Ehs 503

COURSE
GUIDE
EHS 503
WATER/AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Course Team: Dr. E.O. Balogun (Course Developer/Writer)-NOUN

Dr. Sylvania Chukwudi Ugoh (Course Editor) –
University of Abuja
Dr. Sylvania Chukwudi Ugoh (Course Coordinator)
Professor Grace C. Okoli-Nnabuenyi (HOD, Dept.
of Environmental Health Science & Programme
Coordinator)-NOUN
Professor Dakul Anthony Dana’an (Course Reviewer)
Department of Zoology, University of Jos, Nigeria
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
© 2022 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed 2012, 2022
ISBN:978-978-058-278-4
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
CONTENTS
Introduction …………………………………………….. iv
What you will Learn in this Course ………..…………… iv
Course Aim …………………………………..…………. iv
Course Objectives …………………………….………… iv
Working through this Course ………………….……….. v
Course Materials ………………………………..………. v
Study Units ………………………………………...……. vi
Course Overview ………………………………….……. vi
Textbooks and References ……………………………… vi
Assessment File ………………………………………… ix
Presentation Schedule …………………………………… ix
Assessment ……………………………………………… ix
Tutor-Marked Assignment ……………………………… x
Course Marking Scheme ………………………………... x
How to get the most out of this Course ………………… xi
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ……………………….. xiii
Final Examination ………………………………………. xiv
Summary ………………………………………………… xiv
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Introduction
This course, Water/Air Quality Management discusses the importance of

water and air quality in terms of their ability to meet designated uses and
support healthy living. Several natural and anthropogenic activities
introduce contaminants and pollutants into the aquatic and atmospheric
environments. These must be controlled or prevented in order to keep
the water and air in good quality to meet current and further human
needs. In this course, you will be introduced to different aspects of
water/air quality management.
What You Will Learn in This Course
In this course, you have the course units and a course guide. The course
guide will tell you what the course is all about. It is general overview of
the course materials you will be using and how to use those materials. It
also helps you to allocate the appropriate time to each unit so that you
can successfully complete the course within the stipulated time limit.
The course guide also helps you to know how to go about your Tutor-
Marked Assignment which will form part of your overall assessment at
the end of the course. Also, there will be regular tutorial classes that are
related to this course, where you can interact with your facilitator and
other students. Please, I encourage you to attend these tutorial classes.
Course Aim
The aim of this course is to provide you with the basics of water/air
quality management, framework for water/air pollution control and the
different methods of assessing water and air quality.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aim set above, there are objectives. Each unit has a set of
objectives presented at the beginning of the unit. These objectives will
guide you on what to concentrate / focus on while studying the unit.
Please read the objective before studying the unit and during your study
to check your progress.
The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course are given below. By the

end of the course/after going through this course, it is expected that at
the end of this course, students should be able to:
• Define and explain the concept of water/air quality
• Understand the principles and objectives of water and air quality
management
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
• Know the international conventions and treaties on water quality

management
• Understand the roles of the World Health Organization in water
and air quality management
• Explain the procedures for water quality monitoring and
surveillance
• Explain how to protect water sources and treatment of wastewater
• Explain how water/air pollution impact on the quality of life and
the environment
• Explain the different air quality assessment technologies and air
quality modelling
Working Through This Course
To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each

study unit, read the textbooks materials provided by the National Open
University.
Reading the referenced materials can also be of great assistance.
Each unit has self-assessment exercises which you are advised to do and
at certain periods during the course you will be required to submit your
assignment for the purpose of assessment.
There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The course
should take you about 12 weeks to complete.
This course guide will provide you with all the components of the course
how to go about studying and hour you should allocate your time to each
unit so as to finish on time and successfully.
The Course Materials
The main components of the course are:
1. The Study Guide

2. Study Units
3. Reference / Further Readings
4. Assignments
5. Presentation Schedule
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Study Units
The study units in this course are given below:
Module 1 An Overview of Water Quality Management
Unit 1 Definitions, Concepts, Principles and Objectives

Unit 2 Water Quality Standards
Unit 3 International Conventions and Treaties
Module 2 Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance
Unit 1 Procedures for Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance

Unit 2 Protection of Water Sources
Unit 3 Wastewater Management
Module 3 An Overview of Air Quality Management
Unit 1 Concept of Air Quality

Unit 2 Air Pollution
Unit 3 Measurement of Air Quality
Module 4 Assessment of Air Quality
Unit 1 Air Quality Assessment Technologies

Unit 2 Source Apportionment, Mobile Monitoring and Land Use
Regression
Unit 3 Air Quality Modelling
There are activities related to the lecture in each unit which will help
your progress and comprehension of the unit. You are required to work
on these exercises which together with the TMAs will enable you to
achieve the objectives of each unit.
Textbooks And References/Web Resources
Bartone, C., Bernstein, J., Leitmann, J. & Eigen, J. (1994). Toward

Environmental Strategies for Cities: Policy Considerations for
Urban Development Management in Developing Countries.
UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank, Urban Management Programme,
Washington, D.C.
California Storm Water Quality Association (2003). Menlo Park, CA.

"Municipal BMP Handbook."
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Enderlein, R.E. (1995). Protecting Europe's water resources: Policy

issues. Water Science and Technology 31(8): 1-8.
EPA (2005). "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." Fact

Sheet No. EPA-841-F-05-001.
Kulshreshtha, S.N. (1998). "A Global Outlook for Water Resources to

the Year 2025". Water Resources Management. 12 (3): 167–184.
doi:10.1023/A:1007957229865 .
Marek, Linda G. (1984). Water and Sewage Treatment for Small

Communities. BR. 1347. Vermont Cooperative Extension
Service. University of Vermont. Burlington, VT.
McCaffrey, S. (1998). ‗The UN Convention on the Law of Non-

Navigational Uses of International Watercourses: prospects and
pitfalls‘, in S.M.A. Salman & L.B. de Chazournes (Eds),
International Watercourses: Enhancing cooperation and managing
conflict, World Bank, Washington, pp. 17-27.
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,

Disposal, and Reuse. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Meybeck, M., Chapman, D. & Helmer, R. (1989). Global Freshwater

Quality. A First Assessment. Published on behalf of WHO and
UNEP by Blackwell Reference, Oxford, 306 pp.
Murray, F. (1997). Urban air pollution and health effects. In: D. Brune,
D. V. Chapman, M.D. Gwynne, & J. M. Pacyna (Eds.) The
Global Environment, pp. 585–598. VCH, Weinheim, Germany:
Scandanavian Science Publisher.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2004). "New

Jersey Storm water Best Management Practices Manual."
Nordic Freshwater Initiative (1991). Copenhagen Report.

Implementation Mechanisms for Integrated Water Resources
Development and Management. Background Document the UN
Conference on Environment and Development. Nordic
Freshwater Initiative, Copenhagen.
Rieu-Clarke, A. & Lopez, A., (2013). Why have states joined the UN
Watercourses Convention, in F. Rocha Loures & A. Rieu-Clarke
(Eds.), The UN Watercourses in Force: Strengthening
international law for trans-boundary water management,
Routledge, New York.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Rocha Loures, F., Rieu-Clarke, A., Dellapenna, J.W. & Lammers, J.,
(2013). The authority and function of the UN Watercourses
Convention, in F. Rocha Loures & A. Rieu-Clarke (Eds.), The
UN Watercourses in Force: Strengthening international law for
trans-boundary water management, Routledge, New York.
Soliman, W.R. & Ward, R.C. (1994). The Evolving Interface between
Water Quality Management and Monitoring. Wat. Int., 19, 138-
44.
UNCED (1992). Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable

Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, 3–14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro. http://www.
un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm
UNECE, (1995). Protection and Sustainable Use of Waters:

Recommendations to ECE Governments. Water Series, No. 2.
ECE/CEP/10, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
United Nations, New York and Geneva.
UNECE (1999). Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement.

ECE/EB.AIR/65. United Nations, New York and Geneva.
Related http:// www.umweltbundesamt.de/whocc/nl25/publi-
25.htm
UNESCO/WHO, (1978). Water Quality Surveys. A Guide for the

Collection and Interpretation of Water Quality Data. Studies and
Reports in Hydrology, No. 23, United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 350 pp.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). National

Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Municipal
Wastewater. www.epa.gov.
UNWC 1997 United Nations Watercourses Convention (UNWC), 1997.

‗Preamble‘. Available at:
http://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/391260/UN%20
Watercourses%20Convention%20-%20User%27s%20Guide.pdf
USEPA (2001). National Primary Drinking Water Standards. EPA-816-

F-01-007, Washington, D. C.
USEPA, (2007). Water Quality Standards Handbook: Web Edition.

http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Warford, J.J. (1994). Environment, health, and sustainable development:

The role of economic instruments and policies. Discussion paper
for the Director General's Council on the Earth Summit Action
Programme for Health and Environment, June 1994, World
Health Organization, Geneva.
WCED (1987). Our Common Future. World Commission on

Environment and Development. United Nations, New York.
Summary at: http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~susdev/WCED87.html
Assignment File
There are two types of assessments in this course. First are the Tutor-
Marked Assessments (TMAs); second is the written examination. In
solving the questions in the assignments, you are expected to apply the
information, knowledge and experience acquired during the course. The
assignments must be submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment
in accordance with prescribed deadlines stated in the assignment file.
The work you submit to your facilitator for assessment accounts for 30
percent of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will be
required to sit for a final examination of 1½ hours duration at your study
center. This final examination will account for 70 % of your total course
mark.
Presentation Schedule
There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and
submissions of your TMAs as well as attending the tutorial classes. You
are required to submit all your assignments by the stipulated time and
date. Avoid falling behind the schedule time.
Assessment
There are three aspects to the assessment of this course.
The first one is the self-assessment exercises. The second is the tutor
marked assignments and the third is the written examination or the
examination to be taken at the end of the course.
Do the exercises or activities in the unit by applying the information and

knowledge you acquired during the course. The tutor-marked
assignments must be submitted to your facilitator for formal assessment
in accordance with the deadlines stated in the presentation schedule and
the assignment file.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
The work submitted to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of
your total course work.
At the end of this course, you have to sit for a final or end of course
examination of about a three-hour duration which will count for 70% of
your total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
This is the continuous assessment component of this course and it

accounts for 30% of the total score. You will be given four (4) TMAs by
your facilitator to answer. Three of which must be answered before you
are allowed to sit for the end of course examination.
These answered assignments are to be returned to your facilitator.
You‘re expected to complete the assignments by using the information

and material in your readings references and study units.
Reading and researching into you references will give you a wider via
point and give you a deeper understanding of the subject.
• Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or

before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and assignment
file. If for any reason you are not able to complete your assignment,
make sure you contact your facilitator before the assignment is due to
discuss the possibility of an extension. Request for extension will not be
granted after the due date unless there in exceptional circumstances.
• Make sure you revise the whole course content before sitting or
the examination. The self-assessment activities and TMAs will be useful
for this purposes and if you have any comment please do before the
examination. The end of course examination covers information from all
parts of the course.
Course Marking Scheme
Assignment Marks
Assignments 1 – 4 best three marks of the
each–30% of course
End of course examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course materials.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Table 2: Course Organization
Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessment

activity (End of Unit)
Definitions, Concepts, Principles
1 and Objectives Week 1 Assignment 1
2 Water Quality Standards Week 2 Assignment 2
International Conventions and
3 Treaties Week 3 Assignment 3
Procedures for Water Quality

4 Monitoring and Week 4 Assignment 4
Surveillance
5 Protection of Water Sources Week 5 Assignment 5
6 Wastewater Management Week 6 Assignment 6
7 Concepts of Air Quality Week 7 Assignment 7
8 Air Pollution Week 8 Assignment 8
Measurement of Air Quality
9 Technologies Week 9 Assignment 9
Air Quality Assessment
10 Technologies Week10 Assignment10
Source Apportionment, Mobile
11 Monitoring and Week11 Assignment 11
Land Use Regression
12 Air Quality Modelling Week12 Assignment 12
How To Get the Most out of This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the huge advantages of distance learning mode; you can read
and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace
and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading from the
teacher, the study guide tells you what to read, when to read and the
relevant texts to consult. You are provided exercises at appropriate
points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise. Each of the
study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to
the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with
the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning
objectives. These learning objectives are meant to guide your studies.
The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether you
have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main
body of the units also guides you through the required readings from
other sources. This will usually be either from a set book or from other
sources.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Self-assessment exercises are provided throughout the unit, to aid

personal studies and answers are provided at the end of the unit.
Working through these self-tests will help you to achieve the objectives
of the unit and also prepare you for tutor marked assignments and
examinations. You should attempt each self-test as you encounter them
in the units.
The following are practical strategies for working through this

course
• Read the Course Guide thoroughly.
• Organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more

details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and
how the assignment relates to the units. Important details, e.g.
details of your tutorials and the date of the first day of the
semester are available. You need to gather together all these
information in one place such as a diary, a wall chart calendar or
an organizer. Whatever method you choose, you should decide on
and write in your own dates for working on each unit.
• Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course works. If you get into
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before
it is too late for help.
• Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
• Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

`for a unit is given in the table of contents at the beginning of
each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you
are working on and one of the materials recommended for further
readings, on your desk at the same time.
• Work through the unit, the content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit, you will be encouraged to read from your set
books.
• Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet
the objectives of the course and will help you pass the
examination.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
• Review the objectives of each study unit to confirm that you have
achieved them. If you are not certain about any of the objectives,
review the study material and consult your tutor.
• When you are confident that you have achieved a unit‘s

objectives, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit
through the course and try to pace your study so that you can
keep yourself on schedule.
• When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor‘s comments, both on the tutor-
marked assignment form and also that written on the assignment.
Consult you tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or
problems.
• After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in this course guide).
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials
Sixteen (16) hours are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be
notified of the dates, times and location for these tutorial classes. As
soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone number
of your facilitator will be given to you.
These are the duties of your facilitator: He or she will mark and
comment on your assignment. He will monitor your progress and
provide any necessary assistance you need. He or she will mark your
TMAs and return to you as soon as possible. You are expected to mail
your tutored assignment to your facilitator at least two days before the
schedule date.
Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for

necessary assistance if you do not understand any part of the study in the
course material. You have difficulty with the self-assessment activities.
You have a problem or question with an assignment or with the grading
of the assignment.
It is important and necessary you acted the tutorial classes because this
is the only chance to have face to face content with your facilitator and
to ask questions which will be answered instantly. It is also period where
you can say any problem encountered in the course of your study.
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EHS503 COURSE GUIDE
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for EHS 503: Water/Air Quality Management

will be of 1½ hours duration. This accounts for 70 % of the total course
grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the
practice, exercises and the tutor-marked assignments you have already
attempted in the past. Note that all areas of the course will be assessed.
To revise the entire course, you must start from the first unit to the
twelfth unit in order to get prepared for the examination. It may be
useful to go over your TMAs and probably discuss with your course
mates or group if need be. This will make you to be more prepared,
since the examination covers information from all aspects of the course.
Summary
This course, water/air quality management contains relevant information

on water/air quality management. The knowledge gained from the
course is to enable you as an environmental scientist to take up any role
involving water/air quality management.
I wish you success in this course.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS
Module 1 An Overview of Water Quality Management 1
Unit 1 Definitions, Concepts, Principles and Objectives 1

Unit 2 Water Quality Standards……………………… 14
Unit 3 International Conventions and Treaties 19
Module 2 Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance 23
Unit 1 Procedures for Water Quality Monitoring and

Surveillance…………………………………… 23
Unit 2 Protection of Water Sources…………………... 28
Unit 3 Wastewater Management……………………… 36
Module 3 An Overview of Air Quality Management 45
Unit 1 Concept of Air Quality……………………….. 45

Unit 2 Air Pollution………………………………….. 54
Unit 3 Measurement of Air Quality…………………. 64
Module 4 Assessment of Air Quality………………….. 71
Unit 1 Air Quality Assessment Technologies……….. 71

Unit 2 Source Apportionment, Mobile Monitoring and
Land Use Regression…………………………. 77
Unit 3 Air Quality Modelling………………………… 84
EHS 503 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 AN OVERVIEW OF WATER QUALITY

MANAGEMENT

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes
1.3 Definitions, Concepts, Principles and Objectives
1.3.1 Definitions
1.3.2 Concept of Water Quality
1.3.3 Water Quality Principles
1.3.4 Water Quality Criteria and Objectives
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Resources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.1 Introduction
The global importance and vulnerability of our water supply, both in

terms of quantity and quality has been well documented and, although
water is a renewable resource, it is also a finite resource. Water, vital to
both human health and ecosystem sustainability, is under increasing
pressure as urbanisation and agricultural intensification increase and, as
such, it is essential that we improve our understanding of the types, and
complexity and potential impacts of chemicals that are increasingly
being released into the environment, especially the water bodies, and
how they affect the quality of our lives.
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EHS 503 WATER/AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of water quality management

• explain the principles and objectives of water quality
management
• discuss water quality standards including standards for drinking
quality water
• Know the international conventions and treaties on water quality
management
1.3 Definitions, Concepts, Principles and Objectives
1.3.1 Definitions
Community Managed Water Systems

On-site or centralised drinking water systems are protected, operated
and maintained (small maintenance only) by community water
committee.
Contaminant
Any chemical or substance present or released or added into drinking
water which is capable of being hazardous to health.
Drinking Water
All water either in its original state or after treatment, intended for
drinking, cooking, food preparation or other domestic purposes,
regardless of its origin and whether it is supplied from a drinking water
system, or a tanker, or taken from a private well.
All water used in any food production undertaking for the manufacture,
processing, preservation or marketing of products or substances intended
for human consumption.
Drinking Water Quality Control

