electronics

Article
The Concept regarding Vehicular Communications Based on
Visible Light Communication and the IoT
Eduard Zadobrischi 1,2

1 Integrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies,
and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava,
720229 Suceava, Romania; [email protected]
2 Department of Computers, Electronics and Automation, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava,
720229 Suceava, Romania

Abstract: The most controversial technology—visible light communication—is becoming increasingly

promising in the field of wireless networks, being ideal for many indoor and outdoor applications.
This article proposes VLC methods and architectures capable of providing high security in vehicles
and in their communications with the environment or other cars in traffic. The architectures proposed
involve the inclusion of ambient lighting equipment and systems and indoor and outdoor lighting
systems, such as headlights, traffic lights, and stoplights. Securing data within vehicular networks
and validating them through multiple layers of filtering at the level of the physical PHY layer would
drastically strengthen the position of VLC. They are the only source of information through which
direct contact is maintained with the other entities in the network. The evaluations and proposals
presented here are highly viable and deserve future consideration in light of the results obtained in
the practical steps carried out in the research process.

Keywords: in-vehicle communication; inter-vehicle communication; optical communication; security

wireless; visible light communication; wireless optical communication

Citation: Zadobrischi, E. The

Concept regarding Vehicular
1. Introduction
Communications Based on Visible
Light Communication and the IoT. Visible light communication (VLC) represents an important component of optical wire-
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359. https:// less communication (OWC) and has brought many challenges to the research community,
doi.org/10.3390/electronics12061359 as well as those attracted to this field [1]. VLC could become an extremely remarkable
technology because, in addition to being used for lighting, it can also be used for data
Academic Editors: Tao Huang,
communication between devices, users, and the outside environment. This approach is
Shihao Yan, Guanglin Zhang, Li Sun,
important in terms of the benefits it can bring, as well as in terms of its huge potential for
Tsz Hon Yuen, YoHan Park and
Changhoon Lee
future development across extremely vast areas [2]. VLC is different from the technologies
we know. It can be developed at the level of pre-existing lighting infrastructure or at the
Received: 28 January 2023 level of equipment containing LEDs, offering the opportunity for the mass development
Revised: 7 March 2023 of a fast and cost-effective network [3]. According to the specialized literature, the basic
Accepted: 9 March 2023 principle of VLC is that the data are transported using an optical carrier without leading to
Published: 12 March 2023
higher energy consumption, which is another advantage of this technology [4]. Most stud-
ies conclude that LED light, in conjunction with the data transmission process, is becoming
more and more common in our society and employ the lens of avoiding health risks due
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
to exposure to emissions and radiation, as VLC is one of the greenest technologies. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. specialized literature demonstrates the high potential of VLC technology and elucidates
This article is an open access article several of its aspects through the lens of its standardization by competent organizations,
distributed under the terms and including the IEEE [5]. In terms of energy efficiency, VLC uses LED light to transmit data,
conditions of the Creative Commons and this is known as a low-power-consumption factor. Wi-Fi low power is designed as a
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// restrained form of energy consumption but, compared to VLC, it is much more expensive.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Channel bandwidth represents a constraint for the number of data packets that can be
4.0/). transmitted over a certain channel. Wi-Fi has a much higher channel bandwidth than

Electronics 2023, 12, 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12061359 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

 Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2

Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 2 of 17

it is much more expensive. Channel bandwidth represents a constraint for the numb
data packets that can be transmitted over a certain channel. Wi-Fi has a much higher c
nel bandwidth than VLC, but low-power Wi-Fi operates in the 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz
VLC, but low-powerquencyWi-Fi bandsoperates
and hasinbandwidths
the 2.4 GHzofor20 5 GHz
MHzfrequency bands andithas
or more. Although is a techno
bandwidths of brought
20 MHzback or more. Although it is a technology brought
to the public after a period of evanescence, VLC reappeared back to the public with protot
after a period of evanescence,
developed and the VLC reappeared
first standardization, with prototypes
recognizeddeveloped and theIEEE
with the acronym first 802.15.7
standardization, recognized with the acronym IEEE 802.15.7,
achieved in 2011 and later benefited from new updates [6]. VLC is showingwas achieved in 2011 and an upw
later benefited from new updates [6]. VLC is showing an upward
trend and represents an opportune moment for today’s society, branching trend and represents anout into
opportune moment for today’s society, branching out into more and more
and more fields. In the early days of the technology, it was used to make high-speed fields. In the
early days of the lesstechnology,
connections, it was used
as it is to make
extremely high-speed
suitable wireless internet.
for broadband connections, asfield,
In this it VLC
is extremely suitable for broadband internet. In this field, VLC technology
nology has proven its capabilities: it can ensure data transfer at speeds of several gig has proven its
capabilities: it can
perensure
seconddata and,transfer
in idealatcases
speeds andoflaboratory
several gigabits pertechnology
tests, the second and,can in ideal
also establish
cases and laboratory tests, the technology can also establish connections
nections that reach transfer values of over 100 Gb/s [7,8]. These aspects make VLC athat reach transfer
values of over 100 Gb/spromising
tremely [7,8]. These aspects make
candidate VLC an
for systems extremely
based promisingsuch
on technologies candidate
as 5G or 6G. V
for systems based on technologies such as 5G or 6G. VLC is suitable for
suitable for most fields due to its ability to reuse space and small communication most fields due to
its ability to reuse space and
Therefore, 5Gsmall
and 6G communication
technologies cells. couldTherefore,
achieve much 5G and 6G technologies
higher transfer rates than kn
could achieve muchbefore;higher transfer even
low latencies, rates below
than known<1 ms; before; low latencies,
and extremely even below
wide coverage [9,10]. In ac
<1 ms; and extremely wide coverage [9,10]. In accordance with the extremely
ance with the extremely wide distribution of LED lighting sources, in addition to app wide distri-
bution of LED lighting sources,
tions related to itsininformation-
addition to applications related capacities,
and energy-transfer to its information-
VLC could andalso be us
energy-transferInternet
capacities, VLC could also be used in Internet of Things-type
of Things-type applications, see Figure 1. Great progress could be made i applications,
see Figure 1. Great progress
transition couldIndustry
towards be made 4.0inorthe
5.0transition
through the towards Industry
application 4.0 or 5.0
of wireless communic
through the application of wireless communication in production lines
in production lines and automation. VLC’s simplified implementation, cost effici and automation.
VLC’s simplified implementation,
flexibility, cost efficiency,
and versatility would help flexibility, and versatility
in significantly scalingwould help in
these processes, and i
significantly scaling these processes, and it can be declared an ideal technology.
be declared an ideal technology. Automation and robotization processes could use Automation
and robotization forprocesses could use
communication, VLC for
control, communication,
management, control,tasks,
and location management, and
and identification of eq
location tasks, and identification of equipment
ment could also be controlled with it [11]. could also be controlled with it [11].

