See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/344902115

A Review on Genetic Algorithm: Past, Present, and Future

Article  in  Multimedia Tools and Applications · February 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s11042-020-10139-6

CITATIONS READS

1,257 3,333

3 authors:

Vijay Chahar Sourabh Katoch

Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur
257 PUBLICATIONS   7,654 CITATIONS    1 PUBLICATION   1,254 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sumit Singh Chauhan

National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur
1 PUBLICATION   1,254 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

SmartGlucoBinder: Design and Synthesis of Small Glucose Binder Molecule using Computational Intelligence Approach View project

A Comprehensive Review on Multi-objective Optimization Techniques: Past, Present and Future View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sumit Singh Chauhan on 02 October 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-10139-6

A review on genetic algorithm: past,

present, and future

Sourabh Katoch 1 & Sumit Singh Chauhan 1 & Vijay Kumar 1

Received: 27 July 2020 / Revised: 12 October 2020 / Accepted: 23 October 2020 /

Published online: 31 October 2020
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
In this paper, the analysis of recent advances in genetic algorithms is discussed. The genetic
algorithms of great interest in research community are selected for analysis. This review will
help the new and demanding researchers to provide the wider vision of genetic algorithms. The
well-known algorithms and their implementation are presented with their pros and cons. The
genetic operators and their usages are discussed with the aim of facilitating new researchers.
The different research domains involved in genetic algorithms are covered. The future research
directions in the area of genetic operators, fitness function and hybrid algorithms are discussed.
This structured review will be helpful for research and graduate teaching.

Keywords Optimization . Metaheuristic . Genetic algorithm . Crossover . Mutation . Selection .

Evolution

1 Introduction

In the recent years, metaheuristic algorithms are used to solve real-life complex
problems arising from different fields such as economics, engineering, politics, man-
agement, and engineering [113]. Intensification and diversification are the key elements
of metaheuristic algorithm. The proper balance between these elements are required to
solve the real-life problem in an effective manner. Most of metaheuristic algorithms are
inspired from biological evolution process, swarm behavior, and physics’ law [17].
These algorithms are broadly classified into two categories namely single solution and
population based metaheuristic algorithm (Fig. 1). Single-solution based metaheuristic
algorithms utilize single candidate solution and improve this solution by using local
search. However, the solution obtained from single-solution based metaheuristics may
stuck in local optima [112]. The well-known single-solution based metaheuristics are

* Vijay Kumar
[email protected]

1
Computer Science and Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, India
8092 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Metaheuristics

Single-solution based Population based

Metaheuristics Metaheuristics

Evolutionary Swarm-Intelligence
Algorithms Algorithms

Fig. 1 Classification of metaheuristic Algorithms

simulated annealing, tabu search (TS), microcanonical annealing (MA), and guided
local search (GLS). Population-based metaheuristics utilizes multiple candidate solu-
tions during the search process. These metaheuristics maintain the diversity in popula-
tion and avoid the solutions are being stuck in local optima. Some of well-known
population-based metaheuristic algorithms are genetic algorithm (GA) [135], particle
swarm optimization (PSO) [101], ant colony optimization (ACO) [47], spotted hyena
optimizer (SHO) [41], emperor penguin optimizer (EPO) [42], and seagull optimization
(SOA) [43].
Among the metaheuristic algorithms, Genetic algorithm (GA) is a well-known
algorithm, which is inspired from biological evolution process [136]. GA mimics
the Darwinian theory of survival of fittest in nature. GA was proposed by J.H.
Holland in 1992. The basic elements of GA are chromosome representation, fitness
selection, and biological-inspired operators. Holland also introduced a novel element
namely, Inversion that is generally used in implementations of GA [77]. Typically, the
chromosomes take the binary string format. In chromosomes, each locus (specific
position on chromosome) has two possible alleles (variant forms of genes) - 0 and 1.
Chromosomes are considered as points in the solution space. These are processed
using genetic operators by iteratively replacing its population. The fitness function is
used to assign a value for all the chromosomes in the population [136]. The
biological-inspired operators are selection, mutation, and crossover. In selection, the
chromosomes are selected on the basis of its fitness value for further processing. In
crossover operator, a random locus is chosen and it changes the subsequences
between chromosomes to create off-springs. In mutation, some bits of the chromo-
somes will be randomly flipped on the basis of probability [77, 135, 136]. The further
development of GA based on operators, representation, and fitness has diminished.
Therefore, these elements of GA are focused in this paper.
The main contribution of this paper are as follows:

1. The general framework of GA and hybrid GA are elaborated with mathematical

formulation.
2. The various types of genetic operators are discussed with their pros and cons.
3. The variants of GA with their pros and cons are discussed.
4. The applicability of GA in multimedia fields is discussed.
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8093

The main aim of this paper is two folds. First, it presents the variants of GA and their
applicability in various fields. Second, it broadens the area of possible users in various fields.
The various types of crossover, mutation, selection, and encoding techniques are discussed.
The single-objective, multi-objective, parallel, and hybrid GAs are deliberated with their
advantages and disadvantages. The multimedia applications of GAs are elaborated.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the methodology
used to carry out the research. The classical genetic algorithm and genetic operators are
discussed in Section 3. The variants of genetic algorithm with pros and cons are presented
in Section 4. Section 5 describes the applications of genetic algorithm. Section 6 presents the
challenges and future research directions. The concluding remarks are drawn in Section 7.

2 Research methodology

PRISMA’s guidelines were used to conduct the review of GA [138]. A detailed search has
been done on Google scholar and PubMed for identification of research papers related to GA.
The important research works found during the manual search were also added in this paper.
During search, some keywords such as “Genetic Algorithm” or “Application of GA” or
“operators of GA” or “representation of GA” or “variants of GA” were used. The selection
and rejection of explored research papers are based on the principles, which is mentioned in
Table 1.
Total 27,64,792 research papers were explored on Google Scholar, PubMed and manual
search. The research work related to genetic algorithm for multimedia applications were also
included. During the screening of research papers, all the duplicate papers and papers
published before 2007 were discarded. 4340 research papers were selected based on 2007
and duplicate entries. Thereafter, 4050 research papers were eliminated based on titles. 220
research papers were eliminated after reading of abstract. 70 research papers were left after
third round of screening. 40 more research papers were discarded after full paper reading and
facts found in the papers. After the fourth round of screening, final 30 research papers are
selected for review.
Based on the relevance and quality of research, 30 papers were selected for evaluation. The
relevance of research is decided through some criteria, which is mentioned in Table 1. The

Table 1 Selection criterion for shortlisted research papers

Sr. Parameters Selection criteria Elimination criteria

No.

1 Duration Research papers published from 2007 Research papers published before 2007
to 2020
2 Analysis Research includes various operators Research includes operators of other metaheuristics
and modification in GA
3 Comparison Research focuses on variants of GA Research focuses on variants of other
metaheuristics. GA included in some part of
research
4 Applications Research involves on multimedia, Research involves on engineering design, data
operation management and wireless mining, software applications, and astronomy
networks applications
5 Study Research includes mathematical Research includes patent, case study, papers having
foundation and experimental results language other than English
8094 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

selected research papers comprise of genetic algorithm for multimedia applications, advance-
ment of their genetic operators, and hybridization of genetic algorithm with other well-
established metaheuristic algorithms. The pros and cons of genetic operators are shown in
preceding section.

3 Background

In this section, the basic structure of GA and its genetic operators are discussed with pros and
cons.

3.1 Classical GA

Genetic algorithm (GA) is an optimization algorithm that is inspired from the natural
selection. It is a population based search algorithm, which utilizes the concept of
survival of fittest [135]. The new populations are produced by iterative use of genetic
operators on individuals present in the population. The chromosome representation,
selection, crossover, mutation, and fitness function computation are the key elements of
GA. The procedure of GA is as follows. A population (Y) of n chromosomes are
initialized randomly. The fitness of each chromosome in Y is computed. Two chromo-
somes say C1 and C2 are selected from the population Y according to the fitness value.
The single-point crossover operator with crossover probability (Cp) is applied on C1
and C2 to produce an offspring say O. Thereafter, uniform mutation operator is applied
on produced offspring (O) with mutation probability (Mp) to generate O′. The new
offspring O′ is placed in new population. The selection, crossover, and mutation
operations will be repeated on current population until the new population is complete.
The mathematical analysis of GA is as follows [126]:
GA dynamically change the search process through the probabilities of crossover and
mutation and reached to optimal solution. GA can modify the encoded genes. GA can evaluate
multiple individuals and produce multiple optimal solutions. Hence, GA has better global
search capability. The offspring produced from crossover of parent chromosomes is probable
to abolish the admirable genetic schemas parent chromosomes and crossover formula is
defined as [126]:
 pffiffiffi
R ¼ G þ 2 g =3G ð1Þ

where g is the number of generations, and G is the total number of evolutionary generation set
by population. It is observed from Eq.(1) that R is dynamically changed and increase with
increase in number of evolutionary generation. In initial stage of GA, the similarity between
individuals is very low. The value of R should be low to ensure that the new population will
not destroy the excellent genetic schema of individuals. At the end of evolution, the similarity
between individuals is very high as well as the value of R should be high.
According to Schema theorem, the original schema has to be replaced with modified
schema. To maintain the diversity in population, the new schema keep the initial population
during the early stage of evolution. At the end of evolution, the appropriate schema will be
produced to prevent any distortion of excellent genetic schema [65, 75]. Algorithm 1 shows
the pseudocode of classical genetic algorithm.
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8095

Algorithm 1: Classical Genetic Algorithm (GA)

3.2 Genetic operators

GAs used a variety of operators during the search process. These operators are encoding
schemes, crossover, mutation, and selection. Figure 2 depicts the operators used in GAs.

3.2.1 Encoding schemes

For most of the computational problems, the encoding scheme (i.e., to convert in particular
form) plays an important role. The given information has to be encoded in a particular bit
string [121, 183]. The encoding schemes are differentiated according to the problem domain.
The well-known encoding schemes are binary, octal, hexadecimal, permutation, value-based,
and tree.
Binary encoding is the commonly used encoding scheme. Each gene or chromosome is
represented as a string of 1 or 0 [187]. In binary encoding, each bit represents the character-
istics of the solution. It provides faster implementation of crossover and mutation operators.
However, it requires extra effort to convert into binary form and accuracy of algorithm
depends upon the binary conversion. The bit stream is changed according the problem. Binary
encoding scheme is not appropriate for some engineering design problems due to epistasis and
natural representation.
In octal encoding scheme, the gene or chromosome is represented in the form of octal
numbers (0–7). In hexadecimal encoding scheme, the gene or chromosome is represented in
the form of hexadecimal numbers (0–9, A-F) [111, 125, 187]. The permutation encoding
8096 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Fig. 2 Operators used in GA

scheme is generally used in ordering problems. In this encoding scheme, the gene or
chromosome is represented by the string of numbers that represents the position in a sequence.
In value encoding scheme, the gene or chromosome is represented using string of some values.
These values can be real, integer number, or character [57]. This encoding scheme can be
helpful in solving the problems in which more complicated values are used. As binary
encoding may fail in such problems. It is mainly used in neural networks for finding the
optimal weights.
In tree encoding, the gene or chromosome is represented by a tree of functions or
commands. These functions and commands can be related to any programming language.
This is very much similar to the representation of repression in tree format [88]. This type of
encoding is generally used in evolving programs or expressions. Table 2 shows the compar-
ison of different encoding schemes of GA.

