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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1. Data Representation 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

As it can be seen that it starts from 1 and then goes till

1.1. Number Systems 128 from left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together giving the
Binary System final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4
+ 2 = 238
Base 2 number system
Has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF and 1 represents ON
Converting Denary to Binary
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the
Take the value and successively divide it by 2 creating a
MSB (Most Significant Bit)
table like follows:

Denary System 2 142

2 71 Remainder: 0
Base 10 number system
Has values from 0 to 9 2 35 Remainder: 1
2 17 Remainder: 1
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 8 Remainder: 1
2 4 Remainder: 0
Base 16 number system
Has values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F 2 2 Remainder: 0
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15 which 2 1 Remainder: 0
is F 0 Remainder: 1

Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
0000 0 0 divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
0001 1 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
0010 2 2 number
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
0011 3 3
bottom to top giving us the binary
value ( as in this case, it
0100 4 4 is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0101 5 5
0110 6 6 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0111 7 7
1000 8 8 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
1001 9 9 denary
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
1010 A 10
All the binary values to be merged together
1011 B 11 e.g.
1100 C 12
1101 D 13 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D

Denary : 2 1 15 13

1110 E 14
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

1111 F 15

Final Answer: 0010000111111101

Number Conversions
Converting Binary To Hexadecimal
1.2. Converting Binary to Denary Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
Take the binary value and place it in columns of 2 raised until it reaches 4
to the power of the number of values from the right For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
starting from 0.e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
a table like this: hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).

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After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

order to get the final answer Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101
OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we

After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets denoting it is
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
overflow.

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then

convert the final answer to denary
Logical Shifts
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal or to the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to emptied is going to become 0
hexadecimal as explained above

Explaining with example:

Addition of Binary
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Binary values are not added the way denary values are 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write 2 shifted is removed ( in this case, 1 at the LHS is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. removed) - ==(if it would be 2 places, 2 bits would
have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved given places to the given
1.3. Points to note: direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
in this case, and the left over bit in the right is
0+0=0
marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
1+0/0+1=1
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Two’s complement (binary
Overflow: numbers):
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit Two’s complement is a method used to represent
of given values e.g. the solution has 9 bits, but the negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128, THUS, the
called overflow. range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
space to store the answer of the addition done in the Converting binary values to two’s complement
previous part
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first 1 from
the right e.g. 1101100 would have the first 1 at the third
Steps to add two values (with
position from the right
example): Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located
above (not switching the one) e.g. the value in our
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 example becomes 0010100 which is the two’s
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the complement of itself
left hand side to match them)
e.g. 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 Converting negative values to two’s complement
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
above Find the binary equillant of the value ignoring the - sign
Convert the binary value to two’s complement

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Make the MSB 1, if not already A is at 65

a is at 97
Converting two’s complement value to denary:
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted When ASCII value of a character is converted to binary, it
from binary to denary, we only just replace 128 with -128 can be seen that the sixth bit changes from 1 to 0 when
e.g. for 10111010 we do: going from lowercase to uppercase of a character and the
rest remains the same. e.g.
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

Unicode
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages,
Examples: thus Unicode is used to solve this problem
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) For the first 128 values, it is the same to ASCII
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number which Unicode supports up to four bytes per character allowing
uniquely identifies a device on a network) mutliple languages and more data to be stored
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
Sound
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
location of the error)
form, it is sampled
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Memory Dumps where the amplitude is measured, however, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
when trying to trace errors How is sound recorded
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output
to a printer, monitor. The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
time intervals
Assembly code and machine code (low level languages) The value is converted to digital form
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
series of binary digits
Using hexadecimal makes it easier, faster, less error
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
prone to write code compared to binary.
of the sound wave
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
values and prone to errors
Sampling Resolution:

Text The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling

resolution (aka bit depth)
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy
1.5. ASCII of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the
amplitude of the sound
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
code that represent the letters, numbers and characters memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control store the data
codes
Upercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII Sampling rate
values
Every subesquent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. Sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken per
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII , “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) second which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as Using a higher sampling rate would allow more accurate
follows: sound as less estimations will be done between samples

0 is at 48

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Name of memory No. of

Images size Bytes
Equivalent Denary Value

1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes

Bitmap images
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes
Bitmap images are made up of pixels 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
binary numbers
1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015
Color Depth bytes

