various other views
and practices may have played a role, but probably less so than in later epochs.
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. The animalistic features encountered in the art of the Upper Paleolithic Period were
most likely only a part of the religion that xisted at that time. Among present-day „primitives“ the animalistic realm
often occupies only a lower sphere of what can be considered religious, and beyond and above that sphere are still other
notions about gods. Practices concerning the resurrection of animals and the preservation of species evidently also
played an important part and were closely tied to animalistic conceptions. The corresponding rituals clearly took on a
special significance in relation to bears and became the basis for the bear ceremonies that were later widely diffused.
Although shamanism may have been initiated somewhat earlier, it was now evident, at least in some of its aspects.
The realm of hunting was primarily a masculine sphere; nevertheless, it also includes in religious phenomena the
feminine aspect, as symbols of female fertility (and probably also of female deities) demonstrate.
Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic. The characteristics of early religion were continued but transformed in the proto-
Neolithic and Neolithic periods. Shamanism developed, especially among the pastoralists of central and north Asia,
Animals, viewed as the hypostases (essences) of higher beings, especially the eagle or falcon and the raven, became
highly significant in shamanism. Animalistic conceptions continued and often assumed the proportions of a true animal
cult. Hoofed animals, especially sheep and oxen, played an important part as sacrifices and bulls particularly assumed a
leading role; they seem to have been relegated to the masculine sphere. Horses appear as domesticated animals and as
sacrifices only toward the end of the Neolithic Period. They may have been connected with a heavenly divinity, as later
evidence suggests.
In the early perio of agriculture, before the full development of the Neolithic Period, deposits of human skulls appear
that suggest the presence of ancestor cults. A spiritual identification between humans and plants apparently played a
predominant part in conceptions connected with headhunting and cannibalism. The death of a god was often considered

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a prerequisite to the appearance and prospering of the plants, and this mythical event was repeated through human
sacrifice that was either accompanied by or replaced by animal sacrifice.
(Dualism of masculine and feminine element)
At an early stage, in addition to an agricultural connection with the earlier feminine aspects, the masculine aspect
appears in the form of portrayals of sexual union and, perhaps, of the „holy wedding,“ or sacred coupling, as well as in
portrayals of couples and families. Among the material remains, however, the direct representation of the male element
recedes sharply, yet perhaps the symbol of the axe and probably also that of the bull may indicate the male element.
This dualism of the masculine and feminine aspects can possibly be interpreted in terms of father sky and mother earth,
and in their union as a couple by which they become parents of the world. In the early civilizations, the conception of a
supreme being or a heavenly god (which cannot clearly be recognized either in pictures or in other material objects)
plays a minor role. That does not mean, however, that such a conception is necessarily of recent origin but rather that it
probably existed at an early period in places where there was no literate tradition (predominantly among pastoral
cultures).

Prehistoric religions and religions of the early civilizations.

The decisive factors that brought about the early civilizations were the new kinds of economic and social
organization, the large-scale exploitation of human energy, the formation of ruling classes, hierarchical organization,
and the administrative division of labour. Under such conditions polytheism, which had undoubtedly been nascent
before, could develop fully. The social order is mirrored in the conception of city and state gods and of a hierarchically
organized „state of gods“ with a division of labour. The concentration of power and people in one place, in contrast
with the wandering of earlier nomadic cultures, enabled fixed central shrines to become influential. Yet the old
traditions continued, and not least among them, that of animalism, in the form of conceptions about a ruler of the
animals, animal cults, and similar phenomena. Female fertility figures remain generally prominent, such as the Great
Mother and the Earth Mother.

Present status and prospects for the study of prehistoric religion

The material remains of prehistoric times naturally furnish more information about economics, technology, and
society than about spiritual meanings. The poverty of the sources and the conjectural nature of what can be said point to
the fact that the study of prehistoric religion remains predominantly at the periphery of scientific research. Its future
expansion will depend not so much on an increase of source material and of research, but on whether or not it
progresses methodologically – in its methods of inquiry and interpretation and its basic theoretical concepts.
Knowledge of prehistoric religion will always remain fragmentary. Every attempt to sketch broad outlines of the area
contains its own particular dangers. On the one side are the enthusiasts who try to make too much out of meagre
sources; and on the other, the positivists, who set unnecessarily narow limits to their interpretations. The use of
preconceived evolutionary concepts is just as dangerous as undertaking a reconstruction that does not take into account
the fact that the chronological sequence of material remains that reflect religious phenomena is not the same thing as a
developmental sequence of great religious ideas. Some day perhaps the proper combination of factual, theoretical, and
reconstructive capacities will provide a more satisfactory picture of prehistoric religion.

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 BONUS: ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA: PRIMITIVE RELIGION

Because of tehe misleading connotations of the term primitive, most present-day scholars hesitate to classify any
religious phenomena as primitive. Nevertheless, for lack of a satisfactory substitute, „primitive religion“ still appears in
the title of many books and articles. In a study by E.E. Evans-pRitchard, an outstanding conemporary anthropologist,
Theories of Primitive Religion (1965, primitive religion means the religion of peoples „living in small scale societies
with a simple material culture and lacking literature.“ The term is generally used in this article in the sense, but other
meanings that have been attached to it are also considered, particularly those that refer to the elements and basic forms
of religious experience and behaviour, whether historical or psychological. Those beliefs and practices that have been
labelled „primitive“ are still of central interest to students of religion in general and, in many cases, are still very much
alive today.

Nature and significance of „primitive“ religion

Importance and influence of the study of primitive religion

The religions considered „nonprimitive“ - e.g., Judaism, Islām, Christianity, and Buddhism – are characterized
by literate theological and philosophical traditions, even though their adherents are often neither literate nor educated in
the literature of their faiths. These religions, however, represent only a fraction of the total religious experience and
expression of mankind, which have been mainly „primitive.“ „Primitive“ religion then claims attention as representing
the religions of most human beings for most of human history; and, though followers of supposedly „advanced“
religions have often looked down on these „primitive“ faith, the more philosophically and sociologically midnded have
also sought to learn something essential about the nature of man and divinity from them.
(The basic form of human religion)
During the 18th- and 19th-century confrontations between a religious and a scientific view of the world, when the
validity of all religious belief became a matter of general dispute, the nature of the primitive religion that supposedly
underlay and preceded all formal creeds became a subject of central interest. Primitive religious belief and practice
could be invoked either to demonstrate that all religion was based on delusion or that since men had always been
religious, religion must relate to the deepest realities of human nature and of the universe.
Thus, many writers whose influence is still widely diffused in intellectual life made use of information about primitive
religion. In theology it was notably represented in the voluminous writings of a German priest and anthropologist,
Wilhelm Schmidt (1868-1954), and his school, in which it was ultimately held to corroborate orthodox Christian
doctrine. In political and social theory. Friedrich Engels drew upon the religions of North American Indians in The
Origins of the Family, Private Property and the State (1902), and Karl Marx must have been acquainted with such
information. His view of the essentially social nature of religious sentiment has been widely shared by students of
primitive religion. Sigmund Feud and Carl Jung, the outstanding innovators in psychology, brought primitive myth
and symbolism into the mainstream of psychoanalytic theory, Freud's Totem and Taboo (1913) in particular basing its
argument upon what was then known of Australian Aboriginal religion. Through classical scholars like Jane Harrison
and Gilbert Murray, the living religions of then remote societies were brought to bear on the interpretation of Greek
and Roman texts; and the distinguished Sanskrit scholar and philologist Max Müller referred to African and other
beliefs in his works on mythology and language.
(Effect on imaginative literature)
In creative literature the characteristically modern writers of this century – e.g., T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, D.H.
Lawrence, and W.B. Yeats – received some inspiration from accounts of primitive religious experience; and in more
popular literature, writers of adventure stories – e.g., Henry Rider Haggard, perhaps the best informed – exploited
anthropological sources with varying degrees of sensationalism, as they still continue to do. Behind the use all these
writers made of anthropological knowledge were scholars who collected, organized, and sifted information, especially
in the English-speaking world (see below Development of the study of primitive religion).

The problematic meanings of the term primitive and suggested substitutes

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 The word primitive has had pejorative overtones, intensified by 19th-century reconstructions of human
evolution that placed primitive man low in a scale of human development from prehuman ancestry to contemporary
civilization. Thus used, the term constantly confuses what is historically primary with what is psychologically
immature, the early with the crude or simple, and for this reason various substitutes are often used in modern writings.
Thus „ethnic,“ „tribal,“ „preliterate,“ „reindustrial,“ „small-scale,“ and now „underdeveloped“ and „developing“ appear
where once „primitive“ would have unhesitatingly been accepted. Any one of these may well be somewhat more
suitable in a particular study of aparticular people. In a short general survey one must retain the older term, but it may
still be necessary to state that, for serious students of the subject, primitive religion, far from connoting „savage“
superstitions, exhibits the very basis of man's religious constitution, to which the professional theologians and
philosophers have but added their own systematic rationalizations. Thus, although William James in The Varieties of
Religious Experience (1902) has nothing to say about the religions considered below, he shares something of the spirit
in which they are now studied in pleading for more attention to be paid to the religious experience of the common man,
as against the highly intellectualized theological constructs of professional thinkers. Attempts to rediscover in primitive
religion forms of experience that seemed to have been superseded by scientific materialism and dogmatic religious
orthodoxies have also characterized the middle years of this century, two examples being the writings of Henri
Frankfort and Mircea Eliade.

Development of the study of primitive religion

(Observations of travellers)
From classical times observations on the customs, including the religions, of the „barbarians“ and „pagans“
occur in anthropo-geographical writings, the most famous being those of Herodotus; but these classical and later and
fuller medieval references reveal more about the outlook of their authors than about primitive religion. By the
Renaissance, travellers' observations on cults and beliefs from distant parts of the world had been further assimilated, if
still without much real understanding. What was known of primitive religion was fitten into the biblical and Christian
context of belief, where it appeared either as a special category of religion, idolatry, or, as in Sir Thomas More's
Utopia (1516), was introduced more sympathetically to suggest what „natural“ religion without the Christian revelation
would be like. The idea that primitive religion started with idolatry, or more precisely with the worship of animals and
material objects called by Portuguese voyagers „fetiches,“ was widespread into the 18th and well into the 19th
centuries.
In the 18th century also, with such work as the French Jesuit missionary Joseph-François Lafitau's comparison of the
North American Indians with the ancient Hebrews and Egyptians (Moeurs des sauvages amériquains comparées aux
moeurs des premiers temps, 1724), debate arose as to whether extant primitive religions had emerged independently or
represented degenerate and fatmentary survivals of the religion of Genesis. Montesquieu, and 18th-century French
philosopher, took primitive religion into account in his sociological history, and the British moral philosopher David
Hume (in The Natural History of Religion, 1757) argued that monotheism had grown with the growth of human reason
out of an original polytheism. Hume's account of the origin of religion in the personification of the unknown causes of
natural events has lived on in one or another form until the present day.
But it is to the 19th-century scholars, with their vastly greater knowledge of the peoples of the world, that present-day
students more particularly look back. They were obsessed with positing one or another origin for religion, with
evolutionary reconstructions of human society and psychology that now have a merely historical interest; but their
theories at least encouraged argument and the later effort to test them by accumulating reliable empirical evidence.
(The great English and French scholars)
Two writers who made very substantial contributions to the study were the great English scholars Sir Edward
Burnett Tylor and Sir James George Frazer. Tylor, regarding the basis of religion as „a belief in spiritual beings“ (a
more acceptable view than earlier suppositions that primitive men worshipped material idols), coined the term animism
for this primitive faith and argued that man had arrived at the conception of spirits by reflecting on the experience of
incorporeality found in his own dreams and the withdrawal of a vital principle, the soul at death. Herbert Spencer,
who, especially in the first volume of The Principles of Sociology (1896), compiled a great deal of information on
primitive religion, came apparently independently to the same conclusion. In Golden Bough (1890), probably the most
famous single treatise on primitive religion, Frazer proposed a vast scheme of psychological and theological evolution,
beginning with magic, for him a primitive attempt to coerce nature by technical acts and formulas, which was replaced
by religion, involving the propitiation of unknown forces controlling human destiny, and which was in turn being
superseded by modern experimental science.
Such were in principle psychological theories of the primitive basis of religion, but tin France Émile Durkheim and

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his followers (as also W. Robertson Smith in Britain) rather emphasized its social and collective nature. In The
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1915), a still indispensable work, Durkheim saw a totemic belief of the
Australian Aborigines as those most elementary forms and suggested that gods, like the totemic clan animals revered by
the Aborigines, symbolized and expressed social cohesion. These streams of thought, along with others concerned with
the interpretation of primitive mentality, myth, and ritual, meet in the writings of later anthropologists. From early in the
20th century and increasingly during it, direct contact with „primitive“ peoples by trained observers with a thorough
knowledge of their languages has opened up far deeper channels of enquiry into the refinements and complexities of
their thought. Among the immediate forerunners of contemporary studies may be mentioned Bronisłav Malinowski,
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, Paul Radin, and Robert H. Lowie, of whom the last two wrote general works on primitive
religion.
Although his work is probably less often referred to than theirs, perhaps a more pervasive influence in this century was
Lucien Lévy-Bruhl, who in several books argued that primitive thought was prelogical and exhibited an interest in
mystical participation with the life of the natural world quite unlike the analytic habit of thought of scientific Western
man. It would now be admitted that Lévy-Bruhl underestimated the rational ane empirical elements in the thought of
his „primitives.“ He drew attention, nevertheless, to the possibility of approaching their religious propositions and
symbolism in their own right as forms of mystical thought and not merely seeing them as a failure to develop the mental
procedures of European natural scientists. Work done in the field since the 1940s at least has been more and more
concerned with elucidating religious symbolism and (under the impact partly of the widely acclaimed contemporary
French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss) with the elaborate analysis of belief and myth, in an attempt, ultimately, to
deepen understanding of human thought and imagination through study of its spontaneous expressions in primitive life.

Religion in primitive culture

Specific characteristics and functions in primitive communities, life, and thought

The societies that most students of primitive religion have been concerned with are, or were, similar in three principal
respects. First, as compared with urban and more particularly industrial cultures, they are small in scale, with a
corresponding emphasis on face-to-face, personal relations between their members.
(The three common characteristics)
Local groups of kin and neighbours play a more significant part in national or tribal life than is the case in modern
states, and much of primitive religious belief and practice is bound up with the needs and structure of these local
communities.
Second, with some important exceptions, they have been economically poor, without great distinctions of wealth, and
technologically unable to dominate their natural environment. The close economic interdependence of their members
and their ultimate dependence on the forces of nature have important consequences for their religions, which emphasize
the communal aspects of human life and common subjection of all men to forces beyond thir control.
Third, though often rich in oral tradition, they have lacked written traditions and, with them, the accumulative records
of private introspection that eventually produce systematic and fomalized philosophy and theology. It is often said,
therefore, that they are religions of action rather than of reflection, though this distinction can be over-stressed.
Following from the first point, primitive religion has been said to be largely polytheistic, for there are family gods,
clan gods, gods of the local community, and other gods associated with features of the locality and with the needs and
shared experience of the local community. The effect of their cults is to bind believers in communions based upon
kinship and neighbourhood. To take one example, the highland people of New Guinea present a pattern of many local
communities, each with its different gods; but the gods are of a basically similar kind, and belief and practice are
generally uniform over the whole territory.
But to say that primitive religion is polytheistic is to disregard other significant and widespread characteristics. Belief
in some kind of high god, a transcendent being in whom the nature of divinity in general is conceptually unified, is
widely reported, and Wilhelm Schmidt devoted much attention to investigating this aspect of primitive belief. It is
often reported that these high gods are too distant from men to concern themselves with local affairs, though a single
inclusive concept of divinity emerges when local needs and interests give way to broader national, tribal, and intertribal
concerns. It is less usual, however, to find a pantheon with gods or gods and spirits arranged in a fixed hierarchy. the
god (or gods) dominant in a particular situation has first place, corresponding to a mode of belief which Max Müller
called henotheism (adherence to one god, while acknowledging the existence of others).
(The moral sanctions of the gods)
The relative lack of centralized coercive secular power in primitive cultures leaves to the gods the important sanctions

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for correct behaviour. It is not that gods announce moral rules; rather, they support the moral principles traditionally
taught by the ancestors with whome they tend to be closely connected. So if a man fais to carry out binding obligations
to his kin, his immorality may be corrected by illness, interpreted as divine retribution, more than by other social and
merely secular pressures. When the relations between kin form the fabric of local community, this idea of the retributive
justice of the gods is a powerful sanction for approved behaviour. Similarly, when comparative and general poverty
make for great local interdependence, the belief that the generous man has the blessing of the gods encourages the
mutual economic support actually essential for communal survival.
A simple technology and the absence of extensive scientific knowledge mean that many results brought about on the
modern world by purely technical acts and events explained in the modern world by tested scientific generalizations are
in the primitive world part of the province of religion. Thus, rainmaking ceremonies and rites to promote fertility – i.e.,
to promote life – are central social concerns. At the individual psychological level, too, religious action gives the
reassurance of being able to deal symbolically with suffering and misfortune, of being able to divine truths that men
need to know for their own well-being, and of making direct contact, often through spirit possession, with the
suprahuman forces believed to affect human health and happiness. Hence the growing study of ethno-psychiatry
examines primitive religious belief and ritual seriously with regard to their psycho-therapeutic effects.

Various types of religiocultural configurations

In the past many attempts were made to construct typologies of religion, but with increased knowledge it has
now become clear that any attempt to divide forms of belief and ritual into mutually exclusive types is bound to do
violence to the facts. Thus, such terms as fetishism, animism, totemism, ancestor worship, and shamanism can no
longer be regarded as denoting well-defined and distinct modes of religious belief. Rather, certain dominant themes
appear in the religions of different societies.
(Relation to the dead: ancestral ghosts)
So for all peoples contemplation of the dead and, more particularly, of dead ancestors excites some sentiment of piety
and often of fear, but the extent to which the ancestral dead are placed at the center of a religious cult varies greatly
from one society to another. An example of a people whose religious outlook is concentrated on the power of ancestral
ghosts is that of the Manus of Melanesia, who regard the father's or sometimes some other kinsman's ghost as
supervising the affairs of the living household, sometimes protecting and sometimes punishing its members. This Sir
Ghost, concretely present in the skull of the person from whom it derives and which his family preserves in the home,
is thought in particular to punish sexual transgressions by causing illness. When illness occurs diviners are consulted to
discover which Sir Ghost or other ghost is angry. The Manu are fishers and traders, and Sir Ghost also requires the
correct fulfillment of economic obligations.
A concern with the power of ancestral ghosts, however, is also found among many African peoples whose way of life
and systems of morality are very different from those of the Manus and among whom religious service to the dead is
combined with cults of nonhuman spirits and gods. The Nuer of the southern Sudan, whose political system is based
upon patrilineal descent an who therefore trace their ancestry much further back than to the Manus, have in common
with many peoples of the Nile region a belief in the ghostly vengeance of the embittered dead. but here, despite the
importance of genealogy, there is no cult of the dead, and graves are not for long remembered. Instedad there is a
concentration upon an entirely spiritual high god, Kwoth, and many nonhuman spirits who partake of his nature. To
these prayers and sacrifice are offered, and diviners are employed to suggest which spirit has caused any particular
misfortune. Here the dominant theme of the religion is belief in spirit in numerous manifestations, or „refractions,“ as
they have been called by E.E. Evans-Pritchard. Nuer have little or no interest in the material representation of spiritual
forces, in great contrast to the proliferation of images and shrines of the gods found among the Yoruba, the Akan, and
many other West African peoples.
Where kingdoms have developed, the cult of kingship, as represented in the king and his ancestors, has often become
the dominant theme of religious practice. It was so in ancient Egypt and remains so in many African kingdoms where,
just as the kingship itself must not die, the king in person must not appear to die like other men. This sacralization of the
king, sometimes as high priest of the nation as, for example, in Ashanti (now in Ghana) and other West African states
and sometimes as himself divine, is one f the main interests of Sir James Frazer's Golden Bough, which gives
examples from many parts of the world and not only from peoples who have been called „primitive.“
Among many peoples the commonest cultic practices are centred round certain animals, plants or other species are
regarded as emblems or material symbols of the spiritual vitality and integrity of particular social groups within the
society, and in some cases elaborate myths explain their association with those groups, while ceremonies are performed
to further their well-being. This aspect of primitive religion, called totemism (from a North American Indian word) by

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both past and present writers, was more particularly identified among the Australian Aborigines. There a wide range of
species, the totems, are thought to link those who revere them with what they call „the dream-time,“ which was defined
by Adolphus Peter Elkin, an eminent Australian anthropologist, as „the ancient time of the heroes .. the eternal dream-
time of spiritual reality...“
(Individual religious experience)
But it is not only through totemic observances that their contact with spiritual reality is sought. In some primitive
religions (and again, not only the religions of peoples who have been called primitive) the quest for an individual
spiritual experience that will provide guidance through the dangers of life might be said to be the dominant theme. This
is particularly so among some North American Indian groups, where men will prepare themselves for this significant
vision by solitude, fasting, and self-mortification. Sometimes also, as in American Peyote cults, drugs are used to
produce this vital experience of the ultimate situation of the individual psyche. Widespread also are cults of spirit
possession, in which the worshipper invites ultrahuman, spiritual forces to enter his body and speak through him, both
to exorcise injurious spiritual influences from himself and from others and to announce truths beyond rational
investigation. Emphasis on possession, ecstasy, and exorcism is characteristic of what has been called shamanism (after
the Tungus word for „medicine man“ in East Siberia) amongst Amerindians, Eskimos and Mongolians, but it is a
widespread and apparently increasing feature of many African religions. Shamanism, however, involves special
experiences and techniques in some respects different from those of African mediums.

Salient distinctions from or similarities with the advanced religions

Not only it is impossible to differentiate mutually exclusive types of primitive religion (and still less to place
them in an evolutionary hierarchy) but also what has been called „primitive“ religious practice and belief has far more
in common with „advanced“ religions than it has apart from them.

(Tradition, institutions, and doctrines)

The literary heritage of the latter does indeed permit the formation of longer and more varied traditions and the
incorporation into them of a wider range of individual opinions, intuitions, and experiences, but the oral traditions of
nonliterate peoples (which tape recording makes more fully available than ever before) also display a greater depth,
range, and consistency within the particular community than had previously been supposed. To take only two examples,
The Mythi of the Bager from northern Ghana (Jack Goody, ed.; 1972) runs into some 12,000 lines of verse that are
memorized in a fixed form as a recapitulation of man's historical relation to the gods, while the priesthood of the Maori
of New Zealand has long been known as the repository of a rich historical and religious tradition. Priesthood, prayer,
sacrifice, and asceticism, as well as elaborate mystical symbolism and mythological validation are found equally in
those religions which have been called primitive and those which are described as advanced. Doctrinal dispute
following from wider confrontations of opinion in religious matters is probably much more characteristic of literate
religious traditions than of the rest, and it is widely reported of primitive faiths that they make no claim for the
exclusive truth of their own teachings. Nor, on the whole, do they have any doctrinal certainty in asserting what
happens beyond this life. Their emphasis lies rather on communal well-being than on the cultivation of individual
virtue, and their ethical teachings are often less cetrally incorporated in religious lore than those of the more moralistic
„religions of the book.“ And as compared with the literary form in which the spiritual beings of those religions often
tend to be presented, primitive religions seek and appear to provide direct experience of the power of the gods. It is, of
course, a return to some such primal spirituality that revivalists of the „advanced“ religions have often sought.

Primitive world views

Distinction between sacred and profane

It is commonly accepted in modern western society that religion is concerned with the supernatural; however,
as Durkheim recognized, the notion of the supernatural depends upon a notion of the natural as being governed by
scientifically established laws, an intellectual construct of a specialized and historically recent kind. Hence, like
Durkheim, many students of primitive religion would still hold that religion is not concerned with the supernatural so
much as with the sacred – with sacred periods in time, sacred places, and sacred persons set apart from the ordinary
flow of common life for special religious attentions. Primitive (and not only primitive) religion, then, would be
concerned with the knowledge of sacredness and its protection, and with distinguishing the sacřred from its

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complementary opposite, the profane. For Durkheim, the sacred represented the collective strength and aspirations of
the community, experienced in some special periods of time (as in the religious cycle of a church calendar), in some
persons (such as priests and kings), and in some places (such as shrines or centres of pilgrimage). All these are
connected with rituals and religious prescriptions and proscriptions that do not apply to the daily sequence of ordinary
life, to ordinary men, or to ordinary places, which represent the realm of the profane. Also, of course, „to profane“ may
have the meaning of actively opposing the sacred and, thus, desecrating or polluting. For a comprehensive discussion of
the sacred and profane, see SACRED OR HOLY.

Dynamistic, daemonistic, and theistic views of the sacred

(Mana, animism, and high gods)

A main point of departure for students of the sacred was the Melanesian and Polynesian concept, mana, first
noted by Robert Henry Codrington, an English missionary and anthropologist, in a book published in 1891. Like the
words totem and tabu (tapu), that indigenous term became part of the technical vocabulary of anthropological and
religious studies. mana signifies the intensity of an impersonal force or power attributed to some persons, things, and
situations. Mana, Codrington stated,
„is what works to effect everything which is beyond the ordinary power of men, outside the common processes
of nature; it is present in the atmosphere of life, attaches itself to persons and things, and is manifested by
results which can only be ascribed to its operation.“

The apprehension of this ethically neutral sacredness, a spiritually dynamic power, which in some contexts might
readily be translated simply as „luck“ and in others perhaps as „strong effectiveness,“ was regarded as the psychological
basis of religion.
Closely connected with mana in earlier discussion was the idea of taboo, indicating in its original Polynesian meaning
something set apart or forbidden. R.R. Marett, another British anthropologist, considered at length whether mana was a
magical or a religious conception and whether taboo was „negative magic“ in the sense that „to break a taboo is to set
in motion against oneself mystic wonder-making power in one form or another.“ In any case, for him a belief in mana,
ea generalized impersonal power, was historically and psychologically prior to animism, a belief in spiritual beings,
asserted by Tylor to be the original form of religion. Preanimism (belief in mana) thus gave way to animism, and
animism and polytheism, with more advanced thought, were superseded by monotheism. As against this it was argued
by some, particularly Wilhelm Schmidt, that many peoples then called „primitive,“ the Bushmen of the Kalahari
Desert and the pygmies of the Congo, for example, had a conception of a supreme god, often associated with the
firmament and, hence, a high god. Whether or not primitive religions incorporated the conception of a supreme divinity
now appears more a matter of theological and missionary controversy than a scientific problem. The evidence now
available shows that some peoples do emphasize the unity and transcendence of divinity more than others and that the
same people will stress divine unity and transcendence in some circumstances and divine multiplicity and immanence in
others, as, indeed, in the so-called higher religions.
These early attempts to define the fundamental features of „primitive,“ as distinct from any other religion, have little
relevance to contemporary discussion, except that it is from them and from the vocabulary they adopted that the general
reader is bound to take his bearings. What they were concerned with, however, were three very profound and perennial
themes in religious experience, exposed, as we now see, not only in the „advanced“ religions but also in a rich variety
of ethnographic literature from all over the world. The first is that of divine unity and divine multiplicity. The second is
what may be called the ambivalence of the quality of sacredness. Not only do sacred things, persons, and places both
attract men in veneration and keep them at a distance in avoidance and respect but also the gods themselves often have,
from the human point of view, both benevolent and malign aspects. Hence they are sometimes called to help men and
others to leave them untroubled. In much of what has been reported of „primitive“ religion, the gods, though they may
sanction morality, are themselves ethically neutral, uniting the goodness and badness that are recognized as categories
of merely human experience, so that what kills men in one context cures them in another. And, finally, there is the
theme of man's ultimate passiveness in relation to a universe animated by powers beyond his technical or rational
control.

Primitive cosmogonies and cosmologies; sacred time and times, sacred space and places.

In the absence of modern astronomy and physics, explanations of the structure of the universen and the origin

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of the world are incorporated in „primitive“ religious teaching.
(Creation myths)
All peoples have some form of cosmology, though not all have the elaborate cosmogenic myths of the evolution of the
universe that are characteristic of the religious traditions of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. But that the Australian
Aborigines, regarded by earlier anthropologists as the most primitive of living men, should have particularly complex
cosmological myths that are periodically dramatized in liturgical performance is sufficient to show that primitive
religion is far from impoverished (or „primitive“) in this respect. Indeed, the myth of Genesis is an unusually simple
account of creation, a fact that may well explain how widely men have found it possible to accept it.
That myth, however, does provide what all cosmological myths incorporate as a central teaching – an account of how
the palpable world of a particular poopulation in a particular geographical location emerged from an earlier state
regarded as more formless, more constricted, and less diversified. So, for example, in Maori cosmology from
NewZealand, as also in much African cosmology, sky and earth are represented as having been originally conjoined.
Only when sky and earth are separated (often through some act of the first human beings) does the world as it is now
known emerge, with a clear distinction between what is above and what is below, between light and dark, and so on.
From this separation follows one of the major polarities of religious thought and symbolism – that of higher and lower
powers and orders of being. With the complementary opposition of sy and earth, high and low, often go other symbolic
oppositions: that between male, usually associated with the higher, and female, usually associated with the lower; the
earth, often represented indeed as a mother; that between superior strength, particularly intellectual and spiritual
strength, and human weakness; and that between light and dark, knowledge and ignorance. Similarly, the
complementary oppositions of east and west or of what is on the right hand and what is on the left are commonly
associated, respectively, with the auspicious and the inauspicious, the strong and the weak, and life and death.
Consequently, in many rituals the east and the right are directions symbolizing birth and vitality, and the west and the
left are reminders of death and grief.
As with space, so with time. There are not only theseasons of innumerable religious calendars, often running parallel
to and sacralizing the seasonal cycle upon which the well-being of those who live at a subsistence level depends. There
are also times of crisis at which special precautions of abstinence must be taken – for example, the exclusion of sexual
intercourse before hunting, as among the Lele of the Congo, or in the various periods and forms of abstinence kept by
the Crow and other Plains Indians of North America in preparation for their guiding visions.
(The cause of suffering)
In a sense, as primitive religion seems at least implicitly to acknowledge, all huiman suffering comes from the
limitations imposed upon fulfilling, in the material world dominated for human beings by time and space, the freedom
of action that can be present to the imagination.
Hence, in many rituals a sacred time is represented. In the individual's experience of time, life ends with death. In the
collective and religious representation of time, life and strength are recreated regularly in a repetition of the same cycle
of ceremonies. And this sacred time of ritual is accompanied by the sacred spaces and places to which men attribute
what values they will: the altar, the shrine, the marking out of the particular area in which rituals are to be held, and the
recognized abodes of gods and spirits – all represent the imposition of a special form of order, a sacred order, upon the
flux of ordinary spatial and temporal experience. Thus, in „primitive“ religions of which the historical provenance is
known an recent, such as the Ghost Dance religions of North America or the Christian separatist churches of Africa, the
deliberate recreation of time and space in religious terms is found, so that, for example, the return of the ancestors or the
coming of a messiah are imminently expected. In general it may be said, however, that an elaborate eschatology
(doctrine of the final state of the soul and world) is not a common feature of primitive religions, which fix the attention
on the sufferings of this life and usually pretend to little knowledge of any other.