Water tests conducted on routine basis by the water utility to ensure that
water supplied to the consumers meet the standard.
Drinking Water Quality Surveillance

Water tests, sanitary inspections and spot checks conducted by an
independent agency to ensure that water utilities and other suppliers
meet the Standard.
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EHS 503 MODULE 1
Drinking Water Service Level

Measure of quality, quantity, accessibility, coverage, affordability and
continuity of drinking water supplied to the population. Water service
levels are defined in the National Water Supply Policy and Sanitation
Policy.
Drinking Water Service Provider

The whole set of organisation, processes, activities, means and resources
necessary for abstracting, treating, distributing or supplying drinking
water and for providing the associated services. Drinking water service
providers are essentially State’s water agencies. The State’s Water
Agencies are:
State Water Boards/Corporations, which mostly serve urban areas

greater than 20,000 inhabitants.
Small Water Town Agencies, which mostly serve semi-urban areas with
population between 5,000 to 20,000 inhabitants.
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agencies operate in rural areas and
usually serve communities of 500 to 5,000 inhabitants.
Drinking Water System

Tangible assets necessary for abstracting, treating, distributing or
supplying drinking water. Drinking water systems include centralized
and on-site systems:
Protected on-site drinking water systems:

i. Protected hand dug wells equipped with hand pump
ii. Protected spring catchments
iii. Borehole equipped with hand pump
Protected centralized drinking water systems:

i. Mechanized borehole with distribution system
ii. Surface water intake, treatment and distribution system
Laboratory Quality Assurance

Minimum requirements regarding staff qualification, analytical method,
sampling procedures, calibration procedures, quality control, preventive
maintenance and record keeping procedures that a laboratory has to
comply with to ensure reliable and accurate results
Maximum Permitted or Allowable Limits

Maximum concentration of microbiological, chemical and organic
constituents / contamination allowed in drinking water. These
3
concentrations are based on WHO guideline value for which no adverse

health effect is noticed.
Mineral Water
Water packaged in suitable container that meets the Nigerian Industrial
Standards for Natural Mineral Water (NIS 345: 2003).
Packaged Water
Water packaged in suitable container that meets The Nigerian Industrial
Standards for Potable Water.
Point of Delivery
Physical fixed interface beyond which the water service provider is not
legally responsible for the service.
Point of compliance
Points where the surveillance agency collects water samples in order to
measure compliance with maximum allowable limits.
Private Drinking Water System

Drinking water systems owned by a private person(s) and use solely for
the family residence.
Protection Zone
Defined area surrounding a water source where activities that may affect
water quality are restricted or prohibited
Public or Privately Owned Establishment

Establishment where water is supplied to the public, such as secondary
schools, university, hospitals, restaurants.
Sanitary Inspections
Inspections used to evaluate the likelihood of contamination of water
Sanitary Surveys
The evaluation of the water source and intake structure, the treatment
and conditioning process, the facilities and components and also an
evaluation of the distribution system
Sources of Contamination
Release into the environment of man-made chemical and bacteriological
contaminants. Major contamination sources are animal and human
wastes, industry and mining activities, agriculture and accidents and
leaks such as oil spillage.
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EHS 503 MODULE 1
State Urban Water Supply Regulators

Independent regulatory bodies that monitor the performance of water
utilities or any other water supply operators and ensure that the water
supply complies with quality standard and service levels.
Toxic element
Organic or inorganic constituents that may adversely affect human
health when its concentration in water reaches a specific threshold.
Water quality
The chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of
water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the
requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or
purpose.
Water Source (groundwater or surface water)

Surface water includes streams, rivers, lakes or reservoirs.
Ground water includes springs, wells or boreholes
Water Safety Plan

Essential actions that are the responsibility of the drinking water
provider in order to ensure that drinking water is safe. These are:
• a system assessment;
• effective operational monitoring; and
• management
Water Vendors
These are persons or organizations selling water to households or at

collection points. Vendors may carry drinking water for sale directly to
the consumer by tanker trucks, wheelbarrows /trolleys or donkey carts
Self-Assessment Exercise 1
List and define any five terms associated with water quality
management
1.3.2 Concept of Water Quality
Pollution influences living organisms, humans included, both directly

(by affecting their health) and indirectly (via contamination of food and
abiotic compartments). Heavy metals and organic compounds, such as
polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and pesticides, have been the center
of attention for a long time. It is necessary to understand the nature of
5
these pollutants and their effects on water quality for the development of
better management practices.
The importance of water quality as a factor constraining water use has

often gone unacknowledged in the analyses of water scarcity. Water
scarcity is a function not only of volumetric supply, but also of quality
sufficient to meet the demand. The UN World Water Development
Report from the World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the
next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to
decrease by 30%. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from
waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water)
or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies
every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases. Some
observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world
population will be facing water-based vulnerability (Kulshreshtha,
1998). A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in
some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply
by 50%.
Water plays an important role in the world economy. Water quality

management is important because safe drinking water is essential to
humans and other life forms. The drinking water demand is perhaps the
largest demand for high quality water apart from many industrial uses
which also require high quality water. Water is an excellent solvent for a
wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely used in
industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Agriculture, by far the
largest consumer of water, also suffers when water supplies is affected.
Other anthropogenic activities that use water include fishing, transport,
cooling and heating in industries and homes etc.
Self -Assessment Exercise2

List five key words that underline the concept of water quality
1.3.3 Water Quality Principles
The following guiding principles provide a suitable basis for water

quality management:
Prevent pollution rather than treating symptoms of pollution.

Remedial actions to clean up polluted sites and water bodies are
generally much more expensive than applying measures to prevent
pollution from occurring. This principle seeks to prevent the production
of wastes that require treatment. Water pollution control that focuses on
wastewater minimization, in-plant refinement of raw materials and
production processes, recycling of waste products, etc., are given
priority over traditional end-of-pipe treatments. Where water pollution
originates from diffuse sources, such as agricultural use of fertilizers,
6
EHS 503 MODULE 1
which cannot be controlled by this approach the principle of "best

environmental practice" should be applied to minimize non-point
source pollution e.g. codes of good agricultural practice that address the
causes of water pollution from agriculture, such as type, amount and
time of application of fertilizers, manure and pesticides, can give
guidance to farmers on how to prevent or reduce pollution of water
bodies. (UNECE,1993).
Precautionary principle.
There are many examples of the application and discharge of hazardous
substances into the aquatic environment, even when such substances are
suspected of having detrimental effects on the environment. Until now
the use of any substance and its release to the environment has been
widely accepted, unless scientific research has proved unambiguously a
causal link between the substance and a well-defined environmental
impact. Actions to avoid potential environmental damage by hazardous
substances should not be postponed on the grounds that scientific
research has not proved fully a causal link between the substance and
the potential damage (UNECE, 1994).
Polluter-pays-principle
The costs of pollution prevention, control and reduction measures are
borne by the polluter. This principle is an economic instrument that is
aimed at affecting behaviour, i.e. by encouraging and inducing
behaviour that puts less strain on the environment. Examples of attempts
to apply this principle include financial charges for industrial waste-
water discharges and special taxes on pesticides (Warford, 1994).
Realistic standards and regulations

An important element in a water pollution control strategy is the
formulation of realistic standards and regulations. However, the
standards must be achievable and the regulations enforceable.
Unrealistic standards and non-enforceable regulations may do more
harm than having no standards and regulations, because they create an
attitude of indifference towards rules and regulations in general, both
among polluters and administrators. Standards and regulations should be
tailored to match the level of economic and administrative capacity and
capability. Standards should be gradually tightened as progress is
achieved in general development and in the economic capability of the
private sector. Thus, the setting of standards and regulations should be
an iterative and on-going process.
Balance economic and regulatory instruments

Regulatory management instruments are heavily relied upon by
governments in most countries for controlling water pollution.
Economic instruments, typically in the form of wastewater discharge
fees and fines, have been introduced to a lesser extent and mainly by
industrialized countries. The setting of prices and charges are crucial to
the success of economic instruments. If charges are too low, polluters
7
may opt to pollute and to pay, whereas if charges are too high, they may
inhibit economic development. In developing countries, where financial
resources and institutional capacity are very limited, the most important
criteria for balancing economic and regulatory instruments should be
cost-effectiveness (those that achieve the objectives at the least cost) and
administrative feasibility.
Water pollution control at the lowest appropriate level

The appropriate level may be defined as the level at which significant
impacts are experienced. If, for example, a specific water quality issue
only has a possible impact within a local community, then the
community level is the proper management level. If environmental
impacts affect a neighbouring community, then the appropriate
management level is one level higher than the community level, for
example the river basin level. The important point is that decisions or
actions concerning water pollution control should be taken as close as
possible to those affected, and that higher administrative levels should
enable lower levels to carry out decentralized management.
Establishment of mechanisms for cross-sectoral integration

In order to ensure the co-ordination of water pollution control efforts
within water-related sectors, such as health and agriculture, formal
mechanisms and means of co-operation and information exchange need
to be established. Such mechanisms should:
• Allow decision makers from different sectors to influence water
pollution policy.
• Urge them to put forward ideas and plans from their own sector
with impacts on water quality.
• Allow them to comment on ideas and plans put forward by other
sectors.
For example, a permanent committee with representatives from the

involved sectors could be established. The functions and responsibilities
of the cross-sectoral body would typically include at least the following:
• Co-ordination of policy formulation on water pollution control.
• Setting of national water quality criteria and standards, and their
supporting regulations.
• Review and co-ordination of development plans that affect water
quality.
• Resolution of conflicts between governments bodies regarding
water pollution issues that cannot be resolved at a lower level.
Participatory approach with involvement of all relevant

stakeholders
The participatory approach involves raising awareness of the importance
of water pollution control among policy-makers and the general public.
8
EHS 503 MODULE 1
Decisions should be taken with full public consultation and with the
involvement of groups affected by the planning and implementation of
water pollution control activities. This means, for example, that the
public should be kept continuously informed, be given opportunities to
express their views, knowledge and priorities, and it should be apparent
that their views have been taken into account.
Open access to information on water pollution

This principle is directly related to the principle of involvement of the
general public in the decision-making process, because a precondition
for participation is free access to information held by public authorities.
Open access to information helps to stimulate understanding,
discussions and suggestions for solutions of water quality problems.
International co-operation on water pollution control

Trans-boundary water pollution, typically encountered in large rivers,
requires international co-operation and co-ordination of efforts in order
to be effective. In a number of cases (e.g. the Danube, Zambezi and
Mekong rivers), permanent international bodies with representatives
from riparian states have been successfully established, with the
objective of strengthening international co-operation on the pollution
control of the shared water resources. A framework for international co-
operation on water pollution control that has been widely agreed is the
Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans-boundary Watercourses
and International Lakes (UNECE, 1994).
List and explain any 5 water quality principles
1.3.4 Water Quality Criteria and Objectives
Water quality criterion (or water quality guideline) refers to numerical

concentration or narrative statement recommended to support and
maintain a designated water use. Water quality objective (water quality
goal or target) on the other hand refers to numerical concentration or
narrative statement which has been established to support and to protect
the designated uses of water at a specific site, river basin or part(s)
thereof.
Water Quality Criteria

Water quality criteria are developed to provide basic scientific
information about the effects of water pollutants on a specific water use.
They also describe water quality requirements for protecting and
maintaining an individual use. Many water quality criteria set a
maximum level for the concentration of a substance in a particular
medium (i.e. water, sediment or biota) which will not be harmful when
9
the specific medium is used continuously for a single, specific purpose.

For some other water quality variables, such as dissolved oxygen, water
quality criteria are set at the minimum acceptable concentration to
ensure the maintenance of biological functions.
Water quality criteria for individual use categories

Water quality criteria have been widely established for a number of
traditional water quality variables such as pH, dissolved oxygen,
biochemical oxygen demand for periods of five or seven days (BOD5
and BOD 7), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and nutrients.
In setting criteria for water quality water-management authorities in

consultation with industries, municipalities, farmers' associations, the
general public and others agree on the designated water uses in a
catchment area that are to be protected. Such uses include categories
such as drinking-water supply, irrigation, livestock watering, fisheries,
leisure activities, amenities, maintenance of aquatic life and the
protection of the integrity of aquatic ecosystems etc. Each of these uses
have different requirements that will therefore inform the water quality
goal or target (objectives).
Water Quality Objectives

The establishment of water quality objectives is not a scientific task but
rather a political process that requires a critical assessment of national
priorities. Such an assessment is based on economic considerations,
present and future water uses, forecasts for industrial progress and for
the development of agriculture, and many other socio-economic factors
(UNESCO/WHO, 1978; UNECE, 1993, 1995). General guidance for
developing water quality objectives is given in the Convention on the
Protection and Use of Trans-boundary Watercourses and International
Lakes (UNECE, 1992).
Water quality objectives provide the basis for pollution control

regulations and for carrying out specific measures for the prevention,
control or reduction of water pollution and other adverse impacts on
aquatic ecosystems. In some countries, water quality objectives play the
role of a regulatory instrument or even become legally binding. Their
application may require, for example, the appropriate strengthening of
emission standards and other measures for tightening control over point
and diffuse pollution sources. In some cases, water quality objectives
serve as planning instruments and/or as the basis for the establishment of
priorities in reducing pollution levels by substances and/or by sources.
The establishment of a time schedule for attaining water quality

objectives is mainly influenced by the existing water quality, the
urgency of control measures and the prevailing economic and social
10
EHS 503 MODULE 1
conditions. It is of the utmost importance that the objectives are

understandable to all parties involved in pollution control and are
convertible into operational and cost-effective measures which can be
addressed through targets to reduce pollution. It should also be possible
to monitor, with existing networks and equipment, compliance with
such objectives. Objectives that are either vague or too sophisticated
should be avoided. The objectives should also have realistic time
schedules.
State the basic criteria and objective for water quality.
1.4 Summary
Water quality objectives should be revised regularly in order to adjust

them, among other things, to the potential of pollution reduction offered
by new technologies, to new scientific knowledge on water quality
criteria, and to changes in water use.
So far, we have looked at the definitions and some basic concepts

associated with water quality management. The underlining principles of
water quality were studied as follows:
• Prevent pollutants rather than treating the symptoms of pollution.
• Precautionary principle.
• Polluter-pays principle.
• Realistic standards and regulations.
• Balance economic and regulatory instruments.
• Water pollution control at the lowest appropriate levels.
• Establishment of mechanism for cross-sectoral integration.
• Participatory approach with involvement of all relevant
stakeholders.
• Open access to information on water pollution.
• International co-operation on water pollution control.
We also studied the key issues of water quality criteria and objectives.
11

Bartone, C., Bernstein, J., Leitmann, J. & Eigen, J. (1994). Toward
Environmental Strategies for Cities: Policy Considerations for
Urban Development Management in Developing Countries.
UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank, Urban Management Programme,
Washington, D.C.
Enderlein, R.E. (1995). Protecting Europe's Water Resources: Policy
Issues. Water Science and Technology 31(8): 1-8.
Kulshreshtha, S.N. (1998). "A Global Outlook for Water Resources to

the Year 2025". Water Resources Management. 12 (3): 167–184.
doi:10.1023/A:1007957229865 .
Meybeck, M., Chapman, D. & Helmer, R. (1989). Global Freshwater

Quality. A First Assessment. Published on behalf of WHO and
UNEP by Blackwell Reference, Oxford, 306 pp.
UNECE, (1992). Convention on the Protection and Use of

Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Helsinki.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, United
Nations, New York and Geneva.
UNECE, (1993). Protection of Water Resources and Aquatic

Ecosystems. Water Series, No. 1. ECE/ENVWA/31, United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe, United Nations, New
York.
UNECE, (1994). Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans-

boundary Watercourses and International Lakes.
ECE/ENHS/NONE/1, Geneva, United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe, New York.
UNECE, (1995). Protection and Sustainable Use of Waters:

Recommendations to ECE Governments. Water Series, No. 2.
ECE/CEP/10, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe,
United Nations, New York and Geneva.
UNESCO/WHO, (1978). Water Quality Surveys. A Guide for the

Collection and Interpretation of Water Quality Data. Studies and
Reports in Hydrology, No. 23, United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 350 pp.
Warford, J.J. (1994). Environment, health, and sustainable development:

The role of economic instruments and policies. Discussion paper
for the Director General's Council on the Earth Summit Action
Programme for Health and Environment, June 1994, World
Health Organization, Geneva.
12
EHS 503 MODULE 1
SAE 1
Some terms associated with water quality management:
Drinking Water: All water either in its original state or after treatment,
intended for drinking, cooking, food preparation or other domestic
purposes, regardless of its origin and whether it is supplied from a
drinking water system, or a tanker, or taken from a private well.
Mineral Water: Water packaged in suitable container that meets the
Nigerian Industrial Standards for Natural Mineral Water.
Water quality: The chemical, physical, biological, and radiological
characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative
to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human
need or purpose.
SAE 2
Key words that underline the concept of water quality
Pollution, pollutants, contamination, contaminants, heavy metals,
organic compounds, indicators, management, pesticides.
SAE 3
Water quality principles:
Prevent pollution rather than treat symptoms of pollution
Precautionary principle
Polluter-pay principle
Realistic standards and regulations principle
Balance economic and regulatory instruments principle
Water pollution control at the lowest appropriate level
Establishment of mechanism for cross-sectoral integration
SAE 4
Criteria and objectives for water quality:
Water quality criterion (or water quality guideline) refers to numerical
concentration or narrative statement recommended to support and
maintain a designated water use.
Water quality objective (water quality goal or target) on the other hand
refers to numerical concentration or narrative statement which has been
established to support and to protect the designated uses of water at a
specific site, river basin or part(s) thereof.
13
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Water Quality Standards
2.3.1 Categories of Water Uses
2.3.2 Standards for Drinking Water Quality
2.3.3 Nigerian Water Quality Standard
2.3.4 Roles of National Council on Water Resources (NCWR)
in NSDQW
2.4 Summary
2.1 Introduction
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and

radiological characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of
water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to
any human need or purpose. Water quality standards are numeric values
or narrative descriptions of water quality parameters that are meant to
sustain the designated uses of a water body. It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally
achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. Water quality
standards consist of two different elements namely designated use and
water quality criteria. The most common standards used to assess water
quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and
drinking water. The parameters for water quality are determined by the
intended use.
Water quality standards are part of regulations. There are several sets of
water quality standards, or guidelines for water quality standards issued
by various agencies and authorities (e.g. United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), World Health Organization (WHO), and
European Union (EU). Federal Environmental Protection Agency in
1988 (now under Federal Ministry of Environment) intended to define
the maximum acceptable limit of water pollution by various pollutants.
Standards for ambient water quality (quality objectives) are designated
depending on the intended use of the water resource (e.g. drinking
water, fishing water, spawning grounds).
14
EHS 503 MODULE 1
To establish water quality standards, it is important to identify and

describe how surface waters are used and what water quality parameters
should be managed.
• identify the categories of water uses

• explain the standards for drinking water quality
• discuss the standard range for quality drinking water in Nigeria
• evaluate the role of National Council on Water Resources
(NCWR) in National Standard for Drinking Quality Water
(NSDQW).
2.3 Water Quality Standards
2.3.1 Categories of Water Uses
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use.
The ‘designated uses’ of a water body are grouped into four categories:
1. Agricultural and industrial water supply
2. Recreation water
3. Public water supply
4. Aquatic life
List the categories of water according to their intended uses
2.3.2 Standards for Drinking Water Quality
Drinking water quality standards describes the quality parameters set for
drinking water. In 2011, the World Health Organization (WHO)
published guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) which include
recommended limits on naturally occurring constituents that may have
direct adverse health impact (WHO, 2011).The International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) published regulation of water
quality in the section of ICS 13.060, ranging from water sampling,
drinking water, industrial class water, sewage, and examination of water
for chemical, physical or biological properties. ICS 91.140.60 covers the
standards of water supply systems.
Although drinking water standards frequently are referred to as if they

are simple lists of parametric values, standard documents also specify
15
the sampling location, sampling methods, sampling frequency,

analytical methods, and laboratory accreditation Analytical Quality
Control (AQC).
Water quality standards usually contain parametric values which may be

the concentration of a substance that may cause adverse effects on
health, e.g.30 mg/l of Iron. It may also be a count such as 500 E. coli per
litre or a statistical value such as the average concentration of copper is
2 mg/L. Parametric values may also include a range of constituents that
by themselves are unlikely to have any impact on health. These include
colour, turbidity, pH, and the organoleptic (aesthetic) parameters (taste
and odour).
Identify set standards for drinking water quality.
2.3.3 Nigerian Water Quality Standard
The National Water Quality Guidelines and Standards for Nigeria

address drinking water, recreational use of water, freshwater aquatic life,
agricultural (irrigation and livestock watering) and industrial water uses.
Nigerian Standard for Drinking Quality Water (NSDQW)

The Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality covers all drinking
water except mineral water and packaged water. Mineral water and
packaged water are covered under the Nigerian Industrial Standards for
Natural Mineral Water (NIS 345:2003) and Potable Water (NIS
306:2004). These standards are used for regulation and certification by
the National Agency for Food and Drug administration and Control
(NAFDAC) and Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) respectively.
Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality contains mandatory limits

concerning constituents and contaminants of water that are known to be
hazardous to health and/or give rise to complaints from consumers. The
standard includes a set of procedures and good practices required to
meet the mandatory limits.
2.3.4 Roles of National Council on Water Resources (NCWR)

in NSDQW
In 2005, the National Council on Water Resources (NCWR) recognized

the need to urgently establish acceptable Nigerian Standard for Drinking
Water Quality because it was observed that the Nigerian Industrial
Standard for Potable Water developed by Standards Organization of
Nigeria and the National Guidelines and Standards for Water Quality in
Nigeria developed by Federal Ministry of Environment did not receive a
wide acceptance by all stakeholders in the country.
16
EHS 503 MODULE 1
Since water quality issues are health related issues, the Federal Ministry
of Health, collaborating with the Standards Organization of Nigeria and
working through a technical committee of key stakeholders developed
the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality. The standard was to
be reviewed every three years and/or as when necessary.
State the roles of National Council on water resources.
2.4 Summary
Drinking Water Quality Standard is important in water quality
management and protection of public health. Standard for drinking
water quality stipulates allowable limits of substances which may be
present in the water that may adversely affect public health.
Water quality standards are based on designated use of water. In this

unit, you have learnt:
• the general standards for drinking water quality
• Nigerian standard for drinking water quality, and
• The roles of National Council on Water Resources.

Nordic Freshwater Initiative (1991). Copenhagen Report.
Implementation Mechanisms for Integrated Water Resources
Development and Management. Background Document the UN
Conference on Environment and Development. Nordic
Freshwater Initiative, Copenhagen.
Soliman, W.R. & Ward, R.C. (1994). The Evolving Interface between
Water Quality Management and Monitoring. Wat. Int., 19, 138-
44.
USEPA (2001). National Primary Drinking Water Standards. EPA-816-
F-01-007, Washington, D. C.
USEPA, (2007). Water Quality Standards Handbook: Web Edition.
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/
17
SAE 1
Categories of water according to their intended uses:
Agricultural and industrial water supply
Recreation water
Public water supply
Aquatic life
SAE 2
Parameters considered in setting standards for drinking water:
Water quality standards usually contain parametric values which may be
the concentration of a substance that may cause adverse effects on
health, e.g.30 mg/l of Iron. It may also be a count such as 500 E. coli per
litre or a statistical value such as the average concentration of copper is
2 mg/L. Parametric values may also include a range of constituents that
by themselves are unlikely to have any impact on health. These include
colour, turbidity, pH, and the organoleptic (aesthetic) parameters (taste
and odour).
SAE 3
Roles of National Council on water resources:
Establish acceptable Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality
Developed National Guidelines for Water Quality in Nigeria
Develope the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality.
Undertake period review Standard for Drinking Water Quality.
18
EHS 503 MODULE 1
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 International Conventions and Treaties
3.3.1 The UN Water Courses Convention (UNWC)
3.3.2 The UNECE Water Convention
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational

Uses of International Watercourses (UN Watercourses Convention)
holds an important position in the development of International Water
Law (IWL) and has influenced many river basins of the world. The
Convention became effective on 17th August 2014, seventeen years after
its adoption by the UN General Assembly in 1997.
• define International Conventions and Treaties

• explain the UN Water Courses Convention
• explain the UNECE Water Convention.
3.3 International Conventions and Treaties
3.3.1 The UN Watercourses Convention (UNWC)
The UNWC was proposed as a response to the acknowledgment that a

global legal instrument was needed to bolster cooperation between states
over their shared water resources and mitigate the potential for conflict.
The UNWC was also meant to serve as a global treaty whose role was to
support other watercourse treaties by acting as a template and filling the
gaps where coverage was lacking (McCaffrey, 1998).
Along with the UNECE Helsinki Convention, the UNWC is the only
global treaty governing trans-boundary watercourses. It provides rules
19
that can be tailored to the distinct circumstances of each international

watercourse and gives liberty to watercourse states to take the actions
that suit their needs and interests as required by the singularity of the
situation (McCaffrey. 1998).
The UNWC, which is now widely recognized as the most authoritative

source of international water law, is a pivotal document of IWL in a
number of ways: it creates a strong framework for water governance
arrangements and a basic common ground that enhances predictability
and encourages reciprocity (Rieu-Clarke and Lopez, 2013). It codifies
and clarifies existing norms and develops emerging principles of
customary IWL; it constitutes a model that can guide the interpretation
of other treaties and the negotiation and drafting of future ones (Rocha
et al., 2013); and, it has informed the judgments of international and
regional courts (McCaffrey. 1998).
State reasons for the establishment of UNWC
3.3.2 The UNECE Water Convention
The UNECE Water Convention aims to ensure the sustainable use of

trans-boundary water resources by facilitating cooperation on trans-
boundary surface and ground waters and strengthens their protection and
sustainable management. Initially negotiated as a regional instrument, it
has been amended to become universally available.
The Convention on the Protection and Use of Trans-boundary

Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention) was adopted
in Helsinki in 1992 and entered into force in 1996. Almost all countries
sharing trans-boundary waters in the region of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) are Parties to the
Convention. The Convention obliges Riparian Parties to prevent, control
and reduce trans-boundary impact, use trans-boundary waters in a
reasonable and equitable way and ensure their sustainable management.
State the aim of UNECE water convention.
3.4 Summary
The UN Watercourses and the UNECE Conventions hold important

positions in the development of International Water Law (IWL) and
water laws in many countries and regions of the world.
20
EHS 503 MODULE 1
In this unit, we discussed the UN Watercourses Convention and the

UNECE convention and how they influenced the International Water
Law and water policies in countries that are parties to the convention.
The convention on the protection and use of trans-boundary
watercourses and international lakes was also mentioned.
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/water_cooperation_2013/water_c
onvention.shtml
https://www.unece.org/env/water.html
McCaffrey, S. (1998). The UN Convention on the Law of Non-

Navigational Uses of International Watercourses: prospects and
pitfalls, in S.M.A. Salman and L.B. de Chazournes (Eds),
International Watercourses: Enhancing cooperation and
managing conflict, World Bank, Washington, pp. 17-27.
Rieu-Clarke, A. & Lopez, A. (2013). Why have states joined the UN

Watercourses Convention, in F. Rocha Loures & A. Rieu-Clarke
(Eds.), The UN Watercourses in Force: Strengthening
international law for trans-boundary water management. New
York: Routledge.
Rocha, L. F., Rieu-Clarke, A., Dellapenna, J.W. & Lammers, J. (2013).

The authority and function of the UN Watercourses Convention,
in F. Rocha Loures & A. Rieu-Clarke (Eds.), The UN
Watercourses in Force: Strengthening international law for trans-
boundary water management. New York: Routledge.
UNWC United Nations Watercourses Convention (UNWC), 1997.

‗Preamble‘. Available at: http://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/
391260/UN%20 Watercourses%20Convention%20-%20User%
27s%20Guide.pdf
21
SAE 1
Reasons for establishing UN water convention:
The UNWC was established in response to the need for a global legal
instrument for cooperation between states over their shared water
resources and mitigate the potential for conflict.
The UNWC was also meant to serve as a global treaty whose role was to
support other watercourse treaties by acting as a template and filling the
gaps where coverage was lacking.
Serve as a global treaty governing trans-boundary watercourses.
It provides rules that can be tailored to the distinct circumstances of each
international watercourse and gives liberty to watercourse states to take
the actions that suit their needs and interests as required by the
singularity of the situation.
It creates a strong framework for water governance arrangements and a
basic common ground that enhances predictability and encourages
reciprocity.
It codifies and clarifies existing norms and develops emerging principles
of customary IWL
it constitutes a model that can guide the interpretation of other treaties
and the negotiation and drafting of future ones
It has informed the judgments of international and regional courts.
Aim of United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

Water Convention:
To ensure the sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources by
facilitating cooperation on trans-boundary surface and ground waters
and strengthens their protection and sustainable management.
The Convention obliges Riparian Parties to prevent, control and reduce
trans-boundary impact, use trans-boundary waters in a reasonable and
equitable way and ensure their sustainable management.
22
EHS 503 MODULE 2
MODULE 2 WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND

SURVELLANCE
Unit 1 Procedures for Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance

Unit 3 Waste Water Management
Unit 1 Procedures for Water Quality Monitoring and

Surveillance
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Water Quality Monitoring
1.3.1 Sampling and Analytical Methods
1.4 Summary
1.1 Introduction
Water quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and

unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the
objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps
remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study
and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to
the environment. Parameters monitored in water quality include:
chemical, biological, radiological and microbiological.
• explain water quality monitoring and surveillance

• explain water sampling and analysis.
1.3 Water Quality Monitoring
In some nations, most of the portable water used for both domestic and
industrial purposes are channelled from rivers and groundwater. The
present water quality monitoring status in Nigeria involves monitoring
23
only groundwater once every year by each state’s water board using
FEPA standards.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets

standards that, when combined with protecting ground water and surface
water, are critical to ensuring safe drinking water. The EPA also
regulates about 90 contaminants and so does FEPA (Federal
Environmental Protection Agency) but the EPA works with its regional
offices, states, tribes and its many partners to protect public health
through implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Routine Monitoring
Inspectors in charge of Drinking Water Quality Surveillance conduct
regular verification, water quality tests and sanitary inspections to
determine whether water utilities, community water committees, food
processing industries, private or public establishment and private water
system owners meet standard for drinking water quality. The
frequencies of monitoring are as follows:
a) On-site drinking water systems are checked at least once every 3

years.
Drinking Water Quality Surveillance agency increases the

frequency of sampling for drinking water facilities in the following
areas:
• areas located in high risk for faecal contamination or chemical
contamination;
• highly populated areas;
• areas prone to floods.
b) Centralized drinking water system: For a population of < 5000,

one sample is collected per 2000 population per month; for population
of 5000 – 100000, one sample is collected per 5000 population per
month; for population of > 100000, one sample is collected per 10000
population per month.
Inspectors for drinking water quality conducts sanitary inspection each

time a water sample is collected in accordance with the procedures
developed by the Federal Ministry of Health.
Mention and explain types of routine monitoring for water quality.
24
EHS 503 MODULE 2
1.3.1 Sampling and Analytical Methods
Sampling and testing are conducted according to the following

minimum requirements:
Point of compliance
Locations where samples are collected must be representative of the
water source, treatment plant, storage facilities, and distribution
network, points at which water is delivered to consumers.
• For centralized drinking water system, samples are taken in the

distribution system
• In case of water supplied from an on-site water system, samples
are taken at the hand pump outlet or from the bucket used to fetch
water; and in household water storage
• In case of water supplied from a tanker, samples are taken at the
point at which it emerges from the tankers,
• In the case of water used in a food-production undertaking,
samples are taken at the point where the water is used in the
undertaking
Sampling Method
All precautions must be taken to prevent contamination of the sample
and to ensure the concentration of the substance being determined do not
change between sampling and analysis. This is ensured by using trained
personnel (inspectors for drinking water quality surveillance) in the
process of sample collection. Sampling methods must comply with ISO
or WHO guideline.
Analytical Method
Analytical methods must comply with ISO or WHO guideline. Field test
kits may be used by the surveillance agency to conduct routine tests.
Laboratory Quality Assurance

Laboratories contracted by the Drinking Water Quality Surveillance
agency to conduct water testing must comply with NIS ISO 17025: 2005
Outline the sampling and analytical methods of monitoring water
quality.
25
1.4 Summary
Water quality monitoring and surveillance is used by regulatory bodies

to ensure that water supplied meet their designated uses. Monitoring and
surveillance involves collection and analyses of water samples.
In this unit, we discussed the procedure for water quality monitoring and
surveillance (on-site drinking water system and centralized drinking
water system). We also studied sampling and analytical methods with
their minimum requirements including:
• Point of compliance
• Sampling methods
• Analytical methods
• Laboratory methods.
International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source

Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety
Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8 (PDF). Vienna: IAEA.
International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems

for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety
Reports Series No. 64 . Vienna: IAEA. p. 234. ISBN 978-92-0-
112409-8.
Wrona, F. J., & Cash, K. J. (1996). The ecosystem approach to

environmental assessment: moving from theory to practice.
Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, ISSN 0925-101432.
26
EHS 503 MODULE 2
SAE 1
Types of routine monitoring for water quality:
On-site drinking water systems are checked at least once every 3 years
Drinking Water Quality Surveillance agency increases the

frequency of sampling for drinking water facilities in the
following areas:
• areas located in high risk for faecal contamination or chemical
contamination
• highly populated areas,
• areas prone to floods
Centralized drinking water system: For a population of < 5000, one

sample is collected per 2000 population per month; for population of
5000 – 100000, one sample is collected per 5000 population per month;
for population of > 100000, one sample is collected per 10000
population per month.
SAE 2
Sampling and analytical procedures for monitoring water quality:
Point of compliance
Water sampling procurers
Procedures for water analysis
Procedures for water quality assurance.
27
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Protection of Water Sources
2.3.1 Protection and Development of Water Resources
2.3.2 Protection Zones
2.3.3 Surface Water Sources
2.6 Summary
2.7 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
2.1 Introduction
Contamination of water sources may arise from microbiological

pathogens from human and animal excreta or accidental or deliberate
pollution by industries or the agricultural community. Sources of water
that are practicable for public and domestic purposes e.g. rain water,
surface water such as lakes, rivers and ponds, groundwater from springs,
wells and boreholes should be protected from possible contamination.
• identify water sources and protect them