3.2.2 Selection techniques

Selection is an important step in genetic algorithms that determines whether the particular
string will participate in the reproduction process or not. The selection step is sometimes also
known as the reproduction operator [57, 88]. The convergence rate of GA depends upon the
selection pressure. The well-known selection techniques are roulette wheel, rank, tournament,
boltzmann, and stochastic universal sampling.
Roulette wheel selection maps all the possible strings onto a wheel with a portion of the
wheel allocated to them according to their fitness value. This wheel is then rotated randomly to
select specific solutions that will participate in formation of the next generation [88]. However,
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8097

Table 2 Comparison of different encoding schemes

Encoding Pros Cons Application

Scheme

Binary Easy to implement No support for inversion operator Problems that support binary
Faster Execution encoding
Octal Easy to implement No support for inversion operator Limited use
Hexadecimal Easy to implement No support for inversion operator Limited use
Permutation Support inversion No support for binary operators Task ordering Problem
operator
Value No need of value Requires specific crossover and Neural Network Problems
conversion mutation
Tree Operator can easily Difficult to design tree for some Evolving Programs
applied problems

it suffers from many problems such as errors introduced by its stochastic nature. De Jong and
Brindle modified the roulette wheel selection method to remove errors by introducing the
concept of determinism in selection procedure. Rank selection is the modified form of Roulette
wheel selection. It utilizes the ranks instead of fitness value. Ranks are given to them according
to their fitness value so that each individual gets a chance of getting selected according to their
ranks. Rank selection method reduces the chances of prematurely converging the solution to a
local minima [88].
Tournament selection technique was first proposed by Brindle in 1983. The individuals are
selected according to their fitness values from a stochastic roulette wheel in pairs. After
selection, the individuals with higher fitness value are added to the pool of next generation
[88]. In this method of selection, each individual is compared with all n-1 other individuals if it
reaches the final population of solutions [88]. Stochastic universal sampling (SUS) is an
extension to the existing roulette wheel selection method. It uses a random starting point in
the list of individuals from a generation and selects the new individual at evenly spaced
intervals [3]. It gives equal chance to all the individuals in getting selected for participating in
crossover for the next generation. Although in case of Travelling Salesman Problem, SUS
performs well but as the problem size increases, the traditional Roulette wheel selection
performs relatively well [180].
Boltzmann selection is based on entropy and sampling methods, which are used in Monte
Carlo Simulation. It helps in solving the problem of premature convergence [118]. The
probability is very high for selecting the best string, while it executes in very less time.
However, there is a possibility of information loss. It can be managed through elitism [175].
Elitism selection was proposed by K. D. Jong (1975) for improving the performance of
Roulette wheel selection. It ensures the elitist individual in a generation is always propagated
to the next generation. If the individual having the highest fitness value is not present in the
next generation after normal selection procedure, then the elitist one is also included in the next
generation automatically [88]. The comparison of above-mentioned selection techniques are
depicted in Table 3.

3.2.3 Crossover operators

Crossover operators are used to generate the offspring by combining the genetic
information of two or more parents. The well-known crossover operators are single-
8098 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Table 3 Comparison of different selection techniques

Selection Techniques Pros Cons

Roulette wheel Easy to implement Risk of Premature convergence

Simple Depends upon variance present in the fitness function
Free from Bias
Rank Preserve diversity Slow convergence
Free from Bias Sorting required
Computationally Expensive
Tournament Preserve diversity Loss of diversity when the tournament size is large
Parallel Implementation
No sorting required
Boltzmann Global optimum achieved Computationally Expensive
Stochastic Universal Fast Method Premature convergence
Sampling Free from Bias
Elitism Preserve best Individual in Best individual can be lost due to crossover and
population mutation operators

point, two-point, k-point, uniform, partially matched, order, precedence preserving

crossover, shuffle, reduced surrogate and cycle.
In a single point crossover, a random crossover point is selected. The genetic information of
two parents which is beyond that point will be swapped with each other [190]. Figure 3 shows
the genetic information after swapping. It replaced the tail array bits of both the parents to get
the new offspring.
In a two point and k-point crossover, two or more random crossover points are selected and
the genetic information of parents will be swapped as per the segments that have been created
[190]. Figure 4 shows the swapping of genetic information between crossover points. The
middle segment of the parents is replaced to generate the new offspring.
In a uniform crossover, parent cannot be decomposed into segments. The parent can be
treated as each gene separately. We randomly decide whether we need to swap the gene with
the same location of another chromosome [190]. Figure 5 depicts the swapping of individuals
under uniform crossover operation.
Partially matched crossover (PMX) is the most frequently used crossover operator. It is an
operator that performs better than most of the other crossover operators. The partially matched
(mapped) crossover was proposed by D. Goldberg and R. Lingle [66]. Two parents are choose
for mating. One parent donates some part of genetic material and the corresponding part of
other parent participates in the child. Once this process is completed, the left out alleles are
copied from the second parent [83]. Figure 6 depicts the example of PMX.

Fig. 3 Swapping genetic information after a crossover point

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8099

Fig. 4 Swapping genetic information between crossover points

Order crossover (OX) was proposed by Davis in 1985. OX copies one (or more) parts of
parent to the offspring from the selected cut-points and fills the remaining space with values
other than the ones included in the copied section. The variants of OX are proposed by
different researchers for different type of problems. OX is useful for ordering problems [166].
However, it is found that OX is less efficient in case of Travelling Salesman Problem [140].
Precedence preserving crossover (PPX) preserves the ordering of individual solutions as
present in the parent of offspring before the application of crossover. The offspring is
initialized to a string of random 1’s and 0’s that decides whether the individuals from both
parents are to be selected or not. In [169], authors proposed a modified version of PPX for
multi-objective scheduling problems.
Shuffle crossover was proposed by Eshelman et al. [20] to reduce the bias introduced by
other crossover techniques. It shuffles the values of an individual solution before the crossover
and unshuffles them after crossover operation is performed so that the crossover point does not
introduce any bias in crossover. However, the utilization of this crossover is very limited in the
recent years. Reduced surrogate crossover (RCX) reduces the unnecessary crossovers if the
parents have the same gene sequence for solution representations [20, 139]. RCX is based on
the assumption that GA produces better individuals if the parents are sufficiently diverse in
their genetic composition. However, RCX cannot produce better individuals for those parents
that have same composition. Cycle crossover was proposed by Oliver [140]. It attempts to
generate an offspring using parents where each element occupies the position by referring to
the position of their parents [140]. In the first cycle, it takes some elements from the first
parent. In the second cycle, it takes the remaining elements from the second parent as shown in
Fig. 7.
Table 4 shows the comparison of crossover techniques. It is observed from Table 4 that
single and k-point crossover techniques are easy to implement. Uniform crossover is suitable
for large subsets. Order and cycle crossovers provide better exploration than the other
crossover techniques. Partially matched crossover provides better exploration. The perfor-
mance of partially matched crossover is better than the other crossover techniques. Reduced
surrogate and cycle crossovers suffer from premature convergence.

Fig. 5 Swapping individual genes

8100 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Fig. 6 Partially matched crossover (PMX) [117]

3.2.4 Mutation operators

Mutation is an operator that maintains the genetic diversity from one population to the
next population. The well-known mutation operators are displacement, simple inver-
sion, and scramble mutation. Displacement mutation (DM) operator displaces a
substring of a given individual solution within itself. The place is randomly chosen
from the given substring for displacement such that the resulting solution is valid as
well as a random displacement mutation. There are variants of DM are exchange
mutation and insertion mutation. In Exchange mutation and insertion mutation oper-
ators, a part of an individual solution is either exchanged with another part or inserted
in another location, respectively [88].
The simple inversion mutation operator (SIM) reverses the substring between any
two specified locations in an individual solution. SIM is an inversion operator that
reverses the randomly selected string and places it at a random location [88]. The
scramble mutation (SM) operator places the elements in a specified range of the
individual solution in a random order and checks whether the fitness value of the
recently generated solution is improved or not [88]. Table 5 shows the comparison of
different mutation techniques.
Table 6 shows the best combination of encoding scheme, mutation, and crossover
techniques. It is observed from Table 6 that uniform and single-point crossovers can
be used with most of encoding and mutation operators. Partially matched crossover is
used with inversion mutation and permutation encoding scheme provides the optimal
solution.

Fig. 7 Cycle Crossover (CX) [140]

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8101

Table 4 Comparison of different crossover techniques

Technique Pros Cons

Single point Easy to implement Less diverse solutions

Simple
Two and K-point Easy to implement Less diverse solutions
Applicable on small subsets
Reduced Surrogate Better performance over small optimization Premature convergence
problems
Uniform Unbiased Exploration Less diverse solutions
Applicable on large subsets
Better recombination potential
Precedence Preservative Better offspring generation Redundancy Problem
(PPX)
Order Crossover (OX) Better Exploration Loss of information from previous
individual
Cycle Crossover Unbiased Exploration Premature convergence
Partially Mapped (PMX) Better Convergence rate NA
Superior than the other crossovers

4 Variants of GA

Various variants of GA’s have been proposed by researchers. The variants of GA are broadly
classified into five main categories namely, real and binary coded, multiobjective, parallel,
chaotic, and hybrid GAs. The pros and cons of these algorithms with their application has been
discussed in the preceding subsections.

4.1 Real and binary coded GAs

Based on the representation of chromosomes, GAs are categorized in two classes, namely
binary and real coded GAs.

4.1.1 Binary coded GAs

The binary representation was used to encode GA and known as binary GA. The genetic
operators were also modified to carry out the search process. Payne and Glen [153] developed
a binary GA to identify the similarity among molecules. They used binary representation for
position of molecule and their conformations. However, this method has high computational
complexity. Longyan et al. [203] investigated three different method for wind farm design

Table 5 Comparison of different mutation operators

Operator Pros Cons

Displacement Mutation Easy to implement Risk of Premature convergence

Applicable on small problem
instances
Simple-Inversion Easy to implement Premature convergence
Mutation
Scramble Mutation Affects large number of genes Disturbance in the population
Applicable on large problem Deterioration of solution quality in some
instances problems
8102 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Table 6 Best combination of various operators under optimal Environment

Encoding Scheme Mutation Crossover

Binary Encoding Inversion Uniform, Arithmetic, 1-Point, N-Point

Permutation Inversion Partially Matched Crossover,
Cycle Crossover, Order Crossover
Value Displacement Uniform, Arithmetic, 1-Point, N-Point
Tree Scramble Uniform, 1-Point

using binary GA (BGA). Their method produced better fitness value and farm efficiency.
Shukla et al. [185] utilized BGA for feature subset selection. They used mutual information
maximization concept for selecting the significant features. BGAs suffer from Hamming cliffs,
uneven schema, and difficulty in achieving precision [116, 199].

4.1.2 Real-coded GAs

Real-coded GAs (RGAs) have been widely used in various real-life applications. The repre-
sentation of chromosomes is closely associated with real-life problems. The main advantages
of RGAs are robust, efficient, and accurate. However, RGAs suffer from premature conver-
gence. Researchers are working on RGAs to improve their performance. Most of RGAs are
developed by modifying the crossover, mutation and selection operators.

Crossover operators The searching capability of crossover operators are not satisfactory for
continuous search space. The developments in crossover operators have been done to enhance their
performance in real environment. Wright [210] presented a heuristics crossover that was applied on
parents to produce off-spring. Michalewicz [135] proposed arithmetical crossover operators for
RGAs. Deb and Agrawal [34] developed a real-coded crossover operator, which is based on
characteristics of single-point crossover in BGA. The developed crossover operator named as
simulated binary crossover (SBX). SBX is able to overcome the Hamming cliff, precision, and
fixed mapping problem. The performance of SBX is not satisfactory in two-variable blocked
function. Eshelman et al. [53] utilized the schemata concept to design the blend crossover for
RGAs. The unimodal normal distribution crossover operator (UNDX) was developed by Ono et al.
[144]. They used ellipsoidal probability distribution to generate the offspring. Kita et al. [106]
presented a multi-parent UNDX (MP-UNDX), which is the extension of [144]. However, the
performance of RGA with MP-UNDX is much similar to UNDX. Deep and Thakur [39] presented
a Laplace crossover for RGAs, which is based on Laplacian distribution. Chuang et al. [27]
developed a direction based crossover to further explore the all possible search directions. However,
the search directions are limited. The heuristic normal distribution crossover operator was developed
by Wang et al. [207]. It generates the cross-generated offspring for better search operation. However,
the better individuals are not considered in this approach. Subbaraj et al. [192] proposed Taguchi
self-adaptive RCGA. They used Taguchi method and simulated binary crossover to exploit the
capable offspring.

Mutation operators Mutation operators generate diversity in the population. The two
main challenges have to tackle during the application of mutation. First, the proba-
bility of mutation operator that was applied on population. Second, the outlier
produced in chromosome after mutation process. Michalewicz [135] presented uniform
and non-uniform mutation operators for RGAs. Michalewicz and Schoenauer [136]
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8103

developed a special case of uniform mutation. They developed boundary mutation.

