GRADE 8

NCERT PHYSICS

Chapter 1- Force and Pressure- 1 to 4

Chapter 2- Friction- 5 to 8
Chapter 3- Sound- 9 to 12
Chapter 4- Light
Chapter 5- Chemical Effects of Electric Current
Chapter 6- Some natural phenomena
 Chapter 1- Force and Pressure

Force- A push or a pull on an object is called force. SI unit: newton (N)

Examples- Kicking a football, Opening a drawer etc.
Cause of Force- Interaction of an object with another.
Effects of Force

- Change in the state of motion- The state of motion of an object is described

by its speed and the direction of the motion. The state of rest is considered to
be the state of zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion- both are its
states of motion.

- may make an object move from rest or vice- versa

- may change the speed of an object if it is moving
- may change the direction of motion of an object
- may bring about a change in the shape of an object.
- may cause some or all of these effects.

Net Force- Net force is the sum of all the forces acting on an object
- Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another.
Resultant force acts in the direction of the larger force.

- If the two forces act in the opposite direction on an object, the net force
acting on it is the difference between the two forces.
Resultant force acts in the direction of the larger force.

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15 -10= 5 newton

The strength of a force is usually expressed by its magnitude. If direction

or the magnitude of the applied force changes, its effect changes.

Types of Forces

- Contact Force- Two or more objects are in physical contact with each
other. Examples- Muscular Force and Frictional Force

Muscular Force- The force resulting due to the action of muscles is

known as muscular force.
It is the muscular force which help us to pull or push.

Frictional Force- The force responsible for changing the state of motion
of objects is the force of friction.
It is the force of friction between the surface of the ball and the ground
that brings the moving ball to rest.

- Non-Contact Force – Object are not in physical contact with each other.
Examples are Magnetic Force, Electrostatic Force, and Gravitational
Force.

Magnetic Force- A magnetic force is a force that a magnet exerts on

certain materials like iron, steel, nickel and cobalt. Example is a compass.

Electrostatic Force- The force exerted by a charged body on another

charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic force. Example is
the attraction of paper to a charged scale.

Gravitational Force- The gravitational force is a force that attracts any

two objects with mass. Example is an apple dropping from the tree.

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Balanced Force- The net force acting on an object is equal to zero.

5N 5N

Unbalanced Force- The net force acting on an object is not equal to zero.

10 N 5N

Pressure- Perpendicular force acting on a unit area of surface.

Pressure= Force Applied (N)
Area (m^2)
SI Unit- Pascal or N/m^2. Example- Air pressure in car tire support

Force acting on a smaller area applies more pressure than the same force
acting on a large area. (More pressure is exerted over a smaller area)

Pressure Exerted by Liquids

Liquids exert pressure on the surface of a body immersed in it and on the

surface of the container in which they are placed.

Properties of Liquid Pressure

- The pressure exerted by a liquid depends on the height of the liquid and
the density of the liquid. (Increases with depth)
- Pressure exerted by a liquid at the same depth will be same.
- Liquids exert pressure in all directions
The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object is known as upthrust or
buoyant force.
Pressure Exerted by Gases
As the gas molecules collide with the walls, the exert a force perpendicular to
the walls. The sum of all such forces divided by the surface area of the
container wall is called the Gas Pressure.

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Atmospheric Pressure

The envelope of air around Earth is atmosphere.

- The atmospheric pressure (weight of air) (air pressure) is defined as the
weight of the air column over a unit area of Earth’s surface.
- The pressure in our body balances the atmospheric pressure and that is why
we do not feel it.
It is the force exerted by the air above a surface as gravity pulls it to Earth. A

barometer is commonly used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with height

Additional Information

Non-Contact Force
Nuclear Force
- The nuclear force acts between all the particles in the nucleus. i.e.,
between two neutrons, between two protons and between a neutron
and proton
- It is attractive force in all cases
- It is the force that keeps the nucleus intact by overcoming the enormous
repulsive force between positive protons.

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 FRICTION

Friction- Friction is the external force that opposes relative motion between 2
surfaces in contact
- Friction acts on the surface of contact between both bodies.

Relative Motion- When one object move relative to another, it is called relative
motion.