The number of bits used to represent each colour is called Calculation of file size
the colour depth.
An 8 bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
The file size of an image is calculated as: image resolution
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
A 1 bit color depth means each pixel can store 1 color The size of a mono sound file is calculated as: sample rate
(because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being black)
seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would then
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when
multiply the result by two.)
storing an image

Image Resolution 1.7. File types

Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 ×
Storage of music files
3072 pixels
Communications protocol that allows electronic musical
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than
instruments
to interact with each other
those with a higher resolution
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
being pixelated.
First byte is the status byte – informs the MIDI device
High resolution images use high amounts of memory as
what
function to preform
compared to low resoultion ones
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
(operates on 16
different channels)
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Examples of MIDI commands:
Computer Memories Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT (loudness
of music)
8 bits is a byte Needs a lot of memory storage
4 bits is a nibble
MP3
Byte is used to measure memory size
Uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert
IECB System (more commonly used):
music and
other sounds into an MP3 file format
Name of memory No. of This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Done using file compression algorithms which use
1 kibibyte (1KB) 210 1 024 bytes Perceptual
Music Shaping
Removes sounds that human ear cannot hear properly
1 mibibyte (1MB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
1 gibibyte (1GB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes quality too
much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 tibibyte (1TB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pibibyte (1PB) 250 compression algorithm
bytes
MP4
Conventional System:
Name of memory No. of This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Equivalent Denary Value than just
sound
size Bytes

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Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored

Videos, could be streamed without losing any real 2. Data Transmission
discernible
quality

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
JPEG is a file formats used to reduce photographic file
Transmission
sizes
Data Packets
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
pixels per
centimetre
Packet Structure -
When photographic file undergoes compression, file size
Header
is reduced
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
receiver
between 5 and 15
Sequence number of the packet
Size of the packet
Lossless and Lossy File Payload
Contains the actual data
Compression Trailer
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
packet
1.8. Lossless File Compression Error-Checking methods
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent
when the
file again is uncompressed independently from start to end and reassembled at the
Important for files where loss of data would be disastrous receiver’s computer.
(spreadsheet)
An algorithm is used to compress data Advantages Disadvantages
No data is lost No need to create a single
Packets may be lost
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes line of communication
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
Run-Length Encoding busy nodes time streaming

It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data Delay at the receiver while
(e.g. repeated colours in an image) High data transmission speed the packets are being re-
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first ordered
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. Easy to expand package
characters) and the second value represents the code of usage
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
character) e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 Data Transmission
98 02 99 05 100”
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
units/bits computer to printer)
One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't very good for Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this, e.g. at the same time (e.g. phone conversation where only one
255 can be made the flag. Now 255 will be put before person speaks)
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on phone line)
where 255 now indicated that now the next character/set Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
of characters is approaching time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data several bits (1
Lossy File Compression byte) are sent down several wires at the same time

The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary Comparsion of Serial and Parallel data transmission
bits of data
like MP3 and JPEG formats
Impossible to get original file back once compressed Serial Parallel
Reduces file quality Better for longer distances Better for short distances
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)

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Serial Parallel
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
Used when the size of data Used when speed is
transmitted is small necessary
Slower Option Faster than Serial

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

Any changes in bits would be identified through the row
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method and columns
USB consists of:
Four-wire shielded cable Checksum
Two wires used for power and earth
Two wires used in data transmission Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the value of the checksum using a specific
Advantages Disadvantages algorithm
Transmission rate is less than Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
Automatically detected
500 mb/sec calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is and the same algorithm used before.
incorrect connections about 5 metres The receiver would then, compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
Different data transmission
request is made to re-send the data.
rates
Backwards compatible Echo Check
Industry standard
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would send the
data back to the sender for verification
Methods of Error Detection The sender would compare the received data and the
original data for any errors
2.3. Parity Checks The only downside to this is that we wouldn’t know if the
error occurred when sending the data or sending the data
Uses the number of 1-bits in a byte back for verification
Type Types -
Even - Even number of 1-bits Check Digits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Example (Even Parity) - Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 the code.
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
The LSB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of 6372 typed as 6379
1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. 8432 typed as 842
Limitations with Parity Checks
Two bits may change during transmission therefore error Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
is not found
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified user received the data
The receiver would check the data for any errors and if
Parity Blocks none are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if any errors are found, a negative
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks acknowledgement would be sent and the data would be
would be used. sent again.
Timeouts are used by the sender to wait a pre-
determined amount of time for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout,
the data would be sent again to the receiver.