Figureof1.the
Figure 1. Illustration Illustration of the mostscenarios
most representative representative scenarios and
and applications applications
that use visiblethat use visible
light
communication.
communication.

Perhaps the mostPerhaps the most representative

representative and popular fieldand of
popular
use forfield
VLCoftechnologies
use for VLC istechnologies
in
road and safety and the design of applications dedicated to
road and safety and the design of applications dedicated to vehicular communications. vehicular communicat
This fieldincreased
This field also receives also receives increased
attention attention
in light of the in light
loss of the loss
of human life of human life
involved, as involve
road accidents are the second leading cause of death worldwide. Implementations in this
direction are more and more numerous, proving that VLC is extremely reliable and can
provide adequate resistance against noise. Communication distances can exceed 200 m and
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 3 of 17

latencies meet the requirements of some vehicle-to-vehicle communication applications [12].

Analyzing all the research and the specialized literature, perhaps the most important aspect
for today’s society is that VLC is safe for the human body and for other equipment that
can be influenced by or is sensitive to interference [13], and VLC is recommended even
in RF-restricted areas. VLC can be used in medical procedures, transportation, logistics,
security, oil rigs, nuclear power plants, highly confined areas, and even in aquatic research.
VLC technology offers many unique benefits, including very high bandwidth and high
transfer rates, in addition to the green zone aspects already presented [14]. This technology
is increasingly being exploited by research groups, as well as in the private environment, to
open up new fields and explore applications that could fix certain pressing problems of
our society.
The effectiveness of current networks for communication between vehicles has been
demonstrated, as well as their use in communication and control in autonomous cars, but
aspects related to safety and information protection have been neglected. Therefore, this
study focused on the analysis, presentation, and development of an architecture capable
of providing a high degree of security in the process of communication between vehicles
and between vehicles and infrastructure through the distribution of light in the indoor
and outdoor environment [15]. The application of the solution is oriented toward both the
user and the infrastructure or vehicles. The large number of systems produced by research
groups so far proves the usefulness of this technology. The experimental evaluation
process and the implementation were carried out in different stages, and the concepts
were determined at the architectural level but without the implications related to the
hardware and software components through which these processes were carried out. The
data security aspect is extremely important for both the user and other traffic participants.
The data communicated can be intercepted and, subsequently, the control of autonomous
vehicles or on-board systems can undergo changes that may jeopardize the condition of the
vehicle and endanger the driver, pedestrians, and other traffic participants [16]. Many of
the major challenges currently impeding the implementation of new technologies, such as
5G, can be mitigated by using VLC [17,18]. The most important point is that VLC provides
an alternative by not having a limitation in the radio frequency spectrum, which is already
loaded and limited, and VLC even has a capacity more than 10,000 times higher than that of
RF [19,20]. As the VLC spectrum remains unregulated and unlicensed, it can be considered
an extremely important solution from a bandwidth perspective, capable of mitigating
the limitations of the RF spectrum. New approaches and an increase in the degree of
security for VLC, as well as development of an implementation method, are imperative.
The most important contributions of the article are the proposal for a network architecture
for future implementation in relation to vehicular communication and the enhancement
of data security through multiple connections based on primary authentication keys and
the parameterization of information using unique IDs. Section 2 reviews the methodology,
outlines a proposal, while Section 3 is related to the implementation, and describes some of
the results. Section 4 includes further discussion of the experimental results, and Section 5
is dedicated to the conclusion and future approaches.

