1 An example of a reaction studied by Boethe and Becker usi a beryllium target is tHe + Be 4C + In x ge (@) Explain the difficulty of detecting neutrons. To detect neutron better, the neutron is slowed down so that it can be absorbed such as in the reaction +B tLi4dHe (b) How does this help in detecting the neutron? 2 jp the experiment done by W. Boethe and H. Backer, the penetrating radiation emited was frst thought to be trrays. However, it was later found that the radiation was rot rays. Explain how the possibility of yrays is eliminated, Mase DePect and Grdng Euerdy. ERR EES It is given that the mass of an atom of 2C is 12u. Calculate the {otal mass of the constituent particles of 12C in terms of u. Explain why it is not exactly 12u. (u= atomic mass unit, 1u = 1.6606 x 10, rest mass of electron, m,= 9.0 x 10 kg, rest mass of proton, m, = 1.6726 x 10" kg, rest mass of neutron, m, = 1.6750 x 10” kp) Solution Total mass of constituent particles 6m, + (12~6)m, + 6m, 6 (1.6726 x 1077 + 1.6750 x 102" + 9.0 x 10 ay 20.091 x10" 1.6606 x 10 2.100 The total mass of the constituent particles is greater than 12u because the protons and netrons are in a lower energy state than when they are separated. HAL if the mass of ZA is 26.981538u. 1,007260u, mass of neutron, m, = 1.008665u, mass of electron, m, = 0.000549u, 1u = 1.66 x 10") Solution ‘The total mass of constituent particles of ZAI = 13m, + 27 — 13)m, + 13m, 13 (m, +m,) + 14m, = 13 ( 1.007260u + 0.000549u) + 14 (1.008665u)| number of decimal =27.222827u places as that of the data Binding energy, E, = (Am)e pA ([(27.222827 ~ 26.981538) (1.66 x 10) (3.0 x 1057 =3.60x 1077 3.60 x 107! Calculate the mass defect to the sameNig Calculate the binding energy of 'SO and then the binding energy per nucleon, (mass of {0 = 15,994915u, mass of 'H atom = 1.007825, mass of neutron = 1.008665) Solu ss defect, Am = Snr, + Sm, + (16 - 8)m, — 8 (m, + m,) + 8m, = My, 8 (mass of 'H atom) + 8m, — My 8 (1.007825) + § (1.008665) ~ 15.994915 0.137005u Binding energy, E=(ame ~_ (0.137005 x 1.66 x 1077)3.0 x 1087 is 10%(1.60x 10) = 127.93 MeV [Iu = 1.66 x 107” kg] Binding energy per nucleon = 127-93 .. ¢.09 MeVinucleon 1 The neutral atomic mass of {Ni is 61.928349u. Find its mass defect, total binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of %Ni (mass of 'H atom, m, = 1.007825u, mass of neutron, m, = 1.008665u, 1u = 931.5 MeV) 2 A copper coin has a mass of 2.8 g. Calculate the energy that would be required to separate all the neutrons and protons in this coin from one another. (The coin is entirely made of §|Cu atoms. 3 Its given that the mass of atom “Fe is 55.934939u. (a) Calculate the total mass of the constituent particles of %Fe atom. Explain the discrepancy between the total mass of the constituent particles and that of the atom. (b)_ Find, in Mev, the binding energy per nucleon of *¢Fe. (mass of one proton = 1.007276u, mass of one neutron = 1.008665u, mass of one electron = 0.0005486u) Radivoctivity in ‘The decay constant of a certain nuclide is 2.5 x 10*s"'. What is the half-life of the nuclide? ‘Solution ie 5x 108s! ah a In2 = = 28 x 1051 Using A= ERE ae 6).A radioisotope tracer was injected into the human body. After 24 hours, the activity of the radioisotope has reduced to 6% of its initial activity. Calculate the half-life of the radioisotope. Solution A= (0.064, From 4 = @ 0.064, = (£)4, 2 = 16.67 1g 16.67 t Ty = 5.91 hours ‘ EXAMPLE 25.6 t ‘The initial activities of two radioactive substances P and Q are both equal to 4, at time f= 0. The half-life of P is 4 days and f that of Q is 6 days. The samples are mixed together. What will the t activity of the mixture be at time ¢ = 2 weeks? t Solution = 2 weeks = 14 days ~ 37» = 27 Total activity = ® y+ (33 3 =a : AMPLE 2 ‘The graph represents the decay of a sample of a radioactive isotope, count ratoThe nuclide of “Bi is a emitter of half-life 5.0 days. If a “Bi source emits a particular number of B-particles per second today, how many seconds will the source take to emit the same number of B-particles 15 days from now? How many days from now will the source take 4 weeks to emit the same number of B-particles that it emits in one second today? rate of decay of Bi 15 days from now, geal Car CD= Let n= number of f-particles emitted today in 1 second n= (2), x 1 second 15 days from now, number of B-particles emitted in 1 seconds = C- 2 (Dogs (BY xt Cay=* number of P-particles emitted in 1 second today = number of B-particles emitted in 4 weeks (Bt = (BY) x 4x7 24 x 60560) avy _1 However, (-S*) = @) we21.21 106.05 106 days 1 A radioactive sample with a mass of 6.0 x 10°? kg emits 6.3 x 10” a-particles per second. What is the decay constant of the sample? (Nucleon number of radioactive sample = 214, Avogadro's number = 6.02 x 10® mol!) 2. The isotope "Ra has a half-life of 1620 years and decays to ?