THINKING NOTES BY: TAYYIBA QAYUM

STUDENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Thinking:
Thinking is an essential process for humans. It allows us
to solve problems, learn new information, understand
concepts, and process our experiences. Thinking involves
the entire process of learning, remembering, and
organizing mentally to understand the information
better and recall it later.
1. Ross:
“Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental
activity with regard to psychological aspects”.
2. Garrett:
“Thinking is a behavior which is often implicit and hidden and in
which symbols are ordinarily employed”.
3. Gilmer:
“Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or
symbols in place of overt activity”.
4. Mohsin:
“Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behavior”

Nature of thinking
- Thinking as an ongoing mental activity even during
sleep.
- Distinction between thinking and non-thinking
based on awareness.
- Complex nature of thinking involving information
manipulation.
Sources of Information
- Information collection through senses (vision,
hearing, smelling, etc.).
- Information stored in memory from past
experiences and encounters.

Constructive Nature of Thinking:

- Thinking as a process of forming new
representations.
- Transformation of available information to create
new understanding.
- Involvement of mental activities: inferring,
abstracting, reasoning, imagining, judging, problem
solving, creative thinking.
Mental Activities and Behaviors:
- Manifestation of mental activities through
observable behaviors.
- Inference of mental processes from behaviors
exhibited.

Steps in Thinking Process:

1. Judging: Evaluating the available information.
2. Abstracting: Extracting essential features from
information.
3. Inferring: Drawing conclusions based on available
information.
4. Reasoning: Logical and rational thinking process.
5. Imagining: Creating mental images or scenarios.
6. Remembering: Recalling stored information from
memory.
Problem-Solving and Thinking:
- Problem-solving as a key initiator of thinking.
- Sequence of steps in problem-solving thinking
process.
- Example: Finding the shortest route to a new
school.
- Consideration of factors: road condition, traffic
density, safety.

Thinking and Decision-Making:

- Thinking leading to decision-making.
- Deliberation of various factors and aspects.
- Decision as an outcome of information processing.

Thinking Relies on Mental Structures:

- Concepts: Mental representations of categories or
ideas.
- Reasoning: Logical and rational thought processes.
- Interplay between concepts and reasoning in
thinking.

Conclusion:
- Thinking as a multifaceted mental process.
- Information manipulation and transformation
through various mental activities.
- Problem-solving and decision-making as integral
components of thinking.
- Reliance on concepts and reasoning for effective
thinking.

GENERAL TYPES OF THINKING:

 Autistic thinking, directed thinking, aimless thinking,
imageless thinking, reasoning thinking, and unrealistic
thinking — can be understood as variations or
descriptions of cognitive processes.

1. Autistic Thinking:
Autistic thinking refers to a cognitive style characterized
by a focus on internal thoughts and processes rather
than external stimuli. It involves intense concentration
on one's own ideas and mental experiences, often to the
exclusion of external reality. This term is often associated
with psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion's work and is not
directly related to autism spectrum disorders.

Example: A child with autistic thinking might spend

hours lost in their own world, creating intricate stories
and scenarios involving fictional characters, without
much attention to the external environment.

2. Directed Thinking:
Directed thinking is purposeful and goal oriented. It
involves consciously directing one's thoughts and mental
processes toward a specific objective or goal. This type of
thinking is structured and organized, typically following a
logical sequence to reach a desired outcome.
Example: A child with autistic thinking might spend
hours lost in their own world, creating intricate stories
and scenarios involving fictional characters, without
much attention to the external environment.
3. Aimless Thinking:
Aimless thinking, also known as daydreaming or mind-
wandering, involves thoughts that are not directed
towards a specific goal or task. Instead, the mind drifts
among various ideas, memories, and concepts without a
clear purpose. While it might seem unfocused, aimless
thinking can sometimes lead to creative insights.
Example: Sitting in a waiting room with no specific
task or activity, your mind might drift from one
random thought to another without a clear pattern or
purposes

4. Imageless Thinking:
 Imageless thinking refers to thought processes that
occur without the use of mental imagery or visual
representations. Some people think primarily in words
and concepts without forming mental pictures, while
others rely heavily on visual imagery.
Example: When considering a concept like "justice,"
someone who experiences imageless thinking might
focus more on abstract definitions and logical
principles, rather than picturing specific scenarios in
their mind.

5. Reasoning Thinking:
Reasoning thinking involves using logic, evidence, and
critical thinking to make inferences, draw conclusions,
and solve problems. It's a structured and systematic
approach to thinking that relies on sound argumentation
and evidence
Example: When presented with a set of data about
customer preferences, a marketing analyst uses
reasoning thinking to identify patterns and trends,
leading to informed decisions about product
strategies.
6. Unrealistic Thinking:
Unrealistic thinking involves forming ideas, beliefs, or
plans that do not align with reality or have a low
likelihood of being achievable. This type of thinking may
involve wishful thinking, unrealistic expectations, or
idealized scenarios that are not grounded in practicality.
Example: Believing that you can become a world-
famous musician without any training or practice is an
example of unrealistic thinking, as it ignores the hard
work and skill development required.