2. Methodology and Design Parameters

Based on experience in the field of optical communication, research groups have
consistently focused on adding new functions and generating related applications for
VLC, including in relation to the IoT and vehicular communication. Several papers have
discussed the use of VLC as part of various wireless technologies, but very few have
focused on the IoT and road safety applications. In [21], architectures were proposed
for VLC systems employing the IoT and its integration in the dark, using orthogonal
frequency division modulation (OFDM) to overcome the identified limits [22]. In [23],
VLC-over-UART-type systems were proposed that used the bit error rate and system
evaluation. Another research paper [24] elucidated the potential of Li-Fi and its capacity
for use in outdoor lighting, stating that it may represent a new backbone in the field of
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 4 of 17

wireless communications. The activation of 5G wireless access using Li-Fi technology was
addressed in [25] based on OFDM, demonstrating speeds of 200–300 kbps. Many of the
challenges related to VLC, as well as the potential it has for industrial applications, were
presented in [26], along with other concepts. Another review can be found in [27] that
discusses various aspects and contributions, as well as providing an ensemble presentation,
including aspects related to the optical IoT (OIoT). One new approach in V2V technology
is the use of light fidelity (Li-Fi), which is an alternative medium in data transmission.
The capacity of this technology to send data over an optical medium wirelessly using
light-emitting diodes that propagate the signal makes it very promising. In the case of Li-Fi
technology, data are extracted from the vehicle and spread via headlights or stoplights
to other traffic participants or infrastructure, but there are many challenges related to
bandwidth and data latencies. As shown in Figure 2, Li-Fi systems are composed of
luminous media (LEDs) that transmit data and information, and the receiving system is
based on a photo-detector that processes the data and analyzes the obtained signal. It is
imperative to implement systems of this type because the actions that traffic participants
take are based on information obtained from other vehicles and involve short durations of
time and extremely low-validity data. Thus, in the case of systems of this type, GPS and
Wi-Fi units are not necessary because Li-Fi technology can use interface or PIC controllers
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6
to emit tiny pulses of sound, which can penetrate barriers and be employed with straight
roads or those of the T-junction type [24].

Figure
Figure 2. Illustration 2. Illustration
regarding regarding
the fields the fields of within
of communication communication
VANETs.within VANETs.

V2V technology canCommunication

2.1. Li-Fi accurately calculate
Systemthe moment T of a collision and highlight its
Proposal
severity when used The synchronously with a laser detector
most important advantage that this or laser rangefinder
new Li-Fi technology(LRF). The to the fie
brings
guarantee that this is a highly viable system comes from the accumulation
communications is greater security through the lower radius of the coverage of adjustable ve- area, as
hicle functions, as
which can allow the generation of protocols and procedures to
data encoding. As a consequence of limiting the coverage area, VLC cannot pene expedite the
activation of pre-crash
opaquesystems
surfacesororairbags even
obstacles, before
even when collisions occur [28].
geographically Communication
limited. In addition, VLC sys
between vehicles is dependent on the distance of the convergence or
can employ connectivity based on unique IDs to encrypt the information divergence between in a forma
them because the density of cars on roads is involved in the first process of the
can only be decoded with an adapted receiver. Therefore, this approach is extremel information
transmission mechanism.
portant in In the of
terms casetheofsecurity
congested androads where
integrity of the
datatraffic density shortens
communication, both for user
the distance between
within vehicular networks. In the design process for a VLC system, the net-
vehicles, the communication process takes place in a platoon-type transmitter
work with vehicles separated
necessarily theby small component,
central distances, and hybrid implementation
although it is important for of the
VLC-RF is
communication
necessary [29]. In the case of visible light, data can be transmitted with a single data-stream
cess, but an extremely volatile and important part of the system rests on the should
instance extremely quickly [30].
the receiver. In addition
This idea was deducedto what hasthe
from been presentedliterature
specialized above, there are(see Figur
[45,46]
also aspects of the topic related to the exploitation of THz bands dedicated to vehicular
networks, which have intrinsic properties. As millimeter-wave technology moves toward
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 5 of 17

commercial implementation, it is clear that the terahertz (THz) band is the next frontier of
communications. Summaries of all the RF techniques are provided in Table 1, where we
show how they can be used under different traffic density conditions, and in Table 2, where
other related work is addressed.

Table 1. Network systems and approaches in relation to coverage.

Traffic Networks RF Systems Network Approaches

Radio cognitive network
Low-density and sparse network Low
Short-range radio
Short-range radio
Vehicular network-type for densities High
millimeter waves
Use of high-density network
Network based on VLC radio High
millimeter waves
Use of higher frequency bands (THZ) Network based on 5G High

Table 2. Existing approaches and prospects for development.

VLC/Li-Fi Design VLC Approaches VLC IoT Solution Future

VLC Applicability
and Architecture and Proposals Challenges Presented Perspectives
VLC systems [31] 3 3 3 3 3
Vehicular systems [32] 3 3 3 3 3
IoT [33] 3 3 3 3 3
Safety systems [34] 3 3 3 3 3
V2V and Li-Fi [35] 3 3 3 3 3
IoT [36] 3 3 X 3 3
OIoT [37] 3 X 3 X X
Industrial applications [38] 3 3 3 3 3
IoT [39] 3 X 3 3 3
5G and IoT [40] 3 3 3 X 3
6G [41] 3 3 3 X 3

The proposed solution could make major contributions to the emergency transmission
of priority messages, the avoidance of road accidents, and the safety and security of data.
In all these processes, it is extremely important to also consider the adoption of vehicular
ad hoc network (VANET) technology, which can guarantee the safety of vehicles and
transmits information through central roadside units (RSUs) or electronic control units
(ECUs) that can pre-secure data with up to six encryption cycles [42]. With vehicular ad hoc
networks (VANETs), it is possible to manage multiple vehicles that have on-board units
or roadside units, as illustrated in Figure 2. Further measures at the security level could
involve Euclidean distance calculation components, which can provide data on the distance
between vehicles and RSUs or on the occurrence of adverse events at the edge of the road
surface. Therefore, the protocols used to secure data could be based on event detection
crawling and information filtering procedures, sending the data only through repetitive
loops to the RSU-type units or concatenating the input data with the output data to encrypt
them. If an accident is detected, the system sends the information to nearby vehicles and,
through a filtering process that also uses an advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS),
implements assistance processes, even providing traffic updates. Data are pre-swapped
and routed through band-switching to ensure security and privacy, then initialized and
keyed into the cloud. Any sudden change in the amount of data or any data modification
result in a software trigger that processes each routine and compares it with the additional
sets [43,44].
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 6 of 17

Figure 2. Illustration regarding the fields of communication within VANETs.