%3Ra. How long does it take for 80% of a sample of *8Ra to decay to "Ra? 3 The activity of a sample of polonium-210 is 152 Bq. The half-life of polonium-210 is 138 days. (a) What is the decay constant of polonium-210? (b) Calculate the number of polonium-210 atoms in the sample. (c) How long does it take for the activity to decrease to 50 Bq? (@) How many atoms of polonium-210 remain in the sample when the activity is 50 Bq? 4 A sample initially contains 1.0 x 10 nuclei of a radioactive isotope of half-life T,,. Estimate the number of nuclei remaining after a time equal to 0.87, Ina nuclear reactor, the isotope *4Na is produced at a constant rate R from the stable isotope aiNa. (2) Write an equation relating SN, the small increase in the number of %4Na atoms in time 4, in terms of 2, the decay constant of #{Na, and R the rate of production of %4Na. (6) Hence, show that the number of {Na atoms present in the reactor will eventually reach a constant value. Uses 6 “Radio rotepes t small volume of a solution containing the radioisotope sodium-24 with an activity of 2100 Bg is injected into a patient's bloodstream. I After 45 hours, 1.0 cm’ of blood was drawn from the patient and { its activity was found to be 0.017 Bg. If the half-life of sodium-24 is 15 hours, estimate the volume of blood in the patient. f Solution Initial activity, 4, = 2100 Bq i After 45 hours = 31,,, activity of the volume of blood, L A= 35 y= g X 2100 t 262.5 Bq Activity of 1.0 cm’ of blood = 0.017 Bq 262.5 = 15 x 10 om ' eae aaa eee Hence, the volume of blood =Checkpoint 25.4 1 The hall-life of carbon-14 is 5600 years. In a sample of living wood of mass 10.0 g, carbon-14 has a count rate of 200 per minute. If a 20 g sample of ancient wood gives a count rate of 80 per minute, determine the age of this sample. Solution Activity of C-14 in 10 g of living wood = 200 mi Therefore, activity of C-14 in 20 g of living wood, Ay Activity of C-14 in 20 g of ancient wood, 4 = 80 min’ Using 1 4=(G) 4 1 80= (5) 400 Bas les gr Estimated age = % Tp 2.32 x 5600 = 12.992 years The activity per unit of atmospheric carbon due to the presence of carbon-14 averaged about 0.245 Bq per gram of carbon before 1900. (a) (b) Find the fraction of carbon atoms that were carbon-14. In analysing an archaeological specimen containing 600 mg of carbon, there are 192 decays in one hour. What is the age of the specimen, assuming that its activity per unit mass of carbon when it died was that average value of the air? (1 year = 3.156 x 10” s, half-life of carbon-14 = 5730 years, relative atomic mass of carbon = 12.011) Measurements indicate that 26.59% of all rubidium atoms currently on the earth are the radioactive "Rb isotope. The half-life of #Rb is 4.75 x 10” years. Assuming that no rubidium atoms have been formed since, what percentage of rubidium atoms were *Rb when our solar system was formed 4.6 x 10" years ago? In a radiotherapy treatment, a patient is exposed to a radioisotope with a hali-life of 5 days and an initial activity of 3.82 x 10° Bq for 5.0 minutes. The same treatment using the same radioisotope is given 8 days later, How long the patient must be exposed to the radiation in order to receive the same dosage? @.PRS ERE A sample consists of a radioactive nuclide P while another consists of radioactive nuclide Q, After an interval of time, it is found that 2 of the atoms of P and 2! of the atoms of @ have decayed. Find half life of P fraction of atom of P remaining = 1 - z _ t fraction of atom of Q remaining = 1 - 3t= 2, Using Wel ® Noe os=($)0 Q 2, (half-life of P) = S(half-life of Q) half lifeof PS half life of Q~ 4 EXAMPLE ‘A coal-fired power station burns 110 megatonnes of coal a year. The coal contains a 0.0003% impurity of uranium-238 of which 5% is discharged into the atmosphere as dust during combustion. Assuming that, on the average, the dust takes one year to fall to arth, calculate the mass of uranium-238 in the air at any one time and the activity of this source. (1 year = 3.15 107 s, 1 megatonne = 1 x 10° kg, decay constant for uranium-238 = 4,88 x 10" s") Solution Mass at any one time = 0,0003% x 5% x 110 x 1 x 10° kg = 1.65 x 10' kg Number of atom of uranium-238, x 6.02 x 108 = 4.88 x 1019(4.17 x 10°) = 2.03 x 10" Bq ©—_— INGCleAr Reach Show that the charge and the number of nucleons are conserved for Th > Pat te+y7 Solution In beta decay, one neutron inside the nucleus of Th undergoes we ip tje Initial charge = 0 Final charge = (+ 1) +1) =0 ‘Therefore the charge is conserved. (*{Th — Pa and 7 have no charge.) In beta decay, the number of neutron decreases by one and the number of proton increases by one. Initial number of nucleons = Final number of nucleons = 234 ‘Therefore, the number of nucleons is conserved. *30X is radioactive and decays by emitting a, B, % B, B particles in succession before reaching a stable nuclide. State the nucleon number and proton number of the stable nuclide. Solution In cach alpha decay, the nucleon number of daughter nuclide decreases by 4 and the proton number decreases by 2. In each beta decay, the nucleon number of daughter nuclide is unchanged and the proton number increases by 1 Final nucleon number = 236 — (4)(2) — (0)(3) = 228 Final proton number = 90 ~ (2)(2) + (1)(3) = 89 Brody ‘Released in a Nuclear Reaction ia ae Caleulate the mass defect and the energy released, Q for each of the reactions below. Comment on each reaction based on your calculations, (@) |H+ ILi- se +$He () {He+4N 4041 (lu= 934 MeV, {H = 1.007825u, JLi = 7.016004u, {He = 4.002603 u, SN = 14.003074u, [0 = 16,999132u, Iu = 1.66 x 10 kg) ®.