• explain the concept of protected water zones
• identify surface water sources.
2.3 Protection of Water Sources
2.3.1 Protection and Development of Water Resources
Several issues need to be taken into consideration when planning the

protection and development of water sources:
Assessing needs
Water source protection should be based on needs identified by the
community themselves. The community should identify its own water
and sanitation needs through a process of internal discussion and
external negotiation. The internal discussion would involve health
experts, community leaders and other members of the community. The
external negotiations may involve local government offices, NGOs and
28
EHS 503 MODULE 2
other partners who can assist with the assessment of the communities’
needs with information and technical guidance.
Water source identification

All potential water sources should be considered and checked. Issues to
consider are the sources of possible contaminants, the amount of water
available to users annually and the consistency of the supply. Other
important issues are social acceptance, cost effectiveness and
community health. All potential water sources need to be assessed in
order to identify the best solution.
Water quantity
Whenever a new protected water source is proposed it should have the
capability of supplying at least 20 litres of water per person per day to
the target population. The protected water source should provide
sufficient quantities of water to meet essential health-related household
and personal needs, including drinking, cooking, personal hygiene,
clothes washing and cleaning for all community members.
Sanitary surveys
A sanitary survey is an evaluation of the physical environment to
identify possible health hazards and sources of environmental
contamination. The sanitary survey should include the nature of the
water-bearing layer, the hydraulic gradient (i.e. the variations in
underground water pressure that affect the natural flow of water),
topography, vegetation, potential sources of contamination, and the
adequacy of the yield particularly for dry seasons.
Health and hygiene education

Before developing any water protection, the health benefits of an
improved water supply and sanitation need to be accepted by the local
community. Providing hygiene education for the people promotes their
behavioural change.
Water quality
Water quality is a description of the chemical, physical and biological
characteristics of water, usually with respect to its suitability for
drinking. Water source development projects should draw water from
the best available sources.
List the issues to be considered in water resource protection and
development.
29
2.3.2 Protection Zones
For on-site drinking water system, a minimum distance of 15 meters is

to be kept between the water system and potential source of
contamination. Communities must keep clean the protected area
surrounding on-site drinking water systems.
Construction Requirements and Best Practices

All drinking water systems must comply with construction
specifications as stipulated by Federal Ministry of Water Resources. All
materials and equipment in contact with drinking water must comply
with relevant Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) (such as casing, drilling
additive, hand pumps, fitting, distribution pipe, and reservoir paint).
Water containers must be stored away from poisonous materials and
contamination sources.
Protection of well water

The different types of wells include: dug wells, bored wells (also known
as boreholes), and driven and jetted wells. During heavy rain, dug wells
are susceptible to contamination by pathogens which may be deposited
on the surface or naturally present in the soil and are washed in to the
well, particularly if it is improperly constructed.
Contamination of wells can arise from:

• Lack of, or improper, disinfection of a well following repair or
construction.
• Failure to seal the space between the drill hole and the outside of
the casing.
• Failure to provide a tight sanitary seal at the place where the
pump line(s) passes through the casing.
• Wastewater pollution caused by contaminated water percolating
through surrounding soil and rocks into the well.
At the time when a new well is constructed or repairs are made to a well,
pump or piping, contamination from the work is possible. Therefore, it
is important that the well, pump, piping and associated structures should
be regularly disinfected using chlorine solution.
Wells can be protected by installing a pump over them, but if a pump is

not available then a sanitary bucket and rope system may be used. The
surrounding ground of a well should be covered and protected and the
immediate area fenced to keep animals away. Grading off the area
surrounding a well can be done to create a slope away from the well, in
order to prevent the flow of storm water into the well. Any pipework
associated with pumps that enters the well needs to have watertight
connections so there can be no contamination from surrounding soil.
30
EHS 503 MODULE 2
Wells should be located on a higher level than possible sources of

contaminants such as latrines and cesspits (a pit for collection of waste
matter and water especially sewage). This is because the liquid from the
pit may seep into the surrounding ground and into the groundwater. If
the latrine is higher up a slope than the well then the contaminated
groundwater is likely to flow downwards and into the well. The natural
flow of the groundwater (the hydraulic gradient) should be away from
the well and towards the sources of contaminants, and not the other way
round. In normal soils, the minimum distance between the well and the
source of contaminants should never be less than 15 metres and a
distance of 30–50 m is recommended. However for limestone and some
other soil formations this distance need to be greater because
groundwater can pass very easily through some rocks and soils.
The inside wall of the well should be made waterproof by constructing a

well casing. In small diameter bored wells the casing can be a pipe, but
in larger wells the casing needs to be constructed by cementing from the
top of the well down to a minimum depth of 3 metres. The casing of the
well should also be extended for a minimum of 60 cm above the
surrounding ground level to prevent the
entrance of surface runoff.
A concrete cover should be fitted over the casing to prevent dust,

insects, small animals and any other contaminants from falling in
(Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Two wells with concrete protection.

Note the removable covers. (Photos: Pam Furniss, 2014)
31
Spring source protection

Before using a spring a thorough sanitary survey needs to be carried out
at the site to assess the quantity and quality of water, and the possible
contamination. If the results of the sanitary survey are satisfactory, the
eye of the spring (the point where the water emerges from the ground)
should be located by digging out the area around the spring down to the
impermeable layer.
Different types of spring protection can be constructed but in general

they are as follows:
• A concrete waterproof protection box, also known as a spring
box, should be constructed over the spring to prevent all actual
and potential sources of contamination.
• A retention wall in the front part of the protection box should be
constructed to keep water flowing to the delivery pipe(Figure 2)
• In some situations, if the flow is not constant, a collection box
may also be constructed in order to ensure adequate water
storage.
• The intake and overflow pipes should be screened to prevent the
entrance of small animals.
The spring and collection box, if there is one, should have a watertight
top, preferably concrete. Water will move by gravity flow or by means
of a properly-installed mechanical pump. An inspection hole should be
tightly covered and kept locked.
Springs should be protected from flooding and surface water pollution

by constructing a deep diversion ditch above and around the spring. The
ditch should be constructed so it collects surface water running towards
the spring and carries, or diverts, it away. It needs to be deep enough to
carry all surface water away, even in a heavy rainstorm. The
surrounding area should be fenced to protect it from animals.
Figure 1.2: A protected spring

Source: WaterAid, Ethiopia
32
EHS 503 MODULE 2
Rainwater source protection

Rainwater used for water supply may be contaminated by the air, dust,
dirt, paint and other material on the roof the water is collected from or
improper methods of storage.
To protect rainwater, precaution must be taken to use a storage tank that

is completely covered and well maintained. The roof and gutters should
be cleaned regularly, especially before the start of the wet season. It may
be necessary to divert the first rainwater away from the tank so the dust
and dirt is washed away. Leaves and other larger debris can be
prevented from entering the tank by placing a mesh screen between the
guttering and the pipe that leads to the tank; the mesh screen will need to
be cleaned regularly.
List measures that can be taken to protect well and spring water sources
in communities.
2.3.3 Surface Water Sources
All surface water sources are subject to continuous or intermittent

pollution and must be treated to make them safe to drink. The extent of
the treatment required will depend on the results of a sanitary survey
made by an experienced professional, including physical, chemical and
microbiological analyses. Surface waters are, by definition, unprotected
sources.
State how surface water can be made safe for drinking.
2.4 Summary
Water sources must be protected from contaminants to forestall

pollution and water borne diseases. Designated use of a water source
will inform the methods required for its protection.
In this unit, we discussed the key issues that are taken into consideration
while planning the protection and development of water sources.
• Assessing needs
• Water source identification
• Water quality
• Sanitary surveys
• Health and hygiene education
The subject of protection zones was also studied with concentration on:
• Construction requirement and best practices
• Protection of well water
33
• Spring sources protection

• Rainwater sources protection
• Surface water sources
Community drinking water source protection. (Lecture note)
UNCED (1992). ‘Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater

Resources’. In: Agenda 21.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Geneva.
34
EHS 503 MODULE 2
SAE 1
• Issues to be considered in water resource protection and
development:
Assessing needs
Identify water sources
Ensure water quality
Undertake sanitary surveys
Conduct health and hygiene education
Continuous assessment of water quality.
SAE 2
• Measures that can be taken to protect well water sources:
Regular disinfection of wells and accessories using chlorine
Provide tight sanitary seals between pump lines and casing
Build well lids above ground level and use cover to prevent entry of
running water
Construct waterproof casing on the inside wall of wells to prevent
peculation.
SAE 3
• Making surface water safe for drinking:
All surface water sources are subject to continuous or intermittent
pollution and must be treated to make them safe to drink. The extent of
the treatment required will depend on the results of a sanitary survey
made by an experienced professional, including physical, chemical and
microbiological analyses. Some of the general ways by which surface
water can be made safe for drinking include: boiling to kill pathogens,
filtration to reduce organic matter and addition of chlorine to reduce
hardness.
35
Unit 3 Waste Water Management
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Waste Water Treatment Processes
3.3.1 Primary Treatment
3.3.2 Secondary Treatment
3.3.3 Tertiary Treatment
3.3.4 Treatment of Sludge
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
Wastewater is produced by human activities and has a direct impact on

the environment into which it is discharged. Production of more and
more wastewater by anthropogenic activities is a genuine issue for
public health and for the environment. Wastewater management is a
genuine sanitary and environmental challenge for all the players
involved in environmental management all over the world. It is
important to treat wastewater and encourage its reuse in order to protect
public health and water resources.
• explain the processes of wastewater treatment

• differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary treatment
• describe the treatment of sludge.
3.3 Waste Water Treatment Processes
Wastewater treatment usually consists of two major steps – primary

treatment and secondary treatment along with a process to dispose of
solids (sludge) removed during the two steps. In some areas where
receiving waters are more sensitive to pollution or where specific
pollutants have not been removed by secondary treatment, a third step
called advanced waste treatment (also called tertiary treatment) may be
36
EHS 503 MODULE 2
required. Some plants use pre-chlorination for hydrogen sulfide and

odor control prior to beginning any treatment processes.
Preliminary treatment
Preliminary treatment is required to remove the coarse solids and other
large materials from raw wastewater. The operations include use of
screens and grates for removal of large materials, comminutors for
grinding of coarse solids, pre-aeration for odour control. Sometimes pH
correction and removal of oil & grease is also done.
3.3.1 Primary Treatment
Primary wastewater treatment, at times, is the first step in the

wastewater treatment process or it may be the second step after the
preliminary treatment. It involves physical separation of suspended
solids (total suspended solids) from the wastewater using primary
clarifiers. The objective of primary treatment is to remove of settle-able
organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation and removal of materials
that float (scum) by skimming. Some organic nitrogen, organic
phosphorus, and heavy metals associated with solids are removed during
primary sedimentation but colloidal and dissolved constituents are not
affected. The effluent from primary sedimentation units is referred to as
primary effluent.
Sedimentation chambers are the main units involved in primary

treatment but various auxiliary processes such as fine screening,
flocculation and floatation may also be used. The second step may be
chemical treatment (generally with lime and alum) which is sometimes
preceded by flocculation. The purpose is to remove metals by
precipitation but it also removes some associated colloidal BOD. The
process generates chemical sludge.
Primary treatment involves various physical-chemical processes:

• Flocculation - a physico-chemical process for the aggregation of
coagulated colloidal and finely divided suspended matter by
physical mixing or chemical coagulant aids. The process involves
mixing of wastewater stream with coagulants in a rapid mix tank,
which is then passed on to the flocculation basin.
• Sedimentation - this process is aimed to remove easy to settle

solids. Sedimentation chambers may also include baffles and oil
skimmers to remove grease and floatable solids and may include
mechanical scrapers for removal of sludge at the bottom of the
chamber.
37
• Dissolved Air Floatation - air-bubbles are introduced into the

waste water, they attach themselves to the particles, thus causing
them to float. This process of diffused air flotation can be used to
remove suspended solids and dispersed oil and grease from oily
wastewater.
• Clarification- in a clarifier, wastewater is allowed to flow slowly

and uniformly, permitting the solids to settle down. The clarified
water flows from the top of the clarifier over the weir. Solids get
collected at the bottom and sludge are periodically removed,
dewatered and safely disposed.
Chemical treatment processes

Chemical treatment may be used at any stage in the treatment process as
and when required (preferably before biological treatment as it removes
toxic chemicals which may kill the microbes). Mainly used methods are:
• Neutralization- incoming untreated wastewater has a wide range

of pH. Neutralization is the process used for adjusting pH to
optimize treatment efficiency. Acids such as sulphuric or
hydrochloric may be added to reduce pH or alkalis such as
dehydrated lime or sodium hydroxide may be added to raise pH
values.
• Precipitation - precipitation is carried out in two steps: in the first

step, precipitants are mixed with wastewater allowing the
formation of insoluble metal precipitants; in the second step,
precipitated metals are removed from wastewater through
clarification and/or filtration and the resulting sludge are properly
treated, recycled or disposed.
Outline the processes involved in primary treatment of waste water.
3.3.2 Secondary Treatment
This process involves decomposition of suspended and dissolved

organic matter in waste water using microbes. The mainly used
biological treatment processes are activated sludge process or the
biological filtration methods. Biological treatment can be aerobic,
anaerobic or facultative.
Activated sludge process –a continuous flow, aerobic biological

treatment process that involves suspended growth of aerobic micro-
organisms to biodegrade organic contaminants. Influent is introduced in
the aeration basin and allowed to mix with the contents. A suspension of
38
EHS 503 MODULE 2
aerobic microbes is maintained in the aeration tank. A series of

biochemical reactions in the basin degrade the organics and generate
new bio mass. Microorganisms oxidize the matter into carbon dioxide
and water using the supplied oxygen.
These organisms agglomerate colloidal and particulate solids. The

mixture is passed to a settling tank or a clarifier where micro-organisms
are separated from the treated water. The settled solids are recycled back
to the aeration tank to maintain a desired concentration of micro-
organisms in the reactor and some of the excess solids are sent to sludge
handling facilities.
Biological filters - These filters are biological reactors filled with media
which provide a surface that is repeatedly exposed to wastewater and air
and on which a microbial layer can grow. The two most common types
of biological filters are;
a) Trickling Filters: in trickling filters treatment is provide by a

fixed film of microbes that forms on the surface which adsorbs
organic particles and degrades them aerobically. Wastewater is
distributed over a bed made of rock or plastic and flows over the
media by gravity.
b) Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC): the setup consists of a

series of discs; about 40% of the area is immersed in wastewater.
The RBC provides a surface for microbial slime layer. The
alternating immersion and aeration of a given portion of the disc
enhances growth of the attached micro-organisms and facilitates
oxidation of organic matter in a relatively short time and provides
a high degree of treatment.
State the types of biological filters used in waste water treatment.
3.3.3 Tertiary Treatment
Tertiary treatment is the final cleaning process that improves wastewater

quality before it is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.
Tertiary treatment can involve physical-chemical separation techniques
such as activated carbon adsorption, flocculation/precipitation,
membranes filtration, ion exchange, de-chlorination and reverse
osmosis. Advanced treatment processes which generally constitute of or
are part of the tertiary treatment may also sometimes be used in primary
or secondary treatment or used in place of secondary treatment.
39
Some of the common tertiary treatment processes are described below:
• Granular Media Filtration- Many processes fall under this

category and the common element being the use of mineral
particles as the filtration medium. It removes suspended solids
mainly by physical filtration. Two common types of these
granular media filers are:
a) Sand filters: the most common type which consists of either a

fixed or moving bed of media that traps and removes suspended
solids from water passing through media.
b) Dual or multimedia filtration: consists of two or more media and

it operates with the finer, denser media at the bottom and coarser,
less dense media at the top. Common arrangement is granite base
at the bottom, sand in the middle and anthracite coal at the top.
Flow pattern of multimedia filters is usually from top to bottom
with gravity flow. These filters require periodic back washing to
maintain their efficiency.
These processes are most commonly used for supplemental removal of

residual suspended solids from the effluents of chemical treatment
processes.
• Membrane Filtration: In membrane filtration, a solvent is passed

through a semipermeable membrane. The membrane's
permeability is determined by the size of the pores in the
membrane. Microfiltration, ultrafiltration and Nano-filtration are
examples of membrane filtration techniques.
• Reverse Osmosis Systems– This is also a membrane separation

method that is used to remove several types of large molecules
and ions from solutions through application of pressure to the
wastewater on one side of a selective membrane. The result is
that the contaminant is retained on the pressurized side of the
membrane and the treated waste water is allowed to pass to the
other side.
• Ion Exchange –Ion Exchange can be used in wastewater

treatment plants to swap one ion for another for the purpose of
demineralization. There are basically two types of ion exchange
systems, the anion exchange resins and the cation exchange
resins. It can be used for softening, purification, decontamination,
recycling, removal of heavy metals from electroplating
wastewaters and other industrial processes, polish wastewater
before discharging, removal of ammonium ion from wastewaters,
40
EHS 503 MODULE 2
salt removal, purify acids and bases for reuse, removal of

radioactive contaminants in the nuclear industry, etc.
• Activated carbon, Powdered as well as granular activated carbons

are used for the purpose of de-chlorination of organic
compounds. Organic compounds in waste water are adsorbed on
to the surface of the activated carbon. A number of factors affect
the effectiveness of the activated carbon. These include pore size,
composition and concentration of the contaminant, temperature
and pH of the water and the flow rate or contact time of exposure.
Activated carbon can be applied on a broad spectrum of organic
pollutants and is typically used to remove contaminants from
water such as pesticides, aromatic compounds such as phenol,
absorbable organic halogens, non-biodegradable organic
compounds, colour compounds and dyes, chlorinated/halogenated
organic compounds, toxic compounds, compounds that normally
inhibits biological treatments, oil removal in process condensates,
halogens, especially chlorine that oxidizes downstream processes
and organics that have the potential to foul ion exchange resins or
reverse osmosis membranes.
• Ultraviolet (UV) Disinfection – This technique is primarily

employed as a disinfection process that inactivates waterborne
pathogens without use of chemicals. Additionally, UV is also
effective for residual TOC removal, destruction of chloramines
and ozone.
Outline the processes that are commonly used in tertiary waste water
treatment.
3.3.4 Treatment of Sludge
The solid material that is removed from wastewater, called sludge,

requires proper treatment and disposal and can often be reused. The
ultimate disposal of this material is one of the most difficult and
expensive problems of wastewater treatment.
The goal of sludge treatment is to destroy harmful organisms and

remove water. The end product of the sludge handling process is a
relatively dry material known as ‘cake’. It can be applied to agricultural
land as a soil conditioner, placed in landfills, or cleanly burned. At some
plants, sludge serves as a fuel to produce energy. For land application,
sludge is often kept in a liquid slurry form for ease of handling and for
subsurface injection into soils with special equipment.
41
3.4 Summary
Waste water is generated by both industrial and domestic processes.