Primitive views of man's nature, origin, vocation, and destiny

In many myths, including the biblical ones, man is representaed as having been originally nearer to God than
he now is. In some myths he is made by God, as a potter makes a pot, for example. Among the Nilotic Dinka and other
African peoples, man at one time had easy access to God, and suffering and death were unknown. But having imagined
such a state, which reflects the good fortune and well-being that men even now associate with the necessary help of the
gods, many primitive religions concentrate on man's condition as it is now, rather than as it was in the past or on what it
might be in some ideal future.
(Views of the soul and afterlife)
When men die, they return to or are merged with the ancestors in conditions of „another word,“ which is rarely
elaborately defined. Man's original destiny, myths frequently suggest, was not to die, but what happened to bring death

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to him in the beginning cannot be reversed. His own vocation is to live his life according to ancestral teachings ad to
reproduce himself so that a line of descendants will secure for him the only certain immortality. Consequently, though
some peoples have quite complex representations of the composition of the human personality – the Akan of Ghana, for
example, recognize in it three constituents – speculation about the qualities and fate of anything that could be called the
individual human soul is minimal. Only when (as it seems from a modern standpoint) the guilty conscience of the living
is disturbed by the dead, particularly when illness is attributed to their dissatisfaction, are attempts made to identify its
cause. So with all the rich imagination of primitive religious exegesis, the basic view of man's place in the universe
probably held by most people for most of human history has been little different from that reported by Knud
Rasmussen, explorer and ethnologist, from an Eskimo:

„We fear! ... And therefore our fathers, taught by their fathers before them, guarded themselves about with all
these old rules and customs, which are built upon the experience and knowledge of generations. We do not
know how or why, but we obey them that we may be suffered to live in peace.“

Primitive mythology and symbolism

The role of myth in primitive cult and culture

The form in which the knowledge of previous generations is handed on is, of course, partly in practical
teaching of practical knowledge. But metaphysical truths are apprehended through myth. As H. and H.A. Frankfort
wrote,
„Myth is a form of poetry which transcends poetry in that it proclaims a truth; a form of reasoning which
transcends reasoning in that it wants to bring about the truth it proclaims; a form of action, of ritual behaviour,
which does not find its fulfillment in the act but must proclaim and elaborate a poetic form of truth.“

Malinowski and many followers have rightly pointed out that myths provide a „charter“ for contemporary belief, action
and social relationships. More particularly they often explain the principless, if not all the details, of contemporary
rituals. Here what modern historians would distinguish as myth, legend, saga, fable, or history shade into one another,
especially in an oral tradition. But myth, which reveals and perpetuates a body of truths to live by, is a way of
interpreting the essential structure of the little moral and physical universe in which many people live and, hence, is
recognized as a mode of thinking about man's place in nature and society. The cosmological myths earlier mentioned,
which explain how the world as a whole came to be arranged as it is, are accompanied by others establishing and
validating the innumerable local forms of social and religious order.

Symbolism in primitive thought and action

With mythical thought, which connects the past and the present to representations of the human condition that
transcend them both, go symbolic thought and action, which reorder the given word according to principles both
intellectual and affective.
(Symbolism in imitative and contagious magic)
Sir James Frazer had already identified two elementary features of symbolic thought and action in what he called
„homoeopathic or imitative magic“ and „contagious magic,“ though his interpretation of them as misunderstandings of
the relation between cause and effect would no longer be accepted. In the former, objects and experiences that were in
one sense similar were related by the mind so that one could stand for (or as it would now be said, symbolize) the other.
The Arunta, a group of Australian Aborigines, have as their totem the witchetty grub and perform ceremonies to
multiply it. „A long narrow structure of branches,“ wrote Frazer, „is set up to imitate the chrysalis case of the grub. In
this structure a number of men, who have the grub for their totem, sit and sing of the creature in its various stages. Then
they shuffle out of it in a squatting posture, and as they do so they sing of the insect emerging from the chrysalis.“ In
„contagious magic“ things which have been ain intimate contact and thus are united in thought are treated as though one
could stand in belief and ritual for the other. Thus, in sacrifices a part of the sacrificial beast is often offered to the gods
as substitute for the whole, or a relic of a holy man is venerated (for example, the Buddha's tooth) in commemoration
of all the man has stood for. This use of a part to symbolize the whole is a very common feature of symbolic thought
and behaviour. More complex are whole systems of symbolic classifications that increasingly command attention. Here
the basic features of the spatial ambience and of human social life – what is „higher“ and „lower“ in nature, for

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example, and what is socially or spiritually superior and inferior are assimilated to one another in thought. Hence, to
take the simplest example, priests, kings, and temples are often associated with high places. Of great interest to students
of primitive religion are also the variety and permutations of colour symbolism: white often representing enlightenment,
peace, and life (with its association sometimes also with sap and sperm); black representing danger and misfortune; and
red representing blood and physical vitality. The general principle behind all this symbolic activity is to bring
experiences of the natural and material world together with the „inner“ moral and imaginative experience of man and,
thus, to express, in a form accessible to the sense, truths accepted on the moral and mental plane.

Primitive art and iconography

The extent to which spiritual realities are represented in man-made material forms (whether „art“ forms or not)
varies greatly from one culture to another. Peoples whose sacred objects are few, simple, and produced with little
artistic or craftsmanlike effort, such as the Nilotes and the Bushmen of Africa, often have a wealth of verbal art at the
service of their religions; therefore, the richness of a religious tradition is not to be judged by the complexity of its
iconography.
(Non-aesthetic functions of primitive art)
Further, where images of the gods are numerous and deploy the talents of specialized craftsmen, they are often
produced less for aesthetic effect than to preserve a material impression of divinity that may be so placed in the home or
the temple that it can rarely be fully seen, like the supposedly „magical“ pictures of prehistoric cave art. Primitive
iconography is thus, from the primitive point of view, less a form of art than an effort to give physical form to realities
of the religious imagination. Since the evocation of divinity, whether in words or in materials, is a form of creation,
those who are skilled in the activity are often accorded a special religious status under the auspices of the divinites they
reveal. The forms in which divinities are depicted vary from schematic and abstract diagrams and pictograms to the
fully rounded forms most familiar in West African or Melanesian carving, but both abstract and representative forms
are found in the religious art of both these areas; their purpose, decorative as they may be, is less one of decoration than
of bringing vividly to the mind and the senses the direct impact of the divine on men.

Practices, institutions, personages

Primitive religious experience and its expressions

In earlier European writings of primitive religion, much was made of a supposed contrast between the fear that
inspired primitive religious practice and the hope, loved, and confidence preached by the „revealed“ religions,
Christianity in particular. But even in biblical teaching „the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,“ and it is now
accepted that the societies formerly called „primitive“ are no more obsessed with fear of the unknown than are the
advanced societies of today. Nevertheless there can be no doubt that anxieties, which in scientifically and
technologically advanced societies are dispelled for some by a sense of scientific and technological competence to deal
with their causes, are the therapeutic province of primitive religion. Only when the spiritual cause of suffering is
diagnosed and named can proper action be taken to remove it by prescribed ritual action. As a result, in much of the
world today, where both „primitive“ religion and modern medical science are available, it is common to find that
patients turn for relief both to medical science, which deals with teir symptoms, and to their own religious practitioners,
who deal with the cause of those symptoms. For them, the phenomena of their world are not, as theoretically in some
modern science, simply „objects“ to be controlled by technical and scientific knowledge: the world is also a living
subject, and its life is to be respected, as when, for example, North American Indians objected to the injury done to the
earth itself by the metal implements of rationalized agriculture.

Basic religious actions

(Sacrament, sacrifice, and prayer)

Thus, a sacramental view of man's relation to his world is implied in primitive belief and ritual, in that the
nonhuman creatures and phenomena with which he shares the world (and especially those he regards as vitally affecting
his own life) are regarded as igns of a further spiritual reality. They are to be understood and propitiated, even bargained
with, rather than dominated as in rationalistic scientific tradition. A central act in man's relationship with the divine is
sacrifice, often blood sacrifice, when the life of the sacrificial victim, be it a beast, a vegetable, or even a human being,

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is offered in exchange for the lives of those who sacrifice and, often, also to augment their own fertility and vitality.
Formerly, the essence of primitive sacrifice was thought to lie in the notion of communion with the god through eating
the flesh of the sacrificial victim, but it is clear now that this interpretation was strongly influenced by the Christian
doctrine of the Eucharist. The commonest sacrificial rituals are probably piacular (expiatory), involving giving
satisfaction to the ancestors and the gods so that men may live in peace and health. Thus, sacrifice may be seen as a
form of exchange relationship, in which basically, a superior vitality is received from the gods in exchange for an
inferior form of life. In hymns and prayers, the suprahuman powers thought to determine human well-being are praised,
exhorted, and sometimes cajoled to come near to men to help them or, as frequently, to accept the offerings men make
to them and leave the human sufferers in peace.

Salient rites

Since what is sought from primitive religious practice is „life,ů ritual develops primarily around critical periods
in the life of the individual or the community. These critical periods may be times in the natural cycle when rain is
needed for the crops and herds, when game is migrating and may be more or less accessible to the hunter, or when the
harvest, with its promise of future plenty or its threat of future deprivation, is gathered in. The local communal cycle of
yearly rituals is often complemented by other cycles covering several years, which draw together and affect the welfare
of many local communities normally living in comparative isolation from one another. Also there are the „rites of
passage,“ performed when the persons are passing from one social role or status to another. Such major crises are birth
and the purification of the mother when the child seems likely to live, initiation when children and youths are
recognized as having grown to the status of adults, marriage, and death, sometimes accompanied by exhumation and re-
burial when the dead person is finally accepted in human memory as having left the community of the living. Similarly,
there are rites to mark the passage of an heir to the kingship itself or of a neophyte to the assumption of the full priestly
role.

Worship or veneration centred on natural objects or forces

Modern students of primitive religion, not unlike its own practitioners, are concerned with the different forms
in which „Nature“ is sacralized and brought into contact with human life. Therefore, the innumerable forms in which
sacredness is thought to manifest itself, itemized at length in Frazer's Golden Bough, are matters for detailed
symbological investigation in each particular culture. It helps little, however, to learn that people „worship“ animals,
plants, and celestial phenomena; what counts is how the religious imagination apprehends the relationship of these
phenomena to human affairs.
(Totemism)
So, for example, totemism, the intimate association of natural beings and forces both with a transcendental world of
spirit and with specific social groups, may be seen as the systems of ideas and metaphors in which particular peoples
conceive the relation of the natural to the social and mental world. The totemic species, be they species of animals,
plants, or trees, are symbols of invisible, intellectual, and affective realities. Hence, in an oft-quoted aphorism, Claude
Lévi-Strauss wrote „that natural species are chosen not because they are 'good to eat' but because they are 'good to
think'.“

Worship or veneration centred on human or ex-human beings and qualities

Many writers, following Durkheim, have seen some analogy between the material emblems of totemic spirits
and heraldic devices, national flags, and the like that also symbolize communal solidarity of different kinds. All such
symbols call to mind a community embracing past, present, and future members, and, where the more strictly totemic
representations are found, they are usually closely associated with the ancestors. But, as with the Manus of Melanesia,
the ancestral dead may themselves provide the main focus of religious attention. Among the Tallensi and LoDagaa of
northern Ghana, the main emphasis seems to be upon the spiritual authority of the dead, a reflection of the moral and
legal authority of living parents. On the other hand, Maurice Freedman, a contemporary British anthropologist, writing
of the filial piety for which the Chinese are particularly well known, refers to „the relative ineffectiveness of Chinese
ancestors, their general air of benevolence, and ... the lack of strong feelings of hatred or guilt towards them on the part
of their descendants.“
But in either case the dead command religious veneration and are commemorated by sacrifice. To attend properly to

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their burial, their graves, and their supposed postmortem wishes is an important religious duty. A single Chinese text
quoted by Freedman serves to suggest the spirit and intention of such piety:
„I, Ling Kwang ... presume to come before the grave of my ancestor ... Ling Kung ... Cherishing sentiments
of veneration, I look up and sweep your tomb. Prostrated I pray that you will come and be present, and that you
will grant to your posterity that they may be prosperous and illustrious ... Always grant your safe protection.
My trust is in your divine spirit ... Reverently I present the fivefold sacrifice ... earnestly entreating that you
will come and view them.“

(The special quality of dead kings)

In general, the wider the community for which the dead are significant, the more elaborate the ritual and ceremonial
surrounding them and the more they are assimilated n idea to a transcendental divinity. Thus, the kings of the Shiluk of
the Sudan have the title jwok piny („god on earth“) in their lifetime, and, like many other kings in whome divinity itself
is held to be manifest they must not be thought to die like ordinary mortals. Their spirits, like the spirits of national or
tribal heroes, do in fact continue to inspire the communities which they serve and which serve them, and their
immortality suggests to their followers that they themselves, not as individuals but as generation after generation of the
same people, are immortal.

Special disciplines and practices to attain religious states

The assumption of important social roles, such as those of king or priest, is usually accompanied by special
forms of self-discipline, as are also initiation and mortuary rites. Commonest among these are abstentions from certain
foods and from sexual intercourse, fasting, and periods of seclusion or withdrawal from the normal round of social life.
The theme of „rebirth“ is frequently stressed. Similarly, the officiants at important religious ceremonies may prepare
themselves by various forms of purification involving self-mortification in order to achieve a special religious
condition. In addition to this, there are the deliberate and positive efforts of individuals to make personal contact with
divinities. These are most strikingly exemplified in spirit mediumship and shamanism, when the medium or medicine
man sets out, as it were, to relinquish his own personality so that he may become the vehicle for divine activity.
Mediums and shamans get their „call“ very commonly through illness, during which they receive divine instructions
about the particular forms of self-discipline they are to practice. This very prominent feature of primitive religious
experience continues to assert iself in syncretic religions, so that leaders of Melanesian Cargo Cults, African separatist
churches, and other millenarian movements have revealed to them forms of self-abnegation considered necessary for a
new and more satisfying way of life. In Cargo Cults, this has often taken the extreme form of the wholesale destruction
of traditional forms of wealth. The objective of such disciplines is to acquire a deeper insight into spiritual reality and to
lift the practitioner, if only transcendence. Many American Indian tribes are specially noted for this deliberate visionary
quest, undertaken with fasting and other forms of self-inflicted suffering and accompanied by the use of drugs. Such
practices, like the persistent dancing and drumming of voodoo rituals, appear to produce a state of dissociation in which
the ordinary human personality subordinates itself to the gods.

Magical, divinatory, and spiritualistic practices

The religious practices summarized above are concerned basically with an effort to perceive the true nature of human
vitality and human suffering, so that the former may be augmented and the latter diminished. Consequently, the
occasional arbitrariness of the taboos, rules, and procedures by which this supra-rational truth is approached may itself
appear as a guarantee of its divine origin. In this respect it is no longer easy to draw a firm line, as was common in the
past, between magical and religious practices; for if „magic“ involves, as was once maintained, the attempt to influence
events by a quasi-scientific knowledge and „religion“ involves the attempt to do the same through the supplication of
higher powers, both are commonly represented in the very same rituals.
(The divinatory and spiritualistic paths to truth)
This is most clearly seen perhaps in the immense range of divinatory practices throughout the world, one famous
example being the complex system of divination called Ifa among the Yoruba of Nigeria, where spiritual guidance is
sought through the systematic manipulation of 16 palm nuts. Here the truth, usually about a client's illness or
misfortune, is arrived at by precise, quasi-scientific procedures, but it is a truth which is thought to have divine sanction
and authority: „Truth is the character of Olodumare [God]. Truth is the word that cannot fall. Ifa is truth. Truth is the
word that cannot spoil. ... 'Those who speak the truth are those whom the gods will help.'“ Similarly, in the voice of the

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spirit speaking through its human medium and manifested commonly by violent trembling and shaking of the body
followed by entry into trance, the true nature of the condition about which it is being consulted is thought to be
announced. It should be recognized, however, that such primitive religious practices leave room for a good deal of
skepticism about individual mediums, whose possible fraudulence is well-known to their clients. Nevertheless, as
Raymond Firth has noted, „scepticism about the validity of the performance of some spirit mediums [does] not extend
to the performances of all.“ E.E. Evans-Pritchard made the same point about the Sudanese Azande's consultation of
oracles and „magicians“ about witches.

Religious personages; types of religious authority.

Contact with truths hidden from other men thus confers religious authority, and knowledge of those truths
permits the religious leader to restore and maintain health and harmony, whether in the body of the individual patient
consulting a diviner or in the body social in which a sacred king reigns. The Mughal emperor Akbar (1542-1605)
claimed that „... a king possesses, independent of men, the ray of Divine wisdom which banishes from his heart
everything that is conflicting“ (quoted by Max Müller, Introduction to the Science of Religion, 1873), and it is essential
in many religious ceremonies that the congregation and officiants should be at peace with each other. This peace may
encompass more than a single tribe or nation where, as commonly in reaction to foreign rule, prophets have arisen who
claim to speak for God on behalf of all their followers. From the family elders serving their own ancestors, to the minor
priests officiating for local gods at local shrines, to the national or tribal cult, and finally to intertribal unions under the
auspices of an inspired prophet, religious authority embraces larger and larger communities. As it does so, it claims to
define truths that have more and more general application. The teachings of primitive religions, profoundly relevant in
their specialized social and natural environments, here begin to give way to intuitions of more universal significance.

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 BONUS: THE INDUS CIVILIZATION (FROM WIKIPEDIA, PREPARED BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

In 1922 the Indian Scholar Rakhal Das Banerji form Bengal began to excavate a mound in the
Larkhana district in Sind, between the Indus and an old branch of this rive. It was called Mohenjo Daro, and
this name was, wrongly, considered to mean “Dead men’s mound.” On the top was a Buddhist structure,
which seemed to belong to the first centuries A.D., and to begin with there was nothing especially
remarkable about the finds.

As he dug downward, however, they gradually became different. Inter alia he found several curious
seals of a kind which had long ago been recovered at Harappa in the Panjab, at an old bed of the river Ravi,
inscribed with signs which looked like letters. These had been eagerly studied by eminent epigraphists, but
without success. It was then a likely assumption that we had come across remnants of an old forgotten
civilization, which had once flourished in Sind and in Panjab. Other sites of the same kind have since been
found or discovered by photographing from the air, and we now know that we have to do with an extensive
territory, which towards East reaches at least to the Ganges, and in the West through Afghanistan and
Baluchistan towards the Persian Gulf.

Picture of Staircase Mohenjo Daro

It had been spoken of as the Indus Civilization, because it was the finds in Sind which first opened
our eyes to its existence, but most scholars are inclined to think that it formed part of a culture extending
over a great part of the whole ancient world, from China in the East perhaps to Egypt in the West.
It has also been thought possible to arrive at an approximate dating. Antiquities which have evidently been
transferred from the Indus territory have been found in Mesopotamia in strata from ca. 2800 B.C., and the
prevailing opinion is now that we may have to go back to about 3000 B.C. or even earlier. And this old
civilization was much superior to that of the old Aryan invaders of India, and much older.

In some places we seem to be able to trace deterioration, and then the old civilization disappears. It
has been suppose that this may have been a consequence of the Aryans invasion, and a saying of an eminent
German scholar has been quoted in this connection, that the much-admired old songs of the Indo-Aryans are
barbarian’s hymns to barbarian gods.

It has already been indicated above that some curious signs have been found on several seals of
antiquities; they are far too numerous to allow us to think of an alphabet, but they might be a kind of
hieroglyphs or pictographs. Some scholars have thought they can trace similar signs on prehistoric Chinese
antiquities and also, even in quite modern times, on the Easter Island. It has also been attempted to derive
some of the letters of the oldest known Indian alphabet from this source. But it has not been possible to get
further than to more or less unlikely guesses.

The discovery of this highly developed pre-Aryan civilization has raised new problems for the

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student of Indian culture and Indian religions. One of the first inferences we must draw is that Indian applied
art, which plays such as a great role in the decoration of religious buildings, is largely indebted to it. Among
the Aryan Indians this art does not seem to have been the concern of the upper classes. But in the Indus
Civilization it was highly developed. One find, a headless statuette, shows an artistic feeling and technique
which seem to be inexplicable at such an early time; but Sir John Marshall states that it was found in such
circumstances that it cannot have come down subsequently form higher strata. It is made from a fine red
stone, which must have been important form outside, but we cannot say whence. Nothing of the same kind
has come to light in the Indo-Hellenic or any other Indian school. The round belly reminds us of the Parkham
status in the Mathura Museum.

Dancing Figure. Mohenjo Daro Torso from Mohenjo Daro

We seem to be justified to think that much of the best products of Indian sculptures have its roots in
the Indus Civilization. Another statuette, found in similar circumstances, is made of dark grey schist and
represents a dancer, standing on his right leg, with the body turned the left and the left leg raised. There
seems to have been three heads, and Sir John is probably right in thinking of a prototype of the dancing Civa,
Civa Natesan. And we also remember Kālidāsa’s invocation, Kumārasambhava II, 3, of Brahmā trimūtri, the
three-shaped god Brahmā, who was one before creation, but subsequently split himself up for the
development of the three gunas, qualities.

Without any doubts we are on religious ground in the case of some primitive images. On a seal we
have a god who has been

Horn Deity from Mohenjo Daro

compared with a male figure on the Gundestrup vessel. He sits on his haunches on a throne. On one side of
him an elephant and a tiger are standing, on the other a buffalo and a rhinoceros. Below the throne are two
deer or harts. The god wears arm-rings and a high cap. We at once think of certain representation of Civa,

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Kālā’s wild consort, but also of images of the Buddha, and we are no doubt justified, in both cases, to
assume a continuation of a type from the Indus civilization. Then we have several examples of a female
deity, with a high head-dress and often richly decorated. The breasts are clearly marked, so that the sex is
certain. Scholars have, no doubt with right, thought of the Great Mother, who plays such a prominent role in
so many religions. She, it is no doubt, also who reappears

Picture of the Great Mother. Mohenjo Dar.

as Civa’s consort, the deity with the many names, the valiant slayer of demons, but also the beloved mother,
whom the Bengalis invoke in their national hymn Bande Mataram “ I greet our Mother”.

Beautiful they are not, these gods, but bearers of irresistible power, vitality, and fertility, death, and
annihilation. The symbol which we know so well from India, the male and the female member, Linga and
Yoni, respectively, are frequently met with in the Indus civilization, as they still are at the present day, the
Indo-Aryans had had the same fate as other invaders: they became Indianized.
It is only at a later date that we find more good-looking gods, after the ideal of human beauty had exercised
its influence. As the Indians say: “What food man takes, that food his gods take,” i.e. man creates his gods
his own image, because it is one and the same eternal reality which underlies man and gods.
And yet, there is a difference: not so much because the gods have a longer span of

Linga from Menjo Daro

life, for they are not individually eternal; their exalted position is at an end when their stock of religious
merit is exhausted; but men are after all what the Romans called homlines, “earth-beings”, while deva, the
Sanskrit word for “god”, is derived from the root divi, which denotes “light” and “heaven”. They are not
limited to one locality, as is often the case with Semitic gods, but they soar through space, and high pillars
are raised for them to rest on. And they do not touch the earth when they seem to be walking along.
Therefore, Damayanti was able to distinguish them from Nala, when they appeared, in his likeness, and
presented themselves suitors.

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 Humped bull. Mohenjo Daro

Just as in modern times, it was not only anthropomorphic deities who were worshiped. In many, often very
fine, representations, we see the Indian humped bull (Bos indicus). We are reminded of the Brahmanic bull,
which is sacred to Civa and wanders about as it likes and eats what it wants, as we read in Kinpling’s Kim.

Common is also an apparently one-horned bull standing before something which looks like a censer,
and we are irresistibly led to think of some kind of worship.

Bull before censer. Mohenjo Daro

We have representations of elephants, bears, fowls, rhinoceroses, tigers, etc. it is here also tempting
to think of the animal mount of various gods in Indian religion.
Once we see a horned deity with long hair and arm-rings, standing between two branches of a tree, before
which is a half-kneeling woman. We evidently have to do with a tree deity, apparently residing in a Pipal
(Ficus religiosa), and a tree which is viewed with reverence in India. It was under a Pipal that the Buddha
had his revelation.

Also water seems to have religious significance. Bathrooms have been found in private houses, and a
big bathing establishment has been dug out, which may have been used for sacred lustrations. We remember
the ceremonial bathing in sacred wells and rivers in Modern India. But nothing has hitherto been found
which leads us to think of such, e.g. of the holy Ganges, in the Indus civilization, if we leave out some
pictures which seem to represent Nāgas.

On the whole there is so much that reminds us of religious features and conceptions in India at the
present day, that the connection cannot be doubted. But we are of course mainly reduced to guesses, which
can only be considered as provisional.

No structure has been excavated which can, with any certainty or even probability, be considered to
have been a temple, though some of them may also have had their use in worship. In one of them were found
several ring stones, which have been supposed to have had something to do with the cult. One big hall with
twenty brick-pillars bears some resemblances to Buddhist establishments and basilicas, and reminds us of the
problems connected with them but they may have been intended for ordinary or festival gatherings, and it is
worthy of notice that no representation or symbols of deities have been found in them.

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 The old Indo-Aryans had, in the same way, no temples. The gods were worshipped in the open air, or
in the house of the worshipper, and real temples have only been found at a later date. And then it is possible
to think of foreign, presumably Semitic, influence or, again, of the old Indian saying that man creates his
gods in his own image. The kings were called Deva, “god,” and the gods were kings. When the kings got
their palaces the gods would get theirs, viz. the temple.
The oldest religious buildings discovered in India are much later than, and have nothing to do with, the
Vedic period. They are due to the Buddhists, and none of them is older than the fifth, or the third, century
B.C. From excavations at Pataliputra, the capital of the Magadha empire, the present Patna on the Ganges,
from the imitation of wooden roofs in ancient cave temples, and other sources, we know that wood was
largely used as building material, but wood is perishable. And we have, moreover, no reason for assuming
the existence of very old wooden temples in the country.

Picture: Ring stone

Picture: Ring stone

When the Indians began to build temples the architectural technique of the Indus Civilization made
its influence felt. We can infer this already from the use of bricks in the plinth, for the making of bricks the
Indians learnt from the older inhabitants.
About the cult and the racial affinities of the people of the Indus Civilization we know next to
nothing. We have already seen what we may infer with regard to their religious conceptions, and as to their
possible connection with other ancient peoples. It is tempting to think of the Sumerians, whose name
reminds us of the Sauv2ras and Sindhusauviras known from fairly old sources as

Svastika. Mohenjo Daro

inhabitants of the lower Indus country, but influences drawn from similarity in designation are usually
doubtful.

To the left of what we interpreted as a tree deity, we see a man and a woman. She is raising her
hands in adoration, or perhaps rather imploration, while he carries a stickle-shaped knife in his hand. The
scene has been interpretation is, of course, uncertain. Such sacrifices are not, however, unknown in later
times, as we shall see below in connection with Hinduism. The Svastika, which is found represented as
turning both to the right and to the left, has probably some religious significance and is certainly pre-Aryans.

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 Picture: Yogin or priest king. Mohenjo Daro

We should also take note of a small bronze statuette with its arms quite covered with bracelets, the
right one is bent towards the hip, and the left supported on the knee. It is possibly an ancient girl who had
been dancing in worship of the Great Mother.
We have also a small statuette of steatite, with a stylized dress of a trefoil pattern, its eyes directed
towards the tip of the Yogic…………………………….

Note: It must be continued because this lesson the lecturer gave us copied-paper. I decided to retype it into
computer in order to keep all the consecutive lessons. I don’t know which part of books it was copied. I think
it was quoted from The Religion In Indian. You should read and find some related information for this.

