THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

HEAT TRANSFER 1

Heat tranfer occurs when there is a temperature difference between two

bodies. It is a transfer of energy from one body to energy although nothing
flows between them. A knowledge of heat transfer is important to us as
engineers. We know that power can be generated through direct combustion
of fuels or nuclear reactors. Useful work is developed which can be converted
to electrical energy through processes in boilers, turbines, condensers, air
preheaters . In any of these units heat exchange processes do take place. To
be able to design any of the aforementioned equipment a knowledge of heat
transfer is important. The whole world is now beset wt the problem of global
warming which is engendered by the depletion of the ozone layer and the
enveloping phenomenon of greenhouse gases. Any solution to the problem
must take into consieration the question of heat transfer.

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer pocesses can take any of three forms- coduction, covection and
radiation. Hoever it is almost impossible impossible to have a distinct
transfer of a pure mode. Condution heat transfer is the transfer of heat due
to internal energy excange from one part of a body to another part of the
body or from a body to another body that has intimate contact wt the body.
During the process there is no visible displaceemnt of matter. However on
microscopic scale there is a flow of free elections and the agitation at higher
amplitude of ions wtn the body. The flow of heat due to convection requires
material movement which may be induced or occur naturally. When looked
at deeply it is found that heat conduction equally takes place. It is therefore
almost impossible for convection heat transfer analysis to be carried wtout
coupling it wt conduction. The third type of heat transfer is by radiation. In
radiation ht transfer the transfer does not require any materal medium. It is
an electomagnetic phenomenon and travels wt the speed of light. Its
frequency and wavelenght span certain wavelengths.

LAWS OF HEAT CONDUCTION.

It is common knowledge that heat flows from a region of high temperaature
to a region of low temperature, although this process can be reversed if work
is introduced. The governing principle in heat conduction is that heat-transfer
rate per unit area(heat flux) is directly proportional to the temperature
gradient. Mathematically:
𝑸 𝑻
∝
𝑨 𝑿
A proportionality constant is introduced to give
𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨
𝑿
Where 𝒌 is the thermal condutivity of the material. The thermal conductivity
of a material is influenced by many factors among which are chemical
composition, atomic structure, phase changes, grain sizes, temperature,
pressue and deformation. 𝒌 is directly proportional to the absolute
tempeature. For pure metals 𝒌 decreases wt temperatures except when
impurities or alloying materials are present. Mathematically:

𝒌 = 𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝒃𝒕)

The thermal coductivities of nonisotropc materials vary from one direction to

the other. Some display incease in thermal conductivities as teperature rises.
Rockwool, glass wool are used for low temperature applications while
asbestos, magnesia are for high temperature applicatios. The thermal
conductivities for gases is poorer than for liquids but generally increase wt
temperature.

GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES

Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped (Volume element)

of sides 𝒅𝒙, 𝒅𝒚 and 𝒅𝒛 parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in a
medium in which temperature is varying with location and time as shown in
Fig.1.

Let, 𝑻 = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be

assumed uniform over the entire surface, since the area of this
face can be made arbitrarily small, and
 𝒅𝑻
= Temperature changes and rate of change along X-direction.
𝒅𝒙

𝝏𝑻
Then, ( ) 𝒅𝒙 = change of temperature through distance 𝒅𝒙, and
𝝏𝒙

𝝏𝑻
𝑻 + ( ) 𝒅𝒙 = Temperature on the right face EFGH (at a distance
𝝏𝒙
𝒅𝒙 from the left face ABCD).

Further, let, 𝒌𝒙 , 𝒌𝒚 , 𝒌𝒛 = Thermal conductivities (direction characteristics of

the material) along X, Y and Z axes. 𝑸(𝒚+𝒅𝒚)
𝑄𝑧
𝑌 D H

C G
𝑨(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
𝒅𝒚

0 𝑦 𝑋
Elemental 𝑄𝑥
𝑨(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
Volume 𝑸(𝒙+𝒅𝒙)
𝑧 E
𝑥 (rectangular
parallelopiped)
𝑍 𝑸(𝒛+𝒅𝒛)
B F 𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝒙

𝑄𝑦
𝑸𝒈 = 𝒒𝒈 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛

Fig. 1. Elemental volume for 3-dim ht conduction analysis – Cartesian

coordinates.

Let, 𝒒𝒈 =Heat general per unit volume per unit time.

inside the control volume

(Note: 𝒒𝒈 may be function of position or time, or both).

𝝆 = Mass density of material, and

𝒄 = Specific heat of the material.

Energy balance/equation for volume element:

Net ht accumulated in the element due to conduction of ht from all the

coordinate directions considered (A) + heat generated within the element (B)
= Eneregy stored in the element (C).
…(1)

Let, 𝑸 = Rate of heat in a direction, and

𝑸′ = (𝑸. 𝒅𝒕) = Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time
𝒅𝒕).