2.1.
2.1. Li-Fi
Li-Fi Communication
Communication System
SystemProposal
Proposal
The
The most
most important
important advantage
advantage that that this
this new
new Li-Fi
Li-Fi technology
technology brings
brings toto the
the field
field of
of
communications
communicationsisisgreater
greatersecurity
securitythrough
throughthe thelower
lowerradius
radiusof ofthe
thecoverage
coveragearea,area,asaswell
well
as
asdata
dataencoding.
encoding. AsAs aa consequence
consequence of of limiting
limiting thethecoverage
coverage area,
area,VLC
VLCcannot
cannotpenetrate
penetrate
opaque
opaque surfaces or obstacles, even when geographically limited. In addition, VLC systems
surfaces or obstacles, even when geographically limited. In addition, VLC systems
can
canemploy
employconnectivity
connectivity based
based ononunique
unique IDsIDs to
toencrypt
encryptthe theinformation
information in in aa format
format that
that
can
can only be decoded
only be decoded withwithananadapted
adaptedreceiver.
receiver.Therefore,
Therefore, thisthis approach
approach is extremely
is extremely im-
important
portant inin termsofofthe
terms thesecurity
securityandandintegrity
integrityof ofdata
data communication,
communication, both both for
for users
users and
and
within
withinvehicular
vehicularnetworks.
networks. In In the
the design
design process
process forforaaVLC
VLCsystem,
system,thethetransmitter
transmitter isisnot not
necessarily the central component, although it is important for the communication
necessarily the central component, although it is important for the communication pro- process,
but
cess,anbut
extremely volatile
an extremely and important
volatile and importantpart of theofsystem
part restsrests
the system on the
onshoulders
the shoulders of the
of
receiver. This idea was deduced from the specialized literature [45,46] (see
the receiver. This idea was deduced from the specialized literature [45,46] (see Figure 3). Figure 3).

Figure3.3. Illustration
Figure Illustrationpresenting
presentingLi-Fi
Li-Fitechnology
technologyand
andits
itsgeneral
generalutility.
utility.

The IEEE
The IEEE 802.15.7
802.15.7 standard
standard provides
provides additional
additional functions,
functions, some of which are com-
plementary to lighting
plementary lighting devices,
devices,and,
and,ininthis case,
this they
case, do do
they notnot
negatively influence
negatively influencethe pro-
the
cess [47].[47].
process EvenEven
if these systems
if these have to
systems be able
have to betoable
provide both lighting
to provide and dataand
both lighting commu-
data
nication, they must
communication, theynot
mustinduce a flickering
not induce effecteffect
a flickering perceptible to thetohuman
perceptible eye, eye,
the human and and
it is
itnecessary
is necessary to implement
to implement functions
functions capable
capable ofof diminishingthe
diminishing thelight
lightintensity
intensityifif this
this is re-
quired.
quired.Hardware
Hardwareand andsoftware
software solutions have
solutions beenbeen
have found for this
found forproblem. Figure Figure
this problem. 4 shows4
a complete VLC diagram, as well as a way to secure the communication. The diagram
includes an ARM Cortex M7 microcontroller component with a frequency of 1008 MHz,
which is the central element around which the entire system gravitates. The basic function
of the microcontroller is to transmit the data and transform/demodulate them to obtain a
continuous stream of information/bitstream [48,49].
Thus, the microcontroller facilitates the processing, encoding, modulation, and con-
touring of bit matrices to expose them and transmit them further. Through the prism of its
versatility, its performance and data security can be substantially improved, including by
using on–off keying (OOK) at the emission and modulation side. The improved security
process is also based on the central anti-flicker aspect; the VLC transmitter runs a code
based on unique IDs and a run-length-limited (RLL) code, which can overlap the logic
levels “1” and “0” at the same light intensity. Encrypting data by using security keys with
unique IDs assigned to each data matrix also increases the data transmission speed and the
instantiation capacity; in some cases, the speeds are around 250–300 kb/s [50]. To validate
the security process carried out, the GVLC comparator structured based on the message
intent iterates a log with the purpose of validating the receiver as a part of the system;
everything is undertaken based on unique IDs. Subsequently, the message header provides
the VLC receiver with information regarding the modulation technique, coding, transfer
rate, and length of the message, aspects that ultimately validate the communication and
security process. The instance frame contains all the transmitted data, and it is followed
 As shown by communications tests, the intermittency of the signals between data
frames also facilitates the implementation of an additional security protocol. The top mi-
crocontroller component can generate data and transmit them to other devices, but, at the
same time, it can be interfaced with other devices through CAN, I2C, or SPI ports, which
increases the safety and veracity of the information [51]. Regarding the level of frame data
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 7 of 17
and the data quantity, solutions related to the cadence of the data transmission can be
established with the help of an LED driver. The generation of the light beam that contains
that data is related to the dynamics of the environment and the data quantity; the light
by a stop and
contains validate
the data that header,
must bethe purposetoofthe
provided which is to and
receiver, inform
thethe VLC
data takereceiver
a path that the
through
data have arrived.
the optical channel in free space (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Architecture of the

Figure4. theproposed
proposedvisible
visiblelight
lightcommunication
communication system
system at at
thethe road
road infrastruc-
infrastructure
level.
ture level.