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 BONUS: THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIONS - PREANIMISM

In the years around 1900 the scholarly debate about the origins and evolution of religion was still in large
measure dominated by the theories but forward by E. B. Tylor thirty years previously, notably in his Primitive Culture
(London, 1871). The key concept was animism, which denoted both a primitive belief in spiritual beings and a belief in
the „animation“ of nonhuman beings – from the higher mammals down to trees, plants, and stones – by spirits or spirit
forces. [See Animism and Animatism.] By 1900, however, Tylor's theory had been challenged by two of his Oxford
disciples, both of whom were and remained his personal friends. In his Cock Lane and Common Sense (London, 1894)
and definitively in his celebrated The Making of Religion (London, 1898), Andrew Lang had questioned the animistic
hypothesis from one direction, suggesting that „perhaps there is no savage race so lowly endowed, that it does not
poseess, in addition to a world of 'spirits,' something that answers to the conception of God“ (Cock Lane and Common
Sense, p. 334). At a meeting of the British Association in 1899, the animistic theory was questioned from another
direction, this time by the philosopher-anthropologist R. R. Marett. Whereas Lang was saying that adherents of the
animistic theory had been prevented by their presuppositions from even noticing the evidence in favor of what he called
„high gods“ among peoples on a low level of material development. Marett claimed that the term animism was
ambiguous and that the mental processes it assumed were too sophisticated to have been present at the lowest level of
human evolution [See the biography of Marett.]
Marett's paper „Pre-Animistic Religion“ was first published in the journal Folk-Lore (June 1900, pp. 162-182): it
subsequently formed the first chapter of his book The Threshold of Religion (London, 1909; 2d exp. ed., London, 1914).
Although brief, its argument was revolutionary. On the one hand, it suggested that in view of the double meaning of the
world animism in Tylor's Primitive Culture, a distinction might be drawn between animism proper, as a belief in
spiritual beings, and the belief in the „animation“ of animals, plants, and natural objects, which he proposed to call
„animatism.“ This of course had nothing to do with any theory of the origin of religion as such, but was merely a plea
for greater terminological precision. On the other hand – and this appeared to be an outright challenge to the Tylorian
hypothesis – Marett also ventured the opinion that animism was simply not „primitive“ enough to represent the earliest
form of religion. Beneath (though not necessarily chronologically prior to) the belief in spirits, he argued, there is a
more amorphous sense of the world as being filled with the manifestations of supernatural power. [See Power.] This
notion was unlikely to have been reasoned out in the first instance; rather it involved a „basic feeling of awe, which
drives a man, ere he can think or theorize upon it, into personal relations with the supernatural“ (Marett, 1914, p. 15).
In search of a word to characterize this power, Marett settled finally upon the Melanesian word mana, as descmibed by
the missionary R. H. Codrington in his book The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891). Mentioned only in passing in his 1899
paper, alongside other „power-words,“ over the next few years mana came to eclipse the others as a terminus technicus
to describe what lay at the root of preanimism.
Mana, however, was by no means an exclusively Melanesian concept. It was common to the whole of the Pacific, to
Polynesia as well as Melanesia. It had been first noted by Captain James Cook in 1777 and long before
Condrington's time had been fairly fully discussed in relation to the Maori of New Zealand. F. E. Maning in his book
Old New Zealand (Auckland, 1863) had stressed, for instance, that mana had no single meaning but was associated with
such diverse ideas as „virtue, prestige, authority, good fortune, influence, sanctity, luck“ (Maning, [1863] 1927, pp.
239-240). However, the early preanimists remained generally unaware of the New Zealand material and were content to
rely for the most part on Codrington's evidence as transmitted first by Marett and subsequently by the German and
French sociologists.
Marett himself was most uwilling to „dogmatize“ about religious origins and always expressed himself with great
caution. Thus although in his 1899 paper he went so far as to suggest that what he there called „supernaturalism“ might
be „not only logically but also in some sense chronologically prior to animism“ (Marett, 1914, p. 11), he did not say in
what sense. Again – and this is important in view of the direction subsequently taken by the debate – he did not
categorize mana as un-ambiguously impersonal. In a later paper, in fact, he stated explicitly that mana „leaves in
solution the distinction between personal and impersonal“ (1915, p. 119) and noted that although it may in some
circumstances be used in a somewhat impersonal way, it is always necessary to take account of „the ambiguity that lies
sleeping in mana“ (p. 121). Other writers on the subject found this degree of ambiguity unmanageable and unwelcome.
In the wake of Marett's work, the first decade of the twentieth century saw the appearance of a great deal of writing
on the subject of preanimism and on mana and its various equivalents. In Germany, Wilhelm Wundt of Leipzig wrote
extensively in his Völkerpsychologie (1900) about „die präanimistishche Hypothese,“ followed by K. T. Preuss ina
series of articles in the journal Globus (1904-1905). Both, however, seem to have assumed Marett's theory to have
been conceived in direct and complete opposition to Tylor – a charge that Marett, who admired Tylor greatly,

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strenuously denied. In France, the Année sociologique school (which included Durkheim, Hubert, and Mauss)
produced a theory very similar to Marett's, perhaps independently, though Hubert and Mauss's article „Esquisse d'une
théorie générale de la Magie“52 appeared in Année sociologique only in 1904, and Durkheim's magnum opus did not
appear until 1912.
By this time, however, mana had been coupled with a bewildering variety of terms drawn from primal cultures in
various parts of the world, all of which it was claimed, conveyed the same basic sense of that supernatural power that
had inspired an initial human response of awe. A proportion of these words had been culled from the covabularies of
various Amerindian peoples: from the Iroquiois came orenda (as in Hewitt's „Orenda and a Definition of Religion.“
American Anthropologist, n. s. 4, 1902), from the Algonquin maniton and from the Lakota wakan and wakanda. The
Australian Aranda (Arunta) term arungquiltha aunkulta, the Malagasy andramanitra, the Fijian kalou, and even the Old
Norse hamingja and the Hindu brahman were added to the list, which by 1914 had assumed considerable proportions.
Mana, however, continued to serve as the flagship of the preanimistic fleet.
It is important to remember that Marett had stated (not in his original article but at the Oxford Congress of the
Science of Religion in 1908) that it was by now ihis express intention to endow mana with „classificatory authority to
some extent at the expense of the older notion [i.e., animism]“ (Marett, 1915, p. 102). Every new science had to create
its own specialist terminology; this being so, Marett was proposing the use of mana whenever and wherever
circumstances appeared to warrant it as a technical term expressive of preanimistical meaning of the word in its original
Pacific context. In the light of Marett's express intention, it is slightly embarrassing to note that solemnity with which
some scholars have subsequently believed themselves to be demolishing Marett's argument by pointing out that the
etymology of mana is not altogether what he supposed it to be.
Another critical point concerns the supposed impersonality of the power of mana. As we have seen, Marett was
initially insistent that mana is an ambiguous concept, even as he knew perfectly well that his chief informant
Codrington had stated that it was always associated with and derived from persons, spirits, or ghosts. On at least one
later occasion, however, in his article „Mana“ in Hasting's Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (vol. 8, Edinburgh,
1915), he was prepared to state that mana was „in itself impersonal“ while always associated with personal beings.
(Often in such contexts he used the analogy of electricity, which remains latent until tapped and channeled.) The
ambiguity between personal and impersonal remained in force nontheless. But just as Marett read mana through the
prism of Codrington, one feels that almost all later debates have read Marett throught ehprism of the greater
international celebrity Émile Durkheim.
To Durkheim, writing in The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, first published in French in 1912 and in English
in 1915, there were no ambiguities. Caution was replaced by assertion. According to Durkheim, Marett had shown
„the existence of religious phase which he called preanimistic, in which the rites are addressed to impersonal forces like
the Melanesian mana and the wakan of the Omaha and Dakota“ (1968 edition, p. 201). Durkheim categorically stated
that mana was „an impersonal religious force“ (pp. 192, 198) „an anonymous and diffused force“ (p. 194), because it
was not, according to Codrington, a supreme being. Durkheim concludes that it must possess „impersonality“ (p.
194). We need look no further for the later impression that preanimism must of necessity involve belief in impersonal
forces; it comes not from Marett but from Durkheim.
The preanimistic theory of the origin of religion (as it had developed between 1900 and 1914) first began to be called
in question in the years following World War I. in 1914 Nathan Söderblom (who had been a professor in Leipzig from
1912 to 1914) published in the Archiv für Religionswissenschaft an article, „Über den Zusammenhang höherer
Gottesideen mit primitiven Vorstellungen,“ in which the customary preanimistic points were discussed (see also
Söderblom, Gudstrons uppkomst, Stockholm, 1914, pp. 30-118). One of his students, F. R. Lehmann, was inspired by
this article to take up the question of mana and in 1915 presented his dissertation on the subject, in which he penetrated
beyond Durkheim and Marett to Codrington, and beyond Codrington to the etymology and implications of the
common Polynesian/Melanesian word mana itself.
Lehmann's researches had the effect of discrediting altogether the notion that the term mana had ever been used in the
Pacific region to denote an impersonal force. Even when trees, stones, or other inanimate objects were declared to
possess mana, this was because spirits had associated themselves with those objects, and not by virtue of their having an
impersonal force of their own. Paul Radin had made substantially the same point in 1914, when he asked, „What
warrant have we for thinking of the god as a deity plus power, and not merely as a powerful deity? Are we not
committing the old error of confusing an adjective with a noun?“ (Journal of American Folklore 27, 1914, p. 347).
Following Lehmann, and in the increasingly antievolutionary atmosphere of the interwar years and beyond, more and

52„Esquisse d'une théorie générale de la Magie“ (from French – „A draft of a general theory of
Magic“)

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more frequent criticisms were leveled against the preanimistic hypothesis, the interpretation of mana that had supported
it, and against those who had written in these terms. A powerful broadside against the theory was produced by the
Germanist Walter Baetke, in his book Das heilige in Germanishen (Tübingen, 1942), and another by Geo Widengren,
in a polemical article, „Evolutionism and the Problem of the Origin of Religion“ (Ethnos 10, 1945, pp. 57-96).
Widengren, incidentally, admired Baetke's work; and it was in the Baetke festschrift that Lehmann described the
course of his research in the area of mana, in an article called „Versuche, die Bedeutung des Wortes 'Mana' ...
festzustellen“ (pp. 215-240). Widengren summed up: „The best experts in the field of Melanesian religion have
explicitly stated that mana is actually never an impersonal power“; it is „in reality a quality. It goes without saying that
not mana in itself but persons and things possessing mana are the objects of worship“ (p. 84). One last critic may be
quoted. In his 1958 Patterns in Comparative Religion and in virtually identical terms in his 1968 Myths, Dreams and
Mysteries, Mircea Eliade denies the existence of any such „impersonal and universal force“ as mana was once thought
to represent, not least because „impersonality“ is „without meaning within the archaic spiritual horizon“ (Eliade, 1968,
p. 129). All these critics, however, have tended to attribute to Marett extreme opinions that were actually those of
Durkheim.
It remains to be noted that Rudolf Otto, in his celebrated book Das Heilige, produced a theory of the origin of religion
in an ineffable sensus numinis, iin the course of which he praised Marett for coming „within a hair's breadth“ of his
own views. Otto, too, was criticized by Baetke and Widengren, who used arguments very similar to those they had
used against Marett and the preanimists. Otto's menen could hardly be called „impersonal,“ however.
Preanimism and the debate about preanimistic religion belong less to the world of religion as such (and hardly, it
would seem to the area of primal religion at all) than to the intellectual history of the early twentieth century in the west.
Possibly the popularity of the concept was not unrelated to the West's growing estrangement from fixed forms of
religious belief and doctrine and its simultaneous maintenance of a sense that there might be „something“ (rather than
„someone“) in charge of the world's destiny. It involved the evolutionists' conviction that religion had emerged out of
something other than, and simpler than, religion. It also made assumptions about personality and (at least after
Durkheim) impersonality that later critics found it all too easy to demolish. The critics, however, may have gone too
far in the opposite direction. In their desire to disassociate themselves from the evolutionists, they have frequently
misrepresented and misinterpreted them, without realizing that the evolutionists themselves were quite capable of
raising objections – often the same objections – to their own work. Preanimism as such can be neither proved nor
disproved as a rudimentary stage in the evolution of religion. There amy, however, remain an area of religion within
which supernatural (or at least uncontrollable) power is sensed, while remaining inchoate and unconnected with any
firm notion of deity. This need not be a stage out of which more precise notions emerge. It is just as likely to be found at
the end of a long process of decline, and thus to be as much posttheist as preanimist. We have no word that can be used
as a technical term to describe this. Preanimism clearly will not do, because of the implicit sequence involved. Some
use might however still be found for the term mana in this connection. In 1907 Marett wrote, that „the last word about
mana has not been said“ (p. 219). By 1965, mana had almost been dismissed from the technical vocabulary of the study
of religion. It may be high time for its reexamination.
[See also Evolutionism]

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 BONUS: ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIONS - PREHISTORIC RELIGIONS

[This entry consists of three articles on the religious expressions of prehistoric peoples:
An Overview
Old Europe
The Eurasian Steppes and Inner Asia
the first considers the notion of prehistory and its applicability in the study of religion. The companion pieces focus on
two areas where study of prehistoric cultures has been particularly fruitful.]

An Overview

The term prehistory refers to the vast period of time between the appearance of humanity's early hominit
ancestors and the beginning of the historical period. Since the invention of writing is used to mark the transition
between prehistory and history, the date of this boundary varies greatly from region to region. The study of prehistoric
religion, therefore, can refer to religious beliefs and practices from as early as 60,000 BCE to almost the present day.
Generally, however, the term prehistory is defined by its European application and hence refers to the period from the
Paleolithic period, which occurred during the Pleistocene epoch, to the protohistoric neolithic period and the Bronze
and iron ages.
The biases of a literate culture are apparent in the term. Clearly, a people's literacy bespeaks their accessibility by a
literate culture, but it is not, as has often been assumed, an adequate criterion for determining intellectual or cultural
depth and complexity. To divide human cultures by the single invention of writing suggests that literacy somehow
marks a specific stage of mental development or a radical turning point within the development of human culture
conceived of according to an evolutionary scheme. Neither such a radical break nor such an inevitable evolutionary
development can, however, be demonstrated.
This division notwithstanding, it should be noted that prehistory is understood to be singularly human. In his
Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein quips, „If a lion could talk, we could not understand him.“ Wittgenstein is
suggesting that language would not enable us to understand a „world,“ or perspective, that was so radically distinct in
kind from our own. In contrast to Wittgenstein's lion, prehistoric humanity is regarded as understandable: a psychic
unity between prehistorical and historical humanity is assumed. We believe that with sufficient evidence the prehistoric
„world“ can be grasped. The problem is accessibility, not difference in kind.
Access to prehistoric culture, however, is highly problematic. And when one attempts to understand phenomenon such
as religion, the problem becomes acute. We understand religion primarily in terms of „language,“ that is, its principal
characteristics and its interpretive meanings and valuations. The wordless archaeological remains of prehistoric religion
– cults or ceremonial artifacts and sites, pictures and ??? sacrifices – have provided limited access to the religious
„language“ of prehistoric cultures. For example, knowledge of how corpses were disposed during the Neolithic period
does not reveal why they were so disposed. Consequently, even when there is clear evidence of a prehistoric religious
practice, interpretation of the nature of prehistoric religions remains highly speculative and disproportionately
dependent upon analogies to contemporary „primitive“ cultures.
Our knowledge of prehistoric religion is therefore ??? product of reconstructing a „language“ from its silent material
accessories. Among the oldest material ??? of cultic practice are burial sites dating from the Middle Paleolithic. [See
Funeral Rites.] One can trace ??? the Upper Paleolithic on a growing richness and diversity of grave goods that reach
extravagant proportions during the Iron Age. The practices of second burial ??? burning of bodies, and the ritual
disposition of skulls are also common. Megalithic graves date back to the Neolithic period. Despite the cultic
implications of these massive stone constructions (e.g., ancestor cults - a uniform religious meaning remains
undemonstrated).
Evidences of sacrifices from the Middle Paleolithic period in the form of varied quantities of animal bones near burial
sites suggest offerings to the dead. Sacrificial traditions that were associated with game (e.g. bear ceremonialism) date
back to the Upper Paleolithic. There is no evidence of human sacrifice prior to the Neolithic period, and hence this
practice is associated with the transition from a hunter-gatherer culture to an agrarian culture and, consequently, with
the domestication of plants and animals. [See Sacrifice.]
Prehistoric works of art dating back to the Paleolithic period – paintings, drawings, engravings, and sculpture – are the
richest form of access to prehistoric religion. The primary subjects of these earliest examples of graphic art were
animals, humans, rarely depicted were often drawn with animal attributes. The intimate and unique role of animals in

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the physical and mental lives of these early hunter-gatherers is clearly demonstrated. (This role is also evidenced in the
sacrificial traditions) though some form of animalism is suggested the religious significance of these animal figures is
difficult to interpret. [See Animals.]
Shamanistic practices are also reflected in this art, especially in the paintings of birds and of animals that have
projectiles drawn through their bodies. Common in prehistoric sculpture is the female statuette. Although frequently
related to fertility, these figurines are open to numerous interpretations of equal plausibility (e.g., spirit abodes, ancestor
representations, house gods, as well as spirit rulers over animals, lands and other physical or spiritual regions, hunting
practices, and natural forces). [See also Lord of the Animals.]
It is unlikely that we shall ever be able adequately to interpret the „language“ of prehistoric religion. The material
evidence is too scarce and the nature of religious phenomena too complex. There is, however, a meaning in these
wordless fragments that is itself significant for any study of religion. The power and depth of these silent archaeological
remains cause one to recognize the limitation of written language as a purveyor of religious meaning. The connections
one is able, however tenuously, to draw between the evidence of religious life among prehistoric peoples and the beliefs
and practices of their descendants address the conditions that have inspired human beings, from our beginnings, to
express our deepest selves in art and ritual.
[See also Paleolithic religion and neolithic Religion.]

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 BONUS: RELIGIOUS TENDENCIES IN THE PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC TIMES (BOOK: SCHOOLS OF INDIAN
PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT)

Primitive Time:
In the primitive period, there was no hard and fast rule for icontrolling and conductin the daily lives
of the primitive peoples, but the simple minds would choose or select very simple methods of their works
and activities, and the ywould rather enjoy family life according to their very simple choice, needs and
environments. Between heaven and earth, they would recognise only the Sun, the Sky and the Fire. They had
respect for the Sun and the Fire for their domestic as well as religious uses. They had simple songs and
dances, which used to be presented to their Nature-gods. They used to worship the Sun, the Moon, the Fire,
the Stars, the Trees, the Mountains and the Earth, and also the departed Spirits. Their religious faith and
offerings were very simple and crude, and they used to pay their respect to those gods for fear as well as for
love with mixed feelings of joy and sorrow. (/Vide. E. B. Tylor: Primitive Culture, Vo. II (1913), pp. 362-
422)

Prehistoric Time:
In the prehistoric time, we come in contact with more developed and cultural socciety, and the
peoples of that time were more acute in sense, taste and feeling. In the prehistoric cities of Mohenjo-Daro,
Harappa, Chanhu-Daro etc. we meet with the Pani or mercchant class of people, who were more intelligent
in understanding the duties, both domestic and religious – worldly and other-worldly. Dr. Laxman Svarup
and others are of the opinion that Ṛg Vedic culture and civilization had penetrated the air and atmosphere of
the prehistoric society, but most of the scholars do not admit this view, and they believe that culture and
civilization of the two times, prehistoric and Vedic, were quite different from each other. Sir John Marshall
showed strong reasons for believing that there are no grounds for identifying the authors of the civilization
with the Indo-Aryans of the Vedic literature. Rai Bahadur Rama Prasad Chanda has said: „Nothing as yet
discovered affords any indication that the builders of the prehistoric cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
were akin to the Ṛg Vedic Āryans. On the other hand, the civilization of those builders appears to be of a
non-Vedic type. So, Rai Bahadur Chanda proposes to identify the authors of this (prehistoric) civilization
with the Panis described by Yaska Muni in one place as ‘merchants’ and in another place as ‘demons’.
Further, he has said that the Vedic Ārya had no place in his social system for trade and traders, so, the
conclusion is not difficult that the much maligned Panis were the representatives of an earlier commercial
civilization. While dealing with the Pre-Āryan Elements in Indian Culture, Prof. Atul K. Sur has written:
„That the pre-Āryan peoples of the Indus Valley not only worshipped the Mother Goddess, but like the
ancient peoples of Wstern Asia and the modern Hindus, paid their devotion also to a male cosmic deity is
evident from the representation of the three-faced male deity depicted on a seal recovered from Mohenjo-
Daro.“ (/Vide. The Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. X, March, 1934, No. 1, p. 18.) Rai Bahadur R. P.
Chanda has mentined the fact as: „He (Yogi) is seated on throne with chest, neck and head quite erect and
feet crossing each other. His arms are outstretched, his hands with thumbs to front resting on his knees. The
posture is pervaded bythe spirit of concentration as the later paryanka (cross-legged) āsana. On two sides of
the figures evidently indicating the four cardinal points are engraved four animals, elephant, tiger, rhinoceros
and buffalo. Below the throne are two deers standing with heads turned backward.“ (/Vide, Modern Review,
August, 1932, pp. 158-159.)
There is no doubt that the figure of the Yogi is the prototype of Śiva. Prof. Sur said: „We recognize
here the germs of at least three fundamental concepts connected with the later Śiva, namely, that he is: (i)
Yogiśvara or Mahāyogi (ii) Paśupati and (iii) Trimukha.“ The feature of the Yogi reminds one of the Vedic
Rudra, whose cult in later time was replaced by that of Śiva. In the Ṛg Veda Rudra is described as wearing
golden ornaments. (It is to mention that the Yogi as depicted in the seal, excavated from the mounds of
Mohenjo-Daro, wears some ornament on arms and possibly on neck too, which the official archaeologists

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have missed to mention). Now it seems, says Prof. Sur, that Rudra in the Ṛg Veda „was an Aryanised form
of the pre-Āryan proto-Śiva. This supposition to a certain extent finds support in the fact that the word Rudra
in Sanskrit meaning ‘red’ is identical with the Dravidian word for ‘red’ Śiva. Rudra, it must be noted, was a
very important deity in the Ṛg Veda. Only three hymns have been given to him, and he has been identified
with Agni. In the study of Vedic religion, it should always be borne in mind that the cult of Agni has the
most predominant place in Vedic ritualism.“ (/Vide. The Historical Quarterly. Vol. X. Marth, 1934, pp. 18-
19.)
In the prehistoric culture of Mohenjo-Daro, we also find the remains of the worship of the Mother
Goddess, which is taken as the representation of Śakti of the Tantra cult. Bherumal Mihirchand has said in
this connection that the most enlightening relics, though very few in number, are, however, those of religion.
„They constitute the only authenticate and contemporary evidence of pre-Āryan religion and show how
firmly established was the cult of the Mother Goddess, or the Goddess of Earth, the most catholic of all
goddesses, be her name Amba, Durga or Devi Mata in India, and Iśtar, Isu or Aphrodite in Asia Minor. She
is the prototype of the powr Prakriti, Nature or the original source of the material world, as distinguished
from Puruśa (or Śiva).“ (/Vide, Mohenjo-daro (Karachi. 1933), p. 70) Dr. Krishnasvami Iyer has also
discussed this question of Mother-worship in different ancient countries in pre-historic time.
Prof. A.K. Sur has further discussed in this connection that it is well-known that feminine deities
occupy a very prominent place in modern Hinduism, but yet they played a very significant role in the
religion of the Ṛg Vedic Āryans, and it is also a historical fact that a nude figure of the Mother goddess is
depicted in a seal, discovered from the mounds of the prehistoric Mohenjo-Daro. The Mother Goddess of the
prehistoric city may be the representation of the spirit of fertility of the vegetable kingdom. And in the Ṛg
Vedic India, we find the conception as well as the worship of the Mother Earth, which is sometimes
connected with the Sky or Varuṇa, as we find mention of the word Dyaus-Prithivi. The Mother Earth of the
Ṛg Vedic India can be taken as the replica or representation of the Mother Goddess, Śakti or Durga, found in
the seal of Mohenjo-daro. Mr. Vats has also discussed about the similar culture found in the excavation of
Harappa.
Besides Śiva-Śakti worship, we find the seals, excavated from the dead mounds of those prehistoric
cities, Mohenjo-Daro and others, show abundant evidence of the cult of a Tree-Goddess, the patron of
vegetation. „She stands, receiving sacrifice, in the branches of a pipal tree, the tree of life, or of knowledge,
which is still sacred and still entitled to offerings of flowers, etc. The seal shows the sacrifice of a goat to this
Tree of Life.“ It seems taht human and animal sacrifices were adopted from the primitive people by the
peoples of the prehistoric time. Mr. K. N. Dikshit of the Archaeological Department has pointed out that a
terracotta tablet from Mohenjo-Daro bears clear evidence of tree-worship. On either side of the tablet is
impressed „a scene consisting of six or seven human figures standing above and a goat-.drawn vehicle driven
by a man below. These persons are probably approaching a tree in the right hand corner in the bifurcated
branches of which is to be seen a human figure, probably the presiding deity of the tree.“
Animal-worship was also prevalent in those prehistoric cities. The figures on the seals discovered
and the terracotta, faience, and stone figurines form an interesting study. The animal almost commonly
depicted is a strange one-horned beast like an antelope or zebra except for the horn. He is apparently the
mythical unicorn. „In the ancient world the unicorn was traditionally believed to be an Indian animal and
Viṣnu’s title as Ekashringa (having only one horn) may conceivably embody some memory of this
prehistoric beast.“ (/This statement is of Sir John Marshall. Vide, B. Mahirchand: Mohenjo-daro (Karachi,
1933), p. 75) Some scholars are of the opinion that Ekashringa is the symbol of the Sun, and it reminds us of
the Vedic Sun-worship. It is also a fact that sacred tree-worship, animal-worship, water-worship were also in
practice in the Ṛg Vedic period.

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 QUESTIONS

• Give short answers (02 marks each)

i. Name two African tribes vi. Who are North Amerindians?
ii. Who is the wife-goddess of Osiris? vii. What is the native religion in Japan?
iii. What was the purpose of mummification? viii. Name two ancient Greek gods.
iv. What do Yin and Yang represent? ix. Give two reasons for the nature worship.
v. How do we distinguish the 'Pre-historic' x. What is 'animism'?
era?
• What are the definitions of religion? Make a summary.
• Write an essay on „Religion and Science.“
• Point out the origin and the evolution of religion with special referring to early primitive religions.
• Describe the main themes of primitive religions.
• Explain the religious beliefs of early Korean religion.
• Present an adequate description of Latin American tribal religions.
• Examine the close affinity between ancient Roman and Greek religions.
• Write an account of the early Egyptian gods and their functions.
• Write short notes on any two of the following. (10 marks each)
i. Vedic religion iii. Non-religious question
ii. Egyptian concept of creation and evolution iv. Religion and Modernity

• Write down forms of definitions on religion put forward by various sociologists.

• Examine whether it is possible to introduce Buddhism as a religion or a philosophy.
• Examine the common characteristics of religions according to definitions put forward by
sociologists.
• Describe distinguished characteristics in Hinduism which lead to the emergence of various religious
thoughts.
• Discuss the common features which surrounds the origin of religion with special reference to India
and China.
• Examine the specific reasons for rapid spread of Buddhism in comparison to Christianity.
• Examine the relevance of Buddhist thought as a rational thinking to the modern world.
• Point out various aspects of God concept in religious teachings.
• Describe the similarities and dissimilarities of various religious traditions all over the world.
• Write notes on two of the following:
I. Characteristics of Hindu lay life III. The structure of Buddhist religious
II. Teachings on kamma in Jainism scriptures
IV. Life-style of a Buddhist monk
•
• What is religion? Explain how religious concepts have been established in the society throughout
thousand of years. (Reasons for establishment of religious concept.)
• Is Buddhism a religion? Examine the exceptional features of Buddhism as a religion.
• Origin of religion. Examine the origin of religious belief in India and their extension to roganized

323
 religions.
• Propagation of Buddhism. Examine the reasonfor the rapid expansion of philosophical aspects of the
Buddha in India.
• The characteristics of religion. Describe the distinguished characteristics of Hinduism when
compared with other religions.
• Religion in subsequent stage. Enunciate characteristics of religious performances in buddhism,
developed in subsequent stage.
• Religious tradition. Examine the similar characteristic of multiplicity of religious tradition in China.
• Spread of Christianity. Examine the variety of reasons for the expansion of Christianity.
• Religion and modern world. Examine whether some religious teachings are valid fto modern world.
• Describe two of the following:
• The concept of God
• The concept of ātman.
• Theory of kamma in Jainism
• Polytheism
• (a) Give short answers.
i. What does it mean „Religion“ iv. According to the ancient Egyptian
etymologically? Religion who was Osiris?
ii. How many apostles are there in the Old v. What does it mean ‘Yin’ according to early
Testament? Chinese Religion?
iii. What are Semitic Religions?
• (b) Fill in the blanks with suitable terms
i. The Greek God Zeus was worshipped by Romans as ….............................................
ii. At Mount Sinai God revealed truth to …................................................
iii. …............................ man had the habit of extracting and eating the brain of the dead.
iv. In Arabic al-Islam means ….............................................
v. According to Christianity the dogma of Trinity consists of ….................................... Son
and Holy Spirit.
• What is religion? Answer using the definitions given by the scholars.
• Examine the various views on origin of religion.
• Describe the main themese of primitive religion.
• Explain the religious ideas of Indo-Āryans.
• Either – write an essay on ‘Religion and Science’ or - „What are the alternatives of religion?“
• Explain briefly the origin and themse of Zoroastrian religion.
• „The pre-historic man did not have a religious consciousness.“
• Present the common views of Semitic religions.
• Write short notes on any two of the following:
I. Ancient Egyptian religious ideas III. Non-religious question
II. Religion and Modernity IV. Ancient Chinese religions
• Explain how the religious concepts are established in the world throughout thousands of years.
• Examine the specific features in Buddhism in relation to other current religious beliefs.
• Examine carefully the evolution of religious beliefs and the establishment of such beliefs as religions
in society.

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 • Examine reasons for the rapid expansion of philosophical aspects of Buddhism in India.
• Describe the distinguished characteristics of Hinduism in relation to other religions.
• „Buddhist religious performances gradually developed during the subsequent stages.“ Discuss this
statement in detail.
• Examine the basic features of multiplicity of religious teachings of China.
• Examine the variety of reasons for the spread of Christianity.
• Discuss carefully how far certain religious teachings that are in existence could fit the modern world.
• Describe two of the following:
I. The concept of god III. Theory of karma in Jainism
II. The concept of ātman IV. Origin of Indian religions
• Explain the common features, which enabled for the evolution of various religions among social
groups in the world.
• Examine the basic features of Buddhism as a rational way of thinking.
• Describe the various modes of religious thinking relevant to theo-centric religions in Greece, Egypt,
China, Africa and Latin American countries.
• Discuss the philosophical trends in the religions, originated in India.
• Examine the ethical values of the teachings of buddhism and Hinduism.
• Elucidate the teachings of creation built due to the concept of almighty53 God in Islam and
Christianism.
• Examine how the life-style of the founders of some modern religions caused their popularity.
• Examine the reasons for the rapid expansion of Buddhism in India.
• Examine how Buddhism was spread in and out of India as a result of the missionary activities of
emperor Asoka.
• Describe two of the following religious concepts.
1. Monotheism 3. Theory of Karma
2. Polytheism 4. Teaching of rebirth
• Write short notes on any three of the following.
1. »Aparimāṇavaṇṇo hi so bhavaṃ Gotamo.« 4. »Cetanāhaṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi.«
2. Ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo 5. »Attahitāya paṭipanno parahitāya.«
3. »Sankhittena pañcupādānakkhandhā 6. »Attā hi attano nātho.«
dukkhā.«

53 In the original question paper there was ‘old mighty God’, so, that made me laugh. The God, though he might be
‘old’, that is not at all an important feature of Him. But ‘almighty’ is one of his most important features.

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 RELIGIONS: CLASS ROOM TEST 01 – UNDERLINE THE CORRECT ANSWER.

(1) As you know what is the most important religious function in the society:

(1) Religion unites people (3) It keeps the harmony among adherents
(2) It proscribes an ethical system that creates a (4) It teaches its followers to be faithful to the
peaceful society super natural existence

(2) According to your point of view piratical movement can be recognized as a religion if it has:

(1) Followers (3) Believes

(2) Rituals (4) All above

(3) Who holds the view that the religion gives a temporary satisfaction?