Waste water treatment technologies allow the reuse of wastewater
thereby protecting the public health and water resources.
In this unit, we discussed the different methods of wastewater

management processes. These include primary treatment:
• Physic-chemical processes
• Chemical treatment processes
Secondary and tertiary treatment processes were also discussed. The

treatment of sludge and its goals are key issues in waste water
management.
California Storm Water Quality Association (2003). Menlo Park, CA.

"Municipal BMP Handbook."
EPA (2005). "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." Fact

Sheet No. EPA-841-F-05-001.
Marek, L. G. (1984). Water and Sewage Treatment for Small

Communities. BR. 1347. Vermont Cooperative Extension
Service. University of Vermont. Burlington, VT.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,

Disposal and Reuse. 3rd ed. New York, NY.: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2004). "New

Jersey Storm water Best Management Practices Manual."
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). National

Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Municipal
Wastewater. www.epa.gov.
www.suez.com/en/our-offering/Local-authorities/What-are-you-
looking-for/Water-management/Waste-water-treatment-and-reuse
42
EHS 503 MODULE 2
SAE 1
Processes involved in primary treatment of water:
Flocculation - a physico-chemical process for the aggregation of
coagulated colloidal and finely divided suspended matter by physical
mixing or chemical coagulant aids. The process involves mixing of
wastewater stream with coagulants in a rapid mix tank, which is then
passed on to the flocculation basin.
Sedimentation - this process is aimed to remove easy to settle solids.

Sedimentation chambers may also include baffles and oil skimmers to
remove grease and floatable solids and may include mechanical scrapers
for removal of sludge at the bottom of the chamber.
Dissolved Air Floatation - air-bubbles are introduced into the waste

water, they attach themselves to the particles, thus causing them to float.
This process of diffused air flotation can be used to remove suspended
solids and dispersed oil and grease from oily wastewater.
Clarification- in a clarifier, wastewater is allowed to flow slowly and
uniformly, permitting the solids to settle down. The clarified water flows
from the top of the clarifier over the weir. Solids get collected at the
bottom and sludge are periodically removed, dewatered and safely
disposed.
SAE 2
Types of biological filters used in waste water management:
Trickling Filters: in trickling filters treatment is provide by a fixed film
of microbes that forms on the surface which adsorbs organic particles
and degrades them aerobically. Wastewater is distributed over a bed
made of rock or plastic and flows over the media by gravity.
Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC): the setup consists of a series of
discs; about 40% of the area is immersed in wastewater. The RBC
provides a surface for microbial slime layer. The alternating immersion
and aeration of a given portion of the disc enhances growth of the
attached micro-organisms and facilitates oxidation of organic matter in a
relatively short time and provides a high degree of treatment.
SAE 3
Common processes involved in tertiary water treatment (explained
each):
Granular media filtration using sand filters and dual filtration
Membrane filtration
Reverse osmosis systems
Ion exchange
Activated carbon using powdered or granulated carbon
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection
43
MODULE 3 AN OVERVIEW OF AIR QUALITY
Unit 1 Concepts of Air Quality

UNIT 1 CONCEPTS OF AIR QUALITY
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Concepts of Air Quality
1.3.1 Definition of Terms
1.3.2 Concept of Air Quality
1.3.3 Strategy for Air Quality Management
1.3.4 Policy Framework in Air Quality Management
1.3.5 Goals of Air Quality management
1.4 Summary
1.1 Introduction
Air pollution is perceived as a serious problem. The emission of certain

pollutants into our atmosphere has gradually increased over the years.
The quality of our ambient air impacts on both humans’ and animals’
health and the environment. Air quality management aims to limit
negative impacts through a variety of activities, including legislation,
policies, and plans to manage emissions and monitor ambient air quality.
This unit contains an overview of the definitions that may be
encountered in studying the concept of air quality, air pollution and
measurement of air quality.
• define relevant terms associated with air quality

• explain the basic concepts of air quality
• explain the strategies for air quality management
• discuss the policy framework in air quality management
• explain the goals of air quality management.
44
EHS 503 MODULE 3
1.3 Concepts of Air Quality
1.3.1 Definition of Terms
Air pollutants
Solids, liquids, or gases which, if discharged into the air, may result in
statutory air pollution.
Aerosols
Liquid or solid particles that are suspended in air or a gas. It is also
referred to as particulate matter.
Ambient air
Generally, the atmosphere; outdoors.
AQI
Air Quality Index.
Attainment
EPA designation that an area meets the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards.
Criteria pollutant
An air pollutant for which certain levels of exposure have been
determined to injure health, harm the environment and cause property
damage. The EPA-developed the standards known as the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards, using science-based guidelines as the
basis for setting acceptable levels.
Emissions
Air pollutants exhausted from a unit or source into the atmosphere.
EPA or U.S. EPA

Environmental Protection Agency, federal agency that oversees the
protection of the environment.
Exceedance
An incident occurring when the concentration of a pollutant in the
ambient air is higher than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
HAPS
Hazardous Air Pollutants.
45
Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer

A 1987 international agreement subsequently amended in 1990, 1992,
1995, and 1997 that establishes in participating countries a schedule for
the phase out of chloroflourocarbons and other substances with an
excessive ozone depleting potential.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Standards established by the EPA and required by The Clean Air Act
(last amended in 1990) for pollutants considered harmful to public
health and the environment.
Nitrogen oxides
A group of highly reactive gases, all of which contain nitrogen and
oxygen in varying amounts. Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless
and odorless. However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
along with particles in the air, can often be seen as a reddish-brown
layer over many urban areas.
Nonattainment areas
Defined by The Clean Air Act as a locality where air pollution levels
persistently exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards or that
contributes to ambient air quality in a nearby area that fails to meet
standards.
Nonattainment
EPA designation that an area does not meet the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards.
NOX
Nitrogen oxides.
Ozone
A triatomic molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. Ground-level
ozone is an air pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory systems
of animals. On the other hand, ozone in the upper atmosphere protects
living organisms by preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching
the Earth's surface.
Particulate matter (PM)

The sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air, many of which
are hazardous.
Photolysis
A chemical process by which molecules are broken down into smaller
units through the absorption of light.
46
EHS 503 MODULE 3
PM10
Particulate Matter less than 10 micrometers (or microns) in diameter.
PM2.5
Particulate Matter less than 2.5 micrometers (or microns) in diameter.
Ppb
Parts per billion by volume.
Ppm
Parts per million by volume.
Primary air pollutants
Pollutants that are pumped into our atmosphere and directly pollute the
air. Examples include carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur
dioxide from the combustion of coal as well as nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid).
Radical
Atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons on an otherwise
open shell configuration. These unpaired electrons are usually highly
reactive, so radicals are likely to take part in chemical reactions.
Secondary air pollutants

Pollutant not directly emitted but forms when other pollutants (primary
pollutants) react in the atmosphere. Examples include ozone, formed
when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the
presence of sunlight; NO2, formed as NO combines with oxygen in the
air; and acid rain, formed when sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react
with water.
Smog
A kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a combination of smoke and
fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area
and is caused by a mixture of smoke and Sulphur dioxide.
Source or stationary source

Any governmental, institutional, commercial or industrial structure,
installation, plant, building or facility that emits or has the potential to
emit any regulated air pollutant under the Clean Air Act.
Statutory Air Pollution

The discharge into the air by the act of man of substances (liquid, solid,
gaseous, organic or inorganic) in a locality, manner and amount as to be
injurious to human health or welfare, animal or plant life, or property, or
which would interfere with the enjoyment of life or property.
47
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapour pressures
under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the
atmosphere.
List and explain any 10 terms associated with air quality.
1.3.2 Concept of Air Quality
Basic principles guide international and national policies for the

management of all forms of air pollution. An important global initiative
occurred in 1983 when the UN General Assembly established the World
Commission on Environment and Development. The report produced by
the Commission, Our Common Future, was endorsed by the UN General
Assembly in 1987. It has been influential in bringing environmental
issues into the global arena, and in expressing influential concepts in air
quality management (WCED 1987).
The Brundtland Commission suggested that sustainable development

would be required to meet the legitimate aspirations of the world
population without destroying the environment. It defined sustainable
development as: ―development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. This concept has been embraced as an apparent means of
integrating environmental policy and economic development. A number
of environmental management principles on which some government
policies are based, including air quality management include:
• The precautionary principle – where it is clear that a proposal

will damage the environment, action should be taken to protect
the environment without awaiting scientific proof of damage.
• The polluter pays principle – the full costs associated with

pollution (including monitoring, management, clean-up and
supervision) should be met by the organization or person
responsible for the source of the pollution.
• In addition, many countries have adopted the principle of

pollution prevention; which aims to reduce air pollution at
sources.
State and explain any 2 popular principles of air quality
48
EHS 503 MODULE 3
1.3.3 Strategy for Air Quality Management
Air quality management encompasses all the activities a regulatory

authority undertakes to help protect human health and the environment
from all the harmful effects of air pollution. The goal of air quality
management is to maintain a quality of air that protects human health
and welfare. This goal also includes protection of animals, plants (crops,
forests and natural vegetation), ecosystems, materials and aesthetics,
such as natural levels of visibility (Murray 1997). And to achieve this air
quality goal, it is necessary to develop appropriate air quality policies
and strategies.
A government institution typically establishes goals related to air

quality. An example is an acceptable level of pollutant in the air that will
protect public health, including people who are more vulnerable to air
pollution. Government policy is the foundation for air quality
management. Without a suitable policy framework and adequate
legislation it is difficult to maintain an active or successful air quality
management program.
1.3.4 Policy Framework in Air Quality Management
A policy framework refers to policies in several areas, including

transport, energy, planning, development and the environment. Air
quality objectives are more readily achieved if these interconnected
government policies are compatible, and if mechanisms exist for
coordinating responses to issues which cross different areas of
government policy. Measures adopted in many developed countries for
integrating air quality policy with health, energy, transport and other
areas are summarized in a report of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE 1999).
State the framework in air quality management.
1.3.5 Goals of Air Quality management
The complete scheme of relevant interrelationships in air quality

management is depicted in Fig. 1.3. Air quality management has the
ultimate goal of avoiding health and environmental impacts of air
pollution. If man-made air pollution had no effects whatsoever, people
would not care. Thus all the instruments developed for air quality
management such as emissions inventories, dispersion modelling, or
concentrations inventories, only serve to enable decision makers to
develop legislation and regulations needed to avoid detrimental effects
on public health and the environment. The instruments mentioned are,
49
therefore, tactical tools in air quality management, while health and

environmental preservation are to be grounded in goals and objectives of
air quality management. Emissions inventories, concentration
measurements, dispersion models and other tools of air quality
management are, therefore, never end in themselves; the ends are human
health and a healthy environment.
Figure 1.3. Scope of air quality management

Data of known quality obtained from the tactical tools of monitoring and
assessment in air quality management are used to generate information
for decision makers and the public, which leads to political decisions
and the formulation of policies appropriate to prevent adverse impacts of
air pollution on human health and the environment. Also under this
aspect of policy formation, health and environment have the prominent
role of defining the objectives of policies and regulations. (It should be
noted that the information necessary for politicians is created from
―data of known quality‖ and not necessarily from data of high quality,
which although most desirable cannot always be obtained under the
conditions of many developing countries).
Identify the goal of air quality management
1.4 Summary
The overall aim of air quality management is to maintain a quality of air

that supports public health. This is achieved by developing legislation
and regulations from data of known quality that will forestall air
pollution that can cause detrimental effects on public health and the
environment.
50
EHS 503 MODULE 3
In this unit, you have learnt:

• the definitions of air quality
• concepts of air quality
• strategies for air quality management
• policy framework in air quality management, and
• the goals of air quality management.
dep.wv.gov/daq/General/Pages/AirQualityDefinitons.apsx
Murray, F. (1997). Urban air pollution and health effects. In: D. Brune,
D. V. Chapman, M.D. Gwynne, J. M. Pacyna (Eds.). The Global
Environment, pp. 585–598, Scandanavian Science Publisher,
VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
UNCED (1992). Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable

Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, 3–14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro. http://www.
un.org/esa/sustdev/agenda21.htm
UNECE (1999). Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement.

ECE/EB.AIR/65. United Nations, New York and Geneva.
Related http:// www.umweltbundesamt.de/whocc/nl25/publi-
25.htm
WCED (1987). Our Common Future. World Commission on

Environment and Development. United Nations, New York.
Summary at: http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~susdev/WCED87.html
www.epa.gov/air-quality-management-process/air-quality-management-
process-cycle.html
51
SAE 1
Some terms associated with air quality:
Aerosols: Liquid or solid particles that are suspended in air or a gas. It is
also referred to as particulate matter.
Ambient air: Generally, the atmosphere; outdoors.
AQI: Air Quality Index.
Emissions: Air pollutants exhausted from a unit or source into the
atmosphere.
Exceedance: An incident occurring when the concentration of a
pollutant in the ambient air is higher than the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards.
Nonattainment areas: a locality where air pollution levels persistently
exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards or that contributes to
ambient air quality in a nearby area that fails to meet standards.
Ozone: A triatomic molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. Ground-
level ozone is an air pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory
systems of animals. On the other hand, ozone in the upper atmosphere
protects living organisms by preventing damaging ultraviolet light from
reaching the Earth's surface.
Photolysis: A chemical process by which molecules are broken down
into smaller units through the absorption of light.
Smog: A kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a combination of
smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning
in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and Sulphur dioxide.
SAE 2
Environmental management principles for air quality policies:
The precautionary principle – where it is clear that a proposal will
damage the environment, action should be taken to protect the
environment without awaiting scientific proof of damage.
The polluter pays principle – the full costs associated with pollution
(including monitoring, management, clean-up and supervision) should
be met by the organization or person responsible for the source of the
pollution.
Pollution prevention; which aims to reduce air pollution at sources.
SAE 3
• Scope of air quality management
Study figure 1.3.
SAE 4
• The goal for air quality management
The goal of air quality management is to maintain a quality of air that
protects human health and welfare.
52
EHS 503 MODULE 3
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Air Pollution
2.3.1 Air Quality
2.3.2 Composition of Air
2.3.3 Air Pollutants
2.3.4 Common Air Pollutants
2.3.5 Hazardous Air Pollutants
2.4 Summary
2.1 Introduction
Air is a mixture of gases that covers the earth atmosphere. Gases that
make up air are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon (IV) oxide, neon,
helium, methane, krypton, oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur, ammonia etc.
(Vanloon, 2004). Air is essential to living on earth, for example, man
and animals use oxygen for breathing while they release carbon dioxide,
which is used by plants for the manufacture of food through a process
called photosynthesis.
• explain the concept of quality air and its composition

• discuss the concept of air pollutants and identify common
pollutants
• identify what constitutes hazardous air pollutants.
2.3 Air Pollution
2.3.1 Air Quality
The quality of air can be affected by air pollution. Air pollution occurs
when certain gases and particles build up in the atmosphere to such
levels that they can cause harm to our health, causing breathing and
respiratory problems, and even resulting in premature death, as well as
damaging the environment around us. These gases and particles (known
as pollutants) tend to come from man-made sources, including the
53
burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, petrol or diesel, but can also
come from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires.
Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets or gases.
The science of air pollution centers on measuring, tracking, and

predicting concentrations of key chemicals in the atmosphere. Four
types of processes affect air pollution levels:
Emissions
Chemicals are emitted to the atmosphere by a range of sources.
Anthropogenic emissions come from human activities, such as burning
fossil fuel. Biogenic emissions are produced by natural functions of
biological organisms, such as microbial breakdown of organic materials.
Emissions can also come from nonliving natural sources, most notably
volcanic eruptions and desert dust.
Chemistry
Many types of chemical reactions in the atmosphere create chemical
pollutants in the atmosphere.
Transport
Winds can carry pollutants far from their sources, so that emissions in
one region cause environmental impacts far away. Long-range transport
complicates efforts to control air pollution because it can be hard to
distinguish effects caused by local versus distant sources and to
determine who should bear the costs of reducing emissions.
Deposition
Materials in the atmosphere return to Earth, either because they are
directly absorbed or taken up in a chemical reaction (such as
photosynthesis) or because they are scavenged from the atmosphere and
carried to Earth by rain, snow, or fog.
Mention and explain the sources of air pollution
2.3.2 Composition of Air
Air is a non-homogeneous mixture of different gases that surround the

planet. Clean air is very important as it provides oxygen and other gases
that are essential to life on earth.
There are two ways by which we can represent the composition of air:
i. Percentage of gas by volume
ii. Percentage of the gas by mass
The composition of dry air at sea level is given in Table 2.1
54
EHS 503 MODULE 3
Table 2.1: General Composition of Air (Bolz & Tuve, 1973)
S/N Gas Volume Mass Molecular Molecular