Causes of Friction

1. Surface Irregularities of the two objects in contact.

- All surfaces, into a microscopic level, contains hills and valleys that
interlock when they move or rub on top of each other.
- This unevenness of the surface is called surface irregularities or
roughness.
- Rough surfaces have larger irregularities, while smoother surface have
lesser irregularities.
2. Adhesive Forces between surfaces in contact.
- When two surfaces are in contact, the start to form bonds and begin to
stick to each other. This phenomenon is called Adhesion.
- Adhesion is the attractive force between two different types of objects.
- When we try to move objects that are on top of one another, we are
basically breaking the bonds or overcoming the adhesive force.

3. Plowing Effect.
- When surfaces are soft or can change their shape easily, the get deformed
when they come in contact with another object. Ex- carpets, when a heavy
object is placed on them, it looks like a valley that is caused by the deformation
of the shape
- The effect of the surface sinking into each other is known as the Plowing
Effect.

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Factors Affecting Friction

- Nature of the surface in contact (smoothness or hardness of the surface)

- The extent by which the two forces can be pressed together (more weight-
more friction, less weight- less friction)
- Direction of motion or attempted motion

Spring Balance- Spring balance is a device used for measuring the force acting
on an object. It consists of a coiled spring which gets stretched when a force is
applied to it. Stretching of the spring is measured by a pointer moving on a
graduated scale. This reading on the scale gives the magnitude of the force.

Friction- A necessary evil

Friction has advantages so considered as a friend but also has some

disadvantages, then it is a foe. Depending on the circumstances, friction could
be of help or could be a problem. Therefore, it is a necessary evil

Advantages
- It is due to friction between pen and paper which allows us to write on
paper.
- Frictional force between our feet and the ground allows our movements
like standing, walking and running.
- Frictional force between the surface of the road and tyres of our vehicles
allows the vehicles to move on the road without slipping.
Disadvantages
- Due to friction moving objects tend to stop or slow down as its motion is
opposed.
- Due to friction heat is generated leading to wastage of energy in
machines.
- Friction is responsible for the wear and tear of moving parts of
machinery, soles of shoes, tyres on the road after some time.
Types of Friction

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Static Friction- When a body is at rest, the force of friction acting on it is known
as static friction. This force is always equal and opposite to the applied force on
the object.
The force which is acting, when the body is just at the point of sliding on the
surface is known as limiting friction.
Sliding Friction- The frictional force which opposes the sliding motion between
two surfaces which are in contact. Siding friction is smaller than Static friction.

Rolling Friction- The frictional force which is present between the two surfaces
when one body rolls over the other body. Rolling friction is smaller than sliding
friction.
Static > Sliding > Rolling
Increase Friction
- We can increase friction by pressing the surfaces together very strongly.
For example, when we apply brakes while riding bicycle or car, the brake
pads are pressed against a moving part of the vehicle which leads to
increased friction force.
- Frictions can also be increased by increasing the roughness of the
surfaces which are coming in contact. For example- the treading of shoes
and tyres are done to increase friction which causes its movement to not
slip
Reducing Friction- Substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.
- Frictional force acting between the sliding surfaces of two objects can be
reduced by making the surfaces in contact, smooth by polishing them.
- Sliding friction between the moving parts of vehicles can be reduced by
applying oil, grease, graphite or any other lubricant. Sliding friction is
generally replaced by rolling friction by using rollers, like ball bearings
are between hub and the axles.
- Friction can be reduced by providing wheels, hence used in suitcases.
Bicycle Friction- The rear wheel has forwarded friction and the front wheel has
backward friction.

Why wheels are used to reduce friction?

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 - The wheels allow an object to roll over a surface rather than allowing
them to slide over the surface.
- The contact between the wheel and the surface is less making the
friction less.
Fluid Friction- Air, water and other liquids collectively are called fluids. They
also exert a frictional force on the objects that travel through them. Such a
friction is called fluid friction or drag.

Factors Affecting Fluid Friction

- Shape of the object
- Nature of medium
- Speed with respect to the fluid

Shape of the object - More streamlined= less friction

Nature of medium- More density= more friction
Speed with respect to fluid- More speed= more friction

Additional Information

Kinetic Friction- The friction that comes into play when objects are in motion is
called as kinetic friction.
Sliding and Rolling Friction are part of Kinetic Friction.

Cohesive Forces- The force of cohesion is defined as the force of attraction

between molecules of the same substance. The force of adhesion is defined as
the force of attraction between different substances.