(1) Max Weber (3) Karl More

(2) E. B. Tylor (4) Emil Durkheim

(4) What is the most correct statement, Buddhism is a:

(1) Religion (3) Philosophy

(2) Science (4) Complete teaching

(5) The Capitoline Triad consists of:

(1) Jupiter, Juno, Athena (3) Jupiter, Juno, Minerva

(2) Juno, Diana, Venus (4) Juno, Hera, Hestia/Hermes(?)

(6) Where did ancient Greek gods reside:

(1) In Athens (3) On Mt. Olympus

(2) On Capitoline Hill (4) In Rome

(7) How many gods and goddesses were there in the ancient Roman religion:

(1) 201 (3) 189

(2) 179 (4) 161

(8) What is the Greek name given for Res(?) Roman god Jupiter?

(1) Apollo (3) Zeus

(2) Demeter (4) Ares

(9) Hera is a:
(1) God (3) Totem
(2) Goddess (4) Hero

(10) The term 'religion' comes from:

(1) Latin (3) Arabs
(2) Greek (4) Hebrew

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 R.S.F. 102 – HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS
Objectives
The content of this course unit comprises the history of each major religious traditions of
Asian region. The history of the thought of each religion and the evolution of the cultures based on
such thought will be the main focus. The study will take into account the historical periods,
personalities, literary works and movements related to each religion.

Course Contents
Indian Religious Traditions, History of Brahmanic Religion (Hinduism), Jainism, Buddhism,
Theravada, Mahayāna and Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Religious Traditions, Taoism,
Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism, Different schools of Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Religious
traditions, Shintoism and Zen Buddhism, Korean Religious Traditions (Sinkyo).

Recommended Reading:

1. 2500 Years of Buddhism Bapat P. V., Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,

Gove. of India (1959), 1987
2. A Short History of Buddhism Conze Edward, Allen George & Unwin, London, 1980
3. From Primitives to Zen, A Thematic Eliade Marcia, Collins Fount Paperbacks, 1967
Source Book of the history of Religions
4. An Interpretation of Religion (Part I) Hick John, Yale University Press, 1989
5. The History of Religion Jevons Frank Byron, Orient Publications, New Delhi,
India (First Published in 1904), 1985
6. Buddhism and Confucianism Sumanasiri G. Ven., 1969
7. Religions of Man Whiting Roger, Thorness (Publishers) Ltd., England,
1987

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THE HISTORY OF RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLËLLE SUMANASIRI) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY)
(2009)

1) Indian Religious Tradition

2) Chinese Religious Tradition
3) Judaic, Christian Religious Tradition
4) Japanese Religious Tradition

1) Indian history can be divided into period:

a) Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1500 B.C)
b) Vedic Period (Aryan invention 1500-500 B.C)
c) Epic and Purāṇic Period (1500 B.C to 500 A.D.)
d) Medieval Period (500 A.D to 1500 A.D)
f) Modern Period (500 A.D upward)

Note (1) in the Epic period there are four kinds of religions or sect, those are: 1. Rāmāyana, 2.
Mahābhāratha, 3. Vaishvamism, 4. Shaivanism.

Note (2) Chinese traditions can be divided as following:

1. ¼ populations are Chinese
2. Posses ancient Civilization
The Civilization of Chinese was derived from three main forces or cultural tradition.
(1) Two forces are indigenes (named Taoism introduced by Lao-Tze)
(2) One force is foreign (named Confucianism introduced by Confucius)

Note (3) Buddhism was influenced in China in 1st century AC.

Note (4) Judaic Religious Tradition can be divided into

1) Judaism
2) Christianity
3) Islam
These three religions are called or named as Semantic religion or family religion. Why? It is said that
Judaism gave the birth to Christian and Christian gave the birth to Islam.

Note (5) Japanese religious tradition, in this point, Ven. Prof. G. Sumanasiri did not mention as much.
He just revealed that Buddhism in Japanese was introduced from Korea and Buddhism in Korea was
brought from China. So it can be concluded that the origin of Japanese Buddhism was from China.
There are two main religions in Japan, viz.
1) Shintoism
2) Buddhism

Finally Ven. Prof. had given us some guides to read or find out for more detail from some books. Those
books are
 Chinese “Buddhism and Confucianism”
 Judaic “Root of Archaism”

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CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF INDIAN HISTORY (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLËLLE SUMANASIRI) (ORIGINAL BY VEN.
SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

The history of India can be divided into five periods as following;

1) Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1500 B.C)

2) Vedic Period (Aryan invention 1500-500 B.C)
3) Epic and Purāṇic Period (1500 B.C to 500 A.D.)
4) Medieval Period (500 A.D to 1500 A.D)
5) Modern Period (500 A.D upward)

Furthermore, we can call or name these five periods that

a. Pre- Āryan invention
b. Pre- Indus Valley Civilization
c. Pre- Vedic Religious Tradition

C). Pre-Vedic Religion

Although, human settlement in India goes back to 400 million years there was no evidence in support of
their activities. We cannot properly say what the forms of their religions as we have known clear evidence. But
during Stone Age they have used various types of instruments made of stone. These archaeological drawing
depicted about their actives in the main livelihood of early inhabitants in India must be hunting. If those people
had some religions; those religions must be connected with supper natural power and associated with hunting
activities. When we consider Pre-Vedic religion in India considerable amongst of evidences are found in Indus
valley civilization. Those archaeological evidences were found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa which were
situated near river Gangese.

Until recently historians believed that India religious history began from Aryan invention but
archaeologists, in 19th century, discovered Indus valley civilization. In this period was very developed civilization
and it possessed various types of buildings of a well-plan city. Those evidences convey that the inhabitants of
Indus valley were cultured and civilized people. We have no great absolute evidences to clue what kinds of their
religions were. But through archaeological drawing we can imagine the form of religion that they believed.

Bonus idea
For this point (from Indian Philosophy and Religion, A Reader’s Guide by BiBhu Padhi Minakshi Padhi page 2
- this history of Indian philosophy can be broadly divided into four periods
1) The Vedic period (1500 B.C to 600 B.C)
2) The Epic Period (600 B.C to 200 A.D)
3) The Sūtra Period (200 A.D to 1700 A.D)
4) The scholastic period.
The literature of the Vedic period consists of the four Vedas, namely
1. Ṛg-Veda
2. Yajur Veda
3. Sāma Veda
4. Atharva Veda
Each of these is derived into four parts; 1. Mantras, 2. Brāhmaṇas, 3. Āranyaka and 4. Upaniṣads. Some scholars
have reduced this division into three; 1. Mantras or Saṃhitās, 2. The Brāhmaṇas and 3. Upaniṣads.

They worship of Paṣupati (male God).54 Paṣupati means “Lords of animals” as maintained early the most

54 Paṣupati indeed means 'the lord of animals' and we can refer to this meaning even in modern Sinhalese.

329
popular god that people worship; it must be Paṣupati.

Second God that Indus valley people worship was Jagadmātā other name for her is Prajāpati. The
worship of Jagadmātā was the domestic practices that figures of Goddess have been found in every house. Some
figures of Jagamātā are fully naked whereas others are half-naked can be found in headdress and wearing
necklace and belt.

The purpose of worshiping Jagamātā was to have child and also they believed the goddess possesses
healing power and also primitive people hope to get prosperity through worshiping this goddess. There is a figure
of Jathamat1 that a plan concerning from the womb of goddess it is considered of the marks of prosperity. After
worship that, it was prevalent in the India civilization, was the worship of Shiva. Shiva is very popular God in
Hinduism. The particular characteristics of the status of Shiva, which was found in Indus valley is that he seated
on the particular bench type, he sat in a meditative posture and having three faces sometimes animals figures can
be found around him. Some statues are full necked and some are half-necked. Shiva is considered as husband of
son of Jagadmātā; he also has headdress.

Religious rites and rituals are concerned ritual dance and water purification was common practices. Ritual
dances and water purification are very common practices in Hinduism. Some dancing feature has been found from
Indus valley. In every house had a well drainage system among the buildings those have been identified as the
religious buildings also have ponds in vicinity. Those wells and ponds have been found in the vicinity of houses
and religious buildings. It was supposed to have been used for ritual purification.

The Tree worship also can be found in the Indus valley depict depicted about Tree worships, people are
standing in circle around a tree.

The phallus or penis worship was very common belief in Indus religion that history can be traced back to
Indus valley civilization; many stones in sack of Phallus have been found. Some are women vaginas whereas
others are phallus worship was the prosperity and procreation.

Other worship can bee found in the Indus valley was animals worship belonged to three categories. Some
of them are white animals such as lions, tigers and some others animals are domestic animals such as cows, dogs,
hens and hart... etc.

In addition to the white and domestic animals, they worship mythical animals too. One of the important
things found in the Indus valley civilization was the seal which depicted a figure of ascetic. The ascetic was sitting
in a meditative posture and straight his hand to his knees and he has horn like a dress and around by various types
of animals.

Some of opinions were expressed that his feature depicted the god of Shiva because he has three faces.
Some other arguments were that it is the feature of Prajāpati because it is rounded by animals. The scholars of
Jainism believed that it represented the first Tīrthanakara of Jainism, known as Vruṣhabha Nātha55, their opinions
are based on the headdress and animals around him. One of the fundamentals of Jainism is non-violence.
Otherwise, in the relation involved with seal and it is the practice way of Yoga or tradition of Śramaṇa, is
depicted in front of this seal.

55 Vruṣabha Nātha means 'the bull leader' and this meaning can be traced even from its appearance in modern
Sinhalese.

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 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION REVEALS IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON INDIAN RELIGIOUS HISTORY
Indus Valley Civilization also known as Mohenjodāro-Harappa Civilization is older than
Āryan Civilization of India. It dates back roughly to 3000 B.C. This civilization that existed in the
valley of Indus river had a very advanced culture. The political, economic as well as the religious
condition of the people of their civilization is said to be very advanced. When compared to Indian
valley people, the Āryans who invaded India sometime between 1500-2000 B.C. were Barbarians.
Excavation done in this region has producecd a lot of archaeological remains and finds.
From that shed much light on the condition of life of the people of this civilization. Fair collections
of such remains contain scriptural evidence also. But unfortunately these have not so far been
accurately deciphered. So, therefore, scholars have not been able to adduce much from these.
However, there are a few references to the people and their practices of this civilization in
the Vedas. Scholars agree it is this civilization that was completely destroyed by the Āryans. The
Āryans who failed to understand the high standard of living of these people and also their religious
practices refer to them as non-believers who did not accept the gods which the Āryans respected.
There are some archaeological remains in the form of seals, which throw much light on the
religious conditions that prevailed in the Indus valley region. There are a fair number of seals with
divine figure, some of them goddesses. Then, it shows that they believed in divinity and perhaps
also in the mother goddess. There are seals of such a goddess who is said to preside over birth and
death.
One of the most important seals is the one containing the figure of the three-faces god with a
bull’s head. This figure is surrounded by animals. Scholars are of the views that this refers to the
proto-type of Paśupati, a form of god Śiva.
Besides this they have discovered a seal with a person sitting cross-legged and appearing to
be meditating. This they take as evidence showing that Indus valley people knew meditation.
They have discovered large ponds, which could have been used for ritualistic bathing. The
peace-loving, restrained nature of the people is also taken as evidence suggesting that they were
ruled by some strong religious head. In this way archaeological remains provide valuable
information about the religious condition of the Indus valley regions.

331
ORIGIN OF INDIAN RELIGION OR EARLY INDIAN RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NĀRADA)

Indian religious thought is characterized by many doctrines, rituals, experiences and

customs. It is useful to list some of the main ingredients of Hindu, Buddhist and other practices and
beliefs during the classical period. Most of the Indian religions constitute gods, holy figures,
temples and statues.
Ingredients of Indian religion can be analyzed in several dimensions - in the ritual and
practical dimension. Three important elements are:

1. Yoga or self training

2. Pūja or worship
3. Sacrifice

The first is eminent in tradition and forms the basics of innate search.
An important ritual god,(?) personified the phenomenon, central sacrifice to Agni, god of
fire. As the representative of earthy fire Agni includes atmospheric fire or lightening, and the
heavenly fire of the Sun.
Another important god in Vedic time who later faded in actual religious practice was Soma,
god of intoxicating liquor that was prepared and consumed as a part of a ritual. It stimulated visions
and it may be that some of the imagery of the hymns came up due to such visions.
Religious thought of India was transformed into new era in the hundred years or so around
500 BC. During this period the most important idea of saṃsāra, the cycle of rebirth led to quest for
liberation through the practice of austerity or meditation or both, believing that we need to wipe out
the effects of our past actions, the kamma. It is this set of beliefs that forms the background of many
of new religious movements and it was a set of ideas that penetrated into Brahmin religion as a new
and great secret aspect of the teaching of Upaniṣad.
To the East of main Aryan area the new religious revival was represented by Upaniṣadic
thought, Buddhism, Jainism and some other movements. The Upaniṣads were concerned essentially
with the meaning of the sacrificial rites and their process; they introduced profound metaphysical
and religious idea. The term Upaniṣad means „sacred teaching“ and it is assumed that they
originated in oral interpretation of the sacred tradition imparted by gurus. The central concept in the
Upaniṣad is that of Brāhmaṇ. This is scared or divine power operating during the sacrificing and,
indeed, withing the Brahmin class.

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 QUESTION: DISCUSS COMMON FEATURES PERTAINING TO ORIGIN OF RELIGION GIVING SPECIAL ATTENTION TO
INDIA AND CHINA

Origin of Indian religion

India religious thought is characterised by many doctrines, rituals, experiences and customs.
It is useful to list some of the main ingredients of Hindu, Buddhist and other practices and beliefs
during the classical period. Most of the Indian religion constitute gods, holy figures, temples and
statues.
Ingredients of Indian religion can be analyzed in several dimensions of the ritual and
practical dimensions. Three important elements are:

1. Yoga or self training

2. Pūja or worship
3. Sacrificed

The first is eminent in tradition and forms the basics of innate search.
Worship was in classical India directed toward large number of gods of who Vishnu and(?)
saver(?) image(?) dominant(?). Buddhist pūja was at first little more than the ceremonial remembers
of a great teacher but later as faith flower into high Mahāyāna. It embodies ferment devotion or
'Bakti' toward Buddha conceived as kind of gods.
Sacrifices of all sort could be seen in early India. Later under influence of Jainism and
Buddhism with deep respect for animals life, sacrifice came to be confined to plant life.
Regarding origin of Indian religious the early Vedic period is important as it paved the way
to understand the earlier religious believe in India.
Polytheism or belief in various gods was prevalent in Vedic period and reflects
personification of nature, selecting later one supreme God. Such God then was, due to his adjudged
power, understood as the creator of the world. The fiercest towering was Indra, great warrior leader
incarnated in the thunderstorm and lightning bolt, being able to lead wars, not only of people, but
also of demons.
Central sacrifice was to the god Agni. Agni, as the early god of fire, was represented as
atmospheric fire or lightening and heavenly fire of the sun. Religious thoughts of India were
transferred into new era maybe 500 BC. During this period the most important ideas were these of
saṃsāra, cycle or rebirth, which led to quest for liberation through practice of austerity or
meditation or both. „We need to wipe out the effects of our past action (kamma).“ It is this sect of
belief that formed the background of many religious movements. It was a set of ideas that was
penetrated in Brāhmaṇism or as new great secretive(?) in Upaniṣads.(?)
To the East of main Aryan area new religious revival represented by Upaniṣads though
Buddhism, Jainism and other movements.(?) Upaniṣad(?) is(?) counselee(?) assented(?) with
meaning of the sacrificial life.(?)

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 EARLY INDIA RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. RĀHULA)

The India religion lies in two Indian cultural traditions namely:

1. Indu Valley civilization, which flourished from 2500 – 1500 BC
2. Aryan culture, which, which flourished from 1500 – 500 BC

Until 19th century historians regarded that the history of India begins with Aryan invasion.
This view has been now changed and history of religion, as well as we have discussed, goes as far
back as to Indu Valley Civilization. Taking the similarities and dissimilarities into account now
scholars hold the opinion that Indian religion is blend with Aryan religion. These are two main
thesis, in relevance to this fact:

1. Aryan migration thesis: Indu Valley Civilization was declined to be replaced by the
culture of Aryans and Indo-European people, who migrated into South Asia and spread
across the fertile Northern plain.
2. Cultural transformation thesis: Aryan culture is a development from the Indu Valley
Civilization and was not Introduced by outside invaders or migrants.

The religion of Indu Valley Civilization has to be inferred from the buildings which were
most probably temples, stone statues, terracotta figurines and particularly the steatites. These state
religions seem to have involved temples, rituals, prayers and animals sacrifice. The large number of
female terracotta figurines unearthed during the excavation may have been images of goddesses.
Those goddesses that are worshiped in Hindu temples may be traced to the goddesses of the early
period. Some of the statues found are naked and half naked. Those are taken as evidence to the
existence of belief in Mother goddess.
The big bath-pool that was discovered in Indu valley is meant more for religious or
sacrificial purpose. They seem to be used for purification purpose before performance of sacrifice,
just similar to present day practice in Hinduism.
The most interesting ruin that was found there is the statue that is in sitting posture. Eyes of
the statue are closed, hands stretched(?) and resting on knees. It depicts a meditation posture. It is
evident to the fact that meditation was a type of practice prevalent during Indu valley civilization.
Meditation practice in Buddhism and Jainism may trace back to this early period. The animal of
various kinds around the yogic figure is variously interpreted. Three faces of the statue is evidence
to the concept trinity is Hinduism, Brahma (creator), Vishnu (sustainer), and Shiva (destroyer).
The bull figure in the turban is supposed presenting of the emblem in Hinduism or first Thirtanka
in Jainism. The worship of Bodhi tree may have derived from practice of tree worship in Indu
Valley civilization. Evidences have been found to prove the existence of phobic worship and
worship of Mother goddess.

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 VEDIC RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLËLLE SUMANASIRI) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Four main periods

Vedic religion is concerned; it can be divided into four main literary periods:
1). Vedic literary period ( Bhaktimārga)
2). Brāhmaṇic literary period (Karma mārga)
3). Āranyaka period
4). Upaniṣadic period ( Jñāna mārga)

Note1 the Buddha appeared in Upaniṣadic period.

1). Vedic literature

The most important literary record of religion can be considered as mirror to see how the religions
concepts developed from the simplest stage to the highest developed stage. In this regard Sir.
Radhakrishanan says that „there is no other literature in the world, which depicts the origin of and
evolution of religious concepts in the mind of people as depicted in the Veda.”

ARYANS AND THE ORIGIN OF VEDIC RELIGION (LECTURED BY MR. ILAṀGAKON) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NĀRADA)
The Aryans were a group of people who lived in different parts of the ancient world in the area
comprising of Mediterranean Sea, parts of Europe, central Asia and North-Western India. They were the invaders
of Indus between 1500 and 1200 BC. They were familiar with hunting, with bow and arrow. They enjoyed
arranging, banjoing/playing the banjo(?) and fighting.
In the Vedas we can discern people, who had a life-style quite different from Indus civilizations. Veda is
divided into four categories, namely:
1. Rig Veda
2. Yajura Veda
3. Sāma Veda
4. Artharva Veda

Of these, Rig Veda is the most important part relevant to evolution of Indian religious conception. Rig
Veda is described as the worldly literary records of world religion. It is the book of hymns, which are sung in
praise of Hindu gods. It consists of 1017 verses, fewer than five volumes.
It is believed, that Rig Veda had a form of polytheism in the early period and that the polytheism of Rig Veda later
changed in monotheism. Yajur Veda is contained in 6 volumes and describes the ways of performing sacrifices
apart from hymns. For the first time of Sāma Veda introduced a sacrifice called Sāmapūjā. Thus the gradual
development of Vedic literature is shown. Artharva Veda contains of 740 hymns, which were composed by
Artharva. The concept of the gods and the soul had developed in this period.
When there were many gods in Vedic period, there were more tendencies towards monotheism, believing
in one God. The Vedic religious thought evolution shows that people selected and named a specified god and
forgetting other gods. Once they worshiped Varuna as a senior god than other. Sometimes they worshipped the
god Prajāpati.
however, the position of gods did not last long. Among the Vedic gods the most superior god was the
Varuna. Varuna was one who possessed the characteristic of almighty, omnipresent, omniscient, whereas other
gods were not almighty. Description of Varuna, Indra, and Prajāpati can be considered as the initial stage of
monotheism.
The Aryans had a god of fire, called Agni. They believed, that Agni takes the offering from people and
was satisfied with them. The Aryans enjoyed sitting around the fire and singing praising hymns about creation.

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 NATURE OF VEDIC RELIGION (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLELLE SUMANASIRI)

(1) Four main periods

1. Vedic literary period (bhakti mārga)
2. Brāhmaṇic literary period (karma mārga)
3. Aranyaka literary period
4. Upaniṣadic literary period (jñāna mārga)

(2) Natural worship

At the beginning, Vedic Aryans did not have god or notion of god. They just marveled or surprised at the
function of nature. They were surprised to see the order of the observable world, regular succession of seasons and day
and night. They were curious about the function of the Sun, which appeared in the East in the morning, making bright
the world, sky bright in the night. Curiosity of this nature together with the nation of dual function made them to kneel
before nature and worship and pay respect to nature objects around them. At this stage, there were no gods. Referring to
this early stage of Vedic religion, Radhakrishnan says: „Sages, who expressed their feelings in Vedic hymns first did
not worship Sun god, Moon god, fire god. But they worshiped Sun itself which brightened the world, Moon which
brightened the sky and other observable objects themselves.“ They had sacred feeling towards nature at the initial stage.

(3) Dedication of nature and polytheism and monotheism

Curious Vedic people further began to think about the dual function of nature. They considered the relationship
between oneself with the world around him. As far as back Vedic period, people had thought that man is inseparable
from the nature around him. Man was regarded as part of nature. They clearly showed that nature around him highly
influential for the existence and survival of mankind. Nature can influence in dual way. It can bring happiness to
mankind as well as it can make man unhappy. The rain that gets in proper time can make man happy and untimely
improper rain can bring disaster to them. Similarly the other objects of nature such as wind, Sun, fire can appear in dual
form. Thus they tended to worship nature with awesome feelings.
Evolution of thinking power gradually made them to think behaves in similar way as man behaves.(?) Nature
also has similar psychic nature to that of man. They thought that when nature is writhed it brings calamities whereas
when it is pleased it brings happiness to mankind. In order to make nature happy, they offered things to nature objects
and began to pray. Thus gradually worship and sacrificing came into exist. This stage is known as personification of
nature or it may be named as 'animistic stage'. Animism is believed in animation power both in animate and inanimate
objects such as human being and animals and Sun, Moon, wind and rain etc. At this stage people had sacred feeling
towards nature as they thought nature is more powerful and influential to their life.

In the process of evolution of human thinking animistic feeling gradually evolved to deify nature. They were
not satisfied with the likeness of nature with human being. Nature has hidden power that man lacks. Thus
personification of nature progressed towards deification. At this stage nature objects were honored as god and we can
see thousands of nature-gods during this stage. Indra, Varuna, Soma, Agni, Maruths are some of the nature-gods.
Each god had equal power at that stage.

As they believed in many gods, this period became to be known as the period of polytheism. Hymns were
uttered to praise gods and things were offered to gods for making them happy and paying using things to gods for their
success. Yet scruffiness was very simple and things they offered were things that they used in their daily life. Prayers
addressed to gods were mostly for worldly prosperity, for grant of sons, for increase cattle and wealth. No priestly class,
animal sacrifices and no belief in transmigration of soul was at this stage. Religious elements were gradually forming to
their full-fledged form.
Next to polytheism is monotheism. Monotheism is belief in one God. They went on thought that one God is
supreme while not denying the existence of other gods. Even though each god had equal power to the other gods, later
Indra was on his place replaced by Varuna. Though we can't find monotheistic God in Veda, the god Varuna is
described in the same way like God tends to be described. Thus god Prajāpatī Aṣvin came to power from time to time.
But no-one of gods could keep their power for a considerably long period.

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 Nature Worship

At the beginning Vedic Aryans did not have God or notion God. They just marveled or
surprised at the function of nature. It was surprising for them to see the order of the observable
world, regular succession of seasons and day and night. Regulating and orderliness of the function
of the sun and the moon, day and night arose their curiosity „undropped beneath not fasten firm,
now comes, that downward turn, but falls not downward.“
Rg. V. IV-13-5
Expressing the curiosity in seen river and sea Veda says „the sparking water of all river
flows into the ocean without overflowing it.”
Another Vedic hymn says “Red cows give white milk” these expressions convey simple and
immature stage of thoughts, which brought out from curiosity. Curiosity together with awareness of
dual functions of nature made them to kneel down, worship and pay respect to nature objects
around him. Thus the sun, moon, wind, rain came to the object of worship. At these early stages
they did not have god. Referring to this early stage Sir. Radhakrishanan says „sages who express
their feelings in Vedic hymns first not worship sun god, moon god, or fire god, but they worship the
sun itself, which brighten the world and the moon brighten the sky and other observable objects
themselves. They had sacred feelings toward nature at the initial stage.“

Curious Vedic seers noted the dual functions of the nature considered the relationship
between oneself with the world around him. Nature highly influences for the existence and survival
of mankind. Nature can influence on dual way. So they tended to worship nature with awesome
feelings.

Among the Vedic god, god Varuṇa was more prominent god than other gods. He is
considered as the guardian god of morality. He punished wrong doers and recorded for the good. No
one can hide from him; he lives everywhere (omnipresent) and knows everything (omniscient), it is
said in the weather in Vegana.(?) No one can make secret with other because Varuṇa can hear it.
Though Varuṇa was not monotheistic and he possesses some monotheistic characteristics than
other Gods. Varuṇa represent the process of evolution of the monotheistic god in weather. Proper
monotheistic god came to exist during the Brāhmaṇic period. Brāhmaṇic period represents the peak
of development of religious concepts as a whole during Brāhmaṇic period. Sacrifices came into
being and rites and rituals related with god were former light. As we already knew during the period
of polytheism there were no priest sacrifices and those rites and rituals were very simple and their
hope also were related with the affairs of day to day life but during the Brāhmaṇic period, the
Brahmins or priestly class all are very prominent place. Sacrifices should be offered through
Brahmins, ordinary people were not allowed to offer sacrifices. Offering sacrifices and uttering
Vedic hymns became the duty of Brahmins. During the period of polytheism people themselves
offered things and chanted Vedic hymns for express in their appreciation and thanks for god. But
during the Brāhmaṇic period those Vedic hymns became the formula of prayers to god. Sacrifices,
during of polytheism, were simple but during the Brāhmaṇic period were become a very
complicated, ordinary people could not offered such sacrifices, sometimes, 100 of various kinds of
animals had to be killed at Alter of god and occasionally human beings themselves were killed for
the sack of sacrifice rituals. Many people had to work on sacrificial ground. From this account we
can understand how religion was developed to complicated form during Brāhmaṇic period. The

337
most important thing in this period is the appearance of monotheistic god who was known as
Brahma or Prajāpati. Brahma is considered as the created god and he is considered as the one
who created the world and human beings. In this creation he created human beings into four castes
and each castes were given as a particular duties which known as Āśrama Brahma.

According to Brahma, the Brahmins called(?) higher position in society than other castes.
Even people belong to Kṣātriya had to be subordinated to Brahmins because even the kingship
came to be accepted after paying the homage to the God.

As mentioned early during the Brāhmaṇic period religion and religious activities came to be
very complete and luxurious. Religion became complete that sacrifices came to be something that
should be participated by Brahmins. As mentioned early 100 of animals had to be killed in
sacrifices ground and many people had to word on it. Sacrifices should offer through Brahmins,
Brahmins were considered as representative god. Sacrifices offered without the mediation of
Brahmins were not accepted by god. Sometimes money had to be spent. Sacrifice became violent as
a result of this complication sacrifice became something to particular groups who can offer it. On
the other hand, some intellectual people refused to pay sacrifices mainly due to violence related
with those sacrifices. So that intellectual people became to reasoning out of god, rites and rituals
connected with their beliefs. They turned to search for truth behind oneself and the world around
him. The Gods such as Indra, Varuṇa and Prajāpati that they highly venerated for many years
became to be suspicious even in Vedic hymns; we can find some instances for their suspicions.
Very often ask question by intellectual Vedic people that »Kasmai devaya bharisha ridema,« which
means „to what God should be offered the sacrifice.” Not only they were suspicious about gods but
also they thought that they should be ‘One eternal truth behind the diversity of the universe. Vedic
people identified this eternal truth as “sat” it is some realties beyond god and gender. At this initial
stage they had some notes of single reality that function in the world believing in one reality is
known as 'Monism'. That believes in one reality, monistic approach can be seen in weather where
universe and man has been equated in Vedic hymns. In the Vedic period they thought about
»Candima manasa jātah cakṣo suryo ājāyata mukādiśa ca agniśca prāṇth vāyur ajāyatha.«

Manasa (mind) = Candima (moon)

Cakkhu (eyes) = Surya (sun)
Mukṣa (mouth) = Agni (fire)
Prāṇ (body) = Vyāya (wind)

Note (1) there are two realities in this case namely, ātman and Brāhma, which called 'dualism'. But
later on they were included only one, i.e., Monism that means One Reality.

ātman (1) Brahma (2) Dualism

Monism (one reality).

Reality of eternal and external during the Upaniṣad period. Intellectual people refused
Brahmanic sacrifices as well as their rites and rituals. They devoted to search universal infinite truth
through intellectual development; they attempted to find out infinite unchangeable reality behind

338
finite and changeable world. In this process of searching absolute truth they were curious about
three things;
- First one is what is the essence or unchangeable reality behind man.
- Second is what is essence or unchangeable world around him.
- Third one is; what is the relation between the reality of individual and external world.

They recognized 'soul' or 'ātman' as the reality behind individual even though dissolve
ātman recite on body is not subject to dissolve. They differently identified the soul, Taitariya
Upaniṣad explained about five kinds of ātmans:56
1). Annamaya ātman (that we feed and drink)
2). Prāṇamaya ātman (…………………………………….)
3). Manomaya ātman (……………………………………)
4). Viññāṇamaya ātman (………………………………….)
5). Ānandamaya ātman ( it’s essence of ātman)

This is the diagram to depict about this point:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

According to Taitariya Upaniṣad out of these five kinds of soul inner most reality is
considered as Ānandamaya ātman. The perception of this !tman is regarded as the objective of man.
Similar to the concept of !tman they found out Brahma as the reality of outside world.
Brahma is interpreted as negative term such as Avyavaharami cannot express in words; Agrahyami
cannot touch, Advayami no duality. Realities of external were known as Jagadātma whereas the
reality of dual reality is known as Pratyagātman. The dual reality that they found out was known as
'dualism'. Later on they perceived that there are no differences between ātman and Brahma, finally
they recognized reality within oneself and outside is under same which they named that Brahmin.
This concept of one reality is known as Monotheism.