‘Solution (a) Mass defect, Av = (1.007825u + 7.016004) — (4.002603u + 4.002603) = 0.018623u Q = (Am)? = (0.018623 x 1.66 x 10°°)(3.0 x 108? 2.78 x 10°? J (0.018623)(934) = 17.39 MeV Since Q > 0, the reaction can take place. The final total kinetic energy of two {He particles is 17.39 MeV greater than the initial total kinetic energy of the {Hand 3Li. (b) Mass defect, Am = (4.002603u + 14.003074u) — (16.999132u + 1.007825u) =~ 0.00128u Q=(ame 0.00128 x 1.66 x 107)(3.0 x 108? 191x108 J Alternatively, Q = (0.00128)(934) 1.20 MeV Since Q < 0, the reaction cannot take place. Alternatively, Q Bowloudment will Energetic Particles. A nitrogen nucleus, 4N is bombarded with an c-particle of a certain energy to produce an oxygen nucleus, "JO and a proton. (a) Write an equation to represent the nuclear reaction, (b) What is the minimum energy of the a-particle so that this reaction is possible? (mass of '§N = 2.32530 x 10% kg, mass of "0 =2,82282 x 10 kg, mass of proton =0.16735% 10" kg, mass of o-particle = 0.66466 x 10 kg) (@) YN+$He > "0+1H (b) Am = [(2.32530 + 0.66466) — (2.82282 + 0.16735)] x 106 =-2.10 x 10 kg Since Am < O(ie. Q < 0), the reaction can only occur if the minimum energy of the @-particle is equal to [0 [Q| = lArne*| [2.10 x 10° x (3.0 x 10°] = 189x108 J‘The following equation represents the bombardment of a stationary nucleus of '2C with a proton of energy 2 MeV. tic uNt yn ‘What is the energy released and can the reaction oceur? (GC = 13.003355u, 1H = 1.007825u, IN = 13.005739u, jn = 1.008665u Solution Energy released = {(1.007825 + 13.003355)(934) + 2] MeV. {(13.005739 + 1,008665)(934)] MeV = -1 MeV ‘The reaction cannot occur because total energy before reaction is less than that of after reaction. Cneas 1 Based on the given nuclear reaction, IH4"4N3Y+'B (where is a nuclide) Find the values of Z and A for the nuclide Y. 2 Complete and balance the following nuclear reactions. (a) 7ZRn > §Po + tHe () 23Np > Pu + (b) 7H4+ 3H oH + iH (d) %Na+ $B> 3. ™Ra decays by a-emission to radon, Rn. fa) Write an equation for this decay. (b) Determine the energy released in this decay. eee = 224,02020u, Rn-220 = 220.01139u, Het = 4. a | = 3.0 108, 1u= 1.66 x 10?” kg Sete a sane ee Fee ee ee 4. The table below shows the mass of a few nuclides. : 4.0026u 22.9898u Bal 26.9815u Discuss whether it is possible for 3A to decay spontaneously by a-emission. 5. Calculate the energy released in the reaction 3Be + 4He > AC + fn 012183u, $He = 4.002603u, %C = ‘espoeere] 1.008665, 1u = 934 MeV 6 The following equation describes the bombardment of a nitrogen nucleus with «parti at4N3"O+p {a) Explain the conservation of nucleon number and charge in this nuclear reaction. (b) Calculate the minimum kinetic energy of the aeparticle for the nuclear reaction to be possible, Mass of “4N atom = 23.2530 x 10%” kg, "ZO atom = 28.2282 x 107” kg, axparticle = 6.6442 x 10” kg, proton = 1.6725 x 10” kg, @. The graph shows the variation of binding energy per nucleon Cc. it cups with the nucleon number. When ®U is bombarded by neutrons, of Resim it undergoes fission, Among its fission products are a ®Kr nuck i une Kr nucleus aund Fusion ©, d 2 in Tews Po fu Nucleon Agamst Nucleon Nawbber ‘Nucleon number (@) Write an equation to represent the fission reaction. (b) Explain why energy is released in the fission reaction when the binding energy per nucleon of the products increases. Bincing energy per nucloon (MeV) ° Solution @) BU + yn BKr+ Bas 3 (b) Binding energy per nucleon of 3§U is lower means that the nucleons are in a higher energy state compared to nucleons in Kr and “{Ba, The excess energy of the nucleons is released. Coublled Ftesion Proce In a Nuclear Reactor State three reasons why chain reaction does not oceur in natural uranium, ution 1 Natural uranium only has 0.7% of uranium-235. The remainder being uranium-238 is not fissionable. 2. Extremely fast neutrons do not cause fission. 