(%) (%) weight weight in
(kg/kmol) air
1. Nitrogen 78.03 75.46 28.015 21.88
2. Oxygen 20.99 23.19 32.00 6.704
3. Carbon dioxide 0.03 0.05 44.003 0.013
4. Hydrogen 0.01 0.0007 2.016 0
5. Monatomic gases 0.94 1.30 39.943 0.373
(Ar, Rn, He,Kr, Ne)
Total 100.00 100.0
It is important to note that, the composition of different gases (in dry air)
by mass is a fixed one whereas the percentage composition of the gases
by volume or mass in wet air i.e., air containing moisture is dependent
on humidity or the moisture in the air. This is because of the fact that
with change in the humidity, the volume and the density of air changes,
which results in the change in volume percentage.
Study and explain table 2.1 (composition of air pollutants)
2.3.3 Air Pollutants
Air pollutants are found in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets or
gases, and many of them are created by human activity and natural
processes. Man plays a key factor in air pollution. Some of the ways
through which the ambient air is polluted by man include; industries,
automobiles, and power generation. In indoor environments, tobacco
smoke and combustion of fuels are the most significant sources. Also,
construction material, furniture, carpeting, air conditioning, home
cleaning agents and insecticides are other significant sources of
chemical and biological pollutants.
Air pollutants can have serious effects which could be acute or chronic.
The health effects of air pollution range from minor irritation of eyes,
allergies, upper respiratory system to chronic respiratory diseases, heart
disease, lung cancer, and even death. Air pollution may also cause harm
to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may
damage the natural or built environment.
Health impact of air pollution depends on the pollutant type, its

concentration in the air, length of exposure, other pollutants in the air,
and individual susceptibility. For example, carbon monoxide combines
55
with hemoglobin to form carboxyl-hemoglobin, which reduces the

oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and can contribute to anemia and
adverse pregnancy outcomes, including miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth
weight, and early infant mortality. Some other problems associated with
pollution of the atmospheric air include shortage of oxygen for animal
respiration, poor visibility, irritation of the eyes and unpleasant odours
(Vinod, 2003).
The presence of the oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO2, NO), carbon (CO,
CO2,) Sulphur (SO2, SO3) and other gases like methane (CH4),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), hydrocarbons, fumes, dust and sprays in
the air makes the air to be polluted (Dara, 2006). Generally, any
substance introduced into the atmosphere that has damaging effects on
living things and the environment is considered as an air pollutant.
Air pollutants can be classified as:

i. Primary pollutant
ii. secondary pollutant
Primary Air Pollutants

Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the air from identifiable
sources. Primary pollutants are produced by processes such as ash from
a volcanic eruption, carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts
or Sulphur dioxide released from the factories. These pollutants can
have dangerous effects on health when released into the atmosphere
both directly and as precursors of secondary air pollutants.
Secondary Air Pollutants

Secondary pollutants are produced when primary pollutants interacts
with one another in the atmosphere, this reaction forms a harmful
product. Secondary air pollutants include ground level ozone, PAN
(Peroxyl acetyl nitrate), photochemical smog and aerosols. Some
pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted
directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Give and explain the 2 classification of air pollutants.
2.3.4 Common Air Pollutants
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has named the six
most common air pollutants. These pollutants are called criteria
pollutants because they are regulated by developing limits that are based
on human and/or environmental criteria:
Ground-level ozone (O3)

Ozone is comprised of three oxygen atoms. Depending on its location in
the atmosphere, ozone can be ‘good’ or ‘bad’. Ground level ozone is a
56
EHS 503 MODULE 3
pernicious secondary air pollutant, toxic to both humans and vegetation.

It is formed in surface air (and more generally in the troposphere) by
oxidation of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) and carbon monoxide
in
the presence of NOx. The mechanism involves hundreds of chemically

interactive species:
VOC + OH → HO2 + other products =>HO2 + NO → OH + NO2
=>NO2 + hν → + O => O+O2+M→O3+M
An important aspect of this mechanism is that NOx and OH act as

catalysts - that is, they speed up the rate of ozone generation without
being consumed themselves. Instead they cycle rapidly between NO and
NO2, and between OH and HO2.
This formation mechanism for ozone at ground level is totally different

from that for ozone formation in the stratosphere. In the stratosphere
ozone is produced from photolysis of oxygen:
O2 + hν → O + O => O + O2 + M → O3 + M.
This process does not take place in the troposphere because the strong (<
240 nm) UV photons needed to dissociate molecular oxygen are
depleted by the ozone overhead.
Particulate Matter (Aerosols)

Solid and liquid particles that are suspended in the air are referred to as
aerosols or particulate matter (PM). These typically measure between
0.01 and 10 µm in diameter. Most aerosols are found in the lower
troposphere, where they have a residence time of a few days. Large
aerosol particles (usually 1 to 10 µm) are generated when winds blow
sea salt, dust, and other debris into the atmosphere. Fine aerosol
particles with diameters less than 1 µm are mainly produced when
precursor gases condense in the atmosphere. Major components of fine
aerosols are sulfate, nitrate, organic carbon, and elemental carbon.
Elemental carbon particles are emitted by combustion, which is also a
major source of organic carbon particles. Light-absorbing carbon
particles emitted by combustion are called black carbon or soot; they are
important agents for climate change and are also suspected to be
particularly hazardous for human health.
High concentrations of aerosols are a major cause of cardiovascular

disease and are also suspected to cause cancer. Fine particles are
especially serious threats because they are small enough to be absorbed
deeply into the lungs, and sometimes even into the bloodstream.
Aerosols also have important radioactive effects in the atmosphere.

Particles are said to scatter light when they alter the direction of
57
radiation beams without absorbing radiation. This is the principal

mechanism limiting visibility in the atmosphere. When relative humidity
is high, aerosols absorb water, which causes them to swell and increases
their cross-sectional area for scattering, creating haze. Without aerosol
pollution our visual range would typically be about 200 miles, but haze
can reduce visibility significantly.
Aerosols have a cooling effect on Earth's climate when they scatter solar
radiation because some of the scattered light is reflected back into space.
In contrast, some aerosol particles such as soot absorb radiation and
have a warming effect. Aerosol particles can influence Earth's climate
indirectly.
Carbon monoxide (CO)

CO is an odorless, colorless gas formed by incomplete combustion of
carbon in fuel. The main source is motor vehicle exhaust, along with
industrial processes and biomass burning. Carbon monoxide binds to
hemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing their ability to transport and
release oxygen throughout the body. Low exposures can aggravate
cardiac ailments, while high exposures cause central nervous system
impairment or death.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2, referred together as NOx)

Nitrogen oxides are highly reactive gases formed when oxygen and
nitrogen react at high temperatures during combustion or lightning
strikes. Nitrogen present in fuel can also be emitted as NOx during
combustion. In the atmosphere NOx reacts with volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide to produce ground-level
ozone through a complicated chain reaction mechanism. It is eventually
oxidized to nitric acid (HNO3). Like sulfuric acid, nitric acid contributes
to acid deposition and to aerosol formation.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

SO2 is produced by volcanic eruptions and industrial processes. SO2 is a
gas formed when sulfur is exposed to oxygen at high temperatures
during fossil fuel combustion, oil refining, or metal smelting. SO 2 is
toxic at high concentrations, but its principal air pollution effects are
associated with the formation of acid rain and aerosols. SO2 dissolves in
cloud droplets and oxidizes to form sulfuric acid (H2SO 4), which can
fall to Earth as acid rain or snow or form sulfate aerosol particles in the
atmosphere. Pollution from SO2 has been linked to many adverse health
effects on the respiratory system.
Lead
Lead is a toxic heavy metal, found naturally in the environment. It is a
common pollutant in manufactured products. Motor vehicles and
58
EHS 503 MODULE 3
industries are the largest source of lead emissions. Lead can affect the
nervous system, kidney function, immune system, reproductive and
development systems and the cardiovascular system.
List the sources of common air pollutants.
2.3.5 Hazardous Air Pollutants
Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), are
those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer, other
serious health effects (including reproductive effects or birth defects), or
adverse environmental effects. Regulatory bodies work together with
government at all levels to reduce air emissions of HAPs to the
environment.
Example of HAPs includes benzene, which is found in gasoline;

perchloroethylene, which is emitted from some dry cleaning facilities;
and methylene chloride, which is used as a solvent and paint stripper by
a number of industries. Other examples are dioxins, asbestos, toluene,
and metals such as cadmium, mercury, chromium, and lead compounds.
Explain the concept of hazardous air pollution.
2.4 Summary
Pollutants in the atmosphere cause harmful effects to both humans and

animals, they also affect the environment. Pollutants in the ambient air
must be monitored to see that their levels do not exceed the permitted
limits.
So far in this unit, we have discussed air pollution and also distinguished
between criteria and hazardous pollutants under the following:
• Air quality
• Composition of air
• Air pollutants (primary and secondary)
• Common air pollutants (ozone, particulate matter, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxide and lead
• Hazardous air pollutants (benzene, perchloroethylene and
methylene chloride).
59
Bolz, R. E. & Tuve, G. L., Eds. (1973). Handbook of Tables for Applied
Engineering Science, 2nd ed. Cleveland: CRC Press.
Dara, S.S. (2006). A Text Book of Environmental Chemistry and

Pollution Control. pp26, 29 Ram Nagar, New Delhi India: Chand
and Company Ltd,
Murphy, D.M. (2005). "Something in the Air," Science. Pp. 1888–1890.
National Academies of Science (2004). Urbanization, Energy and Air

Pollution in China: The Challenges Ahead. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press. P3.
Unit 11: Atmospheric Pollution. www.learner.com/
Vanloon, G.W., Duffy S.J., & Duffy S.J. (2004). Environmental

Chemistry. A Global Perspective. Pp24-25. New York, USA:
Oxford University Press Inc.
Vinod, M. (2003). Health Effects of Air Pollution

http://www.populationenvironmentresearch.org. Pp 1-15.
www.epa.gov/air-quality-management-process/managing-air-quality-
air-pollutant-types add
60
EHS 503 MODULE 3
SAE 1
Sources of air pollution:
Emission of chemicals into the atmosphere by a range of sources.
Anthropogenic emissions come from human activities, such as burning
fossil fuel. Biogenic emissions are produced by natural functions of
biological organisms, such as microbial breakdown of organic materials.
Emissions can also come from nonliving natural sources, most notably
volcanic eruptions and desert dust.
Chemistry: Many types of chemical reactions in the atmosphere create

chemical pollutants in the atmosphere.
Transport: Winds can carry pollutants far from their sources, so that
emissions in one region cause environmental impacts far away. Long-
range transport complicates efforts to control air pollution because it can
be hard to distinguish effects caused by local versus distant sources and
to determine who should bear the costs of reducing emissions.
Deposition: Materials in the atmosphere return to Earth, either because

they are directly absorbed or taken up in a chemical.
SAE 2
Composition of air pollutants (See Table 2.1).
SAE 3
Classification of air pollutants:
Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the air from identifiable
sources. Primary pollutants are produced by processes such as ash from
a volcanic eruption, carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts
or Sulphur dioxide released from the factories. These pollutants can
have dangerous effects on health when released into the atmosphere
both directly and as precursors of secondary air pollutants.
Secondary air pollutants are produced when primary pollutants interacts

with one another in the atmosphere, this reaction forms a harmful
product. Secondary air pollutants include ground level ozone, PAN
(Peroxyl acetyl nitrate), photochemical smog and aerosols. Some
pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted
directly and formed from other primary pollutants
61
SAE 4
Common sources of air pollutants:
Ground-level ozone (O3)
Particulate matter (aerosols)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Lead
SAE 5
Hazardous air pollutants:
Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), are
those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer, other
serious health effects (including reproductive effects or birth defects), or
adverse environmental effects. Regulatory bodies work together with
government at all levels to reduce air emissions of HAPs to the
environment.
62
EHS 503 MODULE 3
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Measurement of Air Quality
3.3.1 Measurements of Air Pollution
3.3.2 Air Quality Index (AQI)
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
Air pollutants can be measured directly when they are emitted – for
example, by placing instruments on factory smokestacks – or as
concentrations in the ambient outdoor air. To track ambient
concentrations, researchers create networks of air-monitoring stations,
which can be ground-based or mounted on vehicles, balloons, airplanes,
or satellites. In the laboratory, scientists use tools including laser
spectrometers and electron microscopes to identify specific pollutants.
They measure chemical reaction rates in clear plastic bags ("smog
chambers") that replicate the smog environment under controlled
conditions, and observe emission of pollutants from combustion and
other sources.
• identify the different methods for measuring air pollution

• explain the concept of air quality index.
3.3 Measurement of Air Quality
3.3.1 Measurements of Air Pollution
There are many ways to measure air pollution, with both simple
chemical and physical methods and with more sophisticated electronic
techniques. There are four main methods of measuring air pollution.
Passive sampling methods

This method provides reliable, cost-effective air quality analysis, which
gives a good indication of average pollution concentrations over a
63
period of weeks or months. Passive samplers are so-called because the

device does not involve any pumping. Instead the flow of air is
controlled by a physical process, such as diffusion. Diffusion tubes are
simple passive samplers, which provide very useful information
regarding ambient air quality. They are available for a number of
pollutants, but are most commonly and reliably used for nitrogen
dioxide and benzene. The tubes, which are 71 mm long with an internal
diameter of 11 mm, contain two stainless steel gauzes placed at one end
of a short cylinder. The steel gauzes contain a coating of
triethanolamine, which converts the nitrogen dioxide to nitrite. The
accumulating nitrates are trapped within the steel gauze, ready for
laboratory analysis. The tube is open to the atmosphere at the other end,
which is exposed downwards to prevent rain or dust from entering the
tube. To ensure that all the nitrogen dioxide originates from the test
site, the tubes are sealed before and after exposure. The tubes are
manually distributed and collected, and are analyzed in a laboratory.
Active sampling methods

This method use physical or chemical methods to collect polluted air,
and analysis is carried out later in the laboratory. Typically, a known
volume of air is pumped through a collector (such as a filter, or a
chemical solution) for a known period of time. The collector is later
removed for analysis. Samples can be collected daily, providing
measurements for short time periods, but at a lower cost than automatic
monitoring methods.
Automatic methods
The advantage of this method is that it produces high-resolution
measurements of hourly pollutant concentrations or better, at a single
point. Pollutants analyzed include ozone, nitrogen oxides, Sulphur
dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulates. The samples are analyzed
using a variety of methods including spectroscopy and gas. The sample,
once analyzed is downloaded in real-time, providing very accurate
information.
Remote optical/long path-analyzers

This method use spectroscopic techniques. Real-time measurements of
the concentrations of a range of pollutants including nitrogen dioxide
and Sulphur dioxide can be done using these analyzers.
The amount of pollution in the air, however sampled, is usually

measured by its concentration in air. The concentration of a pollutant in
air may be defined in terms of the proportion of the total volume that it
accounts for. Concentrations of pollutant gases in the atmosphere are
usually measured in parts per million by volume (ppmv), parts per
billion by volume (ppbv) or parts per trillion (million million) by
64
EHS 503 MODULE 3
volume (pptv). Pollutant concentrations are also measured by the weight

of pollutant within a standard volume of air, for example microgrammes
per cubic metre (µgm-3) or milligrammes per cubic metre (mgm-3).
List the methods for measuring air quality.
3.3.2 Air Quality Index (AQI)
The AQI is a nationally uniform color-coded index for reporting and

forecasting daily air quality. It is used to report on the most common
ambient air pollutants that are regulated under the Clean Air Act:
ground-level ozone, particle pollution (PM10 and PM2.5), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). The AQI tells the public how
clean or polluted the air is and how to avoid health effects associated
with poor air quality.
The AQI focuses on health effects that may be experienced within a few
hours or days after breathing polluted air and uses a normalized scale
from 0 to 500; the higher the AQI value, the greater the level of
pollution and the greater the health concern. An AQI value of 100
generally corresponds to the level of the short-term National Ambient
Air Quality Standard for the pollutant. AQI values at and below 100 are
generally considered to be satisfactory. When AQI values are above
100, air quality is considered to be unhealthy, at first for members of
populations at greatest risk of a health effect, then for the entire
population as AQI values get higher (greater than 150).
The AQI is divided into six categories that correspond to different levels
of health concern. The breakpoints between these categories are selected
based on a review of the health effects evidence. Some individuals are
much more sensitive to air pollution than others. Checking the AQI each
day will help these people notice at what levels they begin to experience
effects. The levels of health concern listed below are general guidelines
used as a reference so that people can figure out their own sensitivity to
air pollution.
• Good: Air quality is good and poses little or no risk.
• Moderate: Air quality is acceptable; however, there may be

some health concern for a small number of unusually sensitive
people. While EPA cannot identify these people, studies indicate
that there are people who experience health effects when air
quality is in the moderate range.
65
• Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups: When air quality is in this

range, people who are in sensitive groups, whether the increased
risk is due to medical conditions, exposure conditions, or innate
susceptibility, may experience health effects when engaged in
outdoor activities. However, exposures to ambient concentrations
in this range are not likely to result in effects in the general
population. For particle pollution, the sensitive groups include
people with heart and lung disease, older adults, children, people
with diabetes and people of lower SES.
• Unhealthy: When air quality is in this range, everyone who in

active outdoors may experience effects. Members of sensitive
groups are likely to experience more serious effects.
• Very Unhealthy: When air quality is in this range, it is expected

that there will be widespread effects among the general
population and more serious effects in members of sensitive
groups.
• Hazardous: Air quality in this range triggers health warnings of

emergency conditions by media outlets. The entire population is
more likely to be affected by serious health effects.
Air quality indices have two main purposes:

• To relay necessary air quality information to the public so that
people can modify their behaviour and stay healthy.
• By monitoring pollution levels, countries can assess the
effectiveness of their policies and adjust as needed to achieve
better air quality in the future.
When air quality indices record high levels, government agencies deal
with such instances through any of the following ways:
• Sensitive groups, including children, the elderly and people with

respiratory and cardiovascular problems are advised not to take
part in any outdoor activities
• Factories that emit large amounts of pollutants are ordered to shut
down or cut production. People are also encouraged to use public
transport to reduce vehicle emissions. This has happened
severally in China where the authorities have increased their
efforts to bring China pollution to manageable levels.
• People are asked to wear protective masks to avoid breathing in
pollutants, particularly PM2.5 and ground ozone.
66
EHS 503 MODULE 3
Enumerate the levels air quality based on air quality index (AQI)
3.4 Summary
Air quality measurement enables effective monitoring of air pollution,
this helps to advise the public on the possible effects of air pollution on
public health and measures to be taken.
This unit discussed the different ways to measure air pollution and how
air quality index can be used to inform the public on air pollution and
associated health risks.
• Measurements of air pollution using various methods (passive,
active, automatic and remote optical path analyser)
• Air quality index classified as good. Moderate, unhealthy for
sensitive groups, unhealthy, very unhealthy and hazardous.
We also discussed the purposes of air quality index to include:

• Public information sharing
• Monitoring pollution level.
Air Quality Index - American Lung Association". American Lung

Association. Archived from the original on 28 August 2015.
Retrieved 20 August 2015.
Air Quality Index (AQI) - A Guide to Air Quality and Your Health". US
EPA. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
European Air Quality Index: current air quality information at your

fingertips". European Environment Agency. 2017-11-16.
Archived from the original on 2018-02-18. Retrieved 2018-02-19
Fensterstock, J.C. (1969). " The Development and Utilization of an Air

Quality Index," Paper No. 69–73, presented at the 62nd Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Administration.
Pollution Locator: Air Quality Indices (2001). Scorecard, the pollution

information site. Good guide.
Revised Air Quality Standards For Particle Pollution And Updates To

The Air Quality Index (AQI) (PDF). North Carolina: US EPA
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. 2013
Ways to measure air pollution (2016). Cambridge Mask Co.

67
3. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
SAE 1
Methods for measuring air quality:
Passive sampling methods using diffusion tubes as simple samplers.
Active sampling methods are laboratory base with air collected by
physical or chemical means.
Automatic methods using spectroscopy and gas to provide real-time and
accurate data.
Remote optical/long path-anaylzers using spectroscopic techniques. It
measures concentrations of pollutants.
SAE 2
Levels of air quality based on air quality index (AQI):
Good: Air quality is good and poses little or no risk.
Moderate: Air quality is acceptable; however, there may be some health

concern for a small number of unusually sensitive people.
Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups: When air quality is in this range,

people who are in sensitive groups, whether the increased risk is due to
medical conditions, exposure conditions, or innate susceptibility, may
experience health effects when engaged in outdoor activities.
Unhealthy: When air quality is in this range, everyone who in active

outdoors may experience effects. Members of sensitive groups are likely
to experience more serious effects.
Very Unhealthy: When air quality is in this range, it is expected that

there will be widespread effects among the general population and more
serious effects in members of sensitive groups.
Hazardous: Air quality in this range triggers health warnings of

emergency conditions by media outlets. The entire population is more
likely to be affected by serious health effects.
68
EHS 503 MODULE 4
MODULE 4 ASSESSMENT OF AIR QUALITY

Unit 2 Source Apportionment, Mobile Monitoring and Land Use
Regression
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Air Quality Assessment Technologies
1.3.1 Air Quality Assessment Tools
1.3.2 Emission Inventories
1.4 Summary
1.1 Introduction
The environment and public health is greatly impacted by air quality.

The purpose for the assessment of air quality is to reduce the negative
effects of air pollution. The data generated from air quality assessment
help the government and other regulatory authorities to develop
legislation, policies, and plans to manage emissions and monitor
ambient air quality. Air quality assessments inform air quality
management activities by providing an understanding of how pollutant
sources, emission characteristics, topography and meteorological
conditions contribute to local air quality. Specific air quality assessment
tools can help answer a variety of questions which are integral to air
quality management activities.
• list the tools for assessing air quality

• identify the various sources of emission and estimate the level of
pollutants from each source.
69
1.3 Air Quality Assessment Technologies
1.3.1 Air Quality Assessment Tools
Air quality assessment tools can help provide information on important

sources, emissions, as well as meteorological conditions that contribute
to poor local air quality. Information generated from the use of air
quality assessment tools can inform decisions on permitting of
emissions, industrial siting, and land use; all can impact local air quality,
which in turn can influence air pollution related health effects of a
population.
The main tools for air quality assessment are:

• Emissions inventories/measurement;
• Source apportionment;
• Mobile monitoring;
• Land use regression;
• Dispersion models.
All these assessment tools are interdependent in scope and application.

Accordingly, all these tools should be regarded as complementary
components in any integrated approach to exposure assessment or
determining compliance against air quality criteria.
List 5 tools used in air quality assessment.
1.3.2 Emission Inventories
A crucial component of an air quality management plan is a reasonable

quantitative knowledge of the sources of the various emissions.
Emissions inventories are databases of pollution sources located within a
specific geographical area, along with their estimated or actual
emissions. The pollutants included in inventories generally include the
criteria pollutants, such as PM (PM2.5 and PM10), So x, NOx, VOCs, CO,
NH 3, and ozone. Sources of emissions are organized into stationary and
mobile categories, with stationary sources further broken down into
point and area sources.
• Point sources include larger facilities, such as pulp mills,
smelters, power plants; wood products plants and stacks in major
industrial sites (Figure 1.1).
• Area sources include stationary sources that are too small and
numerous to count individually e.g. forest fires, emissions from
vehicle refueling, on-road vehicles, commercial and domestic
fuel combustion (see Figure 1).
70
EHS 503 MODULE 4
• Mobile sources include any sources powered by an internal

combustion engine that move under their own power; these
include all on-road vehicles, off-road vehicles (e.g., construction
equipment, sports equipment, gardening equipment) etc. Mobile
sources are often considered as line sources as it is not practicable
to consider the emissions from each car separately but rather to
sum up the emissions along the road (considered as a line; see
Figure 1.1).
Biogenic or natural sources, such as deserts, eroded areas, and

agricultural emissions are a non-anthropogenic source category, mostly
being to area sources.
Figure 1.1: A copper smelter in Ilo Perú (left).
Pollutant emissions from each source are calculated using a variety of

data. For point sources, data generally come from stack sampling and
monitoring, as required of larger facilities by the permitting process. For
point sources where stack monitoring data is not available, such as
smaller facilities that are not required to conduct monitoring, estimation
methods are used to calculate emissions rates of pollutants. The use of
monitoring data allows for more accurate calculations of emissions from
facilities, compared with those generated by estimation methods. These
methods typically include the use of emission factors and a production
or activity level. Form any common industrial processes and control
equipment, an existing emission factor can be found for similar
facilities. For example, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) maintains a large database of these factors, called the
AP-42 Emission Factors (US EPA, 2010). Emission factors are usually
expressed as a mass of contaminant emitted per unit of input energy or
71
raw material consumed (called the activity level). Once the emission
factor and activity rate are known, the overall emissions from a source
or activity can be calculated using equation 1 (US EPA, 2010).
Equation 1 also takes into consideration emissions reduction activities

which can reduce total emissions.
(1)
where:
E = emissions;
A = activity rate;
EF = emission factor, and
ER = overall emission reduction efficiency, %

Emissions, from the majority of area sources in inventories, are
estimated using emission factors and activity levels or a simple count of
the number of facilities within the area of study. Emissions from sources
in specialized categories, such as open burning, can be estimated with
models. All mobile source categories are estimated with models
developed for each category (i.e., on-road, off-road, aircraft, etc.). While
these models are based on empirical data and emission factors, they do
take into account relevant local data, including: vehicle fleet distribution
and demographics, average vehicle use cycles and mileage, fuel
characteristics, average weather, and changing engine emission criteria
and limits. Similarly, estimations of emissions from natural sources,
such as forest fires, are generally calculated using models (e.g.,
vegetation growth) or a combination of empirical data and emission
factors.
Once the inventory has been completed it is important to conduct an

emissions verification exercise to ensure that the accuracy and precision
of estimates remain within acceptable parameters. Verification involves
ascertaining the completeness and consistency of the data input and
involves checks on:
• How definitions of sources and of pollutants have been applied;
• The completeness of the data entered for each sector, sub-sector
and activity;
• The consistency of the inventory at different levels of spatial
disaggregation;
• The transparency of the emissions inventory whether the data
inputs are fully traceable to their references.
Verification can also involve the use of dispersion and modelling studies
to assess the inventory in relation to measured air quality.
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
List the common air pollutants that are considered in emissions
inventory of air quality.
1.4 Summary
Data collected in emissions inventories can be used to understand
emissions trends over time, as well as highlight sources that require
targeted emission reduction interventions. While on their own, they do
not provide information on ambient concentrations. Emissions
inventories can feed into other assessment tools, such as dispersion
models, to better characterize pollutant concentrations.
In this unit, we introduced air quality assessment technology tools and

discussed emission inventory as a tool for air quality assessment.
Important issues discussed include:
• Air quality assessment tools such as emission inventories, source
apportionment, mobile monitoring, land use regression and
dispersion models.
• Emission inventories considering point sources, area sources and
mobile sources.

Dockery, D., Pope, C., Xu, X., Spengler, J., Ware, J. & Fay, M. (1993).
An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S.
cities. N. Engl J Med. 329:1753-1759.
Hoek, G., Beelen, R., de Hoogh, K., Vienneau, D., Gulliver, J. &
Fischer, P. (2008). A review of land use regression models to
assess spatial variation of outdoor air pollution. Atmos Environ.
42(33):7561-7578.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Emissions factors & AP

42, Compilation of air pollutant emissions factors. Washington,
DC. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/
73
SAE 1
Tools used in air quality assessment:
Emissions inventories/measurement;
Source apportionment;
Mobile monitoring;
Land use regression;
Dispersion models.
SAE 2
Common air pollutants that are considered in air quality inventory:
These are referred to as criteria pollutants. They include Particulate
Matter (PM2.5 and PM10), sulphur oxides (SOx), Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Carbon monoxide (CO), NH3, and
ground-level ozone (O3).
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
Unit 2 Source Apportionment, Mobile Monitoring and

Land Use Regression
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Source Appointment, Mobile Monitoring and Land Use
Regression
2.3.1 Source Apportionment
2.3.2 Mobile Monitoring
2.3.3 Land Use Regression
2.4 Summary
2.1 Introduction
Air quality assessments inform air quality management activities by

providing an understanding of how pollutant sources, emission
characteristics, topography and meteorological conditions contribute to
local air quality.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• identify the different types of air quality models and methods of

using them
• state reasons for using mobile monitoring techniques
• conduct land use regression.
2.3 Source Apportionment, Mobile Monitoring and Land

Use Regression
2.3.1 Source Apportionment
Source apportionment techniques aim to estimate, or apportion, the

contribution of different pollution sources to ambient concentrations
within a given area. Source apportionment is conducted by first
understanding the particular make up of a mixture of air pollution, then
linking these pollutants to specific sources. Understanding the
composition of a pollution mixture is an important step in determining
the potential health impacts of exposure.
75
Types of Models
Models of varying complexity have been developed to conduct source
apportionment. These models aim to attribute ambient pollutant
concentrations at specific locations (receptors) to specific sources.
Common models include chemical-mass balance (CMB), principle
component analysis (PCA) and a related technique called positive matrix
factorization (PMF). The key difference between these models is the
requirement of prior knowledge/data; while CMB models rely on
chemical source profiles of emission sources, as well as on the chemical
composition of ambient air at receptor locations, PMF and PCA require
only chemical composition information at receptors.
In order to conduct a CMB assessment for PM, filter samples are

collected and undergo laboratory analysis to determine the composition
of the collected samples. Additionally, the chemical profile of pollutants
emitted from all major sources in the air shed must be specified. The
contribution of each source to the filter chemical make-up is then
calculated by combining the sources linearly. The method is improved
when sources have unique chemical tracers, making it easier to match
the filter PM chemical composition to a specific source. As very few
pollutants are source-specific, only non-reactive chemical tracers may be
used as indicators of specific pollutants. For example, levoglucosan, a
tracer for wood smoke, is often used in the analysis of PM to apportion
the contribution of wood burning to a particulate sample.
Unlike CMB, PCA and PMF models can be used when the chemical
composition of emissions from potential sources are unknown. PCA and
PMF are very similar; both are statistical models that use multivariate
receptor analysis to identify sources of a pollutant mixture. Despite these
similarities, PMF is thought to be superior to PCA for several reasons.
In PMF, unlike for PCA, it is possible to account for missing data,
values below the limit of detection and uncertainties in each of the data
values, by assigning weights to the data values. PMF is also more
realistic since negative concentrations are excluded, unlike in PCA.
Using both models, the chemical constituents of a sample are analyzed
and the relationships between the constituents, expressed as a covariance
matrix, are investigated. When particular chemical species vary together,
they are assigned to the same factor. The chemical make-up of each
factor is then interpreted and identified with a specific source.
Information from a PMF model can be further refined with the use of
meteorological data, including wind direction, to provide better
information on the geographical location of the source. For example, if a
particular factor occurs when wind is from a specific direction, and the
factor is chemically associated with a source in that direction, then the
factor may be attributed to that source.
76
EHS 503 MODULE 4
List the types of models that are used in the conduct of source
apportioning of air quality.
2.3.2 Mobile Monitoring
Mobile monitoring uses a mobile platform, typically a vehicle, to collect

pollutant measurements across an area of interest. This type of
monitoring is useful to: (1) provide insight about areas that are not well
represented by fixed-site monitoring stations; (2) capture small-scale
spatial variability of pollutants; (3) identify localized pollutant hot spots,
particularly for emissions that vary in concentration over small spatial
scales, such as residential wood burning and traffic; (4) provide data for
model development or validation. Mobile monitoring has the capability
of being rapidly deployed, therefore, can also be used in emergency
situations, such as characterizing the spatial distribution of a chemical
plume resulting from an accidental release or smoke from forest fires.
For these reasons, mobile monitoring provides detailed information
beyond what can be typically characterized by traditional fixed-site
monitoring networks, so can be used to improve exposure estimates and
inform air quality management decisions.
Mobile monitoring is typically conducted by equipping a vehicle with

air pollutant monitors. The use of a geographical positioning system
(GPS) allows precise locations to be assigned to air pollution
measurements. There are two sampling methods that can be used to
conduct mobile monitoring: (1) measurements can be collected while the
vehicle is in motion or (2) can be stationed for periods of time at
designated locations.
Generally, the purpose of collecting measurements while the vehicle is

in motion is to gather a high density of measurements over an area of
interest. Continuous monitors are suitable for this approach and are
typically used to collect real-time measurements at high frequencies
(less than 1 minute). Several types of pollutants such as PM4 and air
toxics have been measured, using this sampling method. Some
measurements, such as PM, do not provide source-specific information,
making it difficult to attribute specific sources to the mobile
measurements. However, different techniques, such as choosing an
appropriate sampling period or instrument selection, can help to identify
or isolate the sources of interest. For example, to characterize PM2.5
generated from residential wood burning, mobile monitoring can be
conducted during cold, calm winter evenings. During these conditions,
wood burning activity is expected to be relatively high while the relative
contribution of traffic to ambient PM2.5 is expected to be lower.
Selecting an instrument, such as a multi-wavelength aethalometer or
77
multi-wavelength nephelometer, instruments that measure light

attenuation and scattering of a sample (respectively) at two or more
wavelengths, can help to distinguish some particle sources, such as
diesel exhaust or wood smoke. Supplementary sampling at fixed-sites
can also help to characterize the chemical contents of PM2.5 within the
region of interest.
In cases where sampling is conducted while the vehicle is stationary, the

vehicle essentially serves as a temporary monitoring station. The vehicle
is stationed at designated sampling sites in an area of interest for longer
sampling periods (from hours to days). Sampling can be conducted for
pollutants such as: PM, NO2, SO2, ozone, VOCs, PAHs, other air toxics,
as well as for meteorological conditions with continuous and non-
continuous monitors. This approach is useful for obtaining ambient air
quality information that would otherwise not be available through
existing fixed-site monitoring networks.
State the reasons for embarking on mobile monitoring of air quality.
2.3.3 Land Use Regression
Land use regression (LUR) is a modelling approach that can be used to