56 1) Annamaya ātman (that we feed and drink)

2) Prāṇamaya ātman (the self of 'breath' or 'soul')
3) Manomaya ātman (the self of 'mind')
4) Viññāṇamaya ātman (the self of 'consciousness')

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 BASIC DOCTRINE OF HINDUISM CAN BE CATEGORIZED AS FOLLOWS:

1. Multifarious beliefs practices among the followers.(?)

2. Polytheist, monotheist, monistic and atheistic idea at the same time
3. Belief in authority of veda as holy texts.
4. Belief in spiritual power beneath the mundane world order which is regarded as essential and
eternal.
5. Soul is the essential nature of men which transmigrates as the immortal substance. This eternal
soul is (in Buddhism) regarded as the bondage which begets continued suffering.. Liberation from
this soul of world is real goal of man.
6. Action done with a sense(?) attachment(?) (karma) is the root cause of man's continued
involvement in the circle of birth and rebirth. Freedom from karma is liberation.
7. Moksha is possible by adopting any of the three paths, the path of knowledge. The path of
disinterested or attached action and the path of devotion to God:
a) gnāna mārga
b) karma mārga
c) bhakti mārga
8. Samkya system taught in Hinduism is highly esteemed philosophy which is clearly atheistic. But
average Hindu seems to be firm believer in gods either in one God or in several gods. Hindu
believed in god ranges from polytheism to monotheism. Varuna, Mitra, Agni, Indra etc. are
prominent gods mentioned in Rigveda. Monotheistic tendency seems to have been in Hinduism
since the vedic era. There is a clear indication towards monotheism also when the veda declare that
one reality is called by various names (eleansad, vipra, badha, vadanthy). In addition, gods in
Rigveda average Hindu worships Viṣnu, Śiva, Ganessa(?), Kartiteya(?), Humumana(?),
Barvati(?), Turge(?), Kari(?) etc. During the Upaniṣadic period vedic polytheism associated with
rituals, converted into philosophy monism gave rise to important Hindu philosophy system of
saṁkhāras, atvita(?) and ramanuja(?), visist(?) ardyata(?). The former is example of absolute
monism and the later is theism. The former speaks of god as attributeless and absolute (mirguna
Brahma), while the latter takes god as the lord, the inner controller who dwells in the entire cosmos.
God Antarayani ((inner dweller) is the inner sould of the entire universe. He is infinite , eternal or
all pervading. He is omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent. He is the creator preserver and
destroyer of world.
9. Hindu theories connected with the concept of the world are different. There is no definite
definition of aeration(?) in Hinduism. Samkhya as atheistic Hindu system believed that the world is
the product of evolution.

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 HISTORY OF JAINISM AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLËLLE SUMANASIRI)
(ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG PHY) (2009)

Hinduism, Upaniṣad philosophy, Buddhism and Jainism are prominent religion to be discussed
under the Indian religious tradition. From the time of Aryan invention to the present day Hinduism
progressively survived assimilating other religious and philosophical views. So that Hinduism possesses
developed religious and philosophical literature than that of other Indian religions. Against the fundamental
teachings of Hinduism the Upaniṣad, Buddhism, Jainism, and other religions such as Ājīvaka and
Paribbājaka have appeared.

The scholars’ views 19th century was thus Jainism is nothing but derived sect from Buddhism. Now,
archaeological and historical discoveries are proved that Jainism has the longest history than that of
Buddhism and of all the other religions in India.

Some others are of opinion that both Buddhism and Jainism were derived from and against the Vedic
religions their view is based on:
1). Both of these traditions unanimously reject the fundamental teachings of
Vedic religion.
2). Acceptation that Aryans culture is the oldest culture in India.
3). Vedic literature is older than that of Buddhist and Jaina literatures.
4). 4th Asramadharma being included in Brāhmaṇic tradition.

These arguments have been rejected from archaeological and historical discoveries and found out
two distinctive religious traditions that are Anaryan and Āryan.
Now it is discovered that the Sramana tradition was not derived from and against Vedic tradition but
it is revival or reappearing of Muni tradition that was in Indus Valley civilization before Āryan invention.
John Marshall was the one who first discovered that dynamic meditation was a developed religious
practice in I.V.C human figures in Yogic meditation is found.
Further, evidences to this fact is remarks found in the Veda on Muni,
“What is the use of wearing dirty yellow robe?
What is the use of wearing animal’s skin?
What is the use of growing beard?
What is the use of ascetic life?
Wish son and it is the praiseworthy in the world”
It is the popular view that Śramaṇa tradition was derived from the Muni tradition in I.V.C,
Upaniṣadic and other Yogic practices in other religions are derived from the ancient I.V.C. tradition.

It is not true to believe that Śramaṇa tradition was derived from Brāhmanic Sañyāsi practice.
Sañyāsi practice was post Buddhist and post Jain. Early Upaniṣadic or Brāhmaṇic literature no mention is
made on Sañyāsi practices. Sañyāsi practice is supposed to be imitation of Buddhism and Jainism.

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in India. It mentions of 24 Tīrtankaras (saints). The earliest is
Vruṣabhanātha. The last in the chain is Mahāvīra. The last before him is Parśvanātha. He supposed to
live 250 years before Mahāvīra. Descendents from Parshavanātha was the one who introduced four fold
disciplines. Svetambara tradition supposed to descent from him; Mahāvīra was not the founder of the
tradition but the last chain of the long historical tradition. He is the contemporary to the Buddha. Chain of
Tīrtankaras conveys its long history. Parents of Natautta are fathers of Parśvanātha. The origin of Jainism
goes back to pre-historic period.
Mahāvīra was born in 599 B.C. Jina is appellate to him in the means of victorious one. Father was

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Siddhārtha, belonged to Kṣātriya clan and mother was Triśāla. According Svetambara sect, he got married
Yasodhara and had a daughter named Priya Darśana. Dīgambara sect rejected this view. They are of views
that he renounced householder life at 30 and spent 12 years to penance and then became Kaivalya. For 30
years he preached his doctrine. He added Brahmacāriyavassa to Catuyama Saṅvara (ahiṃssā, satya, asteya,
aparigraha).
The goal of Jaina followers is an achievement of Mokṣa or Sugati. Mokṣa is purification of soul by
Kamma mater. Sugati is to be born in rebirth in a good realm. The disciplinary rules for monks and nuns are
named Śramaṇa Dharma. The disciplinary rules for householders are named Śravada Dharma.
The two main sects in Jainism are Svetambara and Dīgambara who wear white clothe and practiced
of nudity is essential for Mokṣa as they cannot practice nudity.
Svetambara rejected it; Digambara believed that the teachings of Mahāvīra disappeared with the
demise of Mahāvīra. There are three sects belonging to Dīgambara. Those three sects are; Khisapanti,
Therapanati and Tarnapanti. Other sects are Murtipjaka who worshiped Murit and Stanatkavasi and
Therapanti rejected Murti Pūja. They worshiped the sacred books.
Jaina text, according to Svetambara, are 6 kinds; they are Aṅga, Upanga, Mūla Sūtra, Cheda Sūtra,
Chulika Sūtra and Prakīrnaka texts have been written in Prākrit; these texts belonged to Svetambara.
Dīgambara accepted another 4 texts namely; Pathamanuyoga, Karananuyoga, Dravyanuyoga and
Carananuyoga. They have been written on Saurasemi.
According to Upaniṣad everything possesses dual aspects; Changeable and Unchangeable. Visible
aspects of thing are subjects to change, are not true. Visible forms are merely illusion. But there is
unchangeable aspect behind everything. Those unchangeable aspects cannot be perceived by ordinary sense
due to illusion. Immutability of thing along is true.
Buddhism views that the changing qualities can alone be perceived and there is not unchanging
substance behind them. It sees no any permanent or unchangeable aspect in anything. The notion of such
permanency is mere a fiction of ignorance. Buddhist view is that everything is subject to change.
Jainism neither rejected nor accepted both of these views. But they are partial truth. Accept or reject
any of these thesis is a falling to an extreme. Changeability occurs them and posses three elements.
Some qualities appear to remain unchangeable qualities and new qualities all are generated.
Some old qualities are destroyed (just as Gold change to ring; gold remained form changed and taken
a new shape).

According to Jainism all substances possess three characteristics. It has been explained as »Utpāda
dva vya yuktam sat.« Utpāda means “getting into new form,” dva means “unchangeable aspect of thing” and
vya means “disappearing of gold form.” For instance, when a necklace is made form gold; gold remains
unchanged (dva). Gold has taken a new form which is called Utpāda as soon as gold shapes in a form of
necklace is original shape has been disappeared. Taking this example into account, we can conclude that
Jainism rejected both absolute truth in Upaniṣad and momentary change of Buddhism. According to Jainism
Atmav1da as well as An1tmav1da contain “fair truth” which means both these affirmations are through to
some exchange.

Theory of Jīva

According to Jainism every object possesses two characteristics that are Jīva (soul) and
Ājīva (non-soul). Jīva is distinctly different from Ajīva; what we can perceive through our sense or
touchable thing. The category of Ajīva behind the touchable sense and touchable world; there is
some realities that reality is known as Jīva in Jainism. Jīva is the source according to Jainism. We
have to perceive Jīva through introspection and Jīva is explained as something absolutely pure it
possesses for characteristic. They are:

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 1). Ānanda Darshana (Infinite Perception)
2) Ānanda Jñāna (Infinite Knowledge)
3) Ānanda Sukha (Infinite Bliss)
4) Ānanda Vīriya (Infinite Power)

As mentioned early Jīva is the “Soul Theory” in Jainism. Jīva is something very small but it
has power to expend according to the dynamic of the body. It is said that it can be expended into the
body of elephant and can be extracted according to the body of ant. As Jainism explained from tip
of hair to the nail of foot wherever there may be any causes of sensation there is Jīva. This nature of
Jīva has been similitude to a lamp lighted in the dark room. The lights of the lamp expend all of
place in the room. Similar to that Jīva lived in the body expended it through out the body.
According to Jainism, Jīva is something very pure as mentioned above, and possesses infinite pure
characteristics but the purity of Jīva has been covered with karmic matter which has been
accumulated through out Saṃsāra. Jīva is explained as something oily and sticky if something oily
and sticky it can easily be covered with dust if it covered by dust. Its purity of Jīva has been
covered by karma just like brilliant of sun has been covered by cloud. According to Jainism the duty
of individual is to discover Jīva from karma matter then the original form of Jīva can be seen. It is
the state of Mokṣa or Kayvalya in order to regain purity of karma; Jainism has introduced two
matters that are Saṅvara and Nirjara. Saṅvara means 'not doing new karma' various types of
disciplinary cause have been introduced. The second method is Nirjara which means 'winning out
of old karma' for winning old karma various types of Yoga system have been introduced such as
Paññca Tapa, Ajavaram and Govaruta, etc. what they believed God by giving pain to body and
practicing of self-mortification. One can be wined out karma. According to Jainism purity of Jīva is
inevitable consequent from Saṅvara and Nirjara and one will attain to Mokṣa as a result of this
negative practices.

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 JAINISM

Kammavāda was known to Indians even before the emergence of Buddhism. If any religion,
whether it is theistic or atheistic, believed in kusala and akusala, the moral distinction of good and
bad, that is called 'kammavāda'. Jainism and early Buddhism are those which believe in
kammavāda. But there are some differences as well as the reasons for the same in respect of the
concept of kamma as between them.(?)

The reason for the sameness

The founder of Jainism, Mahāvīra, was a Karmavadin – one who advocates kamma. The
Buddha was also himself a kammavādin. Kammavāda in Jainism and early Buddhism is an attempt
to explain the moral causation without a law giver, without referring to a Lord or God, because
within an act, there is potentiality to bring out good and bad result, without referring to someone for
resolving. So, Jainism and early Buddhism are those which were against the authority of Vedas and
Brahmins. Both assert that one has to be responsible for what he chooses to act and in doing so free-
will has a vital role to play.

Both explain rebirth on the basis of kamma. Kamma thus becomes a very decisive factor to
both Jainism and Buddhism. Kammavāda makes them believe in many rebirth after death. They do
not recognise caste systém, which Brahmins recognized. They do not believe in any creator, God.
Besides, they do not agree with the spiritual rituals, which were sacrifices done by Brahmins.
Therefore, the theories of kamma were described, obviously in both Jainism and early Buddhism.
These are all the reasons for the sameness of the concept of kamma between them.

The basic differences

Kamma in Jainism is a kind of matter in a fine atomic from which is so subtle that it is not
visible to the human eyes.(?) When you have done kamma you can not change it. Once you have
done it, you become a slave of your own kamma without any possibility to change or modify it. It is
destroyed only by severe penance. There are two kammas to be burnt up – namely
1. Puranakamma – kamma which one has acquired in the previous life
2. Navakamma – kamma which one has accumulated through body, speech and mind in the
present life.

One must burn old kamma through tapa (self-mortification).

Here pañcatapa (five fires) are taught to clear the soul, which means lighting fire at four
corners, one then sits in the centre and looks at the sun which is the fifth fire.(?) New kamma is to
be burnt by refraining from commiting it - then it is called kammakkhaya, when these kammas were
burnt, and dukkhakkhaya, vedanākkhaya follow accordingly.(?) The soul is free from kosa(?) in this
way and becomes jīvamutta – leaving the body and living alone forever.(?) This is called mokșa –
liberation in Jainism.

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 But early Buddhism talks about kamma without reference to the soul for there is no soul
recognized in Buddhism. According to Buddhism, karmma is cetana – volition, wilful action.
Volition in Buddhism is not a subtle matter. In Buddhism the doctrine of Dependent Origination in
other words kamma operates and ceases to operate according to the law of Dependent Origination.
According to these both doctrines the present life of man is the consequence of his past life, and the
future depends on the present. Buddhism holds the view that because of their kamma, men are not
similar, some are long living, some short living, some healthy and some unhealthy etc. But kamma
also comes under the law of impermanence, it can be changed or modified. Men are in a position to
control kamma.

According to the doctrine of kamma the fruits of the actions are in accordwith the character
of the actor. If some bad man has committed a sin, he will have to suffer for it in hell. But some
good man has by chance committed some evil actions, he will get rid of it after suffering a little in
this very life. According to the Buddha, the doctrine of kamma is not mechanical. Though the
present is determined by the past, the future is free and depends on our will. So, the philosophy of
the Buddha is against absolute both determinism and indeterminism.

In the Buddhist philosophy the cessation of the world has been called 'bhava-chakra(?)'. In
this cycle the chain of the cause and the effect is always operating. Both birth and eath are the two
links in that chain. Ads the old is destroyed, the neew takes a birth. But there is an escape from this
wordly cycle. According to Buddhism the kamma cease to have any effect in the ultimate spiritual
status.

In that stage, the kamma and its effects are destroyed forever and the man rises above both
merits and demerits. After attaining liberation his action ceases, but this does not mean inactivity.
Even after attaining liberation the kamma remains but it does not bear fruit, as the burnt seeds do
not sprout in the plants. By way of conclusion, though both Jainism and early Buddhism believed in
the concept of kamma, the theories of it are quite different from each other.

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 QUESTION: GIVE A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF JAINISM.
Jainism is one of the religions grouped under the Śramaṇa tradition. This was widely
prevalent in the time of the rise of Buddhism. Jaina Mahā Vīra Nigaṇṭha Nāthaputta was the
leader of Jainism at that time. The Jaina tradition believes that there were 24 Tīrthankaras (chief
leaders) before Mahā Vīra. Jaina Mahā Vīra happened to be a senior contemporary of the
Buddha. He, like the Buddha, was born in a north-eastern Indian society, that was undergoing
drastic changes in various fields, economic, social, political and so on. There were constant wars. In
the meantime, economic changes that were taking place led to the exploitation of masses. The
Brāhmaṇic social philosophy was oppressing majority, depriving them of even basic human rights.
Jaina Mahā Vīra’s teaching is also another reaction to the prevailing social, economic, political
and another related conditions of that time. He was undoubtedly influenced by former teacher of his
schools, specially Pārśvanātha – namely: not to kill, not to lie, not to steal and not to be interested
in worldly things. It is clearly seen that Mahā Vīra was greatly disturbed by the social injustice he
saw during his time. He saw utter inequality, between the rich and the poor, the high and the low; he
saw how people were running after worldly possession and thus were further involved in misery
and suffering. He was trying to establish a kind of class-less, private-property-less society where
people would live sharing everything with other, giving up selfishness as much as possible. In such
a society he thought memebers would not harm each other in any way, either by words or deeds.
Being extremely moved by the violence in the society, Jainism emphasized the importance of non-
violence. But non-violence by itself did not answer all the problems faced by man. Being unable to
cope up with present situation in a more dynamic way, Mahāvīra was forced to accept former
deeds on the experiences.(?) Being a moralist and disciplined man57, he did not reject morals. He
wanted to conquer evil by moral life. Being greatly influenced by the idea that former karma is the
vital factor, he tried to evolve a concept of soul of Upaniṣad thought and other Śramaṇa thought
and evolved a practice containing mixed features. Thus, it is evident taht Jainism did not arise as a
freak religion, suddenly coming, but as a reaction to the conditions prevailing at the time and in
doing so it drew ideas both from Brāhmaṇa and Śramaṇa traditions.

57 In the original word ‘moralist’ and ‘disciplined man’ are given as synonyms. That of course is a big mistake, both
these terms have a completely different meaning – ‘moralist’ = trying to maintain morality within other people X
‘disciplined man’ = keeping morality within oneself.

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 JAINISM

Jainism is one of religions in the world. Jainism means „religion of conquerors.“ Jains, the followers
of this religion want to conquer themselves, not others. „Within yourself lies salvation“ is an ample(?)
evidence of their teacher.
The founder of Jainism was prince Vardhamana (Mahāvīra, Great Hero), son of king Sreyama
and queen Trisala of the kingdom Magadah, in the North of India. He accepted Law of Kamma, the belief in
reincarnation and the ultimate release in Nibbāna. He followed the way to Self-denial because he understood
desire as the cause of all suffering. He rejected the caste system, salvation by prayer and he also rejected the
absolute truth of Vedas. The core and center of Mahāvīra's belief is Ahiṃsa (non-injury) not only toward
human beings but also toward all things that live.
After the death of Mahāvīra his disciples gathered his sermons into 46 books called Āgama meaning
'precepts'. Āgama became the sacred scriptures of Jainism.
Later on, Jainism became divided into ttwo sects:
1. Swatambara
2. Digambara

But both sects follow the Five Commandments of the Soul. They are:
1. Do not kill any living thing.
2. Do not steal
3. Do not lie
4. Do not live an unchaste life. Do not become intoxicated.
5. Do not covet or desire anything.

Among these five, the first one became the cornerstone of Jainism. To observe this first precept,
Jains became vegetarians and non-combatants. As a result of the belief in Ahiṃsa, Jains become monks or
teachers, artists, traders businessmen or bankers.
Due to the belief in self-denial, Jains become ascetics. „Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to
disease,“ states their Sutra-Krit-Anga. „A pious man eats little, drinks little, sleeps little.“
The basic belief of Jainism is charity. They considered it their duty to cshare with others and to take
care of others.
The Jains of Digambara believe that women cannot enter Nibbāna. However, if women lead chaste
and good lives, practice charity and learn to conquer themselves, after several incarnations they may be
reincarnated as men. Then, along with men they can find the way to Nibbāna through the Three Jewels of the
Soul. They are:
1. Right conviction
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct

In Jainism, we can see many famous sayings. Some of them are as follows:
- „Misery arises from wicked deeds.“
- „Men suffer individually for the deeds they themselves have done.“
- „The wise man should consider that not he alone suffers; all creatures in the world suffer.“
- „The fool thinks that his wealth, cattle and kin will save him; they him, he them.“
- „A blind man, though he may carry a light, still does not see.“

In conclusion, Jainism is a religion founded by Mahāvīra in which there are many sayings, Five
Commandments of the Soul, Thre Jewels of the Soul, Ahiṃsa (non-injury) and so forth.

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 QUESTION: JAINISM IS ONE OF THE ANCIENT RELIGIONS IN INDIA. EXPLAIN THE HISTORY OF JAINISM.

According to the Indian history, Jainism can be considered on/as(?) the order religion.
Jainism is the order religion according to history until 19th century.
Taken similarity between Buddhism and Jainism as connected, one scholar said „Jainism is
the branch of Buddhism.“ On the other hand, both the traditions are equally rejected by the
Brāhmaṇs' concept, which rather accepts animal sacrifices, caste system and authority of God.
Taken this point into account, some other consider Buddhism and Jainism together with
other Śramaṇa groups, such as Acelaka, Pribacaka, Ājīvaka. These groups are changing to accept
again the Brāhmaṇa tradition. But new history had found enough reasons to reject these views.
A scholar found, that history of Indian religious traditions go back from Mohendojaro and
Harappa site, that cannot their religion practice the most format among these ruin.(?) That couldn't
have been on account of energy of a yogi. This yogi figure have been interpreted and identified in a
different way.
According to a Buddhist teacher, we can a(?) cure(?) if(?) their(?) follower of(?)
„Panattha“(?) at the time of the Buddha. The term „Nāttha“ is one of the identification of Jaina
follower Mahāvīra God is Nātthaputta.(?) Because, he(?) was(?) want(?) to(?) parent(?) s(?) of
Pushavanaka folowers.(?)
Jaina Mahāvīra God is not the founder of Buddhism, but he was the last of 2000, who
achieved Tatantara. This evidence also provide is some or accepting that Jainism process alone
stayed then other religions in India.(?)
Jaina Mahāvīra was contemporary to the Buddha, he was support(?) to(?) in 599 BC.
According to the literature of Jainism he had 11 main(?) displays(?) name is Godura. They were
supported by most of Jains. Among these 11 line(?) display(?) namely Idabuti and Sudarama,
support(?) to live(?) after Jaina Mahāvīra attained Parinibbāna.(?)
According to the disciples of Jainism, there were two scholars – namely Diganpara and
Celanpara. The differences between these two scholars were not based on doctrine points, but on
their manners of practice. Diganpara lived(?) as(?) a next life(?) but Cetanpara lived(?) right(?)
clock(?) so(?). Diganpara considered(?) that(?) Cetanpara did not attain(?) to(?) pleasure(?). So,
they had(?) to(?) desire(?) on(?) their(?) food(?).
Diganpara was(?) also(?) can(?) not(?) attain(?) measure(?). Diganpara accepted the
doctrine of Mahāvīra, but these views were rejected by Cetanpara. The basic two texts have been
divided into several other telling Jainist stories.

348
 HISTORY OF JAINISM AND ITS FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS

Hinduism, Upaniṣad philosophy, Buddhism and Jainism are prominent religions to be

discussed under the Indian religious traditions. The scholars' view, until 19th century was that
Jainism was nothing but derived sect from Buddhism. Now, archaeological and historical
discoveries proved that Jainism has a longer history than that of Buddhism and all the other
religions in India.
Some others are of the opinion that both Buddhism and Jainism were derived from and
against the Vedic religion. Their veiw is based on:
1. Both rejected the fundamental teachings of Vedic religion
2. Acceptance that Aryan culture is the oldest culture in India
3. Vedic literature is older than that of Buddhist and Jaina literature
4. Asramadharma being included in Brāhmaṇic tradition

These arguments have been rejected from archaeological and historical discoveries and there
were found out two distinctive religious traditions, that were Anaryan and Aryan. Now it is
discovered that the Śramaṇa tradition was not derived from and against Vedic religion, but it is
revival or reappearing of Muni tradition that was in Indu Valley Civilization, before the Aryan
invention(?).
Further evidence to this fact is a remark found in the Veda on Muni: „What is the use of
wearing dusty robe? What is the use of wearing animal skin?“ and so on. Jainism is one of the
oldest religions in India. It is contained in 24 Thirtankaras. The earliest is Vrushabhanatha. The last
in the chain is Mahāvīra. The last before him is Parshavanatha. He is supposed to live 250 before
Mahāvīra. Parshavanatha was the one who introduced Four Fold Discipline. Swetambara tradition
supposed to descent from him. Mahāvīra was not the founder of the tradition, but the last chain of
the long historic tradition. He was the contemporary to the Buddha.
The goal of Jaina followers is to achieve Moksha or Sugati. The disciplinary rules for monks
and nuns are named Sraman Dharma. Disciplinary rules for household followers are named
Sravaka Dharma.

The two main sects in Jainism are:

1. Swetambara
2. Digambara, (wear white cloth and practice nude)

Digambara viewd that the practice of nudity was essential for Moksha, whereas
Swetambara rejected it. Women cannot attain Moksha as they cannot practice nude. Swetambara
rejected that. Digambara believes in the teachings of Mahāvīra.

There are three sects belonging to Digambara:

1. Khisapanti
2. Therapanati
3. Taranapanti

Other sects are Murtipjaka, who worship murti, whereas Stanakavasi and Terapanti reject
murti pūja, they worship the sacred books.

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 QUESTION: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF TEACHING OF JAINISM AND HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM BUDDHISM
(LECTURED BY VEN. GALLELLE SUMANASIRI)

About the time that Gautama the Buddha lived and established a new religion in India,
another teacher arose who also opposed the caste system and wished to perform Hinduism. He was
prince Vardhamana, son of king Sreyama and queen Trisala of the kingdom Magadah, in the
North of India. He became known as Mahāvīra, which means 'Great Hero'. So similar seemed the
life histories and some of the teachings of these two religions, that it was thought they were one and
the same person, presented under two different names; and that two different versions had been told
and recorded in different localities. When later scholars scrutinized the records, they found that
though the teachings of the Buddha and Mahāvīra began with similarities, they ended with
irreconcilable differences.
In fact, about a decade or two before the birth of the Buddha, a son was born to the king
and queen of Magadah, the neighboring kingdom of the Sakyas and he was named Mahāvīra. At an
early age, he was taught the use of the bow, and arrow, how to manage wild horses, how to control
elephants and the other skills expected of princes at that time in India. In all of these he excelled and
exhibited such unusual courage that he was given the name Mahāvīra. He was sent to study Vedas
and he married the beautiful princess Yasodhara when he returned to his kingdom. - So far, except
the difference in names of people and places, the stories of prince Gautama and Mahāvīra seem
to be same.
When Mahāvīra was twenty-nine years old, both his father and mother died. Their death
was such a great loss to Mahāvīra that he took the Vow of Silence for twelve years and became a
beggar-monk. He wandered throughout the land, meditating on the source of human suffering and
the way to salvation. And when his Vow of Silence was fulfilled, Mahāvīra thought he had found
the answer to life's problems. He went out to preach to the people, and those who came to hear him
later said: „He was a speaker. He spoke the truth.“ Before long many became his disciples.
Mahāvīra established a new religion called Jainism: 'the Religion of Conquerors'. This was a new
variety of 'conquerors'. For the Jains, as the followers of this religion were conquering themselves,
they did not want to go out and conquer others. They only wanted to conquer themselves. Their
teacher taught them: „Within yourselves lies the salvation.“
After the death of Mahāvīra, his disciples gathered his sermons into forty-six books, called
Āgamas, meaning 'Precepts'.And the Āgamas became the sacred scriptures of Jainism. As time went
on, and the followers of Jainism increased, they became divided into two sects:
1. Swatambara (whose priests are clad in white)
2. Digambara (whose priests are „Sky-clad“ - wearing only loincloths)

Their differences are mainly doctrinal. but both sects adhere to the Five Commandments of
the Soul, given to them by Mahāvīra. They are:
1. Do not kill any living things; do not hurt any living things by word, thought or deed – even in
self-defense.
2. Do not steal.
3. Do not lie.
4. Do not live an unchaste life. Do not become intoxicated.
5. Do not covet or desire anything.

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 Like the Buddha, Mahāvīra accepted the law of Kamma: from good must come good and
from evil, evil. And then he accepted the belief in reincarnation and the ultimate release in Nibbāna.
But here both the Buddha and Mahāvīra parted company with Hinduism. Both rejected the belief
in the sacredness of the caste system, salvation by prayer and the absolute truth of the Vedas. The
Buddha followed the Middle Path of Moderation; Mahāvīra turned sharply away to asceticism.
The most important of the Five Commandments is the first one, which became the
cornerstone of Jainism. The other four commandments Jains share with other religions and with
other ethical codes. The first commandment has become the differenctiation and crown of Jainism.
To observe the first commandment in the spirit in which it was given to them, Jains became
vegetarians. They never eat meat, even when it is a question of health or survival.
In the time of war, Jains are non-combatants, through the centuries they have been opposed
to war. And when a war comes, though they will go in as medical workers, stretcher-bearers or on
any mercy missions however dangerous, they will not bear arms. Jains obviously cannot become
butchers. Neither they can become farmers, for in plowing the soil they might kill worms, and
worms are a form of life – and all forms of life must be held sacred. By the same taken, they cannot
engage in fishing or in any other occupation in which life in any form is endangered.
As a result of the belief in Ahiṃsa, Jains become monks or teachers, artists or traders,
businessmen or bankers. As a rule they are more educated than their neighbors in India, more
prosperous and more influential. Yet, it is against their religion for them to exploit their advantages
for themselves.
Next in importance to Ahiṃsa is the Jainist belief in self-denial. The jains are ascetics. No
matter how rich a man may be, he must not indulge his desires, as a matter of self-discipline.
„Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to disease,“ states their Sutra-Krit-Anga. A pious man eats
little, drinks little, sleeps little. These are disciplines of self-denial.
The third basic belief of jainism is charity; though the Jains do not call it 'charity'. They
consider it their duty to share with others and to take care of others. They maintain hospitals, care
for the sick, give aid to the orphaned, the widowed and the injured. They also have hospitals for
sick animals, particularly cows. First of these is the carrying out of at least one act of charity each
day. Yet, the jains, who are so considerate of anything and everything that is alive, tolerate suicide
in old age. For they believe that death by starvation is a holy death. Jains and particularly those who
belong to the orthodox Digambara believe that women cannot enter Nibbāna. However, if women
lead a chaste and good lives, practice charity and and learn to conquer themselves, after several
incarnations they may be reincarnated as men. Then, along with men, they can find the way to
Nibbāna through the Three Jewels of the Soul:
1. Right conviction
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct

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 THE FUNDAMENTAL TEACHING OF JAINISM AND HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM BUDDHISM

The founder of Jainism is known as Vardhamana Mahāvīra. He was born several years
before the Buddha, his father was Siddhārta and he belonged to Khattiya clan. His mother was
Thrishala. He renounced house-holder life at(?) and spend(?) twelve years and became Kaivalya.
The life story of Nigaṇṭha Nāthaputta is very similar. To that of the Buddha although these
two great teachers were contemporary.
The main sects in Jainism are Swetambara and Digambara, who where clothed in which
cloth and observe rules.
Regarding this doctrine there is recorded in the Sāmaññaphala sutta in the Buddhist canon.
„Catuyāma saṁvara“ and similarly in Upāli sutta there is mentioned the Tridanda:
1. Kayadanda – control and discipline of body
2. Vagdanda – control and discipline of speech
3. Manodanda – control and discipline of thought

These are the fundamentals of Jainism:

Catuyamasamvaraya – self-mortification
- The theory of kamma
- The analysis of world

Getting rid of present kamma is of four kinds:

1. Sabbavari varito – to get rid of use in coal(?) water
2. Sabbavariyuto – to get rid of all kinds of ???
3. Sabbavariduto - ???
4. Sabbavari puto – to get rid of pāpa by way of self-mortification.