As shown by communications tests, the intermittency of the signals between data

frames also facilitates the implementation of an additional security protocol. The top
microcontroller component can generate data and transmit them to other devices, but, at
the same time, it can be interfaced with other devices through CAN, I2C, or SPI ports,
which increases the safety and veracity of the information [51]. Regarding the level of frame
data and the data quantity, solutions related to the cadence of the data transmission can be
established with the help of an LED driver. The generation of the light beam that contains
that data is related to the dynamics of the environment and the data quantity; the light
contains the data that must be provided to the receiver, and the data take a path through
the optical channel in free space (see Figure 4).
To obtain a more robust structure, this research focused on the development of a
system capable of providing information and connectivity with any other device. For the
reception side, as can be seen, the collector optical system had a processing component and
a processing unit. These components integrate optical filters that adjust the signal to noise
ratio (SNR) and remove unwanted components from the optical spectrum. For the optical
detection part, a PDA component and PIN photodiodes connected to direct transimpedance
circuits were used. For the processing blocks, bandpass filters were introduced with certain
cutoff frequencies determined by the spectral densities. The data encoding and decoding
process are carried out using quadratic triggers and other types of triggers, and the final
signal is ultimately analyzed and received by the ARM Cortex M4-type controller. The final
data arrive at the last unit and can be accessed by the end user [52,53].

2.2. Proposal for Software Infrastructure and Architectural Components

In accordance with the prospects for future use of Li-Fi networks for V2V interactions,
the proposed algorithm validates and authenticates users in vehicles based on the queries
it makes within the internal nomenclature, which includes all IDs and encryption codes
related to users. The interaction between the device and the vehicle involves a database
located at the level of the vehicle ECU infrastructure. The risk of information leakage is
minimal due to the degree of encryption and the transmission of information through light,
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 8 of 17

the identifiers being encrypted at the level of the internal stack without generating an exact
reference to a specific device and constantly reinitialized every time they are reintegrated
into the system. Regarding the security protocol for VLC-based networks such as Li-Fi,
the process by which this occurs takes places in several stages. Devices are verified before
connecting to the network and, if a device is in range, it receives a query asking for an
access code and its verification leads to the first process. When the code is valid, the data
are checked for identifiers and for whether there have been any previous logins. When
the device authenticates and authorizes itself, the data are encrypted and sent within the
network, with the traffic on that network being constantly monitored. In addition to these
aspects, there are functions dedicated to the additional protection of the network from
possible external attacks or penetrations.
Therefore, encrypting and transmitting data through a Li-Fi-type network can be
achieved using a symmetric encryption algorithm. A symmetric encryption algorithm
is based on the use of unique keys that encrypt and decrypt data. In a Li-Fi network,
these keys are generated and distributed across the network to all devices. One example
of an algorithm based on symmetric encryption is the advanced encryption standard
(AES). According to specialist studies, it is considered one of the most viable and powerful
algorithmic structures in terms of symmetric encryption, and it is used in more and more
security standards and, now, in VLC [54].
The structure in this case could be implemented according to the following steps:
(a) The header is initialized and a cryptographic key is generated for each ID (i.e., for
each device on the network or each device that should connect to it);
(b) The AES algorithm is used to encrypt the data and transmit them via the Li-Fi network;
(c) The unique cryptographic keys are then sent to the connected devices to enable the
decryption of the received data. Their form being that of the MD5 hash function,
the unique identifier generated for each vehicle in the network can be inserted into
their headers;
(d) The keys are used to decrypt the data when they are received by the connected device.
The existence of new technologies dedicated to cryptography has a direct connection
with quantum cryptography, which is advancing quickly around the world. Specifically,
quantum cryptography involves quantum key distribution (QKD) and subsequent redistri-
bution of a cryptographic key. Later, the degree of security can be proven by using new
instantiations on the bases of computational complexity and processing with emerging
quantum computers [55]. In QKD, the quantum key can be exchanged between network
users in the form of light to increase security. When quantum sequences are iterated, they
are measured post-processing to generate identical keys on both sides of the network. A
first step in this direction is the QuINSiDa project, which is the first to incorporate a “QKD
over Li-Fi”-type system [56]. This aspect makes QKD data transfer possible, which is
more widely used in communications between buildings and offices. The project aims to
demonstrate that a quantization-based data communication network can be flexible in its
secure backbone infrastructure and can make the step to the vehicular area. In summary,
the project aims to realize wireless data communication in a point-to-point scenario but,
at the same time, simultaneously secure all individual communication channels through
quantum keys [57].
An extremely important aspect in any network is maintaining the confidentiality of
the generated key at all times and, in cases where new external connections are introduced,
generating authentication keys after a certain time interval. The security of wireless
networks and their data security routines are based on encrypted connections centered
on protocols for data transmission, such as WPA2 or WP3. Another aspect of security is
related to the use of firewalls, which limit access to networks and, at the same time, do not
let external entities connect. In addition, two- or three-step authentication systems can be
used to increase safety.
For our proposal regarding securing Li-Fi data communication networks for vehicles,
we considered aspects related to the creation of an encryption and decryption algorithm
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 9 of 17