A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from

all directions considered:

Quantity of ht flowing into the element from the left face ABCD during
the time interval 𝒅𝒕 in X-direction is given by:
𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′𝒙 = −𝒌𝒙 (𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒙
…(i)

During the same time interval 𝒅𝒕 the heat flowing out of the right face of
control volume (EFGH) will be:
𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(𝒙+𝒅𝒙) = 𝑸′𝒙 + (𝑸′𝒙 )𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙
…(ii)

∴ Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,

𝝏
𝒅𝑸′𝒙 = 𝑸′𝒙 − [𝑸′𝒙 + (𝑸′𝒙 )𝒅𝒙] [Subtracting (ii) from
𝝏𝒙
(i)]
𝝏
=− (𝑸′𝒙 )𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
=− [− 𝒌𝒙 (𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒅𝒙
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= [𝒌𝒙 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
…(1)

Similarly the ht accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y

and Z directions in time 𝒅𝒕 will be.
 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
𝒅𝑸′𝒚 = [𝒌𝒚 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
…(2)
𝝏 𝝏𝑻
𝒅𝑸′𝒛 = [𝒌𝒛 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛
…(3)

∴ Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction from all

coordinate directions considered
𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= [𝒌𝒙 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕 + [𝒌𝒚 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕 +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
[𝒌𝒛 ] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕 = [ (𝒌𝒙 ) + (𝒌𝒚 ) +
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
𝝏 𝝏𝑻
(𝒌𝒛 )] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕 …(4)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛

B. Total heat generated within the element (𝑸′𝒈 ):

The total heat generated in the element is given by:

𝑸′𝒈 = 𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. )𝒅𝒕

…(5)

C. Energy stored in the element:

The total heat accumulated in the element due to heat along

coordinate axes (Eqn. 4) and the heat generated within the element (Eqn. 5)
together serve to increase the thermal energy of the element/lattice. This
increase in thermal energy is given by
𝝏𝑻
𝝆(𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. )𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
…(6)

[∴ Heat stored in the body = mass of the body X specific heat of the body
material X rise in the temperature of body].

Now, substituting eqns. (4), (5), (6), in eqn. (1), we have

 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
[ (𝒌𝒙 )+ (𝒌𝒚 )+ (𝒌𝒛 )] 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. )𝒅𝒕 =
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑻
𝝆(𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. )𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕

Dividing both sides by 𝒅𝒙. 𝒅𝒚. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝑻, we have

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
(𝒌𝒙 )+ (𝒌𝒚 )+ (𝒌𝒛 ) + 𝒒𝒈 = 𝝆. 𝒄.
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝒅𝒕
…(7)

or, using the vector operator 𝛁, we get

𝝏𝑻
𝛁. (𝐤𝛁𝐓) + 𝒒𝒈 = 𝝆. 𝒄.
𝒅𝒕
…(7a)

This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-

homogeneous material’, ‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-
dimensional heat flow’. This equation establishes in differential from the
relationship between the time and space variation of temperature at any
point of solid through which heat flow by conduction takes place

GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION FOR CONSTANT THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY:

For a homogenous and isotropic (in which properties are independent

of surface orientation) material, 𝒌𝒙 = 𝒌𝒚 = 𝒌𝒛 = 𝒌 and diffusion equation
Eqn. (7) becomes:
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈 𝝆.𝒄 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ + = . = .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝒌 𝒅𝒕 𝜶 𝒅𝒕
…(8)
𝒌 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲
where, 𝜶= =
𝝆.𝒄 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲

𝒌
The quantity, 𝜶= is known as Thermal diffusivity.
𝝆.𝒄

- The larger the value of 𝜶, the faster will the heat diffuse through
the material and its temperature will change with time. The non-
metalic solids and liquids respond slowly to temperature changes
because of their relatively small value of diffusivity.
 - Thermal diffusivity is an important characteristic quantity for
unsteady conduction situations.

Eqn. (8) by using Laplacian 𝛁 𝟐 , may be written as:

𝒒𝒈 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
𝛁 𝟐𝑻 + = .
𝒌 𝜶 𝒅𝒕
…(8a)

Eqn. (8), governs the temperature distribution under unsteady ht flow thru a
material which is homogenous and isotropic.

Other simplified forms of heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates:

(i) For the case when no internal source of heat generation is present,
Eqn. (8) reduces to
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ = . [Unsteady state ( ≠ 𝟎) heat flow with
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝜶 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
no internal heat generation]
𝟏 𝝏𝑻
or, 𝛁 𝟐𝑻 = . (Fourier’s equation)
𝜶 𝒅𝒕
…(9)

(ii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time,
𝝏𝑻
the conduction then takes place in the steady state (𝒊. 𝒆. , =
𝒅𝒕

𝟎)and the eqn. (8) reduces to

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈
𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌

𝒒𝒈
or, 𝛁 𝟐𝑻 + = 𝟎 (Poisson’s equation)
𝒌
…(10)

In the absence of internal heat generation, Eqn. (10) reduces to

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛𝟐

or, 𝛁 𝟐 𝑻 = 𝟎 (Laplace equation)

…(11)
 (iii) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer:
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈
𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝒌
…(12)

(iv) Steady state, one-dimensional, without internal heat