- According to this system of Nigaṇṭha Nāthaputta have(?) to(?) be(?) following(?) the path of
self-mortification in the practice of their religion.
- As in Buddhism with it's concept of cetanā.
- For the sake of Tridanda Buddha accepted: kayena saṁvara, vacay(?) saṁvara and manasa
saṁvara.
- Jainism also has it's panca sīla, which is similar to that of Buddhism.
- Buddha has rejected self-mortification and indulgence in sensual pleasures.
- The fundamental teaching of Buddhism is the Noble Eight-Fold Path.

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 QUESTION: EXPLAIN THE MAIN TEACHING OF JAINISM HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM BUDDHISM

Jainism was regarded as one of the new movement going against the existed religious belief,
which now are known as Buddhism and Upaniṣad.58 According to Buddhism changeable itself is the
reality. It does not believe that there is unchangeable reality behind the changeability.
According to Jainism the theory of ātma as well as anātma are not the theories of reality. By
rejecting these two extremes, Jainism introduced a middle path, which is called Anekantavāda.
Jainism analyses reality as something posed with three characteristics namely:

1. Dva (some collection of qualities appear to remain unchanged)

2. Utpāda (some new qualities are generated)
3. Vya (all qualities are destroyed)

When a piece of gold is turned into ring, the gold remains unchanged, but its form had been
changed into new shape. Like that nature of being „sat“ is neither absolutely unchangeable nor the
momental change but such contain the two characteristics called changeability and unchangeability.
In order to analyze truth, Jaina introduced logical method known as Syadvāda, „seven-fold logical,“
such as Syadasti, Syadnasti and so on.
Another important philosophical teaching of Jainism is the concept of Jīva. All the things in
the world have two accepts, namely Jīva and Ājīva. The concept of jīva is the soul theory in
Jainism. What we can perceive through senses are the bodily aspect or ājīva, parts of beings. Jīva is
invisible through ordinary senses, but it can be perceived through introspection.
According to Jainism purity and power of jīva is concealed or covered with kamma matter,
which has been accumulating in them from beginningless time. The aim of Jainism is to purify jīva
through kamma matter. Jīva is described as a tiny object covered with a layer of oil. Kamma is
known as dust. The nature of dust is to be with oil. Similarly kamma matter always stick with jīva.
As far as jīva is stick or covered with kamma, one cannot get enlightenment. One, who uncovered
pure jīva from kamma matter is known as kaivalya. The aim of Jaina followers is to attain the state
of kaivalya. Kaivalya is the Moksha or liberation in Jainism.

58 I do not think, that Jainism would be a movement against Buddhism. Firstly, it was contemporary with Buddhism
and secondly, it had (and still has) many aspects very similar to Buddhism. Jainism is actually so similar to
Buddhism, that many scholars understood it as just a different name for Buddhism.

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 QUESTION: DESCRIBE THE MAIN TEACHINGS OF JAINISM AND DISCUSS HOW BUDDHISM REACTS ON THOSE
TEACHINGS?

Jainism is historically much older than Buddhism. In their fundamental doctrine they believe
in nature of reality sat. There are two-fold realities – jīva and ājīva. Both are eternal substances,
unoriginated, independent and co-existent. And both are permanent and impermanent. Jīva
possesses the capacity of liberation. It has the abiblity to free itself from bondage, and it when it is
free it becomes jīvamutti (living and liberation soul).
Ājīva manifests itself through substance such as pudgala, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and kāla.
Here pudgala does not mean a person or individual, it means matter that is gross or subtle; dharma
means themotion or movement, adharma means the motion of rest and ākāśa and kāla mean space
and time.
Another fundamental doctrines are asreva, bandha, saṅvara, nirjana and mokṣa. One must
remove the kośa or karmic body wich is forming the sheath or rounding the soul by means of
torturing the senses. This is indriyasaṅvara (the restraint of the senses). According to Jainism
removing by self-mortification; another meaning of nirjana means burning up defilements or
karmic body.
There are two karmas to be burned up: purāṇa-karma, karma what one has acquired in
previous lives, and nava-karma, karma what one accumulated through body, speech and mind in
the present life. There is karmakkhaya, when these karmas are burnt. Then dukkhaya and
vedanākkhaya follow accordingly. The soul is free from the kośa in this way and becomes jīvamutti
– leaving the body and living alone forever. This is called mokṣa (liberation) in Jainism.
But, early Buddhism does not say that karmic matter would come from outside world and
then it would form covering round the soul because there is no soul in Buddhism. Buddhism talks of
karma without reference to a soul. According to Buddhism, karma is cetanā (volition, willful
action). Volition in Buddhism is not subtle matter and it does not form a covering round the soul,
because there is no soul recognized in Buddhism.
Jainism recognizes the path of self-mortification as a means to end suffering. The path of
self-mortification means giving pain to the soul or self. But Buddhism rejects this method as
ignoble, painful and leading to profitless results.

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 JĪVA AND ĀJĪVA THEORY IN JAINISM

Jainism recognized that all the things can be divided into two parts – namely jīva and ājīva.
Jīva (life) is distinctly different from ājīva (body). The concept of jīva is the sould theory in
Jainism. What we can perceive through senses are the bodily aspects or ājīva parts of beings. Jīva is
invisible through ordinary senses but it can be perceived through introspection. Jīva processes four
characteristics:
1. Ananta ñāna (infinite knowledge)
2. Ananta dassanā (infinite perception)
3. Ananta sukha (infinite bliss)
4. Ananta viriya (infinite power)

Jīva is all perfect, unchangeable substance behind the material body. According to Jainism,
purity and power of jīva is concealed or covered with kamma matter, which has been accumulating
in them from beginningless time. Also jīva, that occupied under or behind the ājīva or body, has
power of expanding and contracting themselves according to the dimension of body. According to
the acceptance of Jainism, soul occupied all of the body in which it lived. That is why we can feel
sensation from hair to nail whenever we feel a sensation. It has been illustrated to a lamp lighted in
the middle of a room. As same as light of the lamp expands throughout the room, soul which
occupied the body expanded throughout the body. Jaina followers hold the view, that pure nature of
jīva has been covered by kamma matter, which was accumulated throughout saṃsāra. Kamma
matter, which consists of the pure nature of jīva, has been divided into four types, which are known
as:
1. Ñānavaraniya
2. Dassanivaraniya
3. Mohaniya
4. Vedaniya

The aim of Jainism is to purify jīva through kamma matter. Jīva is described as a tiny object
covered with a layer of oil. Kamma is known as dust. The nature of dust is to be with oil. Similarly,
kamma matter always stick with jīva. As far as jīva is stick or covered with kamma, one cannot get
enlightenment. One who uncovered pure jīva from kamma matter is known as kaivalya. The aim of
Jaina followers is to attain the state of kaivalya.

There is another classification of kamma in Jainism. Followers of Jainism believe, that

people can be born in different state such as god, man or animal according to their past kamma. The
fact that determines state of birth is known as bhavakamma. The characteristic of individual is
determined by „nāmakamma.“ Social state, caste and other distinction is determined by the
„gotrakamma.“ Finally „atarāyakamma“ determines the various experiences of individual life.

In Jainism very prominent place is given to the teaching of kamma. One's past kamma is the
fact that determines the present state of life according to Jainism. Each and every experience that
we have to face at present is considered as the due result of past kamma. In other words, kamma is
the determining factor of present life. In this context the teaching of Jainism is known as
pubbekattahetuvāda. It is a kind of determinism. Kamma is not only the factor that determines the

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various aspects of our life, but also it is the factor that jīva or soul in Jainism is bound with saṁsāra.
If one wants to liberate from the bondage of saṁsāra one has to eradicate all the kamma, that has
been accumulated through one eon of life. As far as kamma is revolved with jīva, saṁsāric
existence continues. In this background one has to fully eradicate the past kamma that has been
accumulated in order to attain moksha in Jainism. The teaching of Jainism is that by eradicating past
kamma and not performing new kamma. Jīva can be automatically liberated. Buddhist canonical
text in explaining the theory of Jainism says: »Iti purānānaṃ kammānaṃ tappassa vyamtibhava
navanaṃ kammanaṁ akarana ayatiṃ anesava kammagakhiya kammakhaya sabbe dukkhaṃ
nirujjhati.« This explanation conveyed us two methods that were followed to get liberation:
1. Eradicating past kamma through self-mortification
2. Not making new kamma

In order to eradicate past kamma they have practiced strict disciplinary rules. The terms
sunakhavrutta, govrutta, ajavrutta and various types of meditation practices such as pañca tapa.
Tapa that is contained in Pāli canonical texts are good evidence to the strict disciplinary rules of
Jainism. Their theory is that happiness cannot be gained through happiness. Happiness can be
gained only through suffering.

Strict disciplinary rules practiced by Jaina followers is known as „Nirjara.“ Through this
practice one can eradicate past kamma. In order to influx of new kamma they have followed the
system which is called saṁvara. Saṁvara is the safeguarding of one's sense organ by not doing
action through body, speech and mind. By eradicating past kamma and not doing new kamma, jīva
can be liberated from kammic matter. Jīva covered with kammic matter is compared to the sun or
moon that were covered by clouds. And liberated soul is compared to the sun or moon uncovered
from the clouds. Jīva that is not mixed with kamma is illuminated light, the brilliance of the sun.
Such jīva is called „mudda jīva“ in Jainism. One who possesses „mudda jīva“ is known as siddha or
one who has attained kaivalya. Kaivalya is the moksha or liberation in Jainism.

(Explain in brief the main teaching of Jainism.)

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 CHINESE RELIGIOUS TRADITION (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLËLLE SUMANASIRI) (ORIGINAL BY VEN. SAMNANG
PHY) (2009)
In order to study about Chinese religious tradition we need to divide periods under the following
consecutive order:

1) Pre-historic and classical period.

2) Classical period 6th to 1st century.
3) Post Buddhist period Han to Tang dynast.
4) Medieval period from Sang dynasty to 17th century.
5) Modern period – Marxism and Westernization.

Origin of Chinese and their Civilization

Chinese civilization one of the ancient civilization in the world. There are many
contradictory opinions on their origin and civilization.

1. Immigrant from Africa, Middle East, or Centre Asia spreading? Domestic animals, agriculture,
using of cart, and using instrument made of bronze and iron.
2. Origin in Eastern China and Western India.
3. Not immigrate but indigenous who at the very beginning settled down in the valley of Yellow
river. It is the most acceptable views.

The 3rd view has been proved by archeologists. Skeleton of home species which is known as
Peking man who have been lived 400000 years ago. This evidence mad them to assume that
Chinese are decedents from Peking man.

History of China begins in 2nd millennium (sahassa vatta) B.C. until then no evidence to say
what their proper religions were. Excavations done in Anyang in Honan province provided some
evidences to assume of their religious nature. Those ruins are supported to assume of organized
religious system in the past.

Nature of Pre-historic Religions

Among the new archeological discoveries the most important ruins of bronze vessels and
oracle bones.
Bronze vessels are of three legs and four legs decorated with various animals i.e. dragon,
monster, birds, and serpent. Some contains inscriptions so far unreadable; they are similar in shape.
It is assumed that they had been used for making offerings of good and drinks at ceremonial
occasions to gods, deities, spirit, or ancestors.
Oracle bones are practiced of magic used by ancient Chinese to predicate future and to know
divine will. Plat bones of animals such as ox and tortoise were used for it.
Burning of tortoise shell for knowing divine will is very important as it represents universe.

357
 Pictorial characters

When we talk about pre-historic Chinese religions the concept of Shandi (this name
represent of a power god in Chinese) is very important. Shandhi is the God in the heaven. He is the
one appointed rules on earth. Shandhi should be worshiped only by rulers; ordinary people are not
allowed to worship Shandhi but worship to rulers because ruler is considered as representative of
god and one who brings divine will to earth. Worship of ruler is very important because Chinese
considered that ruler should be a saint who posses reverential character and believe in Shandi is
some what equal to us supreme God believe in theistic religion at the present.

Burning tortoise shell for knowing divine will is very important as it represents universe.
Pictorial character is the concept of Shandi (the God who lives in the heaven or sky). This
concept of heavenly god is of an ancient origin. Huandi (Emperor) alone is allowed to worship
him. Ruler is considered as the one who bring for the commands of God to the earth. The God is the
one who rules the earth from above.

In order to avoid calamities and bring divine favors the emperor has to pray and sacrifice to
heavenly God. Sacrifices were offered to him in the altar made in peak of mountains. Rulers were
afraid of divine favor so that they often burnt tortoise shell to know the will of heavenly God.

In addition to Shandi they believed on miner gods; provincial and personified gods those
miner gods were worshiped by ordinary people.
Ancestor worship was another popular belief in china. They believed that their dead relatives
appeared in the form of spirituals and they can influence on living beings. They believed that they
reside in mountain, trees, rivers and dark corners and influence on mankind of good or bad. One
who behaved as benefaction or protectors are considered as born in heavenly realm whereas others
are considered devils. (The concept of ancestor worship conveys that they had been believed on the
concept of soul and transmigration soul).

The moral system is one of the basic elements of religion, it is not considered as divine order
but as descend from parents and rulers. Man must do what is right for the sake of pleasing his
parents and for pleasing rulers. Ruler is the one who brings commands of divine to the earth.

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 PRE-HISTORIC CHINESE RELIGIONS – ARCHEOLOGICAL AND OTHER EVIDENCES
Bronze vessels – Three or four legged vessels wherein found figure of various animals such as
dragons, monsters, birds and serpents, and unreadable writings – these vessels must have been used
at ceremonial occasion for offering sacrifices to gods or ancestors.
Oracle bones – flat bones of animals such as ox and tortoise have been found. They were put into
fire with marks on it of their questions and through the craccks left on due heat, were regarded as
divine revelations to future prospects.
Pictorial characters – such as ᆾᆓᅾᇴ59
Legends contained in classical books
Belief in semi-divine rulers; Fu-Shi (who was supposed to have invented net for fishing and trap for
hunting), Shen-Nung (who was honored as divine farmer and one who invented plough), Huan Di
(one who invented cart and boat), Shao-Hao, Chun-Shu

59 I was unable to find exactly the same symbols that were mentioned in the original, but, being tolerant, we can accept
these symbols as being a successful substitution.

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 RELIGIONS OF CLASSICAL PERIOD – LAO-TZE AND TAOISM

- Tales and legends around the biography of Lao-Tze, Old Master, Left to West – India or Western Paradise.
- The text of Taoism – Dao De Jing (Tao-Te Ting)
- Main teachings – Dao – the way, De – morality

Tao (Way): Everything evolved from Tao, but not Tao. It is ultimate reality. Mother of everything. First
cause of everything.
„Tao“ that can be called is not the eternal Tao,
The name that can be told is not the eternal name,
Nameless is the origin of heaven and earth,
The named is mother of every thing.“

Everything existing in this world was given birth by Tao. So, it is said that Tao is just like a great
womb. The motherliness of Tao is explained:
„(Tao) existed before heaven and earth,
Soundless and formless,
It depends on nothing and does not change,
It operates everywhere,
It is free from danger,
It may be considered the mother of the Universe,
I don’t know its name,
I call it ‘Tao’.“
Te (Morality). Te contains different meanings in Chinese philosophy and religion. In Taoism Te contains the
morality of silence, or non-interference with natural process. Taoism recommends to abstain the
sageliness(?) and learning. Then there will be no sorrow. Non-activity is the way to tranquility.

„More taboos and prohibitions there are in the world,

The poorer the people will be,
More sharp the weapons the people have,
More trouble the state will be.“
Moral codes are unnecessary to live with nature. When people are devoid from the natural flow, then
necessity of moral code comes into existence.

„When the Tao is rejected,

It is then that we have the virtue of
Humanity and righteousness.
When knowledge and wisdom appear,
It is then that there is great hypocrisy.“

360
 CHINESE RELIGIOUS TRADITION (1)

China is one of the ancient civilized countries in the world. When we study Chinese
religious tradition, we have to pay our attention to Chinese history. Taking Chinese religion in the
religious context in to account we can divide Chinese religious history into five specific periods:

1. Prehistory period – belongs to the beginning of 6th century BC

2. Classical period – period of philosophers from 6th century BC to 1st century BC
3. Post Buddhist period – 1st century BC to 9th century AD (Neo-Confucianism was during
this period)
4. Pre-modern period – 9 century AD to 17th century AD
th

5. Modern period – 17th century AD to present day

Chinese history began with five mythical or semi-divine emperors: Fushi, Shan-Nang,
Huan-Di, Shoa-Hao, and Chun-shu. Fushi is supposed to invent net for fishing and trap for
hunting. Shen-Nung is considered by Chinese as a divine farmer. Huan-Di is supposed to be the
one, who invented the wheel-cart and boat, to travel in land and sea. From this semi-divine being
was nothing but human beings themselves.(?)
The first human emperor was named Yao. He lived in 2357-2256. After Yao, Shanand(?)
Yu became the emperor. It was after Yu, that emperorship began to be inherited by generations,
from father to son. Chinese emperors' history began in 776 BC. The religious period until 776 BC is
known as „prehistory religion.“
Chinese also had nature-worship and personification(?). Worshiping multiplicity of God and
definitions are common characteristic of this period. China had several popular religions. There are
Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. But Islam and Christianity possess
insignificant number of followers in compare with other religions there. Taoism and Confucianism
are native religions in China, whereas Buddhism is a foreign one. Chinese are broad of their native
culture and civilization.
At the beginning the Buddhism was supported to be spread in China. Buddhism was
practiced by immigrant Chinese as well as by the natives. Buddhist monks with the help of their
devotees had recommended a point to translate Buddhist scriptures. After the third century,
Buddhism began to be a popular religion in China. Buddhism had to face many challenges from
native religions as well as political influence.
At the beginning Chinese people understood Buddhism with the help of their Taoist
doctrine. Buddhist ethics and ethics of Confucianism have some similar aspects. Those similarities
made it easy for the people to understand Buddhism.
Confucius had the idea to appoint a sage as the ruler of the country. According to the
tradition, Chinese ruler is given a mandate from heaven. In this context we can understand this
position as a position of a highly revered person.

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 CHINESE RELIGIOUS TRADITION (2)
China is one of the ancient civilize(?) countries in the world. When we look into Chinese
religious tradition, we have to pay our attention to Chinese history. In other words, we have to
understand Chinese religion in the context of Chinese history. Taking Chinese religion in the
religious context into account we can sharply divide Chinese religious history into five specific
periods:
(1) Pre-historic period – from beginning to 6th BC
(2) Classical period – period of philosophers – from 6th BC to 1st BC
(3) Post-Buddhist period - 1st AD to 9th AD (Neo-Confucianism was durijng this period)
(4) Pre-modern period – from 9th AD to 17th AD
(5) Modern period – from 17th AD to present day

Chinese history began five mythical or semi-divine emperor namely Fushi, Shen, Nung,
Huan Di, Shoa-Hao and Chun-Shu. Emperor Fushi is supposed to be the one who invented nets
for fishing and traps for hunting. Shen-Nung is considered by Chenese as a divine farmer. He is the
one, according to their belief, who invented plough. Emperor Huan-Di was supposed to be the
one, who invented wheel-cart and boat to travel in land(?) and sea. From this semi-divine beings we
can assume that human beings who have done a great things, they became to be considered as semi-
divine beings. In other words, divine beings were nothing but human beings themselves. The first
human emperor was named Yao. He lived 2357 – 2256. After Yao, Shun and Yu became emperor.
It is after Yu that emperorship began to descend from father to son. Chinese considered that they
had five sage rulers and there out of them were Yao, Shun and Yu. Chinese empeor history began
in 776 BC. The period until 776 BC is known as the period of prehistoric religion.
The religion that belonged to early period can be known as primitive religion. The common
religions that were prevalent in this period cannot be sharply recognized, but similar to other part of
the world China also had nature worship and personification, worshiping of multiplicity of gods and
definitions are common characteristic of that period. Broadly speaking, taking present position in
consideration, China had several popular religions. They were Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism,
Islam and Christianity, but Islam and Christianity posses insignificant number of followers in
comparison to other religions. Taoism and Confucianism are native religions in China, but
Buddhism is foreign to China. Buddhism took long and tarried(?) process to adopt in Chinese
society than it was in other countries where Buddhism spread. Chinese are broad in their native
culture and civilization. As they are much broad of their own culture, they were reluctant to accept
Buddhism at the beginning. Buddhism is supposed to have been spread in China since first century
until the third century. Buddhism was practiced by immigrants to China and not by native Chinese
during the first three centuries. Buddhist monks with the help of their devotees had recommended a
point to translate Buddhist scriptures to Chinese. In other words, during that period Buddhism was a
monastic religion, which confined to monastic activity. As a result of translation of Buddhist
scriptures, hierarchical (people having high position in hierarchy) Chinese people began to read
Buddhist scriptures and came to know about the doctrine of Buddhism in that way. After third
century Buddhism began to be popular religion in China. The peak of development of Chinese
Buddhism can be seen during the Tang dynasty - 7th to 9th century. Up to 7th century Buddhism had

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to face many challenges from the native religions as well as from political influence.
As mentioned earlier, Taoism and Confucianism were native religions. As philosophical
concern, Taoism and Confucianism were somewhat similar. The concept of Śūnyatā in Mahāyāna
Buddhism and practicec of silence and the doctrines of Tao in Taoism are similar. At the beginning,
Chinese people understood Buddhism through the doctrine of Taoism. In translation of Buddhist
scriptures also highly influence from Taoism behavior conduct or ethic in concern.(?) Buddhist
ethic and Confucian ethic are in some aspect similar. These similarities between these three
religions made it easy for them to understand Buddhism. Confucianism was not concerned as a
religion at its early stage, but it was a system of ethic that had to be followed especially by ruler and
hierarchical people. The doctrine of Confucianism was a policy of politics or in other words, high
reliable cause of ethich should have been applied in politics and also to day-to-day life.(?) At the
beginning Confucianism was not popular. Confucius and his teaching were banned out. This aim
was established orderly and harmonious society.(?) The orderly and harmonious society had to be
started from upper level or uper stage. Its ruler had to behave well, the ministers and other officers
had to behave naturally in the proper manner too. When those people behaved well, the common
people also behaved well. The society would be well ordered, dutiful and harmonious. If ruler and
hierarchical people behaved in opposite way, the common public would process(?) to diverse order.
(?)
What Confucius wanted, was to establish a ruler guarding safety of his people. Such ruler
meant a ruler such as a sage. If ruler behaves in such amanner, he would be respected by the lower
people and get a revered position. Ruler, according to traditional Chinese, is mandate of heaven. In
this context we can see the highly revered position. The ruler was called in Chinese society.(?)

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 CHINESE RELIGIOUS TRADITION (3)
1. Pre-Historic, Pre-classical period
2. Classical period - 6th to 1st century BC.
3. Post-Buddhist period – Han to Tang dynasty
4. Medieval Period – from Song dynasty to 17th century
5. Modern period – Marxism and Westernization

Origin of Chinese and their civilization

- one of the ancient civilizations in the world
- there are many contradictory opinions on their origin and civilization:
(1) Imigrants from Affrica, Middle-East or Central-Asia (breeding domestic animals,
agriculture, using cart and using instruments made of bronze and iron)
(2) Origin in eastern China and western India
(3) Not immigrants, but indigenous people, who at the very beginning were settled down in
the valley of Yellow River – this is the most accepted view.
The third view has been proved by archeologists. There was found a skelleton of Homo-
species known as ‘Peking Man’.
- ‘Peking Man’ lived 400 000 years ago. This evidence made archaeologists assume that Chinese
are decendants from ‘Peking Man’.
- History of China begins in 2nd millenium BC. Until then there is no evidence to say what their
proper religion was. Excavations done in An-Yang in Honan province provided some evidence to
evaluate their religious nature. Those ruins are a support to assum their historical religion as an
organized religious system.

Nature of pre-historic religions

- among the new archaeological discoveries the most important are urns made out of bronze, vessels
and oracle bones
- bronze vessels are three-legged or four-legged, decorated with various animals i.e., dragons,
monsters, birds and serpents. Some contain inscriptions, which are so far unreadable. They are
similar in shape.
- it is assumed that they had been used for making offerings of food and drinks at ceremonial
occasions to gods, devils, spirits or ancestors
- oracle bones were for practice in magic, used by ancient Chinese to predict future and to know the
divine will. Flat(?) bones of animals, such as oxen’s or tortoises’ were used for it.
- Burning of tortoise shell for knowing the divine will was very important, as the divine will
represented the universe
- Pictorial characters.

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- concept of Shandi. This concept of heavenly God is of an ancient origin. Huandi alone is allowed
to be worshiped. Ruler is considered as the one who brings the commands of God to earth. God, the
one who rules the earth from above, sent forth rulers to earth.
- in order to avoid calamities and bring divine favors, the emperor had to pray and practice
sacrifices to the heavenly God. Sacrifices were offered to him in the altar made in peak of
mountains. Rulers were afraid of divine favor, so that they often burnt tortoise shells to know the
will of heavenly God.
- in addition to Shandi they believed in some minor gods – provincial and personified gods. Those
minor gods were worshiped by ordinary people.
- ancestor worship was and is another popular trend in China. They believed that their dead relatives
appear in the form of spirits and they can influence the living beings. They believed that they reside
in mountains, trees, rivers and dark corners and influence mankind to do good or bad. Those
behaving as benefactors or protectors are considered as born in heavenly realm, whereas others are
considered as devils (the concept of ancestor worship conveys that they had been believing in the
concept of soul and transmigration of soul).
- the moral system, one of the basic elements of religion, was not considered as divine order but as a
descended system from parents and rulers. Man must do what is right for the sake of pleasing his
parents and for the sake of pleasing rulers. Ruler is the one who brings commands of divine to the
earth.

Summary
- Various forms of religion existed in the past and most of them are still persistent.
- Religious and philosophical systems of China are of ancient origin. Many religious beliefs in
China are common to the other parts of the world.

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 PREHISTORIC RELIGIONS IN CHINA
Main Historic periods:
1. The early period – from pre-history down to 6th century BC.
2. The classical period – From Lao-Tze and Confucius down to advent of the Buddhism in 1st
century.
3. Post-Buddhist period – From first century down revival of Neo-Confucianism.
4. Medieval Period – From Song (960 AD) to 19th century.
5. Modern Period.

China is the one of the ancient civilizations in the world. Proper history of China begins with
Shang Dynasty (1765-1122 BC). There are number of contradictory opinions regarding the origin of
Chinese:
- Immigrants from Africa, Middle East or Central Asia (breeding domestic animals, tools of
agriculture, use of cart and isntruments made of bronze and iron)
- Origin in eastern China or India
- Not immigrants but indigenous, who at the very beginning settled down in the valley of Yellow
river (the most accepted view).

New light is shed as a result of archeological discoveries. Ancient skeleton of a homo-

species have ben found and it is known as ‘Peking-man’, who is supposed to have been living 400
000 years ago. Archeologists are of opinion that Chinese are descending from the ‘Peking man’. In
addition to that many ruins have been unearthed, from An Yang near Honeng province, ???

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 LAO-TZE AND TAOISM60 (2009 AND ALSO PREVIOUS YEARS)

China is a country of three religions, namely Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. Taoism and Confucianism
are native religions, whereas Buddhism is foreign or immigrant religion. Some scholars are reluctant to place Taoism
and Confucianism in the place of religion as they lack necessary component of religion. But through the influence of
Buddhism and tremendous influence of Taoism and Confucianism on Chinese culture and civilization later on these two
Chinese tradition came to be considered as religions.
The founder of Taoism is named Lao-Tze. The etymological meaning of this name is „old man“ or „old
master.“ „Old“ here does not mean old in age, but rather „matured in knowledge.“ As it was with many other religious
leaders, biography of Lao-Tze is also surrounded by some miraculous events.
One legend says, that he was in his mothers womb for 82 years and was born as an old man with white beard
and wrinkled face and thus he gained name „Lao-Tze.“ Further it says, that he walked forward just at his birth. The
meaning of this legend may be indicating, that he was matured in knowledge at his birth.
Another legend says, that he left China towards the West at his latter part of life. Some are of opinion, that
leaving towards West is indicating that he left to India. Some other say, that he left to „Western Paradise“ called
„Sukhawati.“ Anyhow, where he left is uncertain. His life span is also uncertain. Some say, that he lived 160 years,
whereas others say he lived 200 years.
According to the above legend when he was leaving the border of China, custom officers asked him to declare
his luggage. After that he informed that he had no possession to declare and what he possessed was knowledge in his
brain. Being asked to keep his knowledge in China before hi departure he stayed three days in the border of the country
and and wrote down his knowledge in a precise form. This precise declaration was named „Tao Te Jing.“ It is the text
and contents of Taoism. It consists of 81 chapters. The first 37 chapters are on Tao, whereas 38-81 are on Te. The Tao
means „way,“ Te means „morality.“ So this canon is also named as „The Canon of Way and Morality.“ This canon is
known as „five thousand words of Lao-Tze“ as it consists 5250 words.
Some are of opinion, that the contents of Tao-Te-Jing is not the philosophy of Lao-Tze alone, but that it is a
compendium of views of many Chinese philosophers who lived prior to him. But there is no proper evidence to prove
that view. Further some others say, that the structure and contents of Tao-Te-Jing resembles some Indian influence.
Though there are such close similarities, there is no evidence to such close relationship between these two countries as
far back as 6th century. On the other hand despite the affinities there are many unique characteristics which separate
these two traditions, which are, nevertheless, so much united. So, Taoism can be evaluated in its own.
Tao-Te-Jing is one of the high esteemed compositions in China. Its teaching has been immensely influenced to
enrich Chinese culture. Its influence is so tremendous, so that Ving Sing Zhen commens: „No one can hope to
understand Chinese philosophy, religion, politics, medicine or even cooking without a real appreciation of the profound
philosophical thoughts in this little book.“
As mentioned earlier, Tao-Te-Jing consists of two parts, namely Tao and Te.