Deep and Thakur [38] presented a novel mutation operator based on power law and
named as power mutation. Das and Pratihar [30] presented direction-based exponential
mutation operator. They used direction information of variables. Tang and Tseng
[196] presented a novel mutation operator for enhancing the performance of RCGA.
Their approach was fast and reliable. However, it stuck in local optima for some
applications. Deb et al. [35] developed polynomial mutation that was used in RCGA.
It provides better exploration. However, the convergence speed is slow and stuck in
local optima. Lucasius et al. [129] proposed a real-coded genetic algorithm (RCGA).
It is simple and easy to implement. However, it suffers from local optima problem.
Wang et al. [205] developed multi-offspring GA and investigated their performance
over single point crossover. Wang et al. [206] stated the theoretical basis of multi-
offspring GA. The performance of this method is better than non-multi-offspring GA.
Pattanaik et al. [152] presented an improvement in the RCGA. Their method has

Table 7 Mathematical formulation of genetic operators in RGAs

Ref. Operator Mathematical Formulation

[34] Simulated Binary crossover 1

pi ¼ ½ð1−βÞxi þ ð1 þ βÞyi 
2
1
qi ¼ ½ð1 þ β Þxi þ ð1−βÞyi 
2
Here, two off-springs (Pand Q) are generated. X and Y are individuals. β
is a variable whose value lies in the interval of [0, ∞)
[53] Blend crossover Offspring P is generated from parents X and Y from interval
[Min − ((Max − Min)δ), Max + ((Max − Min)δ)]where
Min = min(xi, yi) and Max = max(xi, yi). δ is a variable whose value
lies in the interval of [0, 1]
[135] Arithmetic crossover Arithmetic crossover
Geometric crossover pi ¼ δxi þ ð1−δÞyi
qi ¼ δyi þ ð1−δÞxi
Geometric crossover
ð1−δÞ
pi ¼ xδi ⋅yi
δ ð1−δÞ
qi ¼ yi ⋅xi
[144] Unimodal normal distribution n−1
crossover operator pi ¼ xP þ μd þ ∑ ψk Dek
k¼1
n−1
qi ¼ xP −μd− ∑ ψk Dek
k¼1
where ek, k = 1, …, n − 1 are orthogonal bases that perpendicular to d. xP
is the midpoint and d is difference vector. μ is a random vale taken
from normal distribution and ψk are n-1 random values follows a
normal distribution. D is the length from parent 3 to perpendicular
line.
[39] Laplace crossover pi ¼ xi þ β jxi −yi j
qi ¼ yi þ β jxi −yi j
Here,8
>
< a−bloge ðuÞ; u≤
1
β¼ 2
>
: a þ bloge ðuÞ; u > 1
2
Where a and b are variables. The default values of a and b are 0 and 1,
respectively. u is random variable.
8104 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

better convergence speed and quality of solution. Wang et al. [208] proposed multi-
offspring RCGA with direction based crossover for solving constrained problems.
Table 7 shows the mathematical formulation of genetic operators in RGAs.

4.2 Multiobjective GAs

Multiobjective GA (MOGA) is the modified version of simple GA. MOGA differ from GA in terms
of fitness function assignment. The remaining steps are similar to GA. The main motive of
multiobjective GA is to generate the optimal Pareto Front in the objective space in such a way that
no further enhancement in any fitness function without disturbing the other fitness functions [123].
Convergence, diversity, and coverage are main goal of multiobjective GAs. The multiobjective GAs
are broadly categorized into two categories namely, Pareto-based, and decomposition-based
multiobjective GAs [52]. These techniques are discussed in the preceding subsections.

4.2.1 Pareto-based multi-objective GA

The concept of Pareto dominance was introduced in multiobjective GAs. Fonseca and Fleming [56]
developed first multiobjective GA (MOGA). The niche and decision maker concepts were proposed
to tackle the multimodal problems. However, MOGA suffers from parameter tuning problem and
degree of selection pressure. Horn et al. [80] proposed a niched Pareto genetic algorithm (NPGA)
that utilized the concept of tournament selection and Pareto dominance. Srinivas and Deb [191]
developed a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA). However, it suffers from lack of
elitism, need of sharing parameter, and high computation complexity. To alleviate these problems,
Deb et al. [36] developed a fast elitist non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II). The
performance of NSGA-II may be deteriorated for many objective problems. NSGA-II was unable to
maintain the diversity in Pareto-front. To alleviate this problem, Luo et al. [130] introduced a
dynamic crowding distance in NSGA-II. Coello and Pulido [28] developed a multiobjective micro
GA. They used an archive for storing the non-dominated solutions. The performance of Pareto-
based approaches may be deteriorated in many objective problems [52].

4.2.2 Decomposition-based multiobjective GA

Decomposition-based MOGAs decompose the given problem into multiple subproblems. These
subproblems are solved simultaneously and exchange the solutions among neighboring subprob-
lems [52]. Ishibuchi and Murata [84] developed a multiobjective genetic local search (MOGLS). In
MOGLS, the random weights were used to select the parents and local search for their offspring.
They used generation replacement and roulette wheel selection method. Jaszkiewicz [86] modified
the MOGLS by utilizing different selection mechanisms for parents. Murata and Gen [141]
proposed a cellular genetic algorithm for multiobjective optimization (C-MOGA) that was an
extension of MOGA. They added cellular structure in MOGA. In C-MOGA, the selection operator
was performed on the neighboring of each cell. C-MOGA was further extended by introducing an
immigration procedure and known as CI-MOGA. Alves and Almeida [11] developed a
multiobjective Tchebycheffs-based genetic algorithm (MOTGA) that ensures convergence and
diversity. Tchebycheff scalar function was used to generate non-dominated solution set. Patel
et al. [151] proposed a decomposition based MOGA (D-MOGA). They integrated opposition based
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8105

learning in D-MOGA for weight vector generation. D-MOGA is able to maintain the balance
between diversity of solutions and exploration of search space.

4.3 Parallel GAs

The motivation behind the parallel GAs is to improve the computational time and
quality of solutions through distributed individuals. Parallel GAs are categorized into
three broad categories such as master-slave parallel GAs, fine grained parallel GAs,
and multi-population coarse grained parallel Gas [70]. In master-slave parallel GA, the
computation of fitness functions is distributed over the several processors. In fine
grained GA, parallel computers are used to solve the real-life problems. The genetic
operators are bounded to their neighborhood. However, the interaction is allowed
among the individuals. In coarse grained GA, the exchange of individuals among
sub-populations is performed. The control parameters are also transferred during
migration. The main challenges in parallel GAs are to maximize memory bandwidth
and arrange threads for utilizing the power of GPUs [23]. Table 8 shows the
comparative analysis of parallel GAs in terms of hardware and software. The well-
known parallel GAs are studied in the preceding subsections.

4.3.1 Master slave parallel GA

The large number of processors are utilized in master-slave parallel GA (MS-PGA) as

compared to other approaches. The computation of fitness functions may be increased by
increasing the number of processors. Hong et al. [79] used MS-PGA for solving data mining
problems. Fuzzy rules are used with parallel GA. The evaluation of fitness function was
performed on slave machines. However, it suffers from high computational time. Sahingzo
[174] implemented MS-PGA for UAV path finding problem. The genetic operators were
executed on processors. They used multicore CPU with four cores. Selection and fitness
evaluation was done on slave machines. MS-PGA was applied on traffic assignment problem
in [127]. They used thirty processors to solve this problem at National University of Singapore.
Yang et al. [213] developed a web-based parallel GA. They implemented the master slave
version of NSGA-II in distributed environment. However, the system is complex in nature.

Table 8 Analysis of parallel GAs in terms of hardware and software

Ref. Hardware No. of processors Language used API Application

[79] Cluster 130 JAVA – Data Mining

[174] Multicore CPU 8 JAVA Path Finding
[127] Cluster 30 Fortran MPI Road Traffic
[213] Cluster 48 JavaScript Node.JS Building Structure
[161] Multicore CPU 8 JAVA java.util.component Land Planning
[115] Multicore CPU 3 – – Job Scheduling
[209] Cloud 300 – MPI Internet of Things
[220] Cluster 100 – MPI Wireless Network
[158] GPU 448 – CUDA Scheduling
[182] – 240 – – Nanoscience
[170] GPU 512 – CUDA Electronics
8106 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

4.3.2 Fine grained parallel GA

In last few decades, researchers are working on migration policies of fine grained parallel GA (FG-
PGA). Porta et al. [161] utilized clock-time for migration frequency, which is independent of
generations. They used non-uniform structure and static configuration. The best solution was
selected for migration and worst solution was replaced with migrant solution. Kurdi [115] used
adaptive migration frequency. The migration procedure starts until there is no change in the obtained
solutions after ten successive generations. The non-uniform and dynamic structure was used. In
[209], local best solutions were synchronized and formed a global best solutions. The global best
solutions were transferred to all processors for father execution. The migration frequency depends
upon the number of generation. They used uniform structure with fixed configuration. Zhang et al.
[220] used parallel GA to solve the set cover problem of wireless networks. They used divide-and-
conquer strategy to decompose the population into sub-populations. Thereafter, the genetic operators
were applied on local solutions and Kuhn-Munkres was used to merge the local solutions.

4.3.3 Coarse grained parallel GA

Pinel et al. [158] proposed a GraphCell. The population was initialized with random values and one
solution was initialized with Min-min heuristic technique. 448 processors were used to implement
the proposed approach. However, coarse grained parallel GAs are less used due to complex in
nature. The hybrid parallel GAs are widely used in various applications. Shayeghi et al. [182]
proposed a pool-based Birmingham cluster GA. Master node was responsible for managing global
population. Slave node selected the solutions from global population and executed it. 240 processors
are used for computation. Roberge et al. [170] used hybrid approach to optimize switching angle of
inverters. They used four different strategies for fitness function computation. Nowadays, GPU,
cloud, and grid are most popular hardware for parallel GAs [198].

4.4 Chaotic GAs

The main drawback of GAs is premature convergence. The chaotic systems are incorporated into
GAs to alleviate this problem. The diversity of chaos genetic algorithm removes premature
convergence. Crossover and mutation operators can be replaced with chaotic maps. Tiong et al.
[197] integrated the chaotic maps into GA for further improvement in accuracy. They used six
different chaotic maps. The performance of Logistic, Henon and Ikeda chaotic GA performed better
than the classical GA. However, these techniques suffer from high computational complexity.
Ebrahimzadeh and Jampour [48] used Lorenz chaotic for genetic operators of GA to eliminate the
local optima problem. However, the proposed approach was unable to find relationship between
entropy and chaotic map. Javidi and Hosseinpourfard [87] utilized two chaotic maps namely logistic
map and tent map for generating chaotic values instead of random selection of initial population. The
proposed chaotic GA performs better than the GA. However, this method suffers from high
computational complexity. Fuertes et al. [60] integrated the entropy into chaotic GA. The control
parameters are modified through chaotic maps. They investigated the relationship between entropy
and performance optimization.
Chaotic systems have also used in multiobjective and hybrid GAs. Abo-Elnaga and Nasr [5]
integrated chaotic system into modified GA for solving Bi-level programming problems. Chaotic
helps the proposed algorithm to alleviate local optima and enhance the convergence. Tahir et al.
[193] presented a binary chaotic GA for feature selection in healthcare. The chaotic maps were used
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8107

to initialize the population and modified reproduction operators were applied on population. Xu et al.
[115] proposed a chaotic hybrid immune GA for spectrum allocation. The proposed approach
utilizes the advantages of both chaotic and immune operator. However, this method suffers from
parameter initialization problem.

4.5 Hybrid GAs

Genetic Algorithms can be easily hybridized with other optimization methods for improving their
performance such as image denoising methods, chemical reaction optimization, and many more.
The main advantages of hybridized GA with other methods are better solution quality, better
efficiency, guarantee of feasible solutions, and optimized control parameters [51]. It is observed
from literature that the sampling capability of GAs is greatly affected from population size. To
resolve this problem, local search algorithms such as memetic algorithm, Baldwinian, Lamarckian,
and local search have been integrated with GAs. This integration provides proper balance between
intensification and diversification. Another problem in GA is parameter setting. Finding appropriate
control parameters is a tedious task. The other metaheuristic techniques can be used with GA to
resolve this problem. Hybrid GAs have been used to solve the issues mentioned in the preceding
subsections [29, 137, 186].

4.5.1 Enhance search capability

GAs have been integrated with local search algorithms to reduce the genetic drift. The explicit
refinement operator was introduced in local search for producing better solutions. El-Mihoub et al.
[54] established the effect of probability of local search on the population size of GA. Espinoza et al.
[50] investigated the effect of local search for reducing the population size of GA. Different search
algorithms have been integrated with GAs for solving real-life applications.

4.5.2 Generate feasible solutions

In complex and high-dimensional problems, the genetic operators of GA generate infeasible

solutions. PMX crossover generates the infeasible solutions for order-based problems. The distance
preserving crossover operator was developed to generate feasible solutions for travelling salesman
problem [58]. The gene pooling operator instead of crossover was used to generate feasible solution
for data clustering [19]. Konak and Smith [108] integrated a cut-saturation algorithm with GA for
designing the communication networks. They used uniform crossover to produce feasible solutions.

4.5.3 Replacement of genetic operators

There is a possibility to replace the genetic operators which are mentioned in

Section 3.2 with other search techniques. Leng [122] developed a guided GA that
utilizes the penalties from guided local search. These penalties were used in fitness
function to improve the performance of GA. Headar and Fukushima [74] used simplex
crossover instead of standard crossover. The standard mutation operator was replaced
with simulated annealing in [195]. The basic concepts of quantum computing are used
to improve the performance of GAs. The heuristic crossover and hill-climbing oper-
ators can be integrated into GA for solving three-matching problem.
8108 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

4.5.4 Optimize control parameters

The control parameters of GA play a crucial role in maintaining the balance between
intensification and diversification. Fuzzy logic has an ability to estimate the appropriate control
parameters of GA [167]. Beside this, GA can be used to optimize the control parameters of
other techniques. GAs have been used to optimize the learning rate, weights, and topology of
neutral networks [21]. GAs can be used to estimate the optimal value of fuzzy membership in
controller. It was also used to optimize the control parameters of ACO, PSO, and other
metaheuristic techniques [156]. The comparative analysis of well-known GAs are mentioned
in Table 9.