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Following registers also exist in the architecture:

Encryption Program Counter:
Increments the value of the instructions by 1 and also
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an fetches the data and instructions.
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and Memory Address Register:
other attackers. Stores the Address of the instruction and copies it and
sends to MDR
2.4. Plaintext and Ciphertext Memory Data Register:
Stores the Data from the address received from the
Plaintext is the original data that is being sent MAR and sends data to CIR
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption Current instructions Register:
Data gets executed from here by sending to bios or
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption processed by sending to ALU
Accumulator:
Symmetric Encryption: During calculations data is temporarily held in it
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process,
The same key is used for both encrypting and
decrypting the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
available to everyone whereas the private key is only
available to the user
The receiver would have the private key and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key and the
data can be on decrypted using the private key.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
3. Hardware and Software Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)

The Fetch-Execute Cycle

3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann architecture 1. PC contains address of the next instruction to be
fetched
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
computer systems temporarily
The CPU consists of the following architecture: 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing the
Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and next instruction to be fetched
Logic Unit (ALU) 6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the
memory, processor and input/output devices Stored program concept:
Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like
Instructions are stored in main memory
calculations
System Clock: System clock is used to produce timing Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by
signals on the control bus the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
Busses: Carry data through components. The following
Memory Concept
are it’s types
A computer’s memory is divided in partitions : Each
Address bus – unidirectional
partition consists of an address and its contents e.g.
Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – unidirectional and bi-directional MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
10101010 01010110
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are
to be processed which are fetched by the CPU
\

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integrated circuits
Factors that determine the Software produces a digital image from the electronic
form
performance of a CPU Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
converts
scanned documents into a text file format
3.2. System Clock If the original document was a photo/image, then the
scanned image
forms an image file such as JPEG
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
Three-dimensional Scanners
computer operations. By increasing clock speed, the
processing speed of the computer is also increased. This 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
doesn’t mean that the performance of the computer is dimensional
image
increased however. Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
magnetic, white light)
Overclocking The scanned images can be used in Computer Aided
Design (CAD) or
to a 3D printer to produce a working
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed model
for.
It leads to multiple issues Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

Operations become unsyncronised - (the computer would Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
frequently crash and become unstable) represent the
passport pages
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU Text can be stored in ASCII format
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
Length of data buses stored as jpeg
image
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the camera and
compared using face recognition software
computer Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
eyes, width of
nose)

Cache Barcode readers/scanners

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
-- allows faster access to CPU varying
thicknesses
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
accessed faster, which improves CPU performance series of lines
The larger the cache memory size the better the CPU The left and right hand sides of the barcode are separate
performance using
guard bars
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Cores
Light is reflected back off the barcode; dark areas
reflect
little light which allows the bars to be read
More the cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
performance
Pattern is generated which is converted to digital

3.3. Input Devices Quick Response (QR) Codes

Two-dimensional Scanners: Another type of barcode is the QR codes

Made up of a matrix of filled in dark squares on a light
Used to input hard-copy documents background
The image is converted into an electronic form which can Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
be stored
in the computer Advantages of QR codes:
Document is placed on a glass panel No need for the user to write down website address
A bright light illuminates the document QR codes can store website addresses
A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is
scanned. And image of the document is Digital Cameras
produced and sent to a
lens using a series of mirrors
Controlled by microprocessor which automatically adjusts
The lens focuses the document image
the shutter
speed, focus the image, etc.
The focused image now falls onto a charge couple
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
device (CCD)
which consists of a numbers of
a light
sensitive cell

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Cell is made up of pixels Light sensor sends data to the ADC

Number of pixels determines size of the file Digitises data and sent to the microprocessor
Microprocessor samples data every minute
Keyboards If data from sensor < value stored in memory:
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp
Connected to computer with a USB connection or by
Lamp switched on
wireless
connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital
signal 3.4. Output Devices
Slow method
Prone to errors Inkjet Printers

Pointing devices Used to print one-off pictures and documents

Mouse/trackball 1. Data from document sent to printer driver

Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by USB port 2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct format
Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement 3. Check made by printer driver that chosen printer is
available
Microphones 4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary memory
(printer
buffer)
Used to input sound to a computer
5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if paper is
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates
available in paper
tray
producing an
electric signal
6. Print head moves across paper printing text/image,
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
four ink colours
sprayed in exact amount
digital values
and stored in computer
7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed
Voice recognition, voice is detected and converted into
8. Repeated until buffer is empty
digital
9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt to the
Touchscreens processor (request
for more data to be sent)