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 Sound
Sound
- A sound is a form of energy that is produced due to vibrating objects.
They travel from one place to another in the form of waves. Hence,
sound is a wave.
- Vibration can be described as back and forth motion of an object.
- Sound produces vibrations. Vibrations produces sounds.
Wave and particle motion of waves
- Mechanical waves are waves that travel through a material medium.
- It is of two types: depending on the direction of motion of particles of
the medium and wave propagation. Transverse Wave and Longitudinal
Wave.
Transverse Wave
- Particle motion is to perpendicular the direction of wave motion.
- This type of wave is a mechanical wave called a transverse wave. Ex-
Light or even Mexican wave in stadium.
Longitudinal Wave
- When the particles of the medium travel parallel to the direction of the
wave motion by means of successive compression (particles are closely
packed) or rarefaction (particles are further apart).
- It is also a mechanical wave. Ex- Slinky.

Properties of Sound
- Sound needs a medium to propagate. The matter or material through
which sound propagates is called a medium. Ex- Solid, Liquid and gas.

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 - Sound cannot travel in a vacuum. The moon does not have an
atmosphere. Hence, you cannot hear on the moon.
How do humans produce sound?
- In humans, sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx, located at the
upper end of the wind pipe.
- Two vocal cords, are stretched across the voice box or larynx in such a
way that it leaves a narrow slit between them through which, air is
forced out by the lungs.
- Muscles attached to vocal cords make them tight or loose.

Hearing- Human Ear

- Outer Ear= pinna: collects sound from the surroundings
- Sound passers through a tube called auditory canal located in the middle
ear.
- Eardrum (tympanic membrane) - vibrates when the sound incidents
- Vibrations are sent to cochlea (inner ear), and from there, it goes to the
brain as signals via the auditory nerve.

Amplitude

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 - The maximum displacement of the wave from its mean position is called
the amplitude of wave. (Height of the wave)
- Unit of amplitude is m
Wavelength
- The distance travelled by the wave during one complete oscillation is
called the wavelength of the wave (distance between wave crests)
- The SI unit of wavelength is meter (m)
Frequency
- The number of oscillations made by the wave in one second is called the
frequency of the wave. F= 1/T
- It is measured in hertz (Hz)
Time Period
- The time taken by the wave to complete one oscillation is called the
amplitude of the wave.
- Unit of Time period is S
Loudness
- Volume or loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude. The force
with which an object is made to vibrate gives the loudness.
- SI unit- decibels. More than 80 decibel is harmful sound
Pitch
- Pitch can be taken as the measure of sound frequency expressed in
terms of Hertz. Higher the frequency, higher the pitch. The frequency
determines shrillness or pitch of a sound.

Audible and Inaudible sounds

 - Audible range= 20hz to 20khz known as the Sonic range
- Below 20hz (inaudible)- infrasonic range
- Above 20hz (inaudible)- ultrasonic range
Noise Pollution- Presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment
is called noise pollution. Unpleasant sounds are called noise
Hazards of Noise Pollution- Headache, Hearing Loss, Hyperextension and
Sleeplessness
Tackling Noise Pollution
- Minimize the use of loudspeakers
- Avoid unnecessary honking
- Restrict the use of firecrackers
- Use soundproofing
- Plant more trees
 Light

Light is a form of energy which enables us to see the things around us.
Reflection of Light- Reflection of Light is the bouncing back of the light from a
surface in the same medium.

Laws of Reflection of light

- Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
- Incident ray, Reflected Ray, and normal, all lie on the same plane.

Regular Reflection- When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a smooth

and plane surface, the reflected rays will also be parallel. This type of reflection
is called regular reflection.

Diffused Reflection- When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a rough

surface, the reflected rays get reflected in different directions.

Mirror- Polished shiny surface that changes the direction of light.

Properties of Image formed by a plane mirror

 - Lateral Inversion- The left side of an object appears as the right side of
the image and vice versa.
- Object Distance- Image distance, shape and size are all same.
Multiple Reflection- When two or more mirrors are placed at some angles to
each other, we get to see multiple images.

Kaleidoscope- It works on the principal of multiple reflection and form

beautiful repeating patterns.

Periscope- It helps us to observe objects that are not in direct line of sight.
Used in Submarine.

Dispersion of Light- The sunlight (white light) is made up of 7 colours.

Dispersion is the spitting of white light into constituent colours.
Human Eye

The transparent front part of the eye is called cornea.

Cornea- It is white. It is tough so that it can protect the interior of our eye from
accidents