3 The density of uranium-235 is too low for a chain reaction to ocour. .1 Calculate the energy released in the fission reaction BBY 4 9 MCs + ORD + 20 @5U =235.04392u, ®Rb = 92.92157u, "Cs = 140.91963u, n= 1.00866 u, 1u=1.66 x 10” kg) 2. Inthe nuclear reaction §N +{He -> {0 + 1H, the alpha patticle, oxygen nucleus and proton have kinetic energies of 7.59 MeV, 0.52 MeV and 5.88 MeV respectively. Determine the mass of alpha particle in terms of u. (jH = 1.007825u, {7 = 1.008665u, '3N = 14.003074u, YO = 16.99134u, Tu = 934 MeV) 3. Based on the reaction ZLi + ip > 2 4He + energy, state the net energy released in terms of im, m,, and my. (Mass of lithium = m,, helium = m,, proton = m,) 4. Fission of U-235 nucleus induced by a slow neutron releases 200 MeV of energy. Calculate the percentage of the total mass of U-235 and neutrons that is converted into energy, (Mass of U-235 = 235.04392u, mass of neutron = 1.00867u) 5 When an atom of U-235 undergoes fission in reactor, about 200 MeV of energy is released. Suppose that a reactor using U-235 has an output of 680 MeV and is 18% efficient. (a) How many uranium atoms does it consume in one day? (b) What mass of uranium does it consume each day? 1. The energy of the Sun is produced by the thermonuclear reaction given by A}H > jHe +2 fe IF the mean earth-sun distance is 1.5 x 10" m and the energy of the Sun falling on a unit area of the earth per second is 1.35 kW m2, what is the rate at which hydrogen is changed to helium on the Sun? (Neglect the mass and energy of the two positrons, °e) (Mass of }H = 1.00813u, {He = 4,00386u, 1u = 1.66 x 10” kg) 2. Fusion of deuterium, 2H, forms helium, #He, according the equation 3H 42H $He How much energy is released by the fusion of 1 kg of deuterium? GH = 2.01414, #He = 4.0026u, 1u = 1,66 x 10” kg) 3. Energy is released by the Sun according to the proton-proton cycle. Fusion of four protons produces an a-particle (He) and 26.8 MeV of energy. {a} If the mass of the Sun is 2.0 x 10” kg and it consists solely of protons, estimate the number of protons in the Sun. (mass of a proton = 1.67 x 10” kg) (b) Energy is radiated from the Sun at a rate of 3.9 x 108 kW, Calculate the number of protons undergoing fusion per second. (c)_ Hence estimate the number of years for the Sun to burn out. (1 year = 3 x 10? 5)SE ean eee Osea ee Radioactivity [-— Se Nuclear reaction ___ Mass defect, Am = (total mass of particles before reaction) ~ (total mass of products after reaction) Binding energ) energy required to break up a nucleus completely to its constituents. Me Bindi Binding ener Binding energy per nucle¢ er. creme es °°” = Number of nucleon Rato of radioactive decay, OM = AN [-—— where N = number of nuclei in sample 1. = decay constant of the nuclide 2.=!22 where T;= halflife (time taken for the number of atoms in @ - ™ 2” ample to decrease to half its original value. E Nuclear fission is @ process in which @ large nucleus splits into two "smaller nuclei. Chain reaction is a sustained fission reaction where one or more secondary neutrons initiate further fission reactions. Nuclear fission is a process in which two light nuclei combine to —= form a heavier nucleus. ~~ FOCUS ON EXAM 25 — OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1. If the masses of the proton, neutron, Which of the following is true of the electron and C atom are m,, Ms ™, more stable micleus? and m, respectively, the mass defect Am of the nucleus '2C is given by ‘Higher mass per nucleon Lower ratio of proton to neutron paw A Am=6m,+6m,—m, Lower binding energy per nucleon B Am=6m, + 6m, — 6m, ~ 6m, Higher binding energy per nucleon CB Aor Gra, Onn SI, a D Am=6m, + 6m, + 6m,— 6m, 3. The function of control rod in a nuclear fission reactor is to 2. The nucleus of iron %Fe is more stable A slow down the higher energy than the nucleus of bismuth "Bi. neutrons: i, B_ cool down the reactor.ET MELEE TR Ie C control the rate of reaction by absorbing neutrons from the chain reaction, D accelerate the neutrons produced in the chain reaction. 4 Calculate the energy released in 3He + tHe + JBe +. (lu = 934 MeV, 3He = 3.016029u, $He = 4.002603u, 3Be = 7.016929u) A 1.034MeV C_ 1.793 MeV B 1.591MeV D_ 2.101 MeV 5. The isotope '{C decays into “IN by emitting a P-particle. Which of the following statements is true? A The number of protons does not change. B The number of neutron does not change. C= The nucleons of “N are in the higher energy states than the nucleons of 4C. D_ The binding energy per nucleon of YIN is greater than that of “C. Ken 6 A radioactive element X decays to a radioactive element Y which then decays to an element Z. If initially there is only X, which of the following influences the ratio of the number of nuclides of Y to that of X? A Type of Z B Half-life of Y C The initial total of Y D_ Surrounding pressure rena Era 7 A nuclear reaction which involves carbon-13 and hydrogen is suggested as follows. 8C 41H > EN Which of the following is true of the nuclear reaction? 