Capacitive (medium cost tech) Laser Printers

Made up of many layers of glass
Used to print flyers, high quality
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
When top layer of glass is touched, electric current
produce text
and images
changes
Prints the whole page in one go
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched is
determined by an
on-board microprocessor 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
Infra-red heat (expensive) 2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum
Use glass as the screen material rotates, a
laser beam is scanned across it removing
Needs warm object to carry an input operation the positive charge leaves
negatively charged areas
Infra-red optical (expensive) which match the text/image
Uses glass as screen material 3. Drum is then coated with positively charged toner, it
Uses an array of sensors (grid form) only sticks
to negatively charged parts of the drum
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
touched 5. Toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce
Resistive (inexpensive) copy of page
Upper layer of polyester, bottom layer of glass 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and rollers); heat
melts the ink so it is permanent
bottom
layer complete a circuit 7. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the
Signals are then sent out which are interpreted by a drum, ready to
print next page
microprocessor, determine where screen was
touched 3D Printers

Sensors Used for models of cars

Produce solid objects that work
Devices which read or measure physical properties Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Data needs to be converted to digital powder
Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) converts physical A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
values into
digital
2D and 3D Cutters
Control of Street Lighting­­

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3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
3D laser cutters can cut; glass, crystal, metal, wood coated
mirrors; these reflect the light back at different
wavelengths
Actuators When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has
wavelengths corresponding to red, green and blue
Used in many control applications involving sensors and
These three different light pass through three LCD
devices (ADC
and DAC)
screens; these
screens show the image to be projected as
Loudspeakers/Headphones millions of pixels in
grayscale
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a a red, green
and blue version of the grey image emerges
DAC then
through amplifier and then emerges from Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
loudspeaker the screen
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at
different frequencies

LCD and LED Monitors

Front layer of monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal Display

(LCD),
these tiny diodes are grouped together in threes as
pixels (LCD
doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are back lit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution), CCFL has
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
yellow tint
LEDs improve colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL Primary Memory:
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen Random Access Memory (RAM)
which supplies
the light source
Features of RAM
Light Projectors: Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off)
Two common types of light projectors: Used to store; data, files
Digital Light Projector (DLP) It can be written to or read from and the contents from
LCD Projector the
memory can be changed
Projectors are used to project computer output onto Larger the size of the RAM, faster the computer will
larger
screens/interactive whiteboards operate
RAM never runs out of memory, continues to run slow
Digital Light Projectors (DLP) As RAM becomes full, the processor has to continually
Uses millions of micro mirrors access the
hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
the number of micro mirrors and the way they are new data
arranged on the DLP
chip determines the resolution of the RAM is of two types:
image DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source
they are
off
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its
way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LCD Projectors Read Only Memory (ROM)

Older technology than DLP Features of ROM

A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM
is turned off)

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Used to store start up instruction (basic input/output Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
systems) stored on remote servers
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read, cannot The same data is stored on more than one server in case
be changed of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
Secondary Storage: The following are it’s types:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) » Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
companies
of the
disks (platter)
» Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
Number of read/write heads can access all of the
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
surfaces of the
disk
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
a single entity
store the
data
» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
environments; some data resides in the private cloud and
HDD have very slow data access compared to RAM
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from
Solid-State Drive (SSD) a public cloud storage provider
\
No moving parts and all data is received at the same time There is a risk that important and irreplaceable data could
(not like
HDD) be lost from the cloud storage facilities.
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
within NAND
chips, as 1s and 0s
Non-volatile rewritable memory
3.6. Embedded Systems
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
Combination of Hardware and Software which is designed
More reliable (no moving parts)
to carry out a specific set of tasks.
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Embedded systems may contain -
Lower power consumption
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Run much cooler than HDDs
peripherals on one single chip
Very thin
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
Data access is faster than HDD
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports,
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
storage and memory
Off-Line Storage: Process of Embedded Devices -
CD/DVD Disks Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data in the Data from the user interface is also sent to the
surface of
the disk microprocessor
Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data Microprocessor then sends signals to actuators which
Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from is the output
the centre
of the disk to the edge Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
DVD uses Dual-Layering which increases the storage need a software update.
capacity (two
individual recoding layers) Programmable devices have two methods of updating -
Connecting the device to a computer and downloading
Blu-ray Disks the update
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
Uses blue laser to carry out read and write operations
link
Wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD (stores
up to five
times more data than DVD) < centre>Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent systems
piracy and
copyright infringement)
Advantages Disadvantages
Used as back-up systems
Small in size, therefore can
Can be difficult to upgrade
USB Flash Memories easily fit into devices
The interface can be
Very small, lightweight suitable from transferring files Low cost to make
confusing sometimes
Small back-up devices for photo, music
Troubleshooting is a
Solid state so need to be treated with care Requires very little power
specialist’s job
Cloud Storage:

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Advantages Disadvantages it is required to allow hardware and software to run

Often thrown away as difficult without problems
Very fast reaction to changing provides a human computer interface (HCI) to the user
to upgrade and faults are
input controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
harder to find
Increased garbage as they
Dedicated to one task only Application Software:
are thrown away
Any computerised system is allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
Can be controlled remotely
prone to attacks computer’s resources
may be a single program (for example, NotePad) or a
Applications of Embedded devices - suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
GPS systems user can execute the software as and when they require
Security Systems and is mostly not automatic
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Examples
Oven
Microwave
System Software:

Network Hardware Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine

code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
tasks without re-compilation.
3.7. Network Interface Card (NIC) Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into
a single program, allowing for the use of separately
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to written code modules in the final program.
connect to a network (such as the internet Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
communicate with a computer's operating system,
Media Access Control (MAC) Address without which a device like a printer would be unable to
work.
A MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown as six Operating system: Software that manages basic
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the computer functions such as input/output operations,
manufacturer’s code and the second half shows the device program loading and running, and security management,
serial number. making computers more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manage, maintain, and
These do not change and are mostly constant for every control computer resources by carrying out specific tasks,
device such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
there are two types of MAC address: the Universally management, and security.
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Administered MAC Address (LAA) Application Software:

The only differences between the two types are UAA is made Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text
Universally and cannot be changed, but it is opposite for LAA documents including creating, editing, and formatting text
with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
importing images.
4. SOFTWARE Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
4.1. Types of Softwares: each cell identified using a unique combination of
columns and rows. It can carry out calculations using
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility formulas, produce graphs, and do modeling and "what if"
programs and device drivers calculations.
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
processor etc. manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
hold records and fields. Provides the ability to query and
System Software: report on data, as well as add, delete, and modify records
in a table.
these are a set of programs which control and manage Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
operations of hardware interface with sensors and allow a computer or
gives a platform for other softwares to run microprocessor to measure physical quantities and

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control applications by comparing sensor data with stored retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
data and altering process parameters accordingly. movements to find the data.
Apps: A type of software designed to run on mobile When a file is deleted or extended, the vacant sectors are
phones or tablets, which are downloaded from an "App not filled up straight away by new data, causing the files to
Store" and range from games to sophisticated software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
such as phone banking. Common examples include video A disk defragmenter rearranges the blocks of data to
and music streaming, GPS, and camera facilities. store files in contiguous sectors wherever possible,
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows allowing for faster data access and retrieval.
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos, The defragmentation process can free up previously
including changing color, brightness, contrast, applying occupied sectors and leave some tracks empty.
filters and other enhancements, and creating transitions
between clips. Backup Software
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap Backup software is a utility software that helps in creating
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different and managing backup copies of data files and programs.
image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines, Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
curves, and text to alter the stored image as required. drives are good practices, but using operating system
backup utilities is also recommended.

Utility Software Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
files if changes have been made to them.
For total security, there could be three versions of a file:
Computer users have access to utility programs as part of
the current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a
system software locally backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
backup on cloud storage.
background without user input
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Security Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers. Security software is a utility software that manages
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
\n such as virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
4.2. Virus Checker / Anti Virus software prevent unauthorized access.
Security software uses encryption and decryption to
Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
decryption key.
protecting computers from malware.
They should be kept up to date and run in the background It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
and prevent malicious software from installing.
to maintain their effectiveness.
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
of known viruses.
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that Screensavers
are not yet on the database.
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic Screensavers display moving and still images on the
deletion or for the user to decide. monitor screen after a period of computer inactivity.
Anti-virus software must be kept up to date as new They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
viruses are constantly discovered. from 'phosphor burn'.
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
dormant viruses. device and as a part of computer security system.
They are used to automatically log out the user after a
certain period of inactivity.
Disk Defragmenting Software
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
Defragmentation software is used to rearrange the blocks
of data on a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in
contiguous sectors, reducing head movements and Device Drivers
improving data access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to understood by the hardware device they are associated