5 Applications

Genetic Algorithms have been applied in various NP-hard problems with high accuracy rates.
There are a few application areas in which GAs have been successfully applied.

5.1 Operation management

GA is an efficient metaheuristic for solving operation management (OM) problems such as

facility layout problem (FLP), supply network design, scheduling, forecasting, and inventory
control.

5.1.1 Facility layout

Datta et al. [32] utilized GA for solving single row facility layout problem (SRFLP). For
SRFLP, the modified crossover and mutation operators of GA produce valid solutions. They
applied GA to large sized problems that consists of 60–80 instances. However, it suffers from
parameter dependency problem. Sadrzadeh [173] proposed GA for multi-line FLP have multi
products. The facilities were clustered using mutation and heuristic operators. The total cost
obtained from the proposed GA was decreased by 7.2% as compared to the other algorithms.
Wu et al. [211] implemented hierarchical GA to find out the layout of cellular manufacturing
system. However, the performance of GA is greatly affected from the genetic operators. Aiello
et al. [7] proposed MOGA for FLP. They used MOGA on the layout of twenty different
departments. Palomo-Romero et al. [148] proposed an island model GA to solve the FLP. The
proposed technique maintains the population diversity and generates better solutions than the
existing techniques. However, this technique suffers from improper migration strategy that can
be utilized for improving the population. GA and its variants has been successfully applied on
FLP [103, 119, 133, 201].

5.1.2 Scheduling

GA shows the superior performance for solving the scheduling problems such as job-shop
scheduling (JSS), integrated process planning and scheduling (IPPS), etc. [119]. To improve
the performance in the above-mentioned areas of scheduling, researchers developed various
genetic representation [12, 159, 215], genetic operators, and hybridized GA with other
methods [2, 67, 147, 219].
Table 9 Comparative study of GA’s variants in terms of pros and cons

Reference Year Pros Cons Application

Real-Coded GAs
[129] 1989 No encoding required Trapped in Local optima Chemo-metrics
Simple
Fast Convergence
[144] 1997 Better Performance Trapped in Local optima Optimization Problems
[39] 2007 Fast convergence Less success rate Optimization Problems
[192] 2011 Better convergence speed Premature convergence Economic dispatch
Less computational cost
[196] 2013 Better search capability Premature convergence for some applications Optimization Problems
Fast convergence
[35] 2014 Better Exploration Stuck in Local optima Optimization Problems
Slow convergence speed
[27] 2016 Better offspring generation Limited search directions Optimization Problems
[205] 2016 Fast convergence Expensive computational cost Traveling Salesman Problem
Better population diversity
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

[207] 2018 Guarantee cross-generated offspring Better individuals not considered Optimization Problems
[152] 2018 Fast convergence Premature convergence Economic dispatch
Better solution quality
[208] 2019 Better convergence Computationally expensive Optimization Problems
Not stuck in local optima
[132] 2020 Better performance Tuning of crossover operator required Optimization Problems
Suitable for constrained search space
Chaotic GAs
[197] 2012 Superior performance over standard GA More computational time required Optimization Problems
[48] 2013 Improved performance due to chaotic process Unable to classify the chaotic map and its Optimization Problems
Better convergence relationship with entropy
[87] 2015 Enhance diversity of population More computational time required Optimization Problems
Avoid local optima
[60] 2019 Able to establish relationship between chaotic map and entropy Influence of multifractals in initial population for some Optimization Problems
Better solution quality applications
[5] 2020 Fast convergence More computational time required Bi-level Programming
Better performance
[193] 2020 Better classification accuracy – Healthcare
[51] 2020 Better performance Parameter initialization Spectrum Allocation
Parallel GAs
[90] 2018 Fast Execution Unable to utilize the full power of machine Text Feature Clustering
8109
Table 9 (continued)
8110

Reference Year Pros Cons Application

Better convergence
[10] 2018 Better optimization accuracy Require optimize instruction execution Optimization Problems
Low computational time
[63] 2019 Fast convergence Inferior solution quality Community Detection
[13] 2020 Easy to implement More improvement in GPU utilization required Logistics Management
Faster execution
[23] 2020 Optimize memory access Need of GPU accelerated libraries Railway Scheduling
Optimize instruction execution
[1] 2020 Better performance Low utilization of GPU cluster Transportation System
Highest Speedup
Binary Coded GAs
[153] 1993 Fast convergence More computational time required Molecular Recognition
[203] 2014 Superior Performance Tuning of control parameters Wind Farm Design
Flexible
[185] 2019 Fast Influence from setting of control parameters Feature Selection
Efficient searching capability
Hybrid GAs
[217] 2020 Faster convergence rate Parameter tuning is required for better result Routing
Better distribution
[131] 2020 Better Line of Code decline rate Slow convergence Program Analysis
Improve performance of GA
[181] 2020 Better accuracy score Stuck in local optima Accidental Death Record
[85] 2020 Robust Premature convergence Stock Market Prediction
Efficient
Accurate
[162] 2020 Improve local search capability Premature convergence Job Scheduling
[68] 2020 Improve local search capability Slow convergence Travelling Salesman Problem
Better solution quality
[165] 2020 Better solution quality Premature convergence Feature Selection
[163] 2018 Better search space Unable to capture quantitative information Agriculture
[164] 2018 Better classification accuracy Slow convergence Agriculture
[37] 2018 Superior performance High computational time Function Approximation
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8111

5.1.3 Inventory control

Besides the scheduling, inventory control plays an important role in OM. Backordering and
lost sales are two main approaches for inventory control [119]. Hiassat et al. [76] utilized the
location-inventory model to find out the number and location of warehouses. Various design
constraints have been added in the objective functions of GA and its variants for solving
inventory control problem [].

5.1.4 Forecasting and network design

Forecasting is an important component for OM. Researchers are working on forecasting of

financial trading, logistics demand, and tourist arrivals. GA has been hybridized with support
vector regression, fuzzy set, and neural network (NN) to improve their forecasting capability
[22, 78, 89, 178, 214]. Supply network design greatly affect the operations planning and
scheduling. Most of the research articles are focused on capacity constraints of facilities [45,
184]. Multi-product multi-period problems increases the complexity of supply networks. To
resolve the above-mentioned problem, GA has been hybridized with other techniques [6, 45,
55, 188, 189]. Multi-objective GAs are also used to optimize the cost, profit, carbon emissions,
etc. [184, 189].

5.2 Multimedia

GAs have been applied in various fields of multimedia. Some of well-known multimedia fields
are encryption, image processing, video processing, medical imaging, and gaming.

5.2.1 Information security

Due to development in multimedia applications, images, videos and audios are transferred
from one place to another over Internet. It has been found in literature that the images are more
error prone during the transmission. Therefore, image protection techniques such as encryp-
tion, watermarking and cryptography are required. The classical image encryption techniques
require the input parameters for encryption. The wrong selection of input parameters will
generate inadequate encryption results. GA and its variants have been used to select the
appropriate control parameters. Kaur and Kumar [96] developed a multi-objective genetic
algorithm to optimize the control parameters of chaotic map. The secret key was generated
using beta chaotic map. The generated key was use to encrypt the image. Parallel GAs were
also used to encrypt the image [97].

5.2.2 Image processing

The main image processing tasks are preprocessing, segmentation, object detection, denoising,
and recognition. Image segmentation is an important step to solve the image processing
problems. Decomposing/partitioning an image requires high computational time. To resolve
this problem, GA is used due to their better search capability [26, 102]. Enhancement is a
technique to improve the quality and contrast of an image. The better image quality is required
to analyze the given image. GAs have been used to enhance natural contrast and magnify
image [40, 64, 99]. Some researchers are working on hybridization of rough set with adaptive
8112 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

genetic algorithm to merge the noise and color attributes. GAs have been used to remove the
noise from the given image. GA can be hybridized with fuzzy logic to denoise the noisy
image. GA based restoration technique can be used to remove haze, fog and smog from the
given image [8, 110, 146, 200]. Object detection and recognition is a challenging issue in real-
world problem. Gaussian mixture model provides better performance during detection and
recognition process. The control parameters are optimized through GA [93].

5.2.3 Video processing

Video segmentation has been widely used in pattern recognition, and computer vision. There
are some critical issues that are associated with video segmentation. These are distinguishing
object from the background and determine accurate boundaries. GA can be used to resolve
these issues [9, 105]. GAs have been implemented for gesture recognition successfully by
Chao el al. [81] used GA for gesture recognition. They applied GAs and found an accuracy of
95% in robot vision. Kaluri and Reddy [91] proposed an adaptive genetic algorithm based
method along with fuzzy classifiers for sign gesture recognition. They reported an improved
recognition rate of 85% as compared to the existing method that provides 79% accuracy.
Beside the gesture recognition, face recognition play an important role in criminal identifica-
tion, unmanned vehicles, surveillance, and robots. GA is able to tackle the occlusion,
orientations, expressions, pose, and lighting condition [69, 95, 109].

5.2.4 Medical imaging

Genetic algorithms have been applied in medical imaging such as edge detection in MRI and
pulmonary nodules detection in CT scan images [100, 179]. In [120], authors used a template
matching technique with GA for detecting nodules in CT images. Kavitha and Chellamuthu
[179] used GA based region growing method for detecting the brain tumor. GAs have been
applied on medical prediction problems captured from pathological subjects. Sari and Tuna
[176] used GA used to solve issues arises in biomechanics. It is used to predict pathologies
during examination. Ghosh and Bhattachrya [62] implemented sequential GA with cellular
automata for modelling the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) data. GAs can be applied in
parallel mode to find rules in biological datasets [31]. The authors proposed a parallel GA that
runs by dividing the process into small sub-generations and evaluating the fitness of each
individual solution in parallel. Genetic algorithms are used in medicine and other related fields.
Koh et al. [61] proposed a genetic algorithm based method for evaluation of adverse effects of
a given drug.

5.2.5 Precision agriculture

GAs have been applied on various problems that are related to precision agriculture. The main
issues are crop yield, weed detection, and improvement in farming equipment. Pachepsky and
Acock [145] implemented GA to analyze the water capacity in soil using remote sensing
images. The crop yield can be predicted through the capacity of water present in soil. The
weed identification was done through GA in [142]. They used aerial image for classification of
plants. In [124], color image segmentation was used to discriminate the weed and plant.
Peerlink et al. [154] determined the appropriate rate of fertilizer for various portions of
agriculture field. They GA for determining the nitrogen in wheat field. The energy
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8113

requirements in water irrigation systems can be optimized by viewing it as a multi-objective

optimization problem. The amount of irrigation required and thus power requirements change
continuously in a SMART farm. Therefore, GA can be applied in irrigation systems to reduce
the power requirements [33].

5.2.6 Gaming

GAs have been successfully used in games such as gomoku. In [202], the authors shown that
the GA based approach finds the solution having the highest fitness than the normal tree based
methods. However, in real-time strategy based games, GA based solutions become less
practical to implement [82]. GAs have been implemented for path planning problems consid-
ering the environment constraints as well as avoiding the obstacles to reach the given
destination. Burchardt and Salomon [18] described an implementation for path planning for
soccer games. GA can encode the path planning problems via the coordinate points of a two-
dimensional playing field, hence resulting in a variable length solution. The fitness function in
path planning considers length of path as well as the collision avoiding terms for soccer
players.

5.3 Wireless networking

Due to adaptive, scalable, and easy implementation of GA, it has been used to solve the
various issues of wireless networking. The main issues of wireless networking are routing,
quality of service, load balancing, localization, bandwidth allocation and channel assignment
[128, 134]. GA has been hybridized with other metaheuristics for solving the routing prob-
lems. Hybrid GA not only producing the efficient routes among pair of nodes, but also used for
load balancing [24, 212].

5.3.1 Load balancing

Nowadays, multimedia applications require Quality-of-Service (QoS) demand for delay and
bandwidth. Various researchers are working on GAs for QoS based solutions.GA produces
optimal solutions for complex networks [49]. Roy et al. [172] proposed a multi-objective GA
for multicast QoS routing problem. GA was used with ACO and other search algorithms for
finding optimal routes with desired QoS metrics. Load balancing is another issue in wireless
networks. Scully and Brown [177] used MicroGAs and MacroGAs to distribute the load
among various components of networks. He et al. [73] implemented GA to determine the
balance load in wireless sensor networks. Cheng et al. [25] utilized distributed GA with multi-
population scheme for load balancing. They used load balancing metric as a fitness function in
GA.