10 (Mass of }H = 1.007825u, mass of "$C = 13.003355u, mass of “N = 14,003074u) A. The reaction releases energy. B_ The reaction does not happen at all. The reaction does not release energy. D The reaction must involve the liberation of an additional neutral atom. A radioactive nuclide of mass number m, decays by emitting a B-particle and yray to produce a nuclide of mass number m,, Which of the following is true of the relation between m, and m,? Ao m,=m-2 C m,=m, Bo m=m-1 D m=m+2 Eaves A sample consists of 2 g of a radioactive element. The molar mass of the element is 67 g. If the half-life of the element is 78 hours, the activity of the sample after 48 hours is 2.7 x 1016 5 2.9 x 106 s* 44x 10% st 1.0 x 10” s+ “Act pam Siu ‘A nuclide decays by emitting x alpha particles and y beta particles to form an isotope of the original nuclide, What are the values of x and y? uae @. t E F r | F F F tq 12 13 14 A radioactive element X decays to a radioactive element Y which then decays to element Z. If the sample initially contains X only, which of the following influences the ratio of the number of Y to the number of X nuclei after a certain time? A. Surrounding pressure B Initial number of X nuclei C Half-life of element Y D_ Half-life of element Z, CEM When a slow neutron is captured by a stationary "Cd nucleus, a !4Cd nucleus is formed and a ray photon is emitted What is the wavelength of the pray? (Mass of }2 = 1.0087u, mass of "Cd = 112.9044u, mass of 113.9034u) A 2.05 x 107m B 6.63 10"%m C 137% 10-%m D 145x 10m Actual Evan A high energy particle which is emitted when a beryllium foil is bombarded by an alpha particle is a proton. neutron. beta particle. gamma ray photon. paw RMT ‘A Geiger-Muller tube is placed at a certain distance from a source of radioactive. The count rate R is recorded for a long period of time until the count rate from the source is, extremely low as compared to the count rate of the background. Which graph shows the variation of the count rate with time 2 15 16 A c R R ° ao) g B D a a ° Cae : ENTREE Su Nuclide 8P decays into 4Q by emitting two o-particles and one positron. What are the values of A and Z? vow > ‘What is the decay constant of a radioactive clement? A The probability of a nucleus decaying in one second. B The probability of a nucleus decaying in one half-life. C_ The time for the number of nuclei to become + of the initial number of nuclei. D_ The time for the number of nuclei to become half of the initial number of nuclei. NE OT @17. The half-life of polonium-210 is 138 days. If the mass of a sample of polonium-210 is 1 g, what is the number of nuclei that decays in 1 s? (Molar mass of polonium-210 is | 210 g mol) | A 9.25 x 10" | B 1.67 x 10" C 1.98 x 10" D 243 x10" cE 18 What is the binding energy per nucleon | of §Cu nucleus? (GCu = 62.929598u, {H = 1.007825u, ‘r= 1,008665u, lu = 934 MeV) A 618MeV C 8.77 MeV B 7.92MeV D 9.32 MeV Cun STRUCTURED QUESTIONS 1 A radioactive sample contains 15 g of radon-222. It is estimated that this source emits 2.061 x 10" o-particles per second. Calculate the half-life of radon-222. (Avogadro's number = 6.02 x 10% mol") 2 (a) Describe the thermonuclear fusion in the Sun (b) The intensity of radiation of the Sun on the Earth is 1340 W m™*. The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is 1.50 x 10" m. Calculate the radiation energy of the Sun in a year. (1 year = 3.15 x 10" s) Tn a nuclear reactor, a very slow moving neutron is absorbed by a stationary boron atom. The equation for the nuclear reaction is n+ 9B TLi+$He After the reaction, the speed of the helium atom is 9.50 x 10° ms“ and the wo 19 A radioactive sample of a certain nuclide with a molar mass of 1564 g mol" produces an activity of 1.7.x 10° s"!. If the decay constant is 1.8 x 10° s*, what is the mass of the sample? A 32xlg C 21x10%g B 46x108g D 24x10°¢g 20 A radioactive sample contains 3.2 x 10" atoms of a particular nuclide and emits 3600 c-particles per second. Calculate the decay constant of the radioactive nuclide. A 1,056 x 10s B 1125x107 s* C 2163x 10s D 3.048 x 107s Kinetic energy of the neutron is approximately zero. Calculate (a) the kinetic energy of the lithium atom after the reaction, (b) the reaction energy. (m, = 1.0087u, mg = 10.0130u, .0160u, m,, = 4.0026u) 4 The initial number of atoms in a 2.0 g radioactive element is 6.0 x 10. The half-life of the element is 10 hours. (a) Calculate the number of atoms which decay in 24 hours. (b) Determine the mass of the radioactive element left after 24 hours. 5 In acertain nuclear plant, uranium-235 undergoes fission to provide 2000 W of thermal power. If the energy released by the fission is 200 MeV per atom, calculate the mass of uranium-235 that is required per day. (Atomic mass of uranium-235 = 235.04392u)ESSAY QUESTIONS 1 (a) (i) Why does a fusion reaction take place at high temperature? (ii) Calculate the energy released in the following fusion reaction. 