CONCEPT FORMATION:
Concept formation refers to a higher-order mental process that acts on
information that has been perceived through our sensory organs and
encoded and stored in memory. This process includes organization of
the information into conceptual categories and the use of such
knowledge in reasoning, problem solving, goal selection, and
planning.
Concepts (e.g., faces and objects) are units of mental representation
that assign certain perceptual features to specionc conceptual
categories.
A concept is a mental idea or category formed by grouping together
things that share similar qualities or attributes. It helps us simplify and
understand the world by organizing information into recognizable
patterns.

STEPS INVOLVEDIN CONCEPT FORMATION:

the four main steps involved in the formation of concepts. The steps
are:
1. Observation
2. Generalization
3. Discrimination or Differentiation
4. Abstraction.
Step # 1. Observation:
The first stage in the formation of concepts is the observation of an
event, object or an experience. This can also be called the stage of
becoming aware. This can be either direct or indirect. The child can
Commented [tq1]: The phrase "sequential operation of
directly see a dog and become aware of it. generalization and differentiation in interaction that leads
to the formation of concepts" refers to the step-by-step
On the other hand, he also hears stories about devils and giants from process through which individuals develop concepts by
systematically categorizing and distinguishing objects or
his parents and grandparents; here the awareness is indirect. Thus, all experiences based on shared attributes. Let's break down
of us have some knowledge or awareness of primitive people (or at the meaning of this sentence:

least we believe we have) even though most of us have not seen them. 1. **Sequential Operation:** This refers to a series of steps
or stages that occur in a specific order. In the context of
Generally repeated experiences provide the basis for the development concept formation, it implies that there is a structured
of concepts. process involved in creating concepts.

2. **Generalization:** Generalization involves identifying

Step # 2. Generalization: common features or attributes shared among different
objects, events, or experiences. It's the act of recognizing
Repeated experiences or observations of different objects result in a similarities and abstracting essential characteristics that
tendency to form a general idea. Thus, a child first sees one dog, then define a category.

another dog, then a third and so on and begins to form the general 3. **Differentiation:** Differentiation, on the other hand, is
about recognizing and highlighting the differences or unique
idea of a dog. This is called the process of generalization. The process attributes that set one concept apart from others. It's the
of generalization explains how the child acquires many concepts like process of understanding how categories are distinct from
each other.
the concepts of gender, shape, number, etc.
4. **Interaction:** Interaction suggests that generalization
Step # 3. Discrimination or Differentiation: and differentiation are not separate, isolated processes.
Instead, they work together in a dynamic manner,
Along with generalization and the observation and organization of influencing and shaping each other as individuals form
concepts.
similarities among things and objects, the child also becomes aware of
the differences between them. Thus, all dogs are alike, and all cows are 5. **Formation of Concepts:** The ultimate outcome of this
process is the creation of concepts—mental representations
alike. Dogs run on four legs and cows also do the same. of categories. Concepts allow us to organize information,
make predictions, and communicate effectively.
At the same time dogs and cows are different from each other and big In simpler terms, this sentence is describing how people
dogs are different from small dogs, and bulls are different from cows. mentally group similar things together (generalization) and
simultaneously differentiate them from other groups
It is this type of sequential operation of generalization and (differentiation) in a structured and interactive manner. This
differentiation in interaction that leads to the formation of concepts process leads to the development of concepts, which are
mental categories that help us make sense of the world
around us.
Step # 4. Abstraction:
The process by which the experience is analyzed in the absence of
actual situations is known as abstraction. It is abstraction which
actually transforms comparable and contrasting experiences into
concepts. Commented [tq2]: Absolutely, you've captured the
essence of the process quite well. The sentence "It is
The child has seen dogs and he happen to see a cow on a different abstraction which actually transforms comparable and
contrasting experiences into concepts" highlights the role of
occasion. He does not observe them at the same time but inwardly he abstraction in turning similar and different experiences into
mental categories known as concepts. Here's a breakdown
compares his experiences on the two occasions. of the meaning:

The perceptions and the experiences are now inwardly analyzed and 1. **Abstraction:** Abstraction refers to the act of focusing
on the essential qualities or attributes of objects or
re-experienced in the absence of the objects. This results in an experiences while ignoring irrelevant details. It involves
distilling the key features that define a category or concept.
appreciation of similarities and differences.
2. **Transforms:** Abstraction is the transformative
• The ability to form abstract concepts is related to the intellectual process that takes raw, diverse experiences and refines
them into organized mental representations. It reshapes
ability of an individual and the richness of his experience. these experiences into a structured framework that allows

•
us to make sense of the world.
The greater, the wider and the richer an individual’s experience
3. **Comparable and Contrasting Experiences:**
with different objects and stimuli the better is the process of Comparable experiences are those that share common
formation of concepts. features, while contrasting experiences have distinct
attributes. Abstraction works with both types of
experiences, extracting shared attributes for generalization
and distinguishing unique attributes for differentiation.