describe the distribution of air pollution within urban and suburban
areas. It was first developed by public health researchers in the mid-
1990s to examine neighborhood-scale variability in long-term
concentrations of urban air pollutants. At the time, there was new
evidence to suggest that increasing exposure to city-wide air pollution
had a negative impact on important indicators of public health. LUR was
developed to support epidemiologic studies investigating the public
health effects of air pollution due to ambient air pollution variability
within a single city. More recently, LUR has gained attention in the air
quality management and urban planning communities.
Although LUR is typically used to model pollution related to vehicle

traffic, the method has also been applied to sources like residential wood
smoke and marine traffic. Regardless of the source under consideration,
the premise of any LUR model is that the pollutant concentration at a
specific location is a function of the physical characteristics of that
location and its surroundings. For example, LUR assumes that the
nitrogen oxide (NOX) concentrations around a house may be associated
with the volume of traffic around that house. Likewise, the
concentration of wood smoke-related particulate matter (PM) around
that house may be related to the density of houses in the neighborhood
with wood-burning appliances. The concept is easy to understand and
the method is generally straightforward to apply.
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
Conducting LUR
There is no standard way of conducting LUR, but detailed descriptions
of different approaches can be found in the scientific literature. The first
step is always to measure a pollutant at multiple locations around an
area. These locations are generally fixed, but mobile monitoring has
been used in some cases. Under ideal circumstances, the sites are
specifically selected to optimize the spatial variability in pollutant
concentrations. Physical and geographic characteristics that might be
associated with those concentrations are measured around each site,
using a Geographic Information System (GIS). These potentially-
predictive variables typically describe site location, including land use,
population density, and traffic patterns. Once sampling is complete and
the potentially-predictive variables are generated, multiple linear
regression is used to determine the association between measured
concentrations and the most predictive variables. The resulting equation
can be used to estimate pollutant concentrations wherever all of the
predictors can be measured; concentration maps with high spatial
resolution can be generated by rendering the regression model in the
GIS.
Studies to date have used a variety of methods to choose sampling

locations, from convenience sampling (i.e., using a pre-established air
monitoring network) to sophisticated location-allocation models that
optimize the estimated variability in measurements while maximizing
the distance between samplers. While there is little evidence to support
using any single method, LUR is most informative when models are
built on data that reflect the full within-area variability of the pollutant
in question. Likewise, there are no definitive guidelines on the number
of sites to sample, but to capture the necessary variability, a practical
minimum of 40 has been. Finally, the sampling period should be chosen
to suit the specific objectives of the study. For example, if using LUR to
predict the long-term average of a pollutant that follows distinct
seasonal trends (i.e., NOX), it is advisable to sample during periods that
are known a priori to approximate the annual mean.
For the other side of the regression equation, it is important to consider

which data will be used to generate the potentially-predictive set of
variables. Although the availability of geographic data depends upon
local circumstances, most LUR studies on traffic-related pollution have
used variables that quantify traffic intensity (sometimes specified by
vehicle class), road classification density, distances to certain road types,
population/building density, areas of land use classifications, and
topography. Some studies have attempted to improve model fit by
including a wider range of data from other sources, such as
meteorological models and remote sensing platforms. In general, LUR
can accommodate any spatial dataset that may help to describe the
within-area variability of pollutant concentrations.
79
Explain how land use regression can be conducted
2.4 Summary
The different air quality assessment tools we have discussed can be used
to identify particular sources that are important contributors to local air
pollution, thus, enabling them to be targeted for emissions reduction
strategies. Information about important polluters can inform decisions
on emissions permitting and industrial siting in a region. A better
understanding of sources and of pollution composition can also better
inform the assessment of health impacts once the exposure is better
characterized.
In this unit, you have learnt that:

• air quality assessment technologies can be used to monitor the
local air quality.
• the information obtained using these assessment technologies can
be very helpful to decisions makers in monitoring air quality and
hence protection of a population from pollution related health
effects.

Dockery, D., Pope, C., Xu, X., Spengler, J., Ware, J. & Fay, M. (1993).
An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S.
cities. N Engl J Med. 329:1753-1759.
Hoek, G., Beelen, R., de Hoogh, K., Vienneau, D., Gulliver, J. &
Fischer, P. (2008). A review of land use regression models to
assess spatial variation of outdoor air pollution. Atmos Environ.
42(33):7561-7578.
Millar, G., Abel, T., Allen, J., Barn, P., Noullett, M. & Spagnol, J.
(2010). Evaluating human exposure to fine particulate matter part
II: Modeling. Geography Compass. 4(7):731-49.
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
SAE 1
Types of models used in the conduct of source apportioning of air
quality.
Common models include:
Chemical-Mass Balance (CMB) models - rely on chemical source
profiles of emission sources, as well as on the chemical composition of
ambient air at receptor locations
Principle Component Analysis (PCA) - require only chemical
composition information at receptors
Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) - require chemical composition
information at receptors
SAE 2
Reasons for embarking on mobile monitoring of air quality:
To provide insight about areas that are not well represented by fixed-site
monitoring stations;
To capture small-scale spatial variability of pollutants;
To identify localized pollutant hot spots, particularly for emissions that
vary in concentration over small spatial scales, such as residential wood
burning and traffic;
To provide data for model development or validation.
SAE 3
Conduct of Land Use Regression (LUR):
Measure pollutants at multiple location
Measure physical geographic characteristics at each location
Describe location variables such as land use, population density, traffic
patterns
Use multiple linear regression to determine the association between
measure variables
81

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Air Quality Modelling
3.3.1 Dispersion Modelling
3.3.2 Types of Dispersion Models
3.3.3 Strengths of Dispersion Models
3.3.4 Limitations of Dispersion Models
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
Ambient air quality modelling, in conjunction with monitoring, plays an

important role in assessing existing and potential risks to air quality,
particularly as part of an initial assessment of new developments. Air
pollution models are the only method that quantifies the deterministic
relationship between emissions and concentrations/depositions,
including the consequences of past and future scenarios and the
determination of the effectiveness of abatement strategies. This makes
air pollution models indispensable in regulatory, research, and forensic
applications. The Gaussian Plume Model was developed for modelling
point sources and is used in calculating the maximum ground level
impact of plumes and the distance of maximum impact from the source.
Air pollution modelling at urban or larger scales are done using
Lagrangian modeling and Eulerian modelling.
The first step in undertaking air quality modelling is to clearly define the
objectives and expected outcomes. This can be done by addressing
questions such as:
1. What is the reason for the air quality modelling?
2. What questions need to be answered by modelling work?
3. What pollutants or environmental indicators need to be modelled
in order to provide the information required?
4. What data and information are already available and how can
these help?
5. What considerations need to be made about background
concentrations of pollutants?
6. What type of pollutant source/s need to be modelled?

7. What are the geographical features near the pollutant source/s?
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
8. How the modelled data is best utilized and reported to describe

the issues under investigation?
• discuss the importance of dispersion models in air quality

measurement
• explain the types of dispersion models used in air quality
measurement
• identify the limitations of dispersion models in air quality
measurement.
3.3 Air Quality Modelling
3.3.1 Dispersion Modelling
When a pollutant is emitted into the air, it is transported and diluted by

the atmosphere and may be transformed or removed before it reaches a
receptor (site). It is often assumed that air quality is determined only by
how much is emitted into the air. While the amounts emitted into the air
are very important to monitor, ambient concentrations are also a
function of meteorology, topography, time, and the distance between
sources and receptors. Because of this, the ambient concentrations are
not related in a simple way to the emission amount. Dispersion models
take these influencing factors into account to predict ambient
concentrations at specific sites. An air quality dispersion model is a
system of science-based equations that mathematically describes how
pollutants are dispersed and transformed in the atmosphere.
Concentrations of pollutants at specific receptors are estimated by
placing sources (from an emission inventory) into a dispersion model
which takes into account the interactions between sources, meteorology,
and topography as the pollutants are transported and diluted by wind.
Dispersion models can help to provide a cause-effect link between
emissions into the air and the resulting ambient concentrations. For
example, large reductions in emissions from a stack located on a hill
above a community may have a very small effect on the community‘s
air quality since the plume is so high it seldom reaches ground level,
where the emissions can be breathed in. However, the air quality in a
community downwind may be improved considerably as the emissions
from the stack may have the greatest impact on that community‘s air
quality. Dispersion models can help to determine the contribution of
each source to ambient concentrations in an air shed.
83
Why are dispersion models important in air quality measurement?
3.3.2 Types of Dispersion Models
Different types of dispersion models can be used to assess the impact of

pollutant sources on air quality, depending on the information required
and the data available.
• A Screening model can be used to provide a quick calculation of

a worst case concentration that could occur from a source under
different emissions and meteorological conditions. Through
screening, further modelling needs can be determined. Screening
models are simple and quick to run because they require few
inputs, since they use a built-in set of meteorological conditions.
Example of screening model is SCREEN3.
• A Refined model is more scientifically sound than a screening

model and requires more input data and expertise to run. These
models require hourly meteorological data over a period of time
(e.g., a year) and from the region of interest in order to make
predictions that are site specific and more detailed as compared to
a screening model. The output consists of predicted
concentrations for a given pollutant, for time averages from 1
hour to annually at specified receptor locations. The model output
provides a rich dataset to understand the air quality impacts of
meteorology on source emissions. An example of a refined model
is AERMOD.
• An Advanced model includes comprehensive treatments of the

physics and chemistry of emissions in the atmosphere and thus
requires considerable expertise and computer resources to set up,
run, and interpret the results. Advanced models are typically used
to assess air quality impacts from large areas (such as cities) and
over broad emission sectors for a selected time period (a few days
is typical, but longer periods of time can also be modelled).
CALPUFF is an example of an advanced modelling system.
Data requirements
The types of input data required can be categorized into the following
types:
• Emissions: Information on the type of pollutant and source
characteristics are required, including the source type (point
source such as a stack, an area source such as a sewage lagoon, a
line source such as a highway), emission rates, exit conditions
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EHS 503 MODULE 4
(temperature, flow rates), and physical release characteristics,

such as elevation and diameter.
• Atmospheric Conditions: A dispersion model requires a

description of the atmosphere, since the transport and mixing of
the contaminant depends on atmospheric conditions.
• Wind speed and direction as well as temperature and sometimes

other data, such as clouds, precipitation, humidity and
atmospheric stability, may be required.
• Geophysical Description: The underlying topography and land

characteristics must be specified.
• Model Options/Switches: A model may have different ways in

which the physics and chemistry are treated. The selection of a
particular treatment is controlled by specifying options in the
model; the correct selection of options can be important for
realistic results.
State the types of dispersion models used in air quality measurement
3.3.3 Strengths of Dispersion Models
Dispersion models are widely accepted and utilized as an integral part of

air management programs. Dispersion modelling can help to assess the
contribution of sources to ambient air quality levels by directly
attributing sources and their contributions to ambient concentrations that
are a consequence of emissions, meteorology, and location. This can
help identify high exposure scenarios (i.e., high exposure sites,
meteorological conditions that favor high pollutant concentrations) as
well as evaluate the effectiveness of scenarios for air quality-related
interventions.
3.3.4 Limitations of Dispersion Models
Despite the value they provide, dispersion models may not be

appropriate to use in all air quality assessments. Dispersion models can
be quite complex and can require a large amount of input data. If data
are unavailable, incomplete or of poor quality, the usefulness of
dispersion model results are limited. Some of the more complicated
models have large input data requirements, making them more difficult
to run, restricting their use to circumstances where the input data are
available. Additionally, since dispersion models provide predictions,
they may overestimate or underestimate the contribution of particular
85
sources or pollutants to air quality, and must be validated by comparing

the predictions with actual measurements. Finally, dispersion modelling
only predicts outdoor ambient concentrations and does not offer a way
to account for the activity of individuals, which will affect their personal
exposures (e.g., time spent in different locations, movement into
buildings).
3.4 Summary
Air quality modelling allows the estimation of the effect of a change in

one or more sources that emit a pollutant of concern on ambient air
quality. This can be useful in predicting the impact of and potential risks
of pollution. Models are thus indispensable regulatory tools.
In this unit, you have learnt air quality modelling and how it can be used
to predict the impacts and possible risks of pollution. Specifically, the
following issues were discussed:
• Dispersion modelling
• Types of dispersion modelling
• Strength of dispersion models
• Limitation of dispersion models.
Department of the Environment (2014). National Pollutant Inventory:

Emissions estimation technique manuals, Australian Government.
www.npi.gov.au/reporting/industry-reporting-materials/emission-
estimationtechnique-manuals.
Environment Protection Authority (2016). Evaluation distances for

effective air quality and noise management.
www.epa.sa.gov.au/files/12193_eval_distances.pdf
http://www.epa.gov/scram001/photochemicalindex.htm
http://www.nywea.org/Clearwaters/pre02fall/302140.html
http://www.src.com/html/calpuff/calpuff1.htm
86
EHS 503 MODULE 4
National Environment Protection Council (2001). Data collection and

handling, National Environment Protection (Ambient Air
Quality) Measure: Technical Paper No. 5, NEPC, Canberra.
www.scew.gov.au/system/files/resources/9947318f-af8c-0b24-
d928-
04e4d3a4b25c/files/aaqprctp05datacollection200105final.pdf
United States Environmental Protection Agency (1995). Compilation of

air pollutant emission factors, Volume 1: Stationary point and
area sources, 5th ed. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards, US EPA, USA
87
SAE 1
Importance of dispersion models in air quality measurement:
Dispersion models take influencing factors into account to predict
ambient concentrations at specific sites.
They describe how pollutants are dispersed and transformed in the

atmosphere. Concentrations of pollutants at specific receptors are
estimated by placing sources (from an emission inventory) into a
dispersion model which takes into account the interactions between
sources, meteorology, and topography as the pollutants are transported
and diluted by wind.
Dispersion models can help to provide a cause-effect link between

emissions into the air and the resulting ambient concentrations.
Dispersion models can help to determine the contribution of each source
to ambient concentrations in an air shed.
SAE 2
Types of dispersion models used in air quality measurement:
A Screening model can be used to provide a quick calculation of a worst
case concentration that could occur from a source under different
emissions and meteorological conditions. Example: SCREEN3 model
Refined models require hourly meteorological data over a period of time

(e.g., a year) and from the region of interest in order to make predictions
that are site specific and more detailed as compared to a screening
model. Example: AERMOD.
An Advanced model includes comprehensive treatments of the physics

and chemistry of emissions in the atmosphere and thus requires
considerable expertise and computer resources to set up, run, and
interpret the results. Advanced models are typically used to assess air
quality impacts from large areas (such as cities) and over broad emission
sectors for a selected time period (a few days is typical, but longer
periods of time can also be modelled). Example: CALPUFF
88

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COURSE

Course Team: Dr. E.O. Balogun (Course Developer/Writer)-NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

© 2022 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

Printed 2012, 2022

This course, Water/Air Quality Management discusses the importance of

What You Will Learn in This Course

The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course are given below. By the

• Know the international conventions and treaties on water quality

Working Through This Course

To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each

Reading the referenced materials can also be of great assistance.

The Course Materials

The main components of the course are:

1. The Study Guide

The study units in this course are given below:

Module 1 An Overview of Water Quality Management

Unit 1 Definitions, Concepts, Principles and Objectives

Module 2 Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance

Unit 1 Procedures for Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance

Module 3 An Overview of Air Quality Management

Unit 1 Concept of Air Quality

Module 4 Assessment of Air Quality

Unit 1 Air Quality Assessment Technologies

Textbooks And References/Web Resources

Bartone, C., Bernstein, J., Leitmann, J. & Eigen, J. (1994). Toward

California Storm Water Quality Association (2003). Menlo Park, CA.

Enderlein, R.E. (1995). Protecting Europe's water resources: Policy

EPA (2005). "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." Fact

Kulshreshtha, S.N. (1998). "A Global Outlook for Water Resources to

Marek, Linda G. (1984). Water and Sewage Treatment for Small

McCaffrey, S. (1998). ‗The UN Convention on the Law of Non-

Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,

Meybeck, M., Chapman, D. & Helmer, R. (1989). Global Freshwater

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (2004). "New

Nordic Freshwater Initiative (1991). Copenhagen Report.

UNCED (1992). Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable

UNECE, (1995). Protection and Sustainable Use of Waters:

UNECE (1999). Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement.

UNESCO/WHO, (1978). Water Quality Surveys. A Guide for the

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). National

UNWC 1997 United Nations Watercourses Convention (UNWC), 1997.

USEPA (2001). National Primary Drinking Water Standards. EPA-816-

USEPA, (2007). Water Quality Standards Handbook: Web Edition.

Warford, J.J. (1994). Environment, health, and sustainable development:

WCED (1987). Our Common Future. World Commission on

There are three aspects to the assessment of this course.

Do the exercises or activities in the unit by applying the information and

This is the continuous assessment component of this course and it

These answered assignments are to be returned to your facilitator.

You‘re expected to complete the assignments by using the information

• Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator on or

Course Marking Scheme

Table 2: Course Organization

Unit Title of Work Weeks Assessment

Procedures for Water Quality

How To Get the Most out of This Course

Self-assessment exercises are provided throughout the unit, to aid