2Cu+{H > 4N (Atomic mass of isotope "3Cu = 13.003355Su, Atomic mass of isotope {H = 1.007825u, Atomic mass of isotope 'N = 14.003074u, Iu = 931 MeV) (b) Explain briefly the controlled fission reaction in a nuclear reactor. 2 (a) Define the half-life and decay constant of a radioactive substance. | (b) Naturally occurring radium-226 with atomic number 88 produces the radioactive gas radon-222 by alpha decay. (i) Write an equation for the decay process. (ii) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the decay products in MeV. (Mass of radium = 226.025402u, mass of radon = 222.017570u and mass of helium = 4.002603u, 1u = 931 MeV) (©) Give three reasons why some radioisotopes are useful for medical diagnoses. (@)_A doctor uses 1.49 ug of iodine-131 to treat thyroid disorder. Iodine-131 has half-life of 8.0 days, Calculate | (the number of nuclei initially present, (ii) the initial activity. 3. @ The bombardment of a beryllium nucleus by an o-particle produces a fundamental particle X, as follows: a+ Be > BC +X (Complete the equation above by giving the proton and nucleon mumbers to the o-particle and X. 4 (ii) What are the o-particle and X? 4 Gii) State two important properties which cause X difficult to be detected. | (>) Determine the equivalent energy in MeV of a mass of lu. 4 (a) Derive an expression for decay constant, Ain terms of half-life T1. z (6) Phosphorus-32 has a half-life of 14 days. Itis commonly used by biologist to determine the rate of phosphorus uptake in plants, A fresh sample of 30 g of phosphorus-32 is added into the soil. Determine (i) the decay constant of phosphorus-32, ii) the activity of phosphorus-32 after 45 minutes. (Molar mass of phosphorus-32 is 34.998 g mol", Avogadro's number is 6.02 x 10 mol”) 5 (a) What is meant by nuclear fusion? (b) A fusion reaction is represented by 2H + tH X + in + 18.2 MeV(@®_ Determine nuclide X. | (ii) Calculate the atomic mass of X in u. | (Atomic mass of neutron = 1.008665u, atomic mass of deuterium = 2.014102u, atomic mass of tritium = 3.016049u and lu = 931 MeV) (c)_ In the interior of some stars, fusion takes place as two protons experience a head-on collision with a total initial kinetic energy of 1.2 x 10“ J. (Determine the head-on collision energy for each proton. (i) Show that this fusion could only take place at a very high temperature. (@) The atomic mass of {Mg is 24.985837u and the atomic mass of #$Al is 24.990429u. () What is meant by radioactivity? Gi) Which nucleus will decay to the other nucleus? (ii) What type of decay is involved in (4)(i)? (iv) Calculate the energy, in MeV, released in that decay. 6 (a) (i) What is meant by radioactive decay? (ii) State two laws of conservation in radioactive decay. f (ii) State two characteristics of an alpha particle. (b) A tritium 3H nucleus decays into an isotope of helium 3He by emitting a low energy beta particle, There is a 6.0 ug sample of tritium initially. The half-life of tritium is 12.3 years. (Calculate the number of nuclei which are initially present in the sample. (ii) Determine the final mass of the sample which will remain after 5.0 years. | (The atomic mass of tritium is 3.01605u) f (©) Induced radioactive technetium is often used as tracers in medical diagnoses. It has a half-life of 6.0 hours. Determine the mass of technetium which is required to produce a sample of activity 100 uC. (luC = 3.7 x 10" decays s"!; the mass of one mole of technetium is 99.43 g) }© vuctearpaysics Checkpoint 25.1 1. (@) Neutron has no charge. Hence, it produces very little ionisation when it passes through ‘matter and itis not deflected by electric field and magnetic field (©) The ejected alpha particle, $He is easier to detect because itis charged. 2. The radiation knocked off protons from paraffin, ‘The momentum of 7+rays is very small and its ionisation power is too low to knock protons from paraffin. Checkpoint 25.2 1. Man defect, mm = [28m, + 28m, + (62 -28)mJ— My 28(m,~m,) + 34m, ~ My = 28m, + 34m, — My, = 28(1.007825) + 34(1.008665) = 61.928349 0.585361 u Binding energy = 0.585361 x 931.5 = 545.3 MeV Binding ence per mekon = 853 = 8.795 MeV/nucleon 2. Binding energy = (Ami) = {129m + 29m, + (63 ~ 29) ma) ~My) xe = [29(m, +m, +34m,— My) xe = 29my + 34 m,— My) KE = [29(1.00783) + 34(1.00866) = 62.92960)] x2 = (0.59191)(1.66%10-77)(3.0% 10° ~ 10.60% 10") = 552.696 MeV 2.8 ‘Number copper atoms = 75 x 6.02 10" = 2.68 x 10” 68 x 10? x 552.696 48 x 10% MeV 3. (a) Total mass = 26(m, + m,) + 30m, = 26(1.007276 + 0.005486) + 30(1.008665) = 56.463390u > 55.934939u ‘The protons and neutrons are in a lower energy state than when they are separated. @. Total energy required(b) Binding energy per nucteon = 222 (56.463390 ~ 55.934939)( 1.66% 10-*)(3.0% 10° ey mE CEC Cs meee ALI) 36 81 MeV/nucleon nina (Checkpoint 2519 ieausutternenee = (6.0% 107% 10" 3 © i Number of atoms = (82x10 x10" 600 x 108 j = 1,688 x 10° = 221 days ay Using = aw (@) Number of polonium-210 atoms remaining, 1 at | aN 7 dt 50 | No—Q” = 38x io? j | = 86x10" 2, Percentage of #Ra remaining = 20% ‘ Hence, N=20% 4 From, N=02% ...