5.3.2 Localization

The process of determining the location of wireless nodes is called as localization. It plays an
important role in disaster management and military services. Yun et al. [216] used GA with
fuzzy logic to find out the weights, which are assigned according to the signal strength. Zhang
et al. [218] hybridized GA with simulated annealing (SA) to determine the position of wireless
nodes. SA is used as local search to eliminate the premature convergence.
8114 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

5.3.3 Bandwidth and channel allocation

The appropriate bandwidth allocation is a complex task. GAs and its variants have been
developed to solve the bandwidth allocation problem [92, 94, 107]. GAs were used to
investigate the allocation of bandwidth with QoS constraints. The fitness function of GAs
may consists of resource utilization, bandwidth distribution, and computation time [168]. The
channel allocation is an important issue in wireless networks. The main objective of channel
allocation is to simultaneously optimize the number of channels and reuse of allocated
frequency. Friend et al. [59] used distributed island GA to resolve the channel allocation
problem in cognitive radio networks. Zhenhua et al. [221] implemented a modified immune
GA for channel assignment. They used different encoding scheme and immune operators.
Pinagapany and Kulkarni [157] developed a parallel GA to solve both static and dynamic
channel allocation problem. They used decimal encoding scheme. Table 10 summarizes the
applications of GA and its variants.

6 Challenges and future possibilities

In this section, the main challenges faced during the implementation of GAs are discussed
followed by the possible research directions.

6.1 Challenges

Despite the several advantages, there are some challenges that need to be resolved for future
advancements and further evolution of genetic algorithms. Some major challenges are given
below:

6.1.1 Selection of initial population

Initial population is always considered as an important factor for the performance of genetic
algorithms. The size of population also affects the quality of solution [160]. The researchers
argue that if a large population is considered, then the algorithm takes more computation time.
However, the small population may lead to poor solution [155]. Therefore, finding the
appropriate population size is always a challenging issue. Harik and Lobo [71] investigated
the population using self-adaption method. They used two approaches such as (1) use of self-
adaption prior to execution of algorithm, in which the size of population remains the same and
(2) in which the self-adaption used during the algorithm execution where the population size is
affected by fitness function.

6.1.2 Premature convergence

Premature convergence is a common issue for GA. It can lead to the loss of alleles that makes
it difficult to identify a gene [15]. Premature convergence states that the result will be
suboptimal if the optimization problem coincides too early. To avoid this issue, some
researchers suggested that the diversity should be used. The selection pressure should be used
to increase the diversity. Selection pressure is a degree which favors the better individuals in
the initial population of GA’s. If selection pressure (SP1) is greater than some selection
Table 10 Applications of GA

Broad Area Sub-domain Target Problems Variants of GA Ref.

Operation Management Facility layout Design Static facility layout problem GA, MOGA, Parallel GA, Hierarchical GA [7, 32, 103, 119, 133, 148, 173, 201, 211]
Dynamic facility layout problem
Flexible bay structure
Supply network design Multi-product, multi-period GA, NSGA-II, GA + PSO, MOGA, GA + Fuzzy [6, 45, 55, 184, 188, 189]
Multi-product, single-period
Single-product, single-period
Scheduling Vehicle routing GA, GA + BB, GA + ABC, GA + Local search, [A132–138]
Resource sharing and scheduling MOGA, NSGA-II, Hierarchical GA
Machine scheduling
Airline flight scheduling
Forecasting Financial trading GA, Chaotic GA, Adaptive GA, GA + NN [22, 78, 89, 178, 214]
Tourism demand
Healthcare demand
Inventory control Inventory-routing GA, NSGA-II [14, 76, 150]
Lot sizing
Location-inventory routing
Multimedia Information Security Encryption GA, Parallel GA, NSGA-II, NSGA [96–98, 114]
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

Watermarking
Image Processing Segmentation GA, NSGA-II, Parallel GA, Hybrid GA, [8, 26, 40, 64, 93, 99, 102, 110, 146, 200, 204]
Enhancement Adaptive GA, Chaotic GA
Object detection
De-noising
Recognition
Video Processing Video segmentation GA, NSGA, Adaptive GA, Hybrid GA [9, 69, 81, 91, 95, 100, 104, 105, 109]
Gesture recognition
Face recognition
Medical Imaging Tumor diagnosis GA, Hybrid GA, Parallel GA, Sequential GA [31, 61, 62, 120, 176, 179]
COVID-19 diagnosis
Bioinformatics
Precision Agriculture Weed detection GA, Hybrid GA, NSGA [16, 33, 124, 142, 145, 154]
Crop management
Water irrigation
Gaming Google Chrome dinosaur GA, Coevolutionary GA, NSGA [18, 82, 202]
Chess
Strategic games
Wireless Networking Wireless mesh networks Routing GA, Sequential GA, MOGA [24, 128, 212]
Mobile Ad-hoc networks Quality of Service MOGA, GA + Fuzzy Logic, NSGA, GA + ACO,NSGA-II [4, 44, 49, 143, 172]
Wireless sensor networks Load balancing MicroGA, MacroGA, Distributed GA [25, 73, 177]
Localization MicroGA, GA + SA, GA + Fuzzy Logic [194, 216, 218]
Bandwidth allocation GA, Distributed GA, GA + Local search, GA + Greedy Algorithms, MOGA [92, 94, 107, 168]
Channel assignment MOGA, Parallel GA, Distributed Island GA [59, 157, 221]
8115
8116 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

pressure (SP2), then population using SP1 should be larger than the population using SP2. The
higher selection pressure can decrease the population diversity that may lead to premature
convergence [71].
Convergence property has to be handled properly so that the algorithm finds global optimal
solution instead of local optimal solution (see Fig. 8). If the optimal solution lies in the vicinity of an
infeasible solution, then the global nature of GA can be combined with local nature of other
algorithms such as Tabu search and local search. The global nature of genetic algorithms and local
nature of Tabu search provide the proper balance between intensification and diversification.

6.1.3 Selection of efficient fitness functions

Fitness function is the driving force, which plays an important role in selecting the fittest
individual in every iteration of an algorithm. If the number of iterations are small, then a costly
fitness function can be adjusted. The number of iterations increases may increase the compu-
tational cost. The selection of fitness function depends upon the computational cost as well as
their suitability. In [46], the authors used Davies-Bouldin index for classification of
documents.

6.1.4 Degree of mutation and crossover

Crossover and mutation operators are the integral part of GAs. If the mutation is not considered
during evolution, then there will be no new information available for evolution. If crossover is
not considered during evolution, then the algorithm can result in local optima. The degree of
these operators greatly affect the performance of GAs [72]. The proper balance between these
operators are required to ensure the global optima. The probabilistic nature cannot determine
the exact degree for an effective and optimal solution.

6.1.5 Selection of encoding schemes

GAs require a particular encoding scheme for a specific problem. There is no general
methodology for deciding whether the particular encoding scheme is suitable for any type of

Fig. 8 Local and global optima [149]

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8117

real-life problem. If there are two different problems, then two different encoding schemes are
required. Ronald [171] suggested that the encoding schemes should be designed to overwhelm
the redundant forms. The genetic operators should be implemented in a manner that they are
not biased towards the redundant forms.

6.2 Future research directions

GAs have been applied in different fields by modifying the basic structure of GA. The
optimality of a solution obtained from GA can be made better by overcoming the current
challenges. Some future possibilities for GA are as follows:

1) There should be some way to choose the appropriate degree of crossover and mutation
operators. For example Self-Organizing GA adapt the crossover and mutation operators
according to the given problem. It can save computation time that make it faster.
2) Future work can also be considered for reducing premature convergence problem. Some
researchers are working in this direction. However, it is suggested that new methods of
crossover and mutation techniques are required to tackle the premature convergence problem.
3) Genetic algorithms mimic the natural evolution process. There can be a possible scope for
simulating the natural evolution process such as the responses of human immune system
and the mutations in viruses.
4) In real-life problems, the mapping from genotype to phenotype is complex. In this
situation, the problem has no obvious building blocks or building blocks are not adjacent
groups of genes. Hence, there is a possibility to develop novel encoding schemes to
different problems that does not exhibit same degree of difficulty.

7 Conclusions

This paper presents the structured and explained view of genetic algorithms. GA and its
variants have been discussed with application. Application specific genetic operators are
discussed. Some genetic operators are designed for representation. However, they are not
applicable to research domains. The role of genetic operators such as crossover, mutation, and
selection in alleviating the premature convergence is studied extensively. The applicability of
GA and its variants in various research domain has been discussed. Multimedia and wireless
network applications were the main attention of this paper. The challenges and issues
mentioned in this paper will help the practitioners to carry out their research. There are many
advantages of using GAs in other research domains and metaheuristic algorithms.
The intention of this paper is not only provide the source of recent research in GAs, but also
provide the information about each component of GA. It will encourage the researchers to
understand the fundamentals of GA and use the knowledge in their research problems.

References

1. Abbasi M, Rafiee M, Khosravi MR, Jolfaei A, Menon VG, Koushyar JM (2020) An efficient parallel
genetic algorithm solution for vehicle routing problem in cloud implementation of the intelligent trans-
portation systems. Journal of cloud Computing 9(6)
8118 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

2. Abdelghany A, Abdelghany K, Azadian F (2017) Airline flight schedule planning under competition.
Comput Oper Res 87:20–39
3. Abdulal W, Ramachandram S (2011) Reliability-aware genetic scheduling algorithm in grid environment.
International Conference on Communication Systems and Network Technologies, Katra, Jammu, pp 673–
677
4. Abdullah J (2010) Multiobjectives ga-based QoS routing protocol for mobile ad hoc network. Int J Grid
Distrib Comput 3(4):57–68
5. Abo-Elnaga Y, Nasr S (2020) Modified evolutionary algorithm and chaotic search for Bilevel program-
ming problems. Symmetry 12:767
6. Afrouzy ZA, Nasseri SH, Mahdavi I (2016) A genetic algorithm for supply chain configuration with new
product development. Comput Ind Eng 101:440–454
7. Aiello G, Scalia G (2012) La, Enea M. A multi objective genetic algorithm for the facility layout problem
based upon slicing structure encoding Expert Syst Appl 39(12):10352–10358
8. Alaoui A, Adamou-Mitiche ABH, Mitiche L (2020) Effective hybrid genetic algorithm for removing salt
and pepper noise. IET Image Process 14(2):289–296
9. Alkhafaji BJ, Salih MA, Nabat ZM, Shnain SA (2020) Segmenting video frame images using genetic
algorithms. Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences 8(2):1106–1114
10. Al-Oqaily AT, Shakah G (2018) Solving non-linear optimization problems using parallel genetic algo-
rithm. International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology (CSIT), Amman, pp.
103–106
11. Alvesa MJ, Almeidab M (2007) MOTGA: A multiobjective Tchebycheff based genetic algorithm for the
multidimensional knapsack problem. Comput Oper Res 34:3458–3470
12. Arakaki RK, Usberti FL (2018) Hybrid genetic algorithm for the open capacitated arc routing problem.
Comput Oper Res 90:221–231
13. Arkhipov DI, Wu D, Wu T, Regan AC (2020) A parallel genetic algorithm framework for transportation
planning and logistics management. IEEE Access 8:106506–106515
14. Azadeh A, Elahi S, Farahani MH, Nasirian B (2017) A genetic algorithm-Taguchi based approach to
inventory routing problem of a single perishable product with transshipment. Comput Ind Eng 104:124–
133
15. Baker JE, Grefenstette J (2014) Proceedings of the first international conference on genetic algorithms and
their applications. Taylor and Francis, Hoboken, pp 101–105
16. Bolboca SD, JAntschi L, Balan MC, Diudea MV, Sestras RE (2010) State of art in genetic algorithms for
agricultural systems. Not Bot Hort Agrobot Cluj 38(3):51–63
17. Bonabeau E, Dorigo M, Theraulaz G (1999) Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems. Oxford
University Press, Inc
18. Burchardt H, Salomon R (2006) Implementation of path planning using genetic algorithms on Mobile
robots. IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation, Vancouver, BC, pp 1831–1836
19. Burdsall B, Giraud-Carrier C (1997) Evolving fuzzy prototypes for efficient data clustering," in second
international ICSC symposium on fuzzy logic and applications. Zurich, Switzerland, pp. 217-223.
20. Burkowski FJ (1999) Shuffle crossover and mutual information. Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on
Evolutionary Computation-CEC99 (Cat. No. 99TH8406), Washington, DC, USA, 1999, pp. 1574–1580
21. Chaiyaratana N, Zalzala AM (2000) "Hybridisation of neural networks and a genetic algorithm for friction
compensation," in the 2000 congress on evolutionary computation, vol 1. San Diego, USA, pp 22–29
22. Chen R, Liang C-Y, Hong W-C, Gu D-X (2015) Forecasting holiday daily tourist flow based on seasonal
support vector regression with adaptive genetic algorithm. Appl Soft Comput 26:434–443
23. J.R. Cheng and M. Gen (2020) Parallel genetic algorithms with GPU computing. Impact on Intelligent
Logistics and Manufacturing.
24. Cheng H, Yang S (2010) Multi-population genetic algorithms with immigrants scheme for dynamic
shortest path routing problems in mobile ad hoc networks. Applications of evolutionary computation.
Springer, In, pp 562–571
25. Cheng H, Yang S, Cao J (2013) Dynamic genetic algorithms for the dynamic load balanced clustering
problem in mobile ad hoc net-works. Expert Syst Appl 40(4):1381–1392
26. Chouhan SS, Kaul A, Singh UP (2018) Soft computing approaches for image segmentation: a survey.
Multimed Tools Appl 77(21):28483–28537
27. Chuang YC, Chen CT, Hwang C (2016) A simple and efficient real-coded genetic algorithm for
constrained optimization. Appl Soft Comput 38:87–105
28. Coello CAC, Pulido GT (2001) A micro-genetic algorithm for multiobjective optimization. In: EMO,
volume 1993 of lecture notes in computer science, pp 126–140. Springer
29. Das, K. N. (2014). Hybrid genetic algorithm: an optimization tool. In global trends in intelligent computing
Research and Development (pp. 268-305). IGI global.
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8119