to limit access to the infrastructure created. Li-Fi networks offer a high degree of security
because this technology is bidirectional and can only be accessed through certain decoding
procedures with dedicated systems. There are no generally valid programming languages
that can be used to create security protocols in Li-Fi networks or to define a security standard
to date. Therefore, this approach is extremely important for the scientific environment and,
as a result of the experience accumulated in this field, presents a viable alternative through
which this technology will soon be able to branch out into more fields. Even if technological
advances favor communication based on the 802.11 p/a standard, 4G, 5G, and even 6G, the
complementarity and usefulness of VLC are undeniable [58,59].
The encryption and formation of a security protocol at the physical level in a data
network based on VLC could have the following structure (Algorithm 1).

Algorithm 1: Pseudocode for the encryption process for data at the physical level of the network.
from vlc_supp
import SEC1_SUPP
vlc = SEC1_SUPP(lifi0)
vlc.set_network(‘usr’, ‘pass’, Li-Fi1#!2)
vlc.enable_network()

In Algorithm 1, an attempt was made to create a much stronger encryption process

compared to those known from the much more widespread networks that encrypt data
within wireless networks. In the previously presented case, security keys are outlined in
the function header, after which the imports are undertaken and the user and password are
validated sequentially as the first iterator.
In Algorithm 2, a firewall-type procedure is outlined that can manage the network
more efficiently, restrict access to it, and prevent external attacks. Towards the end, the
created traffic network and its port are also highlighted. A final step in accomplishing
the process of securing a network is authentication and the creation of a way to validate
previous data. Therefore, in Algorithm 3, all the data from the encrypted validation files are
imported, along with the user input data to be filled in by the handler, and the password
is maintained at the same time as the credentials. All the data are saved in a nomenclator
in the VLC database and requested for access and validation through iterative instance
comparators. In the last stage, the algorithm decides whether access is allowed depending
on the degree of portability of the user and the password.

Algorithm 2: Pseudocode for the import and filtering of access data for the generated address.
from ipvlctables import Iptablesvlc
ipt = Ipvlctables()
ipt.block_all_trafficvlc()
ipt.allow_traffic(100.100.1.0/88)

Algorithm 3: Pseudocode for final validation and authentication in the created

communication process.
from passlibvlc.hash import sha256_crypt
usr = input(“Enter user: “)
pass = input(“Enter pass: “)
stored_passvlc = “hashed_pass_from_databasevlc”
if shabvlc_crypt.verify(pass, stored_pass):
print(“Access granted LiFI.”)
else:
print(“Access denied to Li-Fi.”)

The proposed architecture provides, using several LEDs, an authentication ID re-

garding the location and identification data for the vehicle, these being managed with
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 10 of 17

cryptography [60,61]. The network undertakes the distribution of the authentication ID

and the lighting sources, a process that increases the degree of security through power
lines. Extremely high scalability can be achieved through the efficient management of
IDs, highlighting how the use of VLC in a direct approach with new technologies can
be extremely interesting. Therefore, ID management guarantees the validity of the IDs
and offers a control mechanism through which the necessary data can be obtained. The
combination of the existing infrastructure with the IDs generated through validation within
the existing nomenclature with preset IDs interchangeable between vehicles offers a new
security policy for optical communications.

3. Implementation and Results

The proposal was tested using various methods and tools based on the Linux operating
system capable of intercepting data or connections, such as BackTrack and WireShark.
These methods’ connections and their traffic management were analyzed. These aspects are
important and each type of amendment was staged, which was the purpose of the study,
starting from the unstructured ones and then the structured, external, and internal ones. In
vehicular networks in particular, we can experience unstructured threats from other users
without a high level of training; these practices are undertaken only out of pure curiosity
and their method of operation is extremely easy to identify. These types of penetration
are carried out by users who know the methods of operation and the vulnerabilities of
networks and later develop scripts capable of disrupting access to them.
Vehicular network security and communications between infrastructure, pedestrians,
cars, and intelligent traffic systems are extremely pressing topics for today’s society. Attacks
from the outside can be initiated at the level of intelligent transportation systems (ITSs)
by capable individuals who gain access to the entire infrastructure, generating chaos and
panic in addition to pursuing extremely well-defined goals of controlling certain areas of
activity. Many of the attacks from outside target issues that are closely related to bank
fraud, personal information, and the mining of confidential data. Analyzing the subject in
detail, persons with hidden intentions could take control of autonomous vehicles, as well
as intelligent traffic systems. Attacks of an internal type, however—and at this moment it
is much too early to take these aspects into account—have more to do with the accuracy
and degree of security established by existing users and the way they set up their accounts.