(1) v=(E)aox109 1 N=5™ ~.Q) = 574x107 Substitute 2) into (1), aN $M =02%, | ‘The numberof {Na atoms that decay in time i 6¢= ~AN6« In time &, the number of #Na i atoms produced = Ri. The increase in the number of Na atoms, i ir - ANS (R- ANSE i Let 6N -> 0 and 6 +0, (R— ANd =dt m2 m2 ts 3. @) A=" = Texaco KGO = 581x108 I AN = [ de where N= number of jiNa : i : ‘atoms present (0) From = ~aN, : ilar an | Z AN = [ah | ai 1 | vee = lln(R = AN) ~ In R] } Pads) *SRixio i = 26x10 9 ing 4=(2)4 where A = final activity, 4, and. x=© Asioo,e%0,N ok a ‘Therefore, the number of ##Na atoms reaches a constant value of 5, Checkpoint 25.4 pe 1. (a) A: ina yn 3.83 x 10 st “Tr G730)G.156%10) 1.209 x 10~ year =4N _aN dt __ 0.245 a> 3R3x10= 6.40 x 10" atoms ‘Number of Catoms in | g Fran of earbo- 14 atoms = $40%10 = 1.28% 10% (b) Activity per gram of carbon in the specimen when it died = 0.245 B8 g = (0.255 5" (3600 sh) = 882g Activity of 600 mg of carbon, Ag = 0.6000 8 x 882 ho! gt 529.2 hot Atttime ¢ later, activity, A = 192 h-* Using Aa Ag 192 = 529.2er!a9x1e elawnite = 9.3628 1.209 10+ r = In 0.3628 1 = 8386 years 2, Let N' = number of PRb at present N= total number of rubidium atoms . (@) *Po (b) HH 3. (a) Ra BRa + {He Divide both sides by N,, Ge) 0.2659 = (loos B= o284 «Percentage of "Rb 4.6 x 10? years ago = 28.4% . Since 5.0 minutes is small compared to the half- of 5 days, the activity of the source can be taken to be constant. Dosage received Hence, 2+ 14) -10=6 © *BPu_ (d) Ne (b) Am = 224.02020 ~ (220.011139 + 4.00260) 0.006210u nergy released = (Aa)e? = (0.00621 x 1.66 x 10-2(3.0 x 10% =9.28x 10 J If HA decays by a-emission, AL 2INa + $He ‘Am = 26.9815 ~ (22,9898 + 4.0026) = -0.0109u<0 Hence, the reaction will not occur. . Am = (9.012183 + 4.002603) — (12.000000 + 1.008665) 0.0061210 Q = 0.006121 x 934 = 5.72 MeV (6) a= He, p= 1H ‘The reaction can be rewritten as {He +4Na> 0 + 4H ‘Total nucleon number before decay ' 'ee i Hence; nucleon number is conserved. Total number of protons before decay Total number of protons after decay = 8 +1 9 Hence, charge is conserved. (©) Minimum kinetic energy of a-particle = (amet (6.6442 + 23.2530) ~ (28.2282 + 1.6725)] x 107 3.0% 10°) =315x10-"J Checkpoint 25.6 1, Am = (235,04392 + 1.00866) ~ (140,91968 + 92.92157 + 2 x 1.00866) 19406 E= (ame (0.19406 > 1.66 x 10°)(3.0 x 10"? 90x 10-73 2. Total mass before reaction = 14.003074u + x where x = mass of alpha particle Total mass after reaction = 16.99134u + 1,007825u 7.991650 Using the principle of conservation of mass-energy, [(14.003074 + x) x 934] + 7.59 = (17.999165 x 934) +052 + 5.88 3.994817 3. (m,, + mp) ~ my Net energy = (Am = [lm + mp) — mye 200 _ Sys 02N4u Percentage of total mass converted into energy 0.2141 = 021 ___ 100% 33504302 + 1008e7 * 0" = 0.0907% 5. (@) Bach fission yields (200 x 109(1.60 x 10-%) = 3.2% 10" J of energy. ‘Since the efficiency is 18%, Energy released per fission = 18% x 3.2 10" = 5.16103 = 680 10°H/s ‘Number of fission per second = Se gry 18x 10" 5" 18 x 10 x (24% 60 x 60) 02% 108 day"* Number of fissions per da ion (b) In 235 g of u-285, there are 6.02 10" atoms, LOLA 235 = 3981.73 8 Checkpoint 25.7 a 1. dm = 4 1.00813 ~ 4.00386 0.02866u_ 0.02866 x 1.60 x 10°” = 4.59 x 10 ke Energy released by 4 hydrogen atoms: (Am)c? 59 x 10 x (3.0 x 10°? 13x 1077 Let £ = energy radiated by the sun por second at a distance r. 2 Then, intensity, = 72 135% 10= SSO B= 382% 10" 54 Rate at which hydrogen atoms are converted into helium atoms = _382x10"Ss © 4131? 4 70 x 10% atoms 5 2, Am= (2.0141 + 2.0141) ~ 4.0026 =0.0256u 0.0256 x 1.66 x 10" 4.2496 x 10 kg, Energy released from the fusion of two deuterium atoms ame = 4.2496 x 10 x (3.0 x 10°? 3.8246 10°" J Number of deuterium atoms in 1 kg of deuterium a ee) ya) = = (BP \6.02.« 10%) = 3.01 x 10" \ a? Total energy released = 30110" 3 g946 310-8 = 5.7560 10" Jaton 2.010" | @) Teno (b) Energy released during the fusion of 4 protons = 268 MeV "Number of protons undergoing fusion per second iS 3.9102 ed (26.8% 109(1.60% 10) = 3.64% 10 2x10" comer12x10" BAX IVIXIOD = 11x 10" years (©) Number of years = Focus on Exam 25 Objective Questions 1. C: Mass of constituent particles of C-12 atom = Gin, + 6m, + 6m, Amn = 61a, + 6m, + 6m, — 6m, 2. De Stable muclei have higher binding eneray per nucleon, ag 4. B: Mass defect, Am = (3.016029 + 4.002603) ~ 7.016929, = 0.001700 Energy released = 0.001703 x 934 1.591 Mev 5. D: Nis the product of decay of {C. Hence, 4N is ‘more stable, i the binding energy per oucleon is higher. 