30. Das AK, Pratihar DK (2018) A direction-based exponential mutation operator for real-coded genetic
algorithm. IEEE International Conference on Emerging Applications of Information Technology.
31. Dash SR, Dehuri S, Rayaguru S (2013) Discovering interesting rules from biological data using parallel
genetic algorithm, 3rd IEEE International Advance Computing Conference (IACC), Ghaziabad,, pp. 631–
636.
32. Datta D, Amaral ARS, Figueira JR (2011) Single row facility layout problem using a permutation-based
genetic algorithm. European J Oper Res 213(2):388–394
33. de Ocampo ALP, Dadios EP (2017) "Energy cost optimization in irrigation system of smart farm by using
genetic algorithm," 2017IEEE 9th international conference on humanoid. Nanotechnology, Information
Technology, Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM), Manila, pp 1–7
34. Deb K, Agrawal RB (1995) Simulated binary crossover for continuous search space. Complex Systems 9:
115–148
35. Deb K, Deb D (2014) Analysing mutation schemes for real-parameter genetic algorithms. International
Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing 4(1):1–28
36. Deb K, Pratap A, Agarwal S, Meyarivan T (2002) A fast and elitist multiobjective genetic algorithm:
NSGA-II. IEEE Trans Evol Comput 6(2):182–197
37. Deep K, Das KN (2008) Quadratic approximation based hybrid genetic algorithm for function optimiza-
tion. Appl Math Comput 203(1):86–98
38. Deep K, Thakur M (2007) A new mutation operator for real coded genetic algorithms. Appl Math Comput
193:211–230
39. Deep K, Thakur M (2007) A new crossover operator for real coded genetic algorithms. Appl Math Comput
188:895–911
40. Dhal KP, Ray S, Das A, Das S (2018) A survey on nature-inspired optimization algorithms and their
application in image enhancement domain. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering 5:1607–
1638
41. Dhiman G, Kumar V (2017) Spotted hyena optimizer: A novel bio-inspired based metaheuristic technique
for engineering applications. Adv Eng Softw 114:48–70
42. Dhiman G, Kumar V (2018) Emperor penguin optimizer: A bio-inspired algorithm for engineering
problems. Knowl-Based Syst 159:20–50
43. Dhiman G, Kumar V (2019) Seagull optimization algorithm: theory and its applications for large-scale
industrial engineering problems. Knowl-Based Syst 165:169–196
44. Di Fatta G, Hoffmann F, Lo Re G, Urso A (2003) A genetic algorithm for the design of a fuzzy controller
for active queue management. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part C Appl Rev 33(3):313–324
45. Diabat A, Deskoores R (2016) A hybrid genetic algorithm based heuristic for an integrated supply chain
problem. J Manuf Syst 38:172–180
46. Diaz-Manríquez A, Ríos-Alvarado AB, Barrón-Zambrano JH, Guerrero-Melendez TY, Elizondo-Leal JC
(2018) An automatic document classifier system based on genetic algorithm and taxonomy. IEEE Access
6:21552–21559. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2815992
47. Dorigo M, Birattari M, Stutzle T (2006) Ant colony optimization - artificial ants as a computational
intelligence technique. IEEE Comput Intell Mag 1(2006):28–39
48. Ebrahimzadeh R, Jampour M (2013) Chaotic genetic algorithm based on Lorenz chaotic system for
optimization problems. I.J. Intelligent Systems and Applications Intelligent Systems and Applications
05(05):19–24
49. EkbataniFard GH, Monsefi R, Akbarzadeh-T M-R, Yaghmaee M et al. (2010) A multi-objective genetic
algorithm based approach for energy efficient qos-routing in two-tiered wireless sensor net-works. In:
wireless pervasive computing (ISWPC), 2010 5th IEEE international symposium on. IEEE, pp 80–85
50. El-Mihoub T, Hopgood A, Nolle L, Battersby A (2004) Performance of hybrid genetic algorithms
incorporating local search. In: Horton G (ed) 18th European simulation multi-conference (ESM2004).
Germany, Magdeburg, pp 154–160
51. El-Mihoub TA, Hopgood AA, Lars N, Battersby A (2006) Hybrid genetic algorithms: A review. Eng Lett
13:2
52. Emmerich MTM, Deutz AH (2018) A tutorial on multiobjective optimization: fundamentals and evolu-
tionary methods. Nat Comput 17(3):585–609
53. Eshelman LJ, Caruana RA, Schaffer JD (1997) Biases in the crossover landscape.
54. Espinoza FB, Minsker B, Goldberg D (2003) Performance evaluation and population size reduction for
self adaptive hybrid genetic algorithm (SAHGA), in the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation
Conference, vol. 2723, Lecture Notes in Computer Science San Francisco, USA: Springer, pp. 922–933.
55. Farahani RZ, Elahipanah M (2008) A genetic algorithm to optimize the total cost and service level for just-
in-time distribution in a supply chain. Int J Prod Econ 111(2):229–243
8120 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

56. Fonseca CM, Fleming PJ (1993) Genetic algorithms for multiobjective optimization: formulation, discus-
sion and generalization. In: ICGA, pp 416–423. Morgan Kaufmann
57. Fox B, McMahon M (1991) Genetic operators for sequencing problems, in Foundations of Genetic
Algorithms, G. Rawlins, Ed. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Mateo,CA, Ed. 1991, pp. 284–300.
58. Freisleben B, Merz P (1996) New genetic local search operators for the traveling salesman problem," in the
Fourth Conference on Parallel Problem Solving from Nature vol. 1141, Lectures Notes in Computer
Science, H.-M. Voigt, W. Ebeling, I. Rechenberg, and H.-P. Schwefel, Eds. Berlin, Germany: Springer-
Verlag, pp. 890–899.
59. Friend DH, EI Nainay, M, Shi Y, MacKenzie AB (2008) Architecture and performance of an island
genetic algorithm-based cognitive network. In: Consumer communications and networking conference,
2008. CCNC 2008. 5th IEEE. IEEE, pp 993–997
60. Fuertes G, Vargas M, Alfaro M, Soto-Garrido R, Sabattin J, Peralta M-A (2019) Chaotic genetic algorithm
and the effects of entropy in performance optimization.
61. Ghaheri A, Shoar S, Naderan M, Hoseini SS (2015) The applications of genetic algorithms in medicine. CJ
30:406–416
62. Ghosh S, Bhattachrya S (2020) A data-driven understanding of COVID-19 dynamics using sequential
genetic algorithm based probabilistic cellular automata. Applied Soft Computing. 96
63. Ghoshal AK, Das N, Bhattacharjee S, Chakraborty G (2019) A fast parallel genetic algorithm based
approach for community detection in large networks. International Conference on Communication
Systems & Networks (COMSNETS), Bengaluru, India, pp. 95–101.
64. Gogna A, Tayal A (2012) Comparative analysis of evolutionary algorithms for image enhancement. Int J
Met 2(1)
65. Goldberg D (1989) Genetic algorithm in search. Optimization and Machine Learning, Addison -Wesley,
Reading, MA 1989
66. Goldberg D, Lingle R (1985) Alleles, loci and the traveling salesman problem. In: Proceedings of the 1st
international conference on genetic algorithms and their applications, vol. 1985. Los Angeles, USA, pp
154–159
67. Guido R, Conforti D (2017) A hybrid genetic approach for solving an integrated multi-objective operating
room planning and scheduling problem. Comput Oper Res 87:270–282
68. Ha QM, Deville Y, Pham QD, Ha MH (2020) A hybrid genetic algorithm for the traveling salesman
problem with drone. J Heuristics 26:219–247
69. HajiRassouliha A, Gamage TPB, Parker MD, Nash MP, Taberner AJ, Nielsen, PM (2013) FPGA
implementation of 2D cross-correlation for real-time 3D tracking of deformable surfaces. In Proceedings
of the2013 28th International Conference on Image and Vision Computing New Zealand (IVCNZ 2013),
Wellington, New Zealand, 27–29 November 2013; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA; pp. 352–357
70. Harada T, Alba E (2020) Parallel genetic algorithms: a useful survey. ACM Computing Survey 53(4):1–39
71. Harik GR, Lobo FG (1999) A parameter-less genetic algorithm, in Proceedings of the Genetic and
Evolutionary Computation Conference, pp. 258–265.
72. Hassanat A, Almohammadi K, Alkafaween E, Abunawas E, Hammouri A, Prasath VBS (December 2019)
Choosing mutation and crossover ratios for genetic algorithms—A review with a new dynamic approach.
Information 10:390. https://doi.org/10.3390/info10120390
73. He J, Ji S, Yan M, Pan Y, Li Y (2012) Load-balanced CDS construction in wireless sensor networks via
genetic algorithm. Int J Sens Netw 11(3):166–178
74. Hedar A, Fukushima M (2003) Simplex coding genetic algorithm for the global optimization of nonlinear
functions, in Multi-Objective Programming and Goal Programming, Advances in Soft Computing, T.
Tanino, T. Tanaka, and M. Inuiguchi, Eds.: Springer-Verlag, pp. 135–140.
75. Helal MHS, Fan C, Liu D, Yuan S (2017) Peer-to-peer based parallel genetic algorithm. International
Conference on Information, Communication and Engineering (ICICE), Xiamen, pp 535–538
76. Hiassat A, Diabat A, Rahwan I (2017) A genetic algorithm approach for location-inventory-routing
problem with perishable products. J Manuf Syst 42:93–103
77. Holland JH (1975) Adaptation in natural and artificial systems. The U. of Michigan Press
78. Hong W-C, Dong Y, Chen L-Y, Wei S-Y (2011) SVR with hybrid chaotic genetic algorithms for tourism
demand forecasting. Appl Soft Comput 11(2):1881–1890
79. Hong T-P, Lee Y-C, Min-Thai W (2014) An effective parallel approach for genetic-fuzzy data mining.
Exp Syst Applic 41(2):655–662
80. Horn J, Nafpliotis N, Goldberg DE. (1994) A niched Pareto genetic algorithm for multiobjective
optimization. Proceedings of the First IEEE Conference on Evolutionary Computation, IEEE World
Congress on Computational Intelligence, vol. 1, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Service Center, p. 67–72.
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8121