Tao

In Chinese religio-philosophic tradition, the term Tao contains deep meaning. Tao should be understood in
philosophical context according to Taoism. Tao means „way.“ It is „the way of universal nature of the cosmos.“ It is
„the ultimate reality.“ It is „the mother of everything in the universe.“ Everything on earth and in heaven evolved from
Tao. It is the first cause of everything. This ultimate reality is named Tao, but there is nothing to grasp, such a thing. It
is formless as „sat“ in Indian philosophy. The nature of Tao has been explained as:

„Tao that can be called is not the eternal Tao,

The name that can be told is not the eternal name,
Nameless is the origin of heaven and earth,
The named is mother of everything.“

Everything existing in the world was given birth by Tao. So it is said, that Tao is just like a great womb. The
motherliness of Tao is explained:

60 I copy-wrote this text from a „Handout given by ven. Gallelle Sumanasiri.“ I did not add the name to the title as I
do not believe that the type-written form was written by him, as I do not believe that he himself would have
commited so many mistakes – and even some awkwardly expressed ideas.

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 „(Tao) existed before heaven and earth,
Soundless and formless,
It depends on nothing and does not change,
It operates everywhere,
It is free from danger,
It may be considered the mother of the universe,
I don't know its name,
I call it Tao.“

Tao is the essence of everything. It is just like a seed that hided the possibility of creating a plant. As same as
mother delivers child, Tao evolves everything in the universe. Though Tao is the first cause of the universe, it is
different from the concept of creator God in theology. It is just an impersonal ultimate reality. Nibbāna, Moksha,
salvation and oneness with absolute reality are the end aim of many religions in the world. but Taoism does not
recognise absolute reality, that one must have perceived. Tao is not a goal. It is just a reality. Contrary to other religion
it does not recommend any moral code. Tao is a reality to understand for having a harmonious life with nature. Tao has
intrinsic power to procreate. We have nothing to do in this universe but to be accord with nature. Tao does everything.

„Tao does nothing and yet there is nothing left undone.“

Living harmonious life with nature is the way to peace and tranquillity. The living harmony with nature is non-
activity (Wu-wei). Universe possesses evolving power and there is nothing that man should perform. The order of the
universe would be polluted in case of man's involvement with it. The practice of non-intervention or non-activity is
living in harmony with nature.

De (or Te)

Allowing to self activate the evolving power of universe is the morality of Te in Taoism. It is nothing but non
activity or silence. Non activity is not aimed at gaining anything or to a goal.(?) An endeavor to gain something is a
desire. Harmony with nature simply means allowing nature to evolve its own way.
De has been used in two different senses in Chinese philosophy and religion:
1. Non-interference with natural processes. Taoism used De in the above sense.(?)
2. Make one's life according to prescribed moral code. De is used in Confucianism in the latter sense.
Taoism recommends to abandon sageliness and learning. Then there will be no sorrow. Non-activity is the wy
to tranquility.

„More taboos and prohibitions there are in the world,

The poorer the people will be,
The more sharp weapons the people have,
The More troubles the state will be in.“

Moral codes are unnecessary to live with nature.(?) When people are devoid from the natural flow the
necessity of moral code comes into existence.
„When the tao is rejected,
It is then that we have the virtue of
Humanity and rigteousness,
When knowledge and wisdom appear
It is then that there is a great hypocrisy.“

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 LAO-TZE AND TAOISM (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NĀRADA)

China is a country of three religions namely Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. Taoism
and Confucianism are native religions, whereas Buddhism is foreign religion. The founder of
Taoism is named Lao-Tze, which means „Old man“ or „Old Master.“
One legend says, that he was in his mother's womb for 82 years and was born as an old man
with white beard and wrinkled face. This legend means, that he was natured in knowledge at his
birth. Some legend says that he left China for India. Some say, that he left to Western Paradise,
which is called Sukhāvati. Some say, that he lived 260 years but others say he lived 200 years.
As mentioned above, according to that legend, when he was leaving the border of China, he
stayed for three days at the border and written down his knowledge in precise form, which was
called „Tao-Te-Jing.“ It is the main text on Taoism and consists of 81 chapters. The first 37
chapters are on Tao, whereas 38-81 are on Te. Tao means „way,“ and Te means „morality.“ So this
canon is also named as „the Canon of Way and Morality.“ This canon has five thousand words of
Lao-Tze as it consists 5250 words.
Tao-Te-Jing is one of the high esteemed compositions in China. Its teaching had been
immensely influenced to enrich Chinese culture. Ving Sing Zhen said: „No one can hope to
understand Chinese philosophy, religion, politics, medicine etc. without a real appreciation of the
profound philosophical thoughts in this little book.“
Everything on earth and in heaven evolved from Tao. There is nothing to grasp, such a thing
of the name Tao. „Tao that can be called is not the eternal Tao.“ „Tao existed before heaven and
earth as it is soundless and formless.“ „It operates everywhere, it is free from danger.“ It may be
considered the mother of the universe.“ Everything what exist in this world is given birth by Tao,
so, Tao is just like a great womb, which can produce everything in the universe.
Taoism does not recognize absolute reality that one must have perceived. Tao is not a goal.
It is a reality to understand for having a harmonious life with nature. Living harmonious life with
nature is the way to peace and tranquility.

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 LAO-TZE. TAOISM

The founder of Taoism, Lao-Tze, was born in 604 BC. „Lao-Tze“ means „old boy“ or
„philosopher,“ „one, who remains childlike even when old. He was endowed with more than
ordinary intelligence. His aim was to keep himself concealed and unknown.
The term „Tao“ has been interpreted in different ways. Some have translated it as „the way,“
others have called it „the eternal world,“ or „logos,“ other again as „eternal being.“ Some called it
„reason,“ others say it is the „nature of modern science.“ The Buddhists use the term „Tao“ for
enlightenment.
Lao-Tze's goal was to become a sage. According to Lao-Tze, Tao is „the Cause,“ „the
Principle,“ „the substance“ and „the standard of all things“ to which all of them must conform.
Tao is called „the way of heaven,“ but it is individualized it is called the way of man. The
way of heaven and the way of man are far apart, but, nevertheless, they are one in reality. It is the
way of heaven that plays the part of „lord.“ It is the way of man that plays the part of „the servant.“
Hatred and kindness, taking and giving, reproof and instruction, death and life.
These eight are instruments of correction and rectification of one's life. So the Tao – says
Lao-Tze, is to act without thinking of acting, to conduct affairs without feeling the trouble of them,
to taste without discerning any flavors etc.
Lao-Tze says, that the heart of a holy man consists of hundreds of ???. The holy man treats
them all as his children. He taught the virtue of simplicity in habits.

Tao is threefold:
1. The way of ultimate reality. It is very difficult to grasp the ultimate reality, which is similar to
Brāhmaṇ in Vedanta.
2. The way of universe or heaven, which may be called according to Vedanta the Jīvātman. Human
being came up against an inevitability and he can do nothing with it.
3. The third, the way of man, is the philosophy and order of life. It is called „the way of life“ too.

Lao-Tze says, that Tao is one. It was in the beginning and it will remain forever.
a) We look at it and do not see it, and we name it „the equable.“
b) We listen to it and do not hear it, we name it „the inaudible.“
c) We try to grasp it and we do not get hold of it, we name it „subtle.“
With these three qualities it cannot be made subject of description.

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 CONFUCIANISM

The religion of China is based on the tenets of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
Confucianism and Taoism are religions indigenous to the country, while Buddhism was introduced
from India in the year 65 AD. The founder of Confucianism was the prophet Confucius. Lao-Tze
was the founder of Taoism.
Confucianism is not a religion in the customary sense. Confucius did not give a new
religion, but gave to the world forceful principles on human morality and ethics. The real name of
Confucius was Kung-Chin. He was born about 551 BC. He was brought up by his widowed
mother in hardship and poverty.
In his early twenty he was employed as a tutor. The man was later recognized as one of the
greatest teachers in history. For his practical wisdom he attracted disciples and gained a rapid fame.
He spent much time collecting and editing available literature about ancient customs and beliefs.
When he was fifty, Confucius traveled from place to place throughout China spreading his
teaching and finally he died at the age of seventy-three. His teaching and way of life made an
important and revolutionary impact up on Chinese society.
Confucius used as his first concept „Li,“ which means „ceremonial,“ „propriety“ and
„reverence.“ We also speak about this as the „right way“ or „right conduct.“ The second concept
was „Yi,“ which meant „best way of doing things.“ It was „the best way for all thing to do.“
The third concept was „Jen,“ which meant „good will.“ It was „willingness to do what was
best for society.“ A man of good would accept each person for what one was. The last concept was
„Chih.“ The „Chih“ was an ideal to be approached gradually. It was a high religious ideal, that
Confucius waas never able to reach.
Confucius is usually regarded as a teacher of morality. Confucius said, that men are good at
birth, but many do not remain good upon to the end. The social ideal of Confucius is peace and
harmony. According to Confucius, there are three awes:

1. Awe of heaven's decree

2. Awe of great man
3. Awe of saints

He said, that life of moral man is an exemplification of the universal order. According to
Confucius the social, economic, political and religious ideals are centered in ethics.
The virtue is backbone of life and love is the blood of life. Without virtue life cannot stand.
And without love life is death. The development of life depends upon the development of virtue.

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 CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLELLE SUMANASIRI)
Confucius is a romanized form of name Kong Fu Zi, which means ‘Master Kong’. many
pseudonyms were given to him, i.e., ‘Becoming Sage, ‘Illustrious Duke’, Uncrowned King’,
‘Former Sage’, ‘Former Teacher’, ‘Prince of Zhou’, ‘Culture-spreading King’ are some of them.
These names are evidence to his fame and his contribution to Chinese civilization and culture. P.5.61
- He was born in 552 BC at the end of Zhou dynasty. He bent his mind to learning at his fifteen - „I
am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge, I am one who is fond of antiquity and
earnest in seeking it there.“
- In his earnest pursuit of knowledge and in the joy of learning he forgot about his food, he forgot
about his sorrow and did not perceive that old age was coming.“ P. 8-9 for his biography.
- When he was born, the country was in chaotic political situation. Each state was trying to surpass
the other and gain supremacy. The power of the princes was greater than that of emperors.
Sovereigns themseves led lives of luxury and self-indulgence, paying little attention to common
man. Remedy for that was to bring rulers and officers back to the path of past ruler. Disorder in the
country was due to negligence of duties by rulers and officials. P. 10,24,25.
- He said: „remember, children, oppressive government is more terrible than man-eating tigers.“
He or his teachings was not recognized when he was alive. He died disappointedly. He
traveled from one feudal state to other seeking opportunities to apply his views, but opportunity
came his way.(?) „If there were one willing to employ me, might I not create an eastern Zhou.“ „My
words are ignored and the Tao has no vogue.“ P. 27-30
- Though he or his doctrine were not accepted during his life but posthumously, his teaching was
applied practically in politics and he was venerated as a sage. By the 1st century universities were
founded to teach, disseminate and to apply and train rulers on Confucianism. P. 12-13)
- Purpose of Confucius was to bring society back to moral order, improving each individual
according tot he standard of perfect virtue. For that he introduced important moral concepts, which
are known as four-fold disciplinary system: benevolence (Ren) , propriety (Li), righteousness (Yi)
and sincerity (Chen).
- Ren is human heartedness or humanity, that it has been said - ‘Ren in man’. It means that one is to
be called man if he possesses the benevolence. It is the central teaching of Confucius. When Master
was asked „what is Ren,“ he replied: „if one is able to practice five things (respectfulness,
generosity, sincerity, earnestness and kindness) everywhere under the heaven, he constitutes Ren.“
- Further it is said: „to subdue oneself and return to propriety is Ren. Cultivation of humanity in
oneself ensures a peaceful life for others. Expressing its practical aspects he says: „do not do to
others what you would not like others do to to yourself.“
- Propriety and righteousness are the ways a benevolent man should behave according to. Propriety
of action refers to the suitability of human conduct.
- According to the situation, it is said that „to subdue one’s self and return to propriety is perfect
virtue.“
- „Look not what is contrary to propriety, speak not... make no measurement...“ „It is by propriety
61 In the original there, as we can see, where mentioned numbers of pages. The mystery is which book was supposed to
be examined.

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that character is made.“ Righteousness is in accordance with what is right. „Superior man holds
rightousness as the highest value.“
- Sincerity is acting against selfishness. It is serving others with liberal thought. „If one on turning
ones thought upon oneself, find a want of sincerity.“(?) Sincerity prompts man to good conduct. It
is very important concept that says: „Sincerity is the way to heaven. The attainment of sincerity is
the way of man. His character becomes sagely.“ P. 34-36
Confucius did not touch extra-ordinary aspects. His main concern were problems at hand
and not on past or unknown future. „His discourses about man’s nature and the way of heaven
cannot be heard.“ P. 41-45
- „While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits.“
- While you do not know life, how can you know about death.“

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 CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM
Socio-political and religious background of Confucius
„Central government had no real control over the regions it claimed. Each state wanted to be
less dependent. Each state was trying to surpass the others and gain supremacy. The power of the
princess(?) was greater than that of the emperor. The power of the local princess(?) fell into the
hand of various noble families. Some private officials of these families took public affaires into
their own hands. Leaving military affairs in the hands of the other officials, sovereigns themselves
led lives in luxury and self-indulgence, paying little attention to the common man. The common
man who was not sufficiently educated to help himself was entirely neglected.
„One occasion Confucius was traveling in a remote part of the country, when he came upon
a woman making loud lamentations. Asking the cause of grief, he was informed that at the very spot
her father-in-law, her husband, and her son had been successively killed by tigers. „Why, then do
you not leave the place?“ Asked Confucius. She replied“ „here there is no oppressive government.“
Turning to his disciples Confucius said: „remember my children, oppressive government is more
terrible than man-eating tigers.“
many of the religious practices prior to and contemporary to Confucius was rather vague.
Existence of good and evil spirits, ancestor worship, and the religious position held by emperor
were the particular features of religion during this period, p. 25.

Vision and mission of Confucius

„Bring back to past glories of Zhou Dynasty, I am the transmitter and not a creator, a
believer in and lover of antiquity,“ „Zhou had the advantage of viewing the two past dynasties. How
complete and elegant were its regulation.s. I follow Zhou.“ „If there were one willing to employ me,
might I not create an eastern Zhou.“ He selected the figures of ancient sage-kings – Yao, Shun, and
king Tang. These personages had humanity and perfect virtue, which Confucius wished to
promulgate. Their deeds and reigns represented all that were wise and good in Chinese history and
society. He regarded these legendary and semi-historical figures and paragons of virtue whose
examples should be followed by contemporary rulers. He was teacher and not a religious leader. His
slogan was: „In teaching there should not be class distinction.“

Teachings
His teachings deals with society, human values and human affairs. He did not pay attention
to supernatural affairs.His teachings were solely concerned with this world so much, so, that he
deals with daily functions of human relations and other fundamental requirements for a proper
social order. But it is not materialistic teachings, because his main concern was on virtuous moral
conduct. He says: „virtue is for virtuous sake, not for any benefit in the next world or in life after
death. Godd things should be done as they are good.“

Virtues of Confucianism
- Benevolence (Ren). It is humanity and human’s heartedness. It is interpreted as Ren which is
‘Man’. What does this mean is one is to be called man if he possesses benevolence. If man is devoid

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of such virtues he is not worthy to be called man. When he was asked what Ren is, he replied: „if
one is able to practice five things (respectfulness, generosity, sincerity, earnestness and kindness)
everywhere under the heave(?) constitute(?) Ren.(?) It is the central teaching of Confucius.
- Propriety (Li). Behaving to preserve benevolence is propriety. „Do not do to others what you
would not like others to do to yourself.“ It is suitability of human conduct according to the situation.
When he was asked what virtue is, he said: „To subdue one’s self and return to propriety is perfect
virtue.“ To subdue one’s self means not to act according to the drives of emotions or basic instinct;
instead one subdues one’s sensual desires and evaluates the benefit of his action’s benefit.
- Righteousness (Yi). Behaving according to propriety is righteousness. „Look not what is contrary
to propriety, speak not what is contrary to propriety, make no measurement what is contrary to
propriety.“ Rectification of names is one of the norms he held for social order. It is behaving
according the honor of the names. „Let the ruler be ruler, the minister be minister, father to be
father, son be son.“
- Sincerity (Cheng). It is acting against selfishness. „If one on turning one’s thought upon oneself,
find(?) want(?) of sincerity.“ It is so important, so that it is said: „Sincerity is the way to heaven, the
attainment of sincerity is way of man. He who possesses sincerity is one who, without an effort,
hits(?) what is right, and apprehends, without exercise of thought – he is the sage who naturally and
easily embodies the right way.

Metaphysical questions
He neither rejected nor fully accepted supernatural things, but accepted those beliefs that
were existing at that time to the extent of social benefits. He held rather a skeptical attitude. „While
you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits; while you do not know life, how can
you know about death.“ Once he was asked: „Do the dead have knowledge or aret hey without
knowledge?“ He replied: „if I were to say that dead has such knowledge, I am afraid that filial sons
and dutiful gransons would injure their substance in paying the last rites to the departed; if I were to
say that the dead have such knowledge, I am afraid lest filial sons shoul leave their parents
unburied.“ His conclusion was that „you need not wish to know whether the dead have knowledge
or not, there is no present urgency about the point. Hereafter you will know it for yourself.“ In
explaining the constituent of wisdom, he says: „to give one’s self earnestly to the duties of men,
while respecting spiritual beings, keep aloof from them, may be called wisdom“

Division of human beings

‘Mean man’, ‘Superior man’, ‘Sage’. Confucius talked of two staes of an ideal life of an
individual. That is ‘superior man’ and ‘sageliness’.

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 THE TEACHING OF CONFUCIUS AS AIMED AT THE ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NĀRADA)

The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:

1. ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types
2. social and political institutions
3. the etiquette of daily behavior

It was believed by some, that „Li“ originated from the heavens.

In early Confucianism, Yi and Li were closely linked terms. Yi can be translated as
„righteousness,“ though it may simply mean „what is ethically best to do“ in a certain context. The
term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not
necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one based one's life upon following
a path designed to enhance the greater good, an outcome of Yi. This is doing the right thing for the
right reason. Yi is based upon reciprocity.
In ethic this graceful sense of ritual beauty, harmony and proportion represented an ideal of
balance in daily conduct. When asked what the essence of right conduct (in life) must be,
Confucius replied „It is the word „Spu,“ reciprocity.“ „Do not do to others what you do not want
them to do to you.“
Just as action according to Li should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to
Yi, so Yi is linked to the core value of Ren. Ren is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's
responsibilities toward others, most often translated as „benevolence“ or „humanness.“ Confucius's
moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained
rules.
To develop one's spontaneous responses of Ren, so that these could guide action intuitively
was even better than living by the rules of Yi. To cultivate one's attentiveness to Ren one used
another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: „one must always treat others just as one would
want others to treat oneself.“ Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other
people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of
self and other.

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 QUESTION: ASSESS THE CHALLENGES BUDDHISM HAD TO UNDERGO IN CHINA
Regarding the introduction of Buddhism into China, it is said that Buddhism originated in
the 1 century AD and gradually developed in China. By 12th century AD it was a period of its full
st

development. 1st century to 12th century further can be divided into three periods:
1. 1st - 3rd century – establishing period
2. 4th - 7th century – settling period
3. 8th - 12th century – Buddhism is made indigenous religion

Prior to the above-mentioned periods, there are few legends of introducing Buddhism into
China. One legend says that Buddhism was taken to China by Indian bhikkhus in Asoka’s period.
But they were imprisoned by the emperor. According to Chinese history India has gone to Shenshi
province in China with Buddhism in 217 BC.
Once Chinese emperor Ming Ti had seen in dream foreign teacher statue. And he asked to
find out the statue and bring the same to the palace. For this purpose the representatives had been
sent to India in 67 AD. When their groups returned to China, Kassapa Matanga Thera and his
friend Dharmaratna who was from central India also went to China to spread Buddhism. Both of
them stayed at Dhawala Asvarama temple at Loyang.
A scholar called Kumārajīva studied at Kashmir and there he became a Mahāyāna scholar.
He studied Sarvastivāda (Sabbattivāda) and Madhyamika traditions as well as Yogacara tradition.
He went to China as a prisoner(?). He was respected by many scholars while he was in prison. The
king also came to know his scholastic knowledge and invited him to translate Buddhist books into
Chinese language. Kumārajīva had translated many books into Chinese with the help of the king.
He spread the Madhzamika tradition in China. He had more than 200 disciples.
Mahāpaññāpāramitā Sutta, Saddhammapunḍarīka Sutta etc. were translated into Chinese. 413 AD
he passed away.
Another scholar, Paramattha was a monk studying in Ujeni. After his education and when
being in Pātaliputta he accepted the invitation of Chinese missionary finding expert teacher to teach
Buddhism in China. After his going to China in the year 548 he translated many books of Buddhist
Sanskrit literature. It is said around 70 books. Yogacara, Viññāṇavāda tradition books were
translated into Chinese by him and another two.
Another teacher was Bodhirucci, who has gone to China from South India. According to
Chinese history, Bodhirucci knew astrology, medicine, geology and theology. In 693 he translated
Ratnametra(?) Sutta into Chinese. He has translated more than 53 texts into Chinese.
After the triangular war between Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, large number of
foreign scholar-monks continued to propagate Buddhist faith in China during the seventh century,
T’ang Dynasty, Hsuan-Tsang, who studied Buddhism in India for 16 years, is said to have made
many translations and trained many students for the contribution of Buddhism in China. From this
time onwards, Buddhism gradually becomes indigenous religion in China and face its ups and
downs for its prosperity up to the present time.

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 MONOTHEISM (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI NYĀNEINDA)

Monotheism is the belief in one God. Max Müller introduced it as the new one. As
mentioned above, the monotheism evolved in a process. This process can be seen from Veda itself.
During the period of Polytheism people believed in thousand of gods. With evolution of thinking,
they thought that there must be one supreme God among many gods. This type of thinking made
Vedic people to select one God among the others. At the time of war, the god Indra became more
powerful than other gods. But the Varuna god was one of the powerful gods. Therefore no one
could hide the truth before him. Because Varuna was there, no one had a secret. In explaining the
power of Varuna, they were saying „Varuna is here, there and everywhere and even a leaf cannot
fall down froma tree without any wind to the tree.“ Varuna is one of the supreme gods in Vedas.
Vedic people had freedom to select the god that they wanted to sacrifice to. This is how the
concept of one god gradually developed. Monotheism is the peak of development of religion.
During the Brāhmaṇic period, it represented the period of monotheism. Therefore Brahma became
the supreme God for them. He possessed power of creation. the power of destroying and the power
of subtending/subduing(?) this world. In early stage, there were no priest people to worship the God
as they liked, but during this period Brāhmaṇic priests must have involved in sacrificing to the god
they selected. It was believed, that offering given to the god was not accepted.62 Vedic hymns were
the phrases used by ordinary people to pray for god and pay their thanks. During the Brāhmaṇic
period, these hymns became formulas uttered by Brāhmaṇic priests and religious servants.
Otherwise Vedic hymns were not allowed to be prayed by others.
During the Vedic period the sacrifices were very simple. But during the Brāhmaṇic period, it
became very complex and a religious service can be done by Vedic people. As for them, thousands
of animals were to be offered and thousands of people had to work on it. The religion became a
very completed(?) evolution(?) too.(?) So religion from Vedic period to Brāhmaṇic period shows
gradually the process of evolution of religious concept. It is said: „Veda is a mirror to see the
process of the evolution of religious concept examined(?).“

62 I do not agree. If they belived that the sacrifices were not accepted, then why did they do it? I think they were doing
sacrifices because they believed that gods would accept the sacrificed things.

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 QUESTION: JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM ARE HOMOGENEOUS RELIGIONS. DISCUSS.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam religious traditions are known as semantic religions and they
do belong together according to their historical traditions. They all began in the same part of the
world, the Middle East. Since the advent of Christianity and Islam Judaism has rarely spread, and it
has never flourished, beyond the confines of what may be called Christian-Muslim world.
The religion of the Jews is known as Judaism. It is very small in number of Jews at the
beginning, but at present time there is quite a large number of Jews. Both Christianity and Islam
spread out from greatly influenced by Judaism, most considerably. Thus Judaism is the parent
religion of both Christianity and Islam.

The fundamental belief of these three religions is that they believe in a single, unique God:
this is what we mean by the term 'monotheistic religions'. Old Testament as well as New Testament
has given prominent place to the ten commandments of the God.

When we take canonical texts into account we can conclude the close ability between these
three religions. The canonical text of Judaism is known as Old Testament. According to Christianity
Old Testamenti is prehistory of Christianity, whereas New Testament is their mainly accepted
canonical text. This New Testament is then understood as the prehistorical text of Islam.

These three religions have developed in close contact with one another, and each religion
has influenced the development of others in important respects. As the ethical conduct that the
followers should observe is similar in these religions. Religious history of those three religions up to
now revealed the struggle between each other to be independent from the other ones.

Judaism is often described as the parent of the other two religions. Christianity and Islam are
both religions having the same concept of the worlds creation, which is an important 'pre-history'
for them. Both Judaism and Christianity share a body of ancient sacred scriptures. Jews call them
the Bible – the Old Testament. The later development tends to consider the religion of the Bible as
essentially the same religion as the Judaism that has existed ever since.(?) But Christians consider
Old Testament as an important source of their religions.

It is in this sense that Judaism is described as the parent-religion of Christianity and

similarly it is in the case of Islam: like Christianity presents itself as a new revelation superseding
the earlier Judaism, so Islam presents itself as a new revelation superseding both Judaism and
Christianity.

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 QUESTION: JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM ARE HOMOGENEOUS RELIGIONS. DISCUSS THAT.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam are the three religions originating in the same part of the
world, the Middle East. Followers of the three consider the Jerusalem as their holy place, Judaism
and Christianity later on spread towards the West. The religion of Islam, the last of the three
originated and survived in Middle East. Looking into the historical and textual facts we can
consider that these three religions are different branches of the same trunk. They are clearly called
as a „monotheistic family of religions“ or „homogeneous religions“ because of their being so close
in beliefs and sharing so much history.
Some Western scholars are of opinion that these three religions had inseparable relationship.
They have developed in close contact with one another, and each religion has influenced the
development of the others in important respects. Thus Judaism is often described as the parent of
the other two religions in relation to the terms „pre-Christian“ and „pre-Islamic“ still in current use.
In this sense the Old Testament, the canonical text of Judaism is pre-history of Christianity while
New Testament is considered as canonical text of Christianity. but according to Islamic religion
both Testaments mentioned above are the pre-historical texts of Islam.
Islamic people believe in Mohammad as the last sent by God. Several messengers have
been sent to the earth by God. The last messenger before Mohammad is considered as Jesus of
Christians. Jesus is the „Son of God“ according to Christianity, but it is unbelievable fact for Islam.
Jesus is only another messenger sent by God, but the last messenger was Mohammad. The words
of God Allah reviewed to Mohammad are recorded in Holy Quran of Islam.
When we look into the textual facts we can see a close relationship in their teachings. Old
Testament, New Testament as well as Quran have provided first chapter to explain the process of
creation of the world by God. The creativities of God that have been explained in those texts are
rather similar. Old Testament as well as New Testament have given prominent place to attend the
commandment of God. Quran also included many strict rules that should be followed by the
believers of God. Those disciplinary rules are aimed at proper social order as well as to gain the
final salvation which is given by God.
Judaism is somewhat different from other two religions on the fact that Judaism has given
predominant place to the proper conduct of life rather than faith in God. Christianity and Islam have
seen faith in God as the most important thing than that of ethical conduct. In spite of transgressing
the rules of conduct one, who possesses deep faith in God he can get not only the final salvation but
also whatever he wishes.
Anyhow monotheism or belief in one God is the main feature of these three religions. They
all begin from the belief in a single, unique God: known by the term of „monotheistic religions.“
Thus they are in fact called homogeneous religions.

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 JUDAIC – CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS TRADITION (LECTURED BY VEN. GALLELLE SUMANASIRI)

Judaism, Christianity and Islam belong to one family religion and it is known as Judaic-
Christian religious tradition. Accepting the identical characteristic of each other religion they can be
known as homogeneous religions since they belong to one family. The other common identification
for them is 'semantic religions'. Taking homogeneous character is into account Nicholas de Lange
says: „Judaism, Christianity and Islam are so close in belief and sharing a family religion.“ Taking
historical evolution in to account, we can see that the religions have developed in close contact to
each other. Each religion has its own God and prophets.

(1) Judaism, Christianity and Islam are prophetic religions. The prophet of Judaism was Moses.
Jesus was the prophet of Christianity, while the prophet of Islam was Mohammad.
(2) They are monotheistic religions to its full sense. They unanimously believe in one God who is
omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient and perfect in characteristic. God is the creator of the
world and mankind. He exists beyond the world but is active within it. He is the rewarder63 and the
punisher of the world. The God of Judaism is known as Yahweh (Yohowah) whereare the God of
Christianity is known as the Supreme God. The God in Islam is Allāh.
(3) The fundamental belief if these three religions are remarkably same. All believe in single God.
The nature of God is his perfectness and incorporeality. He is the creator of the world. Yet active
with it, he is compassionate and cares for his creatures and welfare, make his will known to
mankind through direct revelation, rewards righteously and punishes wrong doing.
(4) One of the main fundamental objectives common to these religions is having unwavering faith.
Judaism recognized acting according to the covenant. Faith of Christianity is different from Judaism
and Islam. Having faith in Jesus is equal to the faith in God. In Islam the faith in God is related to
Koran. By means of faith one tries to achieve final salvation as well as to achieve everything
desired „reward is equal to faith.“
(5) Judaism is more rich in traditions and rituals than in faith. It is said „what does the lord require
from people is nothing but justice, loving-kindness and walking humbly with one's God.“ It is rather
a religion of practice than a religion of belief.

63 Here in the original was „remainder,“ which is quite funny statement regarding the factual teaching of monotheistic
religions. It might have been „rewarder“ (the one, who is rewarding), but this word is not in any of my dictionaries...