6. B: Rate of decay depends on half-life. 17.8: Arm = (13,003355 + 1.007825) ~ 14.003074 = 81106 x 10% (ame? (8.106 10° « 1.66 « 1073.0 « 1087 > 0 Hence, encrgy is released, 8, C: Nucleon number is unchanged in beta decay: 2 9. DEM aretha Initial activity, Ay = 10x Ps 10, A4P 319 +4He +2 $6 I The ratio ofthe umber of use of 10 that of depen onthe hallves of and Y. ia cged eps yca + y 1250+ Looet= 113503 +E | fe FE = (0.0971.66 x 10) = 16.63% 10°98.0% 109 CLOTHE. 66 10-7YS 0% TOF =137x10" m 13, Bi This reaction led tothe discovery of neutroas. 14. A: R decreases exponentially, but not to zero because of background count. 15, BRP > 30 + 2iHle + fe a 16, Av ANA a ‘Treen ernment sneer eieannsen me 813% 10s! = paso xem) = 167 x10" (29 x 1.007825) + (34 x 1.008665) ~ 62.929598 59190 Binding energy, = 0.5919 x 934 = 552.8 MeV 552.8 Binding energy per nucleon = =" = 8.77 MeV 4x10" 125x108 Structured Questions 5 1, Number of atoms in radon-222= 355% 6.02% 10" = 4.07 x 10 aN ys ~ Gy = 2061 X10" 2.061 x10" 407x I = 5.06% 105s" i tint? LR = 506x105 | = 13698.56 5 = 0.16 days | 2. (@) The very high temperature in the Sun which exceeds 107 K causes hydrogen atoms to travel at high speed. These hydrogen atoms have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the repulsive electrostatic force. Fusion between hydrogen atoms takes place. The energy radiated is equivalent to the mass defect. (b) Let P = power radiated from the Sun at distance r eeerer openness pope |Jenolismibsanslaen } | 4 4 b Pp Essay Questions ant dart 1. @) (@ Nuclei are positively charged. The Padm'l repulsive force between muclei increases Energy radiated in year as the separation decreases. Therefore, Pt ‘the nuclei require high kinetic energy to =4mrlt ‘overcome the repulsion, This is achieved (1.50 x 10"°(1340)(3.15 x 10°) by increasing the temperature to a very 19 10"J high value. (a) Using the principle of conversation of linear (ii) Am = (13.003355 + 1.007825) ~ 14.003074 momentum, 7,7, + Myutye = 0 106 10° () Energy released = (8.106 x 10°)(931) m,) " 55Mev = (4.0026 7 (b) Water is used as a moderator to slow down ={Fargn) 50109 the neatons Contd eds ade of ean 5.420% 10° ms are used to absorb two out of the three Kinetic energy of Li atom | secondary neutrons so that the fission reaction occurs al a constant rate, = Her 0160y 1.66 % 10°(-8.420 x 1057 2 2. (a) Halflife: Time taken for half the number of a ta radioactive atoms in a sample to decay or b) dm=(1 O08 10.0130) — (7.0160 + 4.0026) the time taken for the number of radioactive tlae atoms in a sample to decay to half of its initial Reaction energy, Q = (Ame? ee = Bl x 107 1.66% 10) (3.0.x 10" = 463x104 Decay constant __tate of decay of a radioactive sample ~ frumber of radioactive atoms in thesample Aer 24 hours, N=(3.}No (b) @ Ra 3 °BRn + sHe i )) Am = 226.025402 ~ (222.017570 + 4.002603) ( a0 x1" 0.005229u = 114% 10" ‘Total kinetic energy = 0.005229 x 931 Number of atoms whieh decay in 24 hours S7MeV 6.02 10" = 1.14 x 10" (©) High penetration power of rays: Emission 4.86 x 10°" from a radioisotope in the body can be detected by a detector that is outside the body. (b) Mass of 6.0 x 10" atoms = 2.0 ¢ cl Produce ionisation: Used in radiotherapy to 14x 10" i Mass of 1.14 10" atoms = (E277 }0.0) aca 0388 A radioactive isotope retains its activity Energy produced per day = (2000)(24 x 3600) ‘whatever compound its atoms are attach to: 728 x 10S Used as radioactive tracer. [Number of U-235 atoms required = 178x108 i = BOOKIOy x (60x10) = 54x 10" Mass of U-235 required = number of atom >mass ee of one atom (Sasa namo) 685% 10) = 54x 10 SSO GEO = 68710" Bq = 350% 10 ke 3. @) @ fate 3041"Gi) c-particle = hetium nucleus eee Gi) SAT = 6.0% 10" ¥or neutron is not charged and does not = 206.0% 10) _ a cause ionisation. 731.3819) ~ 290% 10K (b) B= me (@) (i) Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random emission of radiations from unstable nuclei. (i) Al decays to Ma because mass of Al> ‘mass of Mg. i) Positron decay (iv) BAI BMe + Se 1.66 x 1077) aon = sno ~ (a4opsar + BALI In N-in.N, =-A(r—4) 0040430 3 Energy released = (0.004043)(931) Inge =-20-19) =3.76MeV 6. (a) (i) Radioactive decay is the spontaneous random emission of radiations from. unstable mit Gi) Charwed is conserved in radioactive decay. Mass-energy is conserved in a radioactive decay. Gil) ~ Positively charged = Helium nace = High ionising power ~ Low penetrating power — Can be stopped by a piece of paper ~ Can be deflected by magnetic or electric field. (Any two) Ta RaEKeO NED: (©) (i) Number of nucie’ in 6.0 yg of tvitium ae _ (6.0x 10% ut Bs 73% 10° 5 = (C2 10%) = 1.2010 (i) ~ 5.0 i (i) = Tat 0.406574 i ‘Mass of tritium that remains after 5.0 | | years af 30. 3) wiheck = = 67310922 x 6.0210) = (Fiha)60) =4: x(eonnrhcrey .95 x 10°" Bq 5. (a) Nuclear fusion is the process whereby two. ‘small nuclei combine to form a larger nuclei, re “di__ (100.093.7x 10"°)(6.0 x 3600) ©) (@) He aM in (ii) 2.014102 + 3.016049 i 182) =(¥) = m+ +182) wo tian «(Jos = 4.001937 100.013-7%10°%6.0%3400) In 2(6.02 x 10°) —e | | pooper poe