81. Hu C, Wang X, Mandal MK, Meng M, Li D (2003) Efficient face and gesture recognition techniques for
robot control. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB,
T6G 2V4, Canada. CCECE2003 - CCGEI 2003, Montreal, May/mai 2003 IEEE, pp 1757-1762.
82. Peng Huo, Simon C. K. Shiu, Haibo Wang, Ben Niu (2009) Application and Comparison of Particle
Swarm Optimization and Genetic Algorithm in Strategy Defense Game. Fifth International Conference on
Natural Computation, pp 387–392.
83. Hussain A, Muhammad YS, Nauman Sajid M, Hussain I, Mohamd Shoukry A, Gani S (2017) Genetic
algorithm for traveling salesman problem with modified cycle crossover operator. Computational intelli-
gence and neuroscience 2017:1–7
84. Ishibuchi H, Murata T (1998) A multi-objective genetic local search algorithm and its application to
flowshop scheduling. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part C Appl Rev 28(3):392–403
85. Jafari A, Khalili T, Babaei E, Bidram A (2020) Hybrid optimization technique using exchange market and
GA. IEEE Access 8:2417–2427
86. Jaszkiewicz A (February 2002) Genetic local search for multi-objective combinatorial optimization. Eur J
Oper Res 137(1):50–71
87. Javidi M, Hosseinpourfard R (2015) Chaos genetic algorithm instead genetic algorithm. Int J Inf Tech
12(2):163–168
88. Jebari K (2013) Selection methods for genetic algorithms. Abdelmalek Essaâdi University. International
Journal of Emerging Sciences 3(4):333–344
89. Jiang S, Chin K-S, Wang L, Qu G, Tsui KL (2017) Modified genetic algorithm-based feature selection
combined with pre-trained deep neural network for demand forecasting in outpatient department. Expert
Syst Appl 82:216–230
90. Jiang M, Fan X, Pei Z, Zhang Z (2018) Research on text feature clustering based on improved parallel
genetic algorithm. Tenth International Conference on Advanced Computational Intelligence (ICACI),
Xiamen, pp. 235–238
91. Kaluri R, Reddy P (2016) Sign gesture recognition using modified region growing algorithm and adaptive
genetic fuzzy classifier. International Journal of Intelligent Engineering and Systems 9(4):225–233
92. Kandavanam G, Botvich D, Balasubramaniam S, Jennings B (2010) A hybrid genetic algorithm/variable
neighborhood search approach to maximizing residual bandwidth of links for route planning. Artificial
evolution. Springer, In, pp 49–60
93. Kannan S (2020) Intelligent object recognition in underwater images using evolutionary-based Gaussian
mixture model and shape matching. SIViP 14:877–885
94. Karabudak D, Hung C-C, Bing B (2004) A call admission control scheme using genetic algorithms. In:
Proceedings of the 2004ACM symposium on applied computing. ACM, pp 1151–1158
95. Katz P, Aron M, Alfalou A (2001) A face-tracking system to detect falls in the elderly; SPIE newsroom.
SPIE, Bellingham, WA, USA, p 201
96. Kaur M, Kumar V (2018) Beta chaotic map based image encryption using genetic algorithm. Int J
Bifurcation Chaos 28(11):1850132
97. Kaur M, Kumar V (2018) Parallel non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II-based image encryption
technique. The Imaging Science Journal. 66(8):453–462
98. Kaur M, Kumar V (2018) Fourier–Mellin moment-based intertwining map for image encryption. Modern
Physics Letters B 32(9):1850115
99. Kaur G, Bhardwaj N, Singh PK (2018) An analytic review on image enhancement techniques based on
soft computing approach. Sensors and Image Processing, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
651:255–266
100. Kavitha AR, Chellamuthu C (2016) Brain tumour segmentation from MRI image using genetic algorithm
with fuzzy initialisation and seeded modified region growing (GFSMRG) method. The Imaging Science
Journal 64(5):285–297
101. Kennedy J, Eberhart RC (1995) Particle swarm optimization. In: Proceedings of IEEE international
conference on neural networks (1995), pp 1942–1948
102. Khan, A., ur Rehman, Z., Jaffar, M.A., Ullah, J., Din, A., Ali, A., Ullah, N. (2019) Color image
segmentation using genetic algorithm with aggregation-based clustering validity index (CVI). SIViP
13(5), 833–841
103. Kia R, Khaksar-Haghani F, Javadian N, Tavakkoli-Moghaddam R (2014) Solving a multi-floor layout
design model of a dynamic cellular manufacturing system by an efficient genetic algorithm. J Manuf Syst
33(1):218–232
104. Kim EY, Jung K (2006) Genetic algorithms for video segmentation. Pattern Recogn 38(1):59–73
105. Kim EY, Park SH (2006) Automatic video segmentation using genetic algorithms. Pattern Recogn Lett
27(11):1252–1265
8122 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

106. Kita H, Ono I, Kobayashi S (1999). The multi-parent unimodal normal distribution crossover for real-
coded genetic algorithms. Proceedings of the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 2, IEEE
(1999), pp. 1588–1595
107. Kobayashi H, Munetomo M, Akama K, Sato Y (2004) Designing a distributed algorithm for bandwidth
allocation with a genetic algorithm. Syst Comput Jpn 35(3):37–45
108. Konak A, Smith AE (1999) A hybrid genetic algorithm approach for backbone design of communication
networks, in the 1999 Congress on Evolutionary Computation. Washington D.C, USA: IEEE, pp. 1817-
1823.
109. Kortil Y, Jridi M, Falou AA, Atri M (2020) Face recognition systems: A survey. Sensors. 20:1–34
110. Krishnan N, Muthukumar S, Ravi S, Shashikala D, Pasupathi P (2013) Image restoration by using
evolutionary technique to Denoise Gaussian and impulse noise. In: Prasath R., Kathirvalavakumar T.
(eds) mining intelligence and knowledge exploration. Lecture notes in computer science, vol 8284.
Springer, Cham.
111. Kumar A (2013) Encoding schemes in genetic algorithm. Int J Adv Res IT Eng 2(3):1–7
112. Kumar V, Kumar D (2017) An astrophysics-inspired grey wolf algorithm for numerical optimization and
its application to engineering design problems. Adv Eng Softw 112:231–254
113. Kumar V, Chhabra JK, Kumar D (2014) Parameter adaptive harmony search algorithm for unimodal and
multimodal optimization problems. J Comput Sci 5(2):144–155
114. Kumar C, Singh AK, Kumar P (2017) A recent survey on image watermarking techniques and its
application in e-governance. MultiMed Tools Appl.
115. Kurdi M (2016) An effective new island model genetic algorithm for job shop scheduling problem.
Comput Oper Res 67(2016):132–142
116. Larranaga P, Kuijpers CMH, Murga RH, Yurramendi Y (July 1996) Learning Bayesian network structures
by searching for the best ordering with genetic algorithms. in IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and
Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans 26(4):487–493
117. Larranaga P, Kuijpers C, Murga R, Inza I, Dizdarevic S (1999) Genetic algorithms for the travelling
salesman problem: a review of representations and operators. Artificial Intelligence Review 13:129–170
118. Chang-Yong Lee (2003) Entropy-Boltzmann selection in the genetic algorithms. IEEE Transactions on
Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B (Cybernetics), vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 138–149, Feb. 2003.
119. Lee CKH (2018) A review of applications of genetic algorithms in operations management. Eng Appl
Artif Intell 76:1–12
120. Lee Y, Hara T, Fujita H, Itoh S, Ishigaki T (July 2001) Automated detection of pulmonary nodules in
helical CT images based on an improved template-matching technique. in IEEE Transactions on Medical
Imaging 20(7):595–604
121. Joon-Yong Lee, Min-Soeng Kim, Cheol-Taek Kim and Ju-Jang Lee (2007) Study on encoding schemes in
compact genetic algorithm for the continuous numerical problems,SICE Annual Conference 2007,
Takamatsu, pp. 2694–2699.
122. Leng LT (1999) Guided genetic algorithm. University of Essex, Doctoral Dissertation
123. Li B, Li J, Tang K, Yao X (2015) Many-objective evolutionary algorithms: A survey. ACM Computing
surveys
124. Lie Tang L (2000) Tian and Brian L steward, "color image segmentation with genetic algorithm for in-field
weed sensing". Transactions of the ASAE 43(4):1019–1027
125. Lima S.J.A., de Araújo S.A. (2018) A new binary encoding scheme in genetic algorithm for solving the
capacitated vehicle routing problem. In: Korošec P., Melab N., Talbi EG. (eds) Bioinspired Optimization
Methods and Their Applications. BIOMA 2018. Lecture notes in computer science, vol 10835. Springer,
Cham
126. Liu D (2019) Mathematical modeling analysis of genetic algorithms under schema theorem. Journal of
Computational Methods in Sciences and Engineering 19:S131–S137
127. Liu Z, Meng Q, Wang S (2013) Speed-based toll design for cordon-based congestion pricing scheme.
Transport Res Part C: Emerg Technol 31(2013):83–98
128. Lorenzo B, Glisic S (2013) Optimal routing and traffic scheduling for multihop cellular networks using
genetic algorithm. IEEE Trans Mob Comput 12(11):2274–2288
129. Lucasius CB, Kateman G (1989) Applications of genetic algorithms in chemometrics. In: Proceedings of
the 3rd international conference on genetic algorithms. Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, USA, pp 170–
176
130. Luo B, Jinhua Zheng, Jiongliang Xie, Jun Wu. Dynamic crowding distance – a new diversity maintenance
strategy for MOEAs. ICNC ‘08, Fourth Int. Conf. on Natural Comp., vol. 1 (2008), pp. 580–585
131. Maghawry A, Kholief M, Omar Y, Hodhod R (2020) An approach for evolving transformation sequences
using hybrid genetic algorithms. Int J Intell Syst 13(1):223–233
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8123

132. Manzoni L, Mariot L, Tuba E (2020) Balanced crossover operators in genetic algorithms. Swarm and
Evolutionary Computation 54:100646
133. Mazinani M, Abedzadeh M, Mohebali N (2013) Dynamic facility layout problem based on flexible bay
structure and solving by genetic algorithm. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 65(5–8):929–943
134. Mehboob U, Qadir J, Ali S, Vasilakos A (2016) Genetic algorithms in wireless networking: techniques,
applications, and issues. Soft Comput 20:2467–2501
135. Michalewicz Z (1992) Genetic algorithms + data structures = evolution programs. Springer-Verlag, New
York
136. Michalewicz Z, Schoenauer M (1996) Evolutionary algorithms for constrained parameter optimization
problems. Evol Comput 4(1):1–32
137. Mishra R, Das KN (2017). A novel hybrid genetic algorithm for unconstrained and constrained function
optimization. In bio-inspired computing for information retrieval applications (pp. 230-268). IGI global
138. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009) Preferred reporting items for
systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med 6(7):e1000097
139. Mooi S, Lim S, Sultan M, Bakar A, Sulaiman M, Mustapha A, Leong KY (2017) Crossover and mutation
operators of genetic algorithms. International Journal of Machine Learning and Computing 7:9–12
140. Mudaliar DN, Modi NK (2013) Unraveling travelling salesman problem by genetic algorithm using m-
crossover operator. International Conference on Signal Processing, Image Processing & Pattern
Recognition, Coimbatore, pp 127–130
141. T. Murata and M. Gen (2000) Cellular genetic algorithm for multi-objective optimization, in Proceedings
of the Fourth Asian Fuzzy System Symposium, pp. 538–542
142. Neto JC, Meyer GE, Jones DD (2006) Individual leaf extractions from young canopy images using
gustafsonkessel clustering and a genetic algorithm. Comput Electron Agric 51(1):66–85
143. NKFC, Viswanatha SDK (2009) Routing algorithm using mobile agents and genetic algorithm. Int J
Comput Electr Eng, vol 1, no 3
144. Ono I, Kobayashi S (1997) A real-coded genetic algorithm for functional optimization using unimodal
normal distribution crossover. In: Back T (ed) Proceedings of the 7th international conference on genetic
algorithms, ICGA-7. Morgan Kaufmann, East Lansing, MI, USA, pp 246–253
145. Pachepsky Y, Acock B (1998) Stochastic imaging of soil parameters to assess variability and uncertainty
of crop yield estimates. Geoderma 85(2):213–229
146. Paiva JPD, Toledo CFM, Pedrini H (2016) An approach based on hybrid genetic algorithm applied to
image denoising problem. Appl Soft Comput 46:778–791
147. Palencia AER, Delgadillo GEM (2012) A computer application for a bus body assembly line using genetic
algorithms. Int J Prod Econ 140(1):431–438
148. Palomo-Romero JM, Salas-Morera L, García-Hernández L (2017) An island model genetic algorithm for
unequal area facility layout problems. Expert Syst Appl 68:151–162
149. Pandian S, Modrák V (December 2009) "possibilities, obstacles and challenges of genetic algorithm in
manufacturing cell formation," advanced logistic systems, University of Miskolc. Department of Material
Handling and Logistics 3(1):63–70
150. Park Y-B, Yoo J-S, Park H-S (2016) A genetic algorithm for the vendor-managed inventory routing
problem with lost sales. Expert Syst Appl 53:149–159
151. Patel R, Raghuwanshi MM, Malik LG (2012) Decomposition based multi-objective genetic algorithm
(DMOGA) with opposition based learning
152. Pattanaik JK, Basu M, Dash DP (2018) Improved real coded genetic algorithm for dynamic economic
dispatch. Journal of electrical systems and information technology. Vol. 5(3):349–362
153. Payne AW, Glen RC (1993) Molecular recognition using a binary genetic system. J Mol Graph 11(2):74–
91
154. Peerlinck A, Sheppard J, Pastorino J, Maxwell B (2019) Optimal Design of Experiments for precision
agriculture using a genetic algorithm. IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation.
155. Pelikan M, Goldberg DE, Cantu-Paz E (2000) Bayesian optimization algorithm, population sizing, and
time to convergence, Illinois Genetic Algorithms Laboratory, University of Illinois, Tech. Rep
156. Pilat ML, White T (2002) Using genetic algorithms to optimize ACS-TSP, in the Third International
Workshop on Ant Algorithms, vol. Lecture Notes In Computer Science 2463. Berlin, Germany: Springer-
Verlag, pp. 282–287.
157. Pinagapany S, Kulkarni A (2008) Solving channel allocation problem in cellular radio networks using
genetic algorithm. In: Communication Systems software and middleware and workshops,
2008.COMSWARE 2008. 3rd International Conference on. IEEE, pp239–244
158. Pinel F, Dorronsoro B, Bouvry P (2013) Solving very large instances of the scheduling of independent
tasks problem on the GPU. J Parallel Distrib. Comput 73(1):101–110
8124 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