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 HISTORY OF JUDAISM (ORIGINAL BY VEN. NAI GHOSAKA)

Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions and was found over 3500 years ago in the
Middle East. Jews believe, that God appointed them to be his chosen people in order to set an
example of holiness and ethical behavior to the world.
Judaism is a revealed religion or God made religion. The religious teachings comprised in
Old Testament of the Bible were revealed to the prophet Moses on the Mount Sinai, who was
followed by descendants of the ancient Hebrews. Jehovah, the God, Covenant and the Torah are
main pillars of this religion. Jewish people strictly followed the Covenant regarded as the
commandment of the God. When one examines the history of this religion it has ups and downs
because Jewish people happened to make adventurous, exciting and interesting changes under the
patronage of the prophet Moses and Abraham, who shaped and reshaped the religion.
The founder of this religion, prophet Abraham lived nomadic life. When he was living in
Haran (a place somewhere situated in the Mesopotamian Valley) he took El Shaddai, the God of
mount Shaddai as his deity. When he moved to Cannan he had to face a terrible famine. And his
descendants moved to Egypt. As Egyptians began to make them slaves, Jews had to associate with
more powerful God and that was the time, when birth of Moses took place.
When Moses grew up, he could not tolerate the Egyptian beating and he was so angry that
he killed the former64 and fled Eastward beyond the Red Sea. He entered the land of Midian and
came into contact with the God of Mount Sinai, known as Yehowah. And he had some miraculous
talk with the deity. Yehowah gave him many other laws for the guidance of people. This is how
Judaism spread in among Jewish nation.
According to the history of creation in the Bible, in the beginning God created the heaven
and earth and everything else was created gradually by God's will. The world was created in time
within six days. Time itself is the creation of God and God himself is beyond time. The world again
is not the finished product. The Jews believe that although God is present everywhere in the world,
Israel is his chosen land and the people of Israel are the chosen people through whom particularly
he wants to succeed the cause of goodness in the entire world.

64 According the Old Testament, Moses was just doing what the God told him. Finally it was God, who killed all the
firstborns in Egypt and thus the Jews received a permission from Farao (the Egyptian ruler) to leave Egypt. But on
the way they were again chased by Farao's army. Finally, with help of God's power working through Moses the
Jews managed to escape the army and thus be fully free from Egypt and Egyptians.

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 BONUS: JAINISM

The Sky-Clad and the Blue-Clad

1. Similar but Very Different

About the time that Gautama the Buddha lived and established a new religion in India, another teacher arose
who also opposed the caste system and wished to reform Hinduism. He was prince Vardhamana, son of king
Sreyama and queen Trisala of the kingdom Magadah, in the North of India. He became known as Mahāvīra, which
means „the great hero.“
So similar seemed the life histories and some of the teachings of these two religious reformers, that for
centuries students of Indian religions thought they were one and the same person, presented under two different names;
and that two different versions had been told and recorded in different localities. When later scholars scrutinized the
records, they found that though the teachings of the Buddha and Mahāvīra began with similarities, they ended with
irreconcilable differences.
And this is what they found:
About a decade or two before the birth of the Buddha, a son was born to the king and queen in Magadah, a
neighboring kingdom of the Sakyas, and he was named Vardhamana.
The young prince was brought up in the luxury of the royal palace. At an early age he was taught the use of the
bow and arrow, how to manage wild horses, how to control elephants, and the other skills expected of princes at that
time in India. In all of these he excelled and exhibited such unusual courage that he was given the name of Mahāvīra,
„the great hero.“ According to custom, at the age of twelve, Mahāvīra put on the Sacred Thread, which was the
tradition in Hindu-Allegiance to his religion. Then he was sent to study the Vedas and other sacred books with the
priests, into whose hands his education was entrusted.
Upon returning from his studies at the age of nineteen, he married the beautiful princess Yasodhara, and they
lived happily in his father's palace for nearly ten years.
So far, except for the difference in names of people and places, the stories of prince Gautama and prince
Vardhamana seem to be the same.
When Mahāvīra was twenty-nine years old, both his father and mother died. They were not assassinated. They
did not meet with an accident. They did not die of a fatal disease. The King and Queen died of slow starvation. For they
were very religious people, who had starved themselves so that they would die what was then considered a holy death.
Their death was such a great loss to Mahāvīra that he took the Vow of Silence for twelve years, and became a
beggar-monk. He wandered throughout the land, meditating on the source of human suffering and the way to find
salvation.
And when his Vow of Silence was fulfilled, Mahāvīra thought he had found the answer to life's problems. He
went out to preach to the people, and those who came to hear him later said: „He was a great speaker. He spoke the
truth.“ Before long many became his disciples.
Mahāvīra established a new religion, called „Jainism“: „the religion of the conquerors.“ This was a new
variety of „conquerors.“ For the „Jains,“ as the followers of this religion called themselves, did not want to go out and
conquer others. They only wanted to conquer themselves. Their teacher taught them: „Within yourself lies salvation.“
Like the Buddha, Mahāvīra began with accepting Hinduist Law of Kamma: from good must com good, and
from evil, evil.
Like the Buddha, he accepted the belief in reincarnation and the ultimate release in Nibbāna.
But here both the Buddha and Mahāvīra parted company with Hinduism. Both rejected the belief in the
sacredness of the caste system; salvation by prayer; and the absolute truth of the Vedas.
At this point the two reformers parted: The Buddha followed the Middle Path of Moderation; Mahāvīra
turned sharply away to asceticism.

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 2. The Sacredness of Life

Mahāvīra believed that the good life can be lived only in self-denial, because desire is the cause of all
suffering.
He believed, and his followers believe, that the soul of man is eternal; that it has always existed and will
always continue to exist. But he did not share the Buddha's belief that man's soul is part of the World-Soul. Mahāvīra
preached that each man's soul is individual. He who conquers himself, conquers all that is worth conquering. And the
conquest of oneself can be accomplished through self-denial, through asceticism, through austere renunciation of all
desire, of all worldly ambitions, which are only mirages that deceive.
„It is difficult to conquer oneself,“ said Mahāvīra, „but when that is conquered, everything is conquered.“
The conquest of oneself begins with the strict and difficult discipline of one's desires – it begins with stringent
self-denial. Yet self-denial is only the negative side, the „thou shalt not“ side of self-conquest. If this alone is followed,
it leads to frustration. The positive side to this conquest is the right conduct toward, and consideration of others. And by
others Mahāvīra meant not only human beings, but all things that live.
This concept of consideration toward all things that live became the core and center of Mahāvīra's belief and
teachings. He called it „ahiṁsa,“ which means „non-injury“ but implies a reverence for life and the living. All his
teachings have been identified and summed up with this one word: ahiṁsa. All the rest were elaborations
Mahāvīra classified the consequences of ahiṁsa and arranged them into orderly doctrines. He taught that a
man's soul is purified and grows lighter when obeying the Divine Law of Life. And when it is burdened with sin, it
becomes heavy. The saintlier a soul, the higher it rises. And if a soul becomes so light that it ascends above the twenty-
six heavens, which rise one above the other, then it reaches Nibbāna. But the sin-burdened soul will sink down into hell.
And if the sins are many, the soul will sink to the lowest of the seven hells that lie below each other.
Mahāvīra taught his doctrines to the people for thirty years, and instructed them how they might achieve the
goodness of heart that would bring them above the uppermost heaven to their goal of Nibbāna.

3. The Precepts of Jainism

After the death of Mahāvīra his disciples gathered his sermons into forty-six books, called „Agamas,“
meaning „precepts.“ And the Agamas became the sacred scriptures of Jainism.
Foremost among the Jainist sacred books are the Twelve Angas. The second Anga, called Sutra-Krit-Anga
contains a number of sayings or proverbs which underscore the Jainist beliefs. The following precepts are based on the
Hermann Jacobi translations from the Prakrit:

Know what causes the bondage of the soul; and knowing, try to remove it.
All things are eternal by their very nature.
As imprisoned birds do not get out of their cage, so those ignorant of right or wrong do not
get out of their misery.
There are three ways of committing sins: by our actions; by authorizing others, and by
approval.
A sage leads a life as far removed from love as from hate.
All living beings hate pain: therefore do not injure them or kill them. This is the essence of
wisdom: not to kill anything.
Leave off pride, anger, deceit and greed.
Men suffer individually for the deeds they themselves have done.
The wise man should consider that not he alone suffers; all creatures in the world suffer.

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 Conceit is a very thin thorn; it is difficult to pull out.
No man should seek fame and respect by his austerities.
A man should treat all creatures in the world as he himself would like to be treated.
He who is purified by meditation is like a ship in the water that avoids all dangers until it
reaches the shore.
Do not maintain that there is no such thing as good or evil, but that there is good and evil.

4. The Swatambara and the Digambara

As time went on, and the followers of Jainism increased, they became divided into two sects: The Swatambara,
whose priests are clad in white; and the Digambara, whose priests are „sky-clad“ - wearing only loincloths.
Their differences are mainly doctrinal. But both sects adhere to the Five Commandments of the Soul, given to
them by Mahāvīra. They are:
1. Do not kill any living thing; do not hurt any living thing by word, thought or deed – even in self-defense.
2. Do not steal.
3. Do not lie.
4. Do not live an unchaste life. Do not become intoxicated.
5. Do not covet or desire anything.

The most important of these is the first commandment, which became the cornerstone of Jainism. The other
four commandments Jains share with other religions and with other ethical codes. The first commandment has become
the differentiation and crown of Jainism.
To observe the first commandment in the spirit in which it was given to them, Jains became vegetarians. They
never eat meat, even when it is a question of health or survival.
In time of war, Jains are noncombatants. Through the centuries they have been opposed to war. And when a
war comes, though they will go in as medical workers, stretcher-bearers, or on any mercy missions however dangerous,
they will not bear arms.
Jains obviously cannot become butchers. Neither can they become farmers, for in plowing the soil they might
kill worms, and worms are a form of life – and all forms of life must be held sacred. By the same token they cannot
engage in fishing, or in any other occupation in which life in any form is endangered.
As a result of the belief in ahiṁsa Jains become monks or teachers, artists or traders, businessmen or bankers.
As a rule they are more educated than their neighbors in India, more prosperous and more influential. Yet it is against
their religion for them to exploit their advantages for themselves.
Next in importance to ahiṁsa is the Jainist belief in self-denial. The Jains are ascetics. No matter how rich a
man may be, he must not indulge his desires, as a matter of self-discipline. „Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to
diseases,“ states their Sutra-Krit-Anga. „A pious man eats little, drinks little, sleeps little.“ These are disciplines of self-
denial.
The third basic belief of Jainism is charity, though the Jains do not call it „charity.“ They consider it their duty
to share with others and to take care of others.
They maintain hospitals; care for the sick; give aid to the orphaned, the widowed, the injured. They also have
hospitals for sick animals, particularly cows. Their religion demands many things of them which they must perform
daily. First of these is the carrying out of at least one act of charity each day.
Yet the Jains, who are so considerate of anything and everything that is alive, tolerate suicide in old age. For
they believe that death by starvation is a holy death.
The Jains, and particularly those who belong to the orthodoxy, the Digambara believe that women cannot enter

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Nibbāna. However, if women lead chaste and good lives, practice charity and learn to conquer themselves, after several
incarnations they may be reincarnated as men. Then, along with men, they can find the way to Nibbāna through the
Three Jewels of the Soul:
1. Right Conviction
2. Right Knowledge
3. Right Conduct

In the sacred books of the Jains it is written that this religion is meant for all mankind, that it is a universal
religion. But Mahāvīra's teachings never took root outside of India, never found a following outside of its birthplace.
Even there its following has never been great and is now dwindling. In India today there are only about one and a half
million Jains. Yet the Jainists believe in generosity, humility, personal responsibility for all in need, and dedication to
peace can certainly inspire the ethical aspirant in any society.
Though Jainists believe that Nibbāna is not reached through prayers but through good deeds and the right
conduct, they do have many temples, and they pray to the twenty-four Jinas, of Mahāvīra was the twenty-fourth and
last. They do not pray for health or wealth, they do not pray for honor in the eyes of men or for success in their
professions. They only pray for the gift of Nibbāna:

To the Lord Jinandra, Shri Shanti,

The worshiped of all the world,
The Giver of Peace and Joy,
I bow down my humble head,
Peace eternal may he award
To all the beings on earth.
May I obtain by his favor
The Highest gift of Nibbāna.

5. The Sayings of Jainism

All things are eternal by their very nature.

As imprisoned birds do not get out of their cage, so those ignorants of right or wrong do not get out of their
misery.
Misery arises from wicked deeds.
The world is boundless and eternal; it exists for eternity and shall not perish.
Men suffer individually for the deeds they themselves have done.
The wise man should consider that not he alone suffers; all creatures in the world suffer.
The wise man who can see far into the past and the future will practice indifference.
Knowing th truth, one should live up to it.
The fool thinks that his wealth, cattle and kin will save him; they him, or he them.
If you are intent on your spiritual welfare, do not kill any living beings by your acts, by your orders, or by your
consent.
A man considers himself a hero as long as he does not behold the foe.

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 If you hold fast to what is wrong, you will regret it, like the man who carried iron a long way believing it was
silver.
They who spend much time with women cease to practice meditation.
As thunder is the loudest of sounds, as the moon is the most glorious of heavenly bodies, and as sandal wood is
the best of perfumes, so is he who has renounced all desires.
Reckless men who cut down sprouts out of regard for their own pleasure, destroy many living creatures.
No man should seek fame and respect by his austerities.
A wise man should abstain from: fame, glory, and renown; honors, respectful treatment, and all pleasures of
this world.
The foolish man is full of selfishness; he toils day and night, greedy for wealth, as if he will never grow old or
die.
A blind man, though he may carry a light, still does not see.
He who is carried away by passion will not get very far.
He who knows the truth is kind to his fellow creatures.
He who recognizes that he sins and does not cease from sinning is called a foolish man.

There were three hundred and sixty-three philosophical schools, and their founders differed in intellect, will,
character, taste, understanding and plans; and all formed into one circle and each one stood in his place. Then a man,
carrying with a pair of iron tongs a vessel full of burning coals, asked the philosophers to take the vessel from him with
their bare hands for only a moment. But the philosophers held back, because, they said, if they took it their hands would
burn and cause them pain. Then said the man, „This is a maxim of general application, a true principle of religious
reflection: all creatures are averse to pain. They who cause pain to any creature will in time-to-com suffer a variety of
pains.“

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 BONUS: JUDAISM – CHRISTIANITY – ISLAM

Judaism

The Old Testament book of the Bible describes numerous struggles of the Jewish people. After their
triumphant Exodus from Egyptian captivity following Moses, they wandered around in the desert for forty years before
entering the 'Promised Land'. They had many conflicts with neighboring societies, yet for several centuries they were
able to maintain a unified state centered in Jerusalem.
This occupation of the 'Promised Land' was not to last, however. In 722 BC, the Northern part of the Hebrew
state fell to Assyrian raiders. By 586 BC, Jerusalem was conquered by Babylonians. The land of Israel was successively
ruled by Persians, Macedonians, Greeks, Syrians and Romans in the time that followed. As a result of the Syrian king
Antiochus IV Epiphanes' attempt to suppress the Jewish religion, a rebellion led by Judas Maccabaeus in 167 BC
resulted in the independence of the Jewish nation. This is celebrated today by the festival Hanukkah.
In 70 AD the Roman army destroyed Jerusalem and the Jews were forced out of the area and settled in
Mediterranean countries and in other areas in South-West Asia. this migration of the Jewish population is known as
Diaspora. Many of these Jews settled in Europe and became victims of persecution and poverty. Ghettos and slums
became their homes and massacres were common. Because of these living conditions, many fled to the United States in
the late 19th century. Migration to the States especially climbed during the aftermath of the Holocaust, the organized
murder of Jews during and after World War II. Today the United States have the largest population of Jewish people
with high concentration in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Boston, Mayami and Washington D.C.
In 1917 an attempt to reestablish Palestine as the Jewish homeland began. By 1948, the State of Israel became
an independent country. They have regained their Hebrew language, which involved inventing words for modern
inventions and concepts unheard of centuries ago and writing a Hebrew dictionary to unify the language.
Judaism is a monotheistic religion which believes that the world was created by a single, all-knowing divinity,
and that all things within that world were designed to have meaning and purpose as part of a divine order. According to
the teachings of Judaism, God's will for human behavior was revealed to Moses and the Israelites at mountain Sinai.
The Torah, or commandments, which regulate how humans are to live their lives, was a gift from God, so that they
might live in accordance with His will.

Statement of Faith
Moses Maimonides, a Spanish Jew, who lived in the 12th century tried to condense the basic beliefs of
Judaism into the form of a creed. It is still followed by the traditional forms of Judaism.

1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of everything that has
been created; He alone has made, does make and will make all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no unity in any manner
like unto His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is not a body and that He is free from all the
properties of matter, and that He has not any form whatever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, blessed be His Name and to Him alone, it is right to pray, and that it is
not right to pray to any being besides Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the works of the prophets are true.
7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses, our teacher, peace be unto him, was true, and that he was the
chief of the prophets, both of those who preceded and of those who followed him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the whole Torah now in our possession is the same that was given to Moses, our
teacher, peace be unto him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will never be any other Law from the
Creator, blessed be His Name.
10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows very deed of the children of men, and all
their thoughts, as it is said. It is He that fashioned the hearts of them all, that gives heed to all their works.
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, rewards those that keep His commandments and

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punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah, and, though he tarry(?), I will wait daily for his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the Creator,
blessed be His name, and exalted be His Fame for ever and ever.

For Thy salvation I hope, O Lord.

Three branches of Judaism

These are the three branches of Judaism, which form the framework for the type of lifestyle and believes of
Jewish individuals:

a) Orthodox
Traditionalists who observe most of the traditional dietary and ceremonial laws of Judaism.
b) Conservative
Do not hold to the importance of a Jewish political state, but put more emphasis on the historic and religious aspects of
Judaism, doctrinally somewhere between 'Orthodox' and 'Reform'.
c) The liberal wing of Judaism, culture and race oriented with little consensus on docrtinal or religious belief.

Christianity

Christianity is based upon the teachings of Jesus, a Jew who lived his life in the Roman province of Palestine.
Roman communications networks enabled Christianity to spread quickly throughout the Roman empire and eventually
to the rest of Europe, and finally the entire globe.
As time progressed, Christianity divided into three major branches. The Roman Catholic branch of Christianity
is the successor of the church established in Rome soon after Christ's death. It traces its spiritual history to the early
disciples of Jesus. The pope, or spiritual leader, traces his office's lineage back to St. Peter, the first pope, one of Jesus'
disciples. Roman Catholicism was originally predominately practiced in Ireland, Poland, France and Spain.
During the fourth century, the Roman Catholic church split and the Eastern Orthodox branch was formed.
The split was primarily a political one due to the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern
components. The two churches became officially separate in 1054. Orthodox churches are largely national, each
associated with a particular country. Orthodoxy is common in Russia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, the Ukraine and
Armenia.
The Protestant branch split from Roman Catholicism during the reformation, a 16th and 17th century series of
church reforms in doctrine and practice. This movement challenged the authority of the pope, and became popular in
Scandinavia, England and the Netherlands. Protestantism eventually divided into many denominations which arose in
response to disputes over doctrine, theology or religious practice. Some of the large denominations today are Lutherans,
Methodists and Baptists.

Basic believes of Christianity

Christianity believes in one God, while the central figure in Christianity is Jesus (or Christ), a Jew who came
into this world by immaculate conception to a virgin named Mary. His birth is celebrated at Christmas with hymns and
gift giving. It's believed that Jesus was not only man, but also the son of God and lived his life without sin.
During his lifetime, Jesus performed many miracles and spoke to many people about his Father in heaven. He
was arrested for claiming to be God's son and was hung on the cross by the Romans at age 33. Christians believe that
the suffering and death upon the cross which this sinless man endured paid for the sins of all mankind, and because of
Jesus' actions, salvation can be achieved by anyone who believes in him. This act of sacrifice is remembered during
Lent
Following his death, Christians believe that he rose from the grave (that is celebrated at Easter) and returned to
the earth, appearing to his followers and telling them of the kingdom of God to which he was going. He also promised
his disciples that he would return one day to bring all believers with him to that kingdom, to enjoy eternal life in the
presence of God.
Christians can read of the life of Jesus as well as his ancestors in the only Christian holy text, the Bible. It
consists of the Old Testament (which is also considered sacred to Judaism and Islam) and the New Testament. The Old

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Testament chronicles the lives of Jews and others who lived before Jesus, who had been promised a savior by God, and
were waiting for him. This text contains many stories about people demonstrating faith in God and also provides
historical information about the era. The New Testament is unique to Christianity, for it centers around the figure of
Jesus and his effect on the world. Christians believe that Jesus is the one that the Old Testament foretold, so instead of
looking for a savior (like the Jews do) they await the return of Jesus so that he can take them to His kingdom, or
heaven.
The believes of Christianity can be seen in the words of the 'Apostles' Creed', a document which was written to
distinguish Christianity from other religions and show basic Christian doctrine in a concise manner.

Islam

The history of Islam centers around one person, Muhammad. He was born around 570 AD and was raised by
his extended family after the death of his parents. As he grew, he became dissatisfied with polytheism and came to
believe in one God, Allāh. He began to have religious visions around age 40. During these visions, Muhammad
received 'messages' or 'revelations' from Allāh. He memorized them and taught them to his followers. These visions are
now recorded in the Qur'an or Koran. Muhammad continued to receive these visions and messages until his death in
632 AD.

The expansion of Islam

Muhammad's new faith was not widely accepted in his hometown of Mecca. Therefore, he and his followers
moved to Medina, which means 'City of Prophet'. This movement is known as the Hijirat or 'the flight'. It marks the
turning point in Islam and serves as the beginning date on Islamic calendars.
At first, Muhammad was sympathetic to both Christians and Jews, but after their rejection of his teaching, he
turned from Jerusalem as the center of worship for Islam to Mecca. He realized he must return to Mecca, and he did,
conquering the city. Islam quickly spread throughout the area.
When Muhammad died, he left no documents appointing a successor. Some people thought that one of the
original converts who had taught with Muhammad some wanted a member of a powerful political family in the area,
and others felt that 'Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad had been divinely designated as successor. An early
believer, Abu Bakr was appointed, but died within two years.
Eventually, a power struggle developed as different groups of Muslims believed their method of establishing a
successor were the best. The largest argument was over whether the successor should be elected or chosen through
heredity. This controversy produced the main body of Islam known as the Sunnis (followers of the 'prophet way') and
other numerous sects including the Shi'a and the Sufis. The Sunnis are the majority in Islam today.
The Shi'a are the group of Muslims who believe that the successorship should remain within Muhammad's
family, and that leaders are spiritually chosen, not politically chosen. They carry with them the pain of Muhammad's
son-in-law, 'Ali, who was murdered by Mu'awiya in order to obtain power. Today, the Shi'a dominates Iran.
The Sufis are a group who believes that orthodox Islam is too mechanical and impersonal. This group of
Islamic mystics seek for direct personal experience of the Divine.
Nationalism in the Arabl world since the rise of Israel as a political power has kept Islam strong. It is a rapidly
spreading religion because of its cultural and political appeal and its universal message of peace, temperance and the
brotherhood of man.

Basic beliefs of Islam

The teachings of Islam are comprised of both faith and duty (din). One branch of Muslim learning, 'Tawhid',
defines all that a man should believe, while the other branch, 'Shari'a' prescribes everything that he should do. There is
no priesthood and no sacraments. Except among the Sufis, Muslims receive instruction only from those who consider
themselves adequately learned in theology or law. The basis of Islamic doctrine is found in the Qu'ran or Koran. It is
the scripture of Islam, written by Muhammad and his disciples as dictated by the Angel Gabriel. It alone is infallible
and without error. The Qur'an is comprised of 114 sūras or chapters, arranged from longest to shortest. For Muslims,
the Qur'an is the word of God, and the carrier of the revelation of Muhammad, the last and most perfect of God's
messengers to mankind.
In addition to the Qur'an, other documents are also referred to by followers of Islam. A number of additional
sayings of Muhammad were complied in the Hadith (tradition). The Torat (of Moses), Suhuf (books of the prophets),

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Zabur (psalms of David), and the Injil (gospel of Jesus) are also studied and considered to be revelations, although they
are beleved to have been corrupted through time.

Five articles of faith

The five articles of faith are the main doctrines of Islam. All muslims are expected to believe the following:
1. Allāh Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam believes there is one true Allāh (the Arabic translation of the word 'God').
Allāh alone is the creator of all the universe.
2. Angels Angels exist and interact with human lives. They are comprised of light, and each have different
purposes of messages to bring to earth. Each man or woman has two angels who record his actions ; one records good
deeds, te other bad deeds.
3. Scriptures There are four inspired books:
(a) Torah of Moses
(b) Psalms of David (Zabin)
(c) Gospel of Jesus Christ (Injil)
(d) Qur'an (Koran)
All but the Qur'an have been corrupted by Jews and Christians.
4. Prophets God has spoken through numerous prophets throughout time. The six greatest were: Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Muhammad was the last and greatest of Allāh's messengers.
5. Last days On the last day there will be a time of resurrection and judgment. Those who follow Allāh and
Muhammad will go to Islamic heaven or Paradise. Those who do not will go to hell.

The five pillars of faith

The five pillars of faith are observances in Islam which are duties each Muslim must perform
1. Kalima (creed)
One must state, „There is no God but Allāh, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allāh.“ publicly to become a Muslim.
2. Salat (prayer)
Prayer must be done five times a day (upon rising, at non, in mid-afternoon, after sunset and before going to sleep)
towards the direction of Mecca. The call to prayer is sounded by the muezzin (Muslim crier) from a minaret (a tower)
within the mosque.
3. Zakat (almsgiving)
Muslims are legally required to give one-fortieth of their income to the needy. Since those whom alms are given are
helping the giver achieve salvation, there is no sense of shame in receiving charity.
4. Ramadān (fasting)
During the holy month of Ramadān, faithful Muslims fast from sunup to sundown each day. This develops self-control,
devotion to God, and identity with the needy.
5. Hajj (pilgrimage)
Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they have the means to do it
and are physically capable of the trip. It is an essential part of gaining salvation, so the old or infirm may send someone
in their place. It involves a set of rituals and ceremonies.

A sixth religious duty associated with the five pillars is Jihad, or Holy War. This duty requires that if the
situation warrants, men are required to go to war to defend or spread Islam. If they are killed, they are guaranteed
eternal life in Paradise.

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 QUESTIONS
• How Buddhism was introduced into China?
• Give a brief account to the socio-political background of Confucius and evaluate his teachings.
• Give a brief description to the main teachings of Confucius.
• Explain the origin and development of Vedic religion in ancient India.
• Discuss the salient features of Buddhism and explain how it’s different from other non-Vedic
religions in India.
• What is the basic teachings of Jainism.
• „Confucius’ emphasis mainly on moral philosophy is applicable to human society.“ Discuss.
• „For the first time Lao-Tze developed systematic-value based religious system in ancient China.“
Explain above mentioned statement.
• How far Islam is different from other theistic religions?
• What are the social implications of Judaic and Christian religious traditions?
• Do you agree with the view that Judaism, Christianity and Islam are considered to be homogeneous
religions? Give reasons for your answer.
• Write essay on either „Religious belief in Indus Valley civilization“ or „Shinto religious belief and
practices.“
• Write notes on two of the following:
1. Polytheism
2. Brāhmaṇa Tradition
3. Zen Buddhism
4. Ājīvakas
5. Confucius’ teaching on family relationship
6. Religions in ancient Iran
• Indian religious history goes back to pre-Vedic period. make a survey.
• Vedic literature clearly shows the gradual evolution of religious concepts. Examine.
• Explain on what evidence the 6th century BC can be considered as a dawn of new era in the religious
history of India.
• Write an introduction to the Śramaṇa tradition and explain how it is different from the Brāhmaṇic
tradition.
• „Vardhamana Mahāvīra was not the founder of Jainism.“ With reference to this statement write an
account of the history of Jainism.
• Point out the basic teachings of Jainism in comparison with the relevant Upaniṣadic and Buddhist
teachings.
• Write a short account on Chinese religious history.
• Having given a biographical sketch of Lao-Tze, describe his basic teachings.
• Write an exposition of the inter-relationship among Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
• Write short notes on any (one) of the following:
1. Tao and Te 3. Ātman and Brāhman
2. Dependent Origination 4. Jīva and Ājīva
• Review the views of scholars on evolution of Indian religious thoughts.
• Śramaṇa tradition evolved from Brāhmaṇic tradition. Examine.
• Examine the basic teachings of Jainism in comparison with Brāhmaṇism.

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• To what extend it is justifiable to name Mahāyāna Buddhism as Northern Buddhism. Explain.
• „Religion of Islam is the last revelation of God.“ Assess the history of Islam on the basis of this
expression.
• Explain the relationship between Old Testament and New Testament.
• Explain the convincing meanings of the terms „Dao“ and „De“ in Taoism.
• Examine the pre-historic religious beliefs in China.
• „China is a country of three religions.“ What does this mean?
• Write short notes on any two of the following:
1. Confucius 4. Jaina Mahāvīra
2. Lao-Tze 5. Nāgarjuna
3. Muhammad
• Assess the religious beliefs in Indus Valley Civilization
• Vedic literature well depicts the process of the evolution of religious concepts. Examine.
• Jainism is one of the earliest religions in India. Examine.
• Introduce the fundamental teachings of Jainism.
• Point out how the concept of Ātma in Jainism is different from Upaniṣadic and Buddhist thoughts.
• Explain how the Vedic thoughts were challenged by the doctrine of the Buddha.
• Examine the religious and philosophical background of pre-Buddhist China.
• Teachings of Confucius were aimed at ethical development. Examine.
• Brief out the biography of Lao-Tze and point out his views on the concept of morality.
• Introduce the historical relationship among Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
• Vedic literature distinctly depicts the gradual evolution of religious concepts. Examine.
• Survey the history of Jainism.
• Discuss the scholar's views on origin of śramaṇa tradition.
• Give a short introduction to the pre-Buddhist religious background of China.
• Teachings of Confucius is related with morality, explain.
• Give a short introduction to Lao-Tze and his teachings.
• Justify the identification of China as country of three religions.
• Judaism, Christianity and Islam are homogeneous religions. Justify.
• Examine how „Islam is last revelation of God“ is conveyed in the religion of Islam.
• Write short notes on any four of the following:
1. Mohammad 3. Dao and De 5. Anekantavāda
2. Nāgarjuna 4. Ātman and Brāhmaṇ 6. Śrāvakayāna

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