4. **Concepts:** Concepts are mental categories that help

Classification of Concepts: us mentally group similar experiences together. These
categories simplify complex information and allow us to
process, understand, and communicate about the world
Concept formation can be categorized into natural and logical types, each more efficiently.
involving different ways of organizing and understanding information.
So, the sentence is emphasizing that the cognitive process
of abstraction is what takes various types of experiences—
Natural Concept Formation: whether they are similar or different—and shapes them into
organized concepts. By identifying the commonalities and
1. Natural Concepts: Natural concepts are formed based on real-world similarities differences in these experiences, abstraction enables us to
mentally categorize and understand the world around us
and shared features among objects or experiences. They don't necessarily follow more effectively.
strict rules or definitions but are built through everyday experiences.
Example: Consider the concept of "dog." People form this natural concept by
encountering various breeds, sizes, and appearances of dogs in their
environment. Despite the diversity, they recognize common attributes like four
legs, fur, barking, and loyalty, which lead them to categorize these diverse
animals as dogs.
Logical Concept Formation:
2. Logical Concepts: Logical concepts are defined by explicit rules or criteria that
determine membership within the category. They are often based on logical
relationships or specific characteristics.
Example: Think about the concept of a "triangle." A triangle is defined as a
polygon with three sides. Anyone can identify whether a given shape is a triangle
by checking if it has three sides. This logical definition allows for clear
differentiation between triangles and other shapes.

• Defining Features: Logical concepts often involve defining features that

must be present for an object to belong to the category.
Example: The concept of "prime number" in mathematics is based on a logical
rule. A prime number is defined as a positive integer greater than 1 that has no
divisors other than 1 and itself. Using this logical definition, you can determine
whether a given number is prime.

• Clear Boundaries: Logical concepts tend to have well-defined boundaries

that specify what is included and excluded from the category.
Example: In the concept of "mammal," a clear defining feature is giving birth to
live offspring and nursing them with milk. This allows for a clear distinction
between mammals and other animals that do not exhibit these characteristics.
Natural concept formation relies on common experiences and shared attributes,
while logical concept formation involves explicit rules and defined features. Both
types of concept formation contribute to how we make sense of the world and
organize information for better understanding.

Problem-Solving
Definition: Problem solving is the process of finding effective solutions to
challenges or difficulties. It involves identifying a problem, gathering information
to understand it better, trying out potential solutions, and evaluating the
outcomes to determine the best course of action.
 Steps:
1. Identification: The first step is recognizing that there is a problem or challenge
that needs to be addressed. This involves understanding what is not working as
expected or what needs improvement.
Example: Imagine your computer suddenly stops working. You've identified the
problem: the computer is not functioning properly.
2.Gathering Information: Once the problem is identified, you need to gather
information to understand its nature, causes, and potential solutions. This step
helps you get a clear picture of what's going on.
Example: To fix your computer, you might research common issues related to its
model, check if any software updates have caused the problem, and examine any
error messages displayed.
3. Try Solutions: Based on the information you've gathered; you brainstorm and
try out various solutions to address the problem. These solutions could be based
on your own ideas or recommendations from others.
Example: To fix the computer issue, you might attempt solutions like restarting
the computer, running a virus scan, or checking for hardware problems.
4. Evaluate the Result: After trying out a solution, you assess whether it worked
and if the problem has been resolved. If the solution worked, you'd successfully
solved the problem. If not, you might need to go back to the previous steps and
try a different approach.
Example: If restarting the computer solves the issue and it starts working
properly again, you've successfully solved the problem. However, if the problem
persists after trying all the solutions, you might need to seek professional help.
In simple terms, problem solving is like finding the right key to unlock a door. You
identify the locked door (problem), gather information about the lock and the
keyhole (gather information), try different keys to see which one fits and unlocks
the door (try solutions), and then see if the door opens or remains locked
(evaluate the result). It's about using your knowledge and creativity to overcome
challenges and make things work better.
Problem-Solving Strategies
There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these
strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ
multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

Algorithms
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain
"rules", produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in
mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can
be used in other fields as well.
In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a
greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests
that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an
elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.
One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer.
However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in
part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.
There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also
known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can
accurately predict human behaviors.
Example: Using a calculator to solve a complex math problem
by following the specific steps for multiplication or division. The
calculator's algorithm ensures an accurate answer.
Heuristics
Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a
problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to
simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible
solutions to a more manageable set.
If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly
consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When
shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience
when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.
While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major
decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach.
Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when
trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally
crowded route.

Example: When deciding which restaurant to eat at, you might use the
heuristic of choosing the one with the longest line outside, assuming it's
popular and has good food. This simplifies your decision-making
process.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number
of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do
not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for
instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.
This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of
solutions available. But if there are many different choices available,
narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving
technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.
Example: Trying different combinations of ingredients while cooking a
new recipe until you achieve the desired taste and texture. You
eliminate the approaches that don't work as you progress.
Insight
In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden
insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when,
out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind, and you know
exactly what to do.
Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue
that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize
what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to
insight often happen outside of conscious awareness.
Example: Suddenly realizing the solution to a crossword puzzle you've
been struggling with after walking away from it for a while. The solution
comes to you without actively thinking about it.