Analysis of the Security Process and the Threats to Which the Network Is Exposed
When there are security and privacy concerns, in order to ensure reliable communica-
tion between the sender and the recipient, we need to perform certain tests that can give
us feedback on the VLC’s compliance with the requirements imposed by other wireless
systems. Therefore, the system proposed in this study aims to provide protection against
external connections and rejects data assignment to other users outside the network or
who may compromise the network. The proposed system does not fully behave like a
commercial Internet network but, as shown by the simulation process, it provides the most
important features: authenticity, confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
The authenticity feature aims to limit the introduction of messages into the communi-
cation channel that may disturb the receivers and prevent them from transmitting messages.
The privacy feature imposes limits on data access to prevent disclosure of communication
routes or routes created between senders and receivers. The integrity feature maintains the
accuracy of content throughout its transmission from source to destination. If available, it
prevents authentication from being given to unauthorized users, while for others, it requires
access keys, in addition to the username and password. For such a system based on VLC
to meet the mandatory requirements, several critical issues must be addressed in the final
implementation. In the case of much more established communications, the network layer
assumes all responsibilities of protecting the data and keeping them private from all points
of view, including the legal and the commercial perspectives. In terms of the VLC channel,
it can be vulnerable to attacks within vehicular networks, and the confidentiality of the
 Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 11 of 17

data transmitted between the vehicles may be endangered. The measurements and tests
presented here were carried out to track how a VLC system can be protected from various
types of attacks in the network, such as flooding attacks, poisoning attacks, and cache
attacks. These types are the ones that could endanger the integrity of the system, and this
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
study proves that the security breaches in the case of VLC are much more critical than12inof 18
the case of standard VANET communications (Figure 5).

Figure 5. 5.Analyses
Figure Analysesregarding
regarding the
the risk to which
risk to whichthe
theinfrastructure
infrastructure is exposed.
is exposed.

According
Accordingtotothetheresearch carried out,
research carried out,the
thesources
sourcesofof
andand exposure
exposure to external
to external risksrisks
can only come about when there are failures in the physical infrastructure
can only come about when there are failures in the physical infrastructure or the system or the system
itself.Matrix
itself. Matrixdata
dataapproaches
approaches andandevolutionary
evolutionary determinants
determinantsof attacks within
of attacks the physical
within the phys-
layers have been considered and these threats to VLC do not compromise
ical layers have been considered and these threats to VLC do not compromise data data security andsecu-
integrity. To penetrate a VLC network or a communication system based on this technology,
rity and integrity. To penetrate a VLC network or a communication system based on this
dedicated modules and receivers are needed, and if the communication system behaves
technology, dedicated modules and receivers are needed, and if the communication sys-
like a classic wireless network, the penetration procedure is difficult and the contamination
tem behaves
time like along
is relatively classic
(seewireless
Figures 6network,
and 7). the penetration procedure is difficult and the
contamination time is relatively long
Regarding the connectivity of such (see Figures 6the
a network, andinsertion
7). of data packets capable
of providing a perspective on the network through their iteration was also considered.
Therefore, cascading data templates were used, and these were split into multiple data
matrices that randomly populated the network. A premature conclusion regarding their
capacity and accuracy should not be drawn, but, regarding the main aspect of security,
there were many indications that confirmed that the data were in a network capable of
providing them with a high degree of protection. As shown by Figure 8, no technical
problems were encountered, and the data packet penetration process, which was constantly
monitored, could not be derailed.
 can only come about when there are failures in the physical infrastructure or the system
itself. Matrix data approaches and evolutionary determinants of attacks within the phys-
ical layers have been considered and these threats to VLC do not compromise data secu-
rity and integrity. To penetrate a VLC network or a communication system based on this
technology, dedicated modules and receivers are needed, and if the communication sys-
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 12 of 17
tem behaves like a classic wireless network, the penetration procedure is difficult and the
contamination time is relatively long (see Figures 6 and 7).

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Report
Report on
on the
the use
use of
of the
the communication
communication channel
channel in
in relation to the
relation to the other
other active
active networks.
networks.

Figure 7. Spectrogram of the created communication channel.

Figure 7. Spectrogram of the created communication channel.

Regarding the connectivity of such a network, the insertion of data packets capable
of providing a perspective on the network through their iteration was also considered.
Therefore, cascading data templates were used, and these were split into multiple data
matrices that randomly populated the network. A premature conclusion regarding their
capacity and accuracy should not be drawn, but, regarding the main aspect of security,
there were many indications that confirmed that the data were in a network capable of
providing them with a high degree of protection. As shown by Figure 8, no technical prob-
lems were encountered, and the data packet penetration process, which was constantly
monitored, could not be derailed.
 Therefore, cascading data templates were used, and these were split into multiple data
matrices that randomly populated the network. A premature conclusion regarding their
capacity and accuracy should not be drawn, but, regarding the main aspect of security,
there were many indications that confirmed that the data were in a network capable of
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359
providing them with a high degree of protection. As shown by Figure 8, no technical13
prob-
of 17
lems were encountered, and the data packet penetration process, which was constantly
monitored, could not be derailed.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Communication
Communication testing
testing with
with aa dataset
dataset created
created in
in order to validate
order to validate its
its reliability.
reliability.