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with. The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)

Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device through the bootstrap loader.
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
by the operating system. the location of the OS in the storage.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
vendor id (VID), product id (PID) and unique serial number
that allow the operating system to identify the device. Interrupts
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
different devices with the same serial number were Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s
plugged into a computer at the same time. doing and service a task
Ensures important tasks are dealt on priority basis
Can be a software or a hardware interrupt
Operating Systems Can be generated by peripherals like keyboard & mouse
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
Operating Systems are designed to establish After interrupt is dealt with previous process continues
communication between the user and the computer
Functions of a typical operating system -
Providing HCI
Programming Languages,
Multitasking
Memory Management
Translators and IDEs
Managing files
Management of user accounts Computers can only understand machine code therefore
Hardware management translators are needed
Platform for running application software
High-Level Languages
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu and Pointing Devices
Easier to read and understand as the language is closer
Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
to human language
Easier to write in a shorter time
Easier to debug at the development stage
Easier to maintain once in use

Low-Level Languages

Refer to machine code

Binary instructions that the computer understands

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -

Second Edition (Hodder Education)

Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Security Management - Providing security features such
as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on Assembly Language
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Few programmers use assembly language to -
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
Make use of special hardware
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Renaming
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
and many more functions
Write code that runs very quickly
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
with each of the processes
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple 4.4. Translators
users where each individually customize their account.
Compiler
4.3. Running of Applications

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Translates a program written in high-level language into Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
machine code
Used without compiler URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
Executable file of machine code produced typical format of URLs is -
One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions protocol://website address/path/file name
Used for general use
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
Interpreter The website address would contain -
domain host (www)
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time domain name (website name)
No executable file of machine code produced domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
One high-level language program statement may require country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
several machine code instructions to be executed The path would usually contain the file directory roots
Interpreted programs cannot be used without interpreter The file name would be the web page
Used when program is being developed
HTTP and HTTPS
Assembler
HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol and HTTPS
Translates a low-level language program into machine
stands for Hypertext transfer protocol secure
code
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
Executable file of machine code produced
data.
One low-level language translated into one machine code
instructions
Web Browsers
Can be used without assembler
Used for general use It is software used to connect to the internet
It translates the HTML code
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Offers additional features like search history & ad
An IDE would usually have these features -
blockers
Code Editor
Translator Retrieval and Location of web pages
Debugger
Error Reports Browser sends URL to the domain name server (DNS)
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction DNS stores index and matches with the IP
Auto-Documenter IP is sent to browser if it exists
Pretty Printing Browser sends request to IP of webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

5. The Internet Cookies

Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer

5.1. The Internet and the World Wide They are used to track data about the users and autofill
Web forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -
Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Uses transmission protocols
Collection of webpages and Remembers the user’s login in
such as TCP and IP (Internet Temporary cookies which are
other information on websites details so the user doesn’t
Protocols) stored in the RAM till the
have to log in every time they
Allows the user to browser is closed.
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that visit a website
communicate with other
are written using Hypertext Stored on the hard disk on the
users via chat, email, calling Doesn’t collect any
Mark-up Language (HTML) computer until their expiry
and more information on the user
date or the user deletes them
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource
A good example is the virtual
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the
shopping basket on e-
Devices location of the web pages
commerce websites
Web pages can be accessed
by web browsers

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This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a

Digital Currency wireless transmission line
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Form of payment to pay for goods and services internet connections illegally
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) packets sent over a line, all the data collected is sent
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in back to the attacker
centralised banking systems. Effect:
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of Can cause a computer to crash
transactions. Can delete or corrupt files/data
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses To remove risk:
Blockchain Network Install anti-virus software
Don’t use software from unknown sources
5.2. Blockchain Network Be careful when opening emails from unknown

Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)

Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
computers where the transaction data is stored An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be network
sent to all the computers and the data can’t be changed Usually temporary but may be damaging
without the consent of all the network members Attacker may be able to prevent user from:
Accessing their emails
How do blockchains work
Accessing websites
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. Accessing online services
The block would contain -
Hacking
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount
of money and more The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm Effect:
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous Leads to identity theft, gaining personal information
block in the chain Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Difference between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer system to steal data
Cracking is where someone edits a program code,
malicious