159. Pinto G, Ainbinder I, Rabinowitz G (2009) A genetic algorithm-based approach for solving the resource-
sharing and scheduling problem. Comput Ind Eng 57(3):1131–1143
160. Piszcz A, Soule T (2006) Genetic programming: optimal population sizes for varying complexity
problems, in Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference, pp. 953–954.
161. Porta J, Parapar R, Doallo F, Rivera F, Santé I, Crecente R (2013) High performance genetic algorithm for
land use planning. Comput Environ Urb Syst 37(2013):45–58
162. Rafsanjani MK, Riyahi M (2020) A new hybrid genetic algorithm for job shop scheduling problem.
International Journal of Advanced Intelligence Paradigms 16(2):157–171
163. Rathi R, Acharjya DP (2018) A framework for prediction using rough set and real coded genetic algorithm.
Arab J Sci Eng 43(8):4215–4227
164. Rathi R, Acharjya DP (2018) A rule based classification for vegetable production using rough set and
genetic algorithm. International Journal of Fuzzy System Applications (IJFSA) 7(1):74–100
165. Rathi R, Acharjya DP (2020) A comparative study of genetic algorithm and neural network computing
techniques over feature selection, In advances in distributed computing and machine learning (pp. 491–
500). Springer, Singapore
166. Ray SS, Bandyopadhyay S, Pal SK (2004) New operators of genetic algorithms for traveling salesman
problem," Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Pattern Recognition, 2004. ICPR 2004.,
Cambridge pp 497-500
167. Richter JN, Peak D (2002) Fuzzy evolutionary cellular automata, in international conference on artificial
neural networks in engineering, vol 12. USA, Saint Louis pp. 185-191
168. Riedl A (2002) A hybrid genetic algorithm for routing optimization in ip networks utilizing bandwidth and
delay metrics. In: IP operations and management, 2002 IEEE Workshop on. IEEE, pp 166–170
169. Ripon KSN, Siddique N, Torresen J (2011) Improved precedence preservation crossover for multi-
objective job shop scheduling problem. Evolving Systems 2:119–129
170. Roberge V, Tarbouchi M, Okou F (2014) Strategies to accelerate harmonic minimization in multilevel
inverters using a parallel genetic algorithm on graphical processing unit. IEEE Trans Power Electron
29(10):5087–5090
171. Ronald S (1997) Robust encoding in genetic algorithms: a survey of encoding issues. IEEE international
conference on evolutionary computation, pp. 43-48
172. Roy A, Banerjee N, Das SK (2002) An efficient multi-objective qos-routing algorithm for wireless
multicasting. In:Vehicular technology conference, 2002. VTC Spring 2002. IEEE 55th, vol 3., pp 1160–
1164
173. Sadrzadeh A (2012) A genetic algorithm with the heuristic procedure to solve the multi-line layout
problem. Comput Ind Eng 62(4):1055–1064
174. Sahingoz OK (2014) Generation of Bezier curve-based flyable trajectories for multi-UAV systems with
parallel genetic algorithm. J Intell Robot Syst 74(1):499–511
175. Saini N (2017) Review of selection methods in genetic algorithms. International Journal of Engineering
and Computer Science 6(12):22261–22263
176. Sari M, Can T (2018) Prediction of pathological subjects using genetic algorithms. Computational and
Mathematical Methods in Medicine 2018:1–9
177. Scully T, Brown KN (2009) Wireless LAN load balancing with genetic algorithms. Knowl Based Syst
22(7):529–534
178. Sermpinis G, Stasinakis C, Theofilatos K, Karathanasopoulos A (2015) Modeling, forecasting and trading
the EUR exchange rates with hybrid rolling genetic algorithms–support vector regression forecast com-
binations. European J. Oper. Res. 247(3):831–846
179. Shabankareh SG, Shabankareh SG (2019) Improvement of edge-tracking methods using genetic algorithm
and neural network, 2019 5th Iranian conference on signal processing and intelligent systems (ICSPIS).
Shahrood, Iran, pp 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSPIS48872.2019.9066026
180. Sharma S, Gupta K (2011) Solving the traveling salesman problem through genetic algorithm with new
variation order crossover. International Conference on Emerging Trends in Networks and Computer
Communications (ETNCC), Udaipur, pp. 274–276
181. Sharma N, Kaushik I, Rathi, R, Kumar S (2020) Evaluation of accidental death records using hybrid
genetic algorithm. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3563084 or https://doi.org/10.2139
/ssrn.3563084
182. Shayeghi A, Gotz D, Davis JBA, Schafer R, Johnston RL (2015) Pool-BCGA: A parallelised generation-
free genetic algorithm for the ab initio global optimisation of nano alloy clusters. Phys Chem Chem Phys
17(3):2104–2112
183. Guoyong Shi, H. Iima and N. Sannomiya (1996) A new encoding scheme for solving job shop problems
by genetic algorithm, Proceedings of 35th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Kobe, Japan, 1996,
pp. 4395–4400 vol.4.
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126 8125

184. Shi J, Liu Z, Tang L, Xiong J (2017) Multi-objective optimization for a closed-loop network design
problem using an improved genetic algorithm. Appl Math Model 45:14–30
185. Shukla AK, Singh P, Vardhan M (2019) A new hybrid feature subset selection framework based on binary
genetic algorithm and information theory. International Journal of Computational Intelligence and
Applications 18(3):1950020(1–10)
186. Singh A, Deep K (2015) Real coded genetic algorithm operators embedded in gravitational search
algorithm for continuous optimization. Int J Intell Syst Appl 7(12):1
187. Sivanandam SN, Deepa SN (2008) Introduction to genetic algorithm, 1st edn. Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg
188. Soleimani H, Kannan G (2015) A hybrid particle swarm optimization and genetic algorithm for closed-
loop supply chain network design in large-scale networks. Appl Math Model 39(14):3990–4012
189. Soleimani H, Govindan K, Saghafi H, Jafari H (2017) Fuzzy multi-objective sustainable and green closed-
loop supply chain network design. Comput Ind Eng 109:191–203
190. Soon GK, Guan TT, On CK, Alfred R, Anthony P (2013) "A comparison on the performance of crossover
techniques in video game," 2013 IEEE international conference on control system. Computing and
Engineering, Mindeb, pp 493–498
191. Srinivas N, Deb K (1995) Multi-objective function optimization using non-dominated sorting genetic
algorithms. Evol Comput 2(3):221–248
192. Subbaraj P, Rengaraj R, Salivahanan S (2011) Enhancement of self-adaptive real-coded genetic algorithm
using Taguchi method for economic dispatch problem. Appl Soft Comput 11(1):83–92
193. Tahir M, Tubaishat A, Al-Obeidat F, et al. (2020) A novel binary chaotic genetic algorithm for feature
selection and its utility in affective computing and healthcare. Neural Comput & Appl
194. Tam V, Cheng K-Y, Lui K-S (2006) Using micro-genetic algorithms to improve localization in wireless
sensor networks. J Commun 1(4):1–10
195. Tan KC, Li Y, Murray-Smith DJ, Sharman KC (1995) System identification and linearisation using
genetic algorithms with simulated annealing, in First IEE/IEEE Int. Conf. on GA in Eng. Syst.: Innovations
and Appl. Sheffield, UK, pp. 164–169.
196. Tang PH, Tseng MH (2013) Adaptive directed mutation for real-coded genetic algorithms. Appl Soft
Comput 13(1):600–614
197. Tiong SK, Yap DFW, Koh SP (2012) A comparative analysis of various chaotic genetic algorithms for
multimodal function optimization. Trends in Applied Sciences Research 7:785–791
198. Toutouh J, Alba E (2017) Parallel multi-objective metaheuristics for smart communications in vehicular
networks. Soft Comput 21(8):1949–1961
199. Umbarkar A, Sheth P (2015) Crossover operators in genetic algorithms: a review. Journal on Soft
Computing 6(1)
200. Verma D, Vishwakarma VP, Dalal S (2020) A hybrid self-constrained genetic algorithm (HSGA) for
digital image Denoising based on PSNR improvement. Advances in Bioinformatics, Multimedia, and
Electronics Circuits and Signals, In, pp 135–153
201. Vitayasak S, Pongcharoen P, Hicks C (2016) A tool for solving stochastic dynamic facility layout
problems with stochastic demand using either a genetic algorithm or modified backtracking search
algorithm. Int J Prod Econ
202. Junru Wang and Lan Huang (2014) Evolving gomoku Solver by Genetic Algorithm. IEEE Workshop on
Advanced Research and Technology in Industry Applications (WARTIA) pp 1064–1067.
203. Wang L, Kan MS, Shahriar Md R, Tan ACC (2014) Different approaches of applying single-objective
binary genetic algorithm on the wind farm design. In World Congress on Engineering Asset Management.
204. Wang N, Li Q, Abd El-Latif AA, Zhang T, Niu X (2014) Toward accurate localization and high
recognition performance for noisy iris images. Multimed Tools Appl 71(3):1411–1430
205. Wang JQ, Ersoy OK, He MY et al (2016) Multi-offspring genetic algorithm and its application to the
traveling salesman problem. Appl Soft Comput 43:415–423
206. Wang FL, Fu XM, Zhu HX et al (2016) Multi-child genetic algorithm based on two-point crossover. J
Northeast Agric Univ 47(3):72–79
207. Wang JQ, Cheng ZW, Ersoy OK et al (2018) Improvement analysis and application of real-coded genetic
algorithm for solving constrained optimization problems. Math Probl Eng 2018:1–16
208. Wang J, Zhang M, Ersoy OK, Sun K, Bi Y (2019) An improved real-coded genetic algorithm using the
Heuristical Normal distribution and direction-based crossover. Computational Intelligence and
Neuroscience 2019:1–17
209. Wen Z, Yang R, Garraghan P, Lin T, Xu J, Rovatsos M (2017) Fog orchestration for internet of things
services. IEEE Internet Comput 21(2) (Mar. 2017):16–24
210. Wright AH (1991) Genetic algorithms for real parameter optimization. In Foundations of genetic algo-
rithms I,G. J. E. Rawlins, Ed., Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA,USA
8126 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:8091–8126

211. Wu X, Chu C-H, Wang Y, Yan W (2007) A genetic algorithm for cellular manufacturing design and
layout. European J Oper Res 181(1):156–167
212. Yang S, Cheng H, Wang F (2010) Genetic algorithms with immigrants and memory schemes for dynamic
shortest path routing problems in mobile ad hoc networks. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybern Part C Appl Rev
40(1):52–63
213. Yang C, Li H, Rezgui Y, Petri I, Yuce B, Chen B, Jayan B (2014) High throughput computing based
distributed genetic algorithm for building energy consumption optimization. Energy Build 76(2014):92–
101
214. Yu F, Xu X (2014) A short-term load forecasting model of natural gas based on optimized genetic
algorithm and improve BR neural network. Appl Energy 134:102–113
215. Yuce B, Fruggiero F, Packianather MS, Pham DT, Mastrocinque E, Lambiase A, Fera M (2017) Hybrid
genetic bees algorithm applied to single machine scheduling with earliness and tardiness penalties. Comput
Ind Eng 113:842–858
216. Yun S, Lee J, Chung W, Kim E, Kim S (2009) A soft computing approach to localization in wireless
sensor networks. Expert Syst Appl 36(4):7552–7561
217. Zhai R (2020) Solving the optimization of physical distribution routing problem with hybrid genetic
algorithm. J Phys Conf Ser 1550:1–6
218. Zhang Q, Wang J, Jin C, Zeng Q (2008) Localization algorithm for wireless sensor network based on
genetic simulated annealing algorithm. In: 4th IEEE International Conference on Wireless communica-
tions, networking and mobile computing. Pp 1–5
219. Zhang R, Ong SK, Nee AYC (2015) A simulation-based genetic algorithm approach for remanufacturing
process planning and scheduling. Appl Soft Comput 37:521–532
220. Zhang X-Y, Zhang J, Gong Y-J, Zhan Z-H, Chen W-N, Li Y (2016) Kuhn-Munkres parallel genetic
algorithm for the set cover problem and its application to large-scale wireless sensor networks. IEEETrans
Evol Comput 20(5):695–710
221. Zhenhua Y, Guangwen Y, Shanwei L, Qishan Z (2010) A modified immune genetic algorithm for channel
assignment problems in cellular radio networks. In: Intelligent system design and engineering application
(ISDEA), 2010 International Conference on, vol 2. , pp 823–826

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

View publication stats