4. Discussion
Following the analysis of the proposal offered as a communication and security
alternative, new directions were generated, especially concerning the use of VLC-RF and
the two systems’ integration in lighting systems, both in public and in vehicle lighting
systems, to achieve communication of permanent data and in complete safety. These new
approaches can address extremely pressing problems in today’s society. It should not be
overlooked that pollution and congestion are causes of traffic and mismanagement. The
purpose of the proposal was to highlight the usefulness of VLC in systems other than
the standard ones while, at the same time, indicating the high degree of security offered
by the new standard compared to the existing ones. The communication through visible
light employed in the proposed approach is performed in the PHY layers, resulting in
unidirectional UDP connections in the first instance. The tests are in the early stages and
have not passed the first stages where addresses are generated and packets with digital
samples and minimal processing blocks are sent. Various parameters, sample rates, data
rates, and modulation schemes have been studied, but no conclusions have yet been
drawn, as these digital samples are routed internally without processing. An outline of a
GNURadio-type processing block can be proposed that targets a future direction of being
able to modulate the transmission bandwidth in both directions of the optical channel.
When the intensity of the transmitted light is detected by a receiver and converted into an
electrical current, unforeseen effects can occur. In this case, a file-type protection board on
the transmitter–receiver path that can demodulate the received carrier signal is imperative.
Thus, the data in Table 3 were extracted from the first stage of analysis of the presented
proposal. The sources were retrieved and identified as the main data providers within
the network, while the nodes represented the control units with destinations and sources.
Figure 8 presents the degree of security of the data exposed in the information transmission
process, showing that they do not deviate in the process they follow, nor do they present
certain violations.
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 14 of 17

Table 3. Testbed routing.

Source Next Node Destination Node Mask Address Interface Connection

100.100.1.0 100.100.1.1 100.100.1.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.2.0 100.100.2.2 100.100.2.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.3.0 100.100.3.3 100.100.3.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.4.0 100.100.4.4 100.100.4.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.5.0 100.100.5.5 100.100.5.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.6.0 100.100.6.6 100.100.6.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.7.0 100.100.7.7 100.100.7.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.8.0 100.100.8.8 100.100.8.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.9.0 100.100.9.9 100.100.9.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.10.0 100.100.10.10 100.100.10.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0
100.100.11.0 100.100.11.11 100.100.11.0 255.255.255.0 ethvlc0

Visible light communication is considered extremely important because it is a new

physical environment that promises to alleviate the pressure hovering over the use of the
RF spectrum. This tool is becoming more and more common, highlighting the performance
of VLC in the case of end-to-end network integrations. The purpose of this article was to
highlight the diverse applications of VLC, its complementarity with RF, and, in particular,
to process of emergence through which it can have an important role within the same
system. The VLC model was validated by the tests and the measurements undertaken, but
there is a need for the independence of VLC to be finalized, and questions arise as to how it
can be used with Wi-Fi and RF, encouraging proposals for hybrid networks at scale.
Instrumenting binaries with additional code sequences can be used to achieve a higher
degree of routing by passing each instruction into the buffer dedicated to validation and
generation of execution. Implementation at the architecture or prototype levels demon-
strates leaps in tracking binary macs. Arguably, this implies the detection of unknown
exploits from the previous parsing that trigger new routines in the buffer and create tags
for system-wide validation.
Therefore, any type of attack against the networks outlined on board vehicles can
be successfully mitigated because such attacks cannot be backed by classic exploitation
techniques, penetration tests, buffer overflows, packet injection, or fake routines. Through
such an approach, it is possible to ensure that the information is and will remain private
and the data are kept within the ECUs until the moment of validation by the issuer and
confirmation that the data can travel the unidirectional route. The major problem is created
when binary tools need a larger number of binary tags; these must be extracted from
multiple sources until MAC addresses can have one-byte characteristics with the ability
to expose distinct tags for IDs, they must obtain contains eight characteristics generated
for each. It is possible to limit the volume of data and the sources, but the goal is to secure
a small dataset, which is a priority for optical communication dedicated to road safety
and vehicular communication. A brake pressed suddenly in a major emergency triggers
a request from a certain distance, and the existing cryptographic security process inserts
labels for each VLC code and transmits them to the other sensors to verify the veracity of
the data. The role of tags is to validate data from several sources: at least three tagging
sources for each court validating code, cause code, or sub-cause code. These codes are
already developed with a nomenclature dedicated to the traffic codes that the V2X–DSRC
networks have, and they are called CAM and DENM messages. The presented solution
is at an early stage and requires intensive study of the codes that the ECUs generate and
analysis of data flows and the protocols they use, as well as identification of efficient ways
of processing data in a relatively short time. The process cannot be used by all existing
vehicles but may be an extremely important feature for future approaches.
Electronics 2023, 12, 1359 15 of 17

5. Conclusions
When resource-intensive computing services employing big data are used and they
contain location data or large-scale derivations, query requests also arise. They are en-
crypted and transmitted to vehicles to efficiently manage the processes carried out by the
RSUs. The roadside control and management units can calculate the shortest routes to
the desired destinations, a feature that transforms the network into a continuous flow of
variants. In addition to these features, distance and location data are only captured at the
user’s physical level of inquiry and are shown in standard CPSs. The transfer of informa-
tion and its sharing between vehicles is undertaken through a different environment that
can control each physical level and a layer of the sharable service query. When the data are
collected, they are adjusted with on-board units capable of branching the information into
distinct stages and iterative processes through which the filtering of the usual information
from that of control and management is distinctly achieved. Regardless of the area in
which communications are used or their type, keeping personal information confidential
and encrypting it are of paramount importance. The future is extremely promising for
the application and development of such systems but, at the same time, the accumulation
of factors and the dangers to which individuals and users are exposed can create more
identity and authentication intrusions. Location and destination monitoring may make new
systems veritable maps of possible targets for malicious individuals. Another approach
that the scientific community can consider is that of generating fake data for the external
environment and constantly updating IDs, producing a model capable of maintaining some
degree of discretion in terms of safety and security.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a grant of the Ministry of Research, Innovation and
Digitization, CNCS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P1-1.1-TE-2021-1371, within PNCDI III.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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