Malware
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t
point to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000) Stands for Malicious Software, A few examples are -
Virus - Program that can replicate itself with the
intention of deleting or corrupting files, cause
Cyber Security computer malfunction
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
Brute Force Attack: certain amount of money is paid
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on user’s screen
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. legitimate software
Effect: Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit user to the attacker
cards, passwords and more) Worms - Programs that can replicate itself with the
To remove risk: intention of corrupting the entire network instead of
Use stronger passwords with more characters and the computer alone
symbols
Phishing
Data Interception:

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Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user Biometric

Benefits Drawbacks
into giving out their information. Methods
To remove risk:
Voices can be
Don’t open links from unknown receivers
recorded and used for
Use anti-phishing tools
verification, low
Block pop-up ads Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy, illnesses
Have an up-to-date browser Voice verification is done
such as cold or cough
Recognition quickly and relatively
Pharming
can affect a person’s
cheaper
voice making
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer identification
which redirects the user to fake websites impossible.
Effect:
User gives out login details and other personal details Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
To remove risk: authentication to prove who the user is
Using anti-virus software Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully patches which improve device security
Making sure that the green padlock is present in the Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
URL bar spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
the tone would also seem urgent
Social Engineering Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
traffic between a network and the user’s computer
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
informing that your account has been hacked)
Filtering Internet traffic
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
5.3. Keeping data safe from threats
Blocking access to certain websites
Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy server
different people (for example - Only doctors can have keeping the web server safe
access to patient’s data) Acts as a firewall as well.
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks Privacy Settings - Used to limit on who can access and see
Authentication - User proving who they are. Most user’s profile
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
biometrics and more) communicating with other users on the internet.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method

Biometric 6. Automated and Emerging
Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
Most development Intrusive as used to
Technologies
Method, Very easy to identify criminals,
Fingerprint
Scans
use, Requires very low Can’t be used if the 6.1. Automated Systems
storage to store the finger gets dirty or
biometric data damaged (e.g. cuts) Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Very intrusive, Takes hardware that are designed to function without any
Very high accuracy, human intervention.
longer to verify,
Retina Scan Impossible to replicate Process of Automated Systems -
Expensive to install
a person’s retina Inputs are taken by sensors and they are sent to the
and set up
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
Can’t identify if there
has to go through Analouge- to-Digital Converter
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
(ADC)
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
The microprocessor processes the data and takes the
or person’s age.
necessary decisions based on it’s program
The actions are then executed by the actuators
(Motors, wheels and so on)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

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Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

Expensive to set up and Robots have the risk of getting
Faster and Safer
maintain hacked
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems
quickly are prone to attacks
Over-Reliance on automated
Artificial Intelligence
Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans
AI is the branch of computer science dealing with the
to lose skills
simulation of intelligent human behaviour
Higher Productivity and
Types of AI -
Efficiency
Narrow AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
Robotics General AI - Machine is similar to a human when doing
one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
Robotics is the branch of computer science that brings human in many tasks
together the design, construction and the operation of
Characteristics of AI -
robots. Collection of Data and Rules
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Ability to Reason
A robot may not injure a human through action or
Ability to learn and adapt
inaction
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it 6.3. Types of AI
comes into conflict with Law 1
a robot must protect itself, unless this conflicts with Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
law 1. knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
Characteristics of a robot - answering questioning using knowledge and inference.
Ability to sense their surroundings They have many applications including chatbots,
Have a degree of movement diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
Programmable and so on

NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI, THEY TEND TO DO Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN Advantages Disadvantages
CHARACTERISTICS
Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
Types of Robots - are very high
Independent - Have no human intervention, They can Can only rely on the
High Accuracy and Consistent
completely replace humans information in the system
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an Tend to give cold responses
interface, can supplement but can’t completely High response times
sometimes
replace humans
Machine Learning - Subset of AI in which machines are
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
trained to learn from their past experiences.
Advantages Disadvantages
Robots can find it difficult to Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
Robots can work 24/7
do non-standard tasks AI Machine Learning
Robots can lead to higher Machines are trained to make
Robots can work in hazardous Representation of human
unemployment decisions without being
intelligence in machines
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots programmed to
long run replace humans in some task The aim is to make machines
The aim is to build machines
They have high productive Expensive to install and learn through data
that think like humans
and are more consistent maintain in the short run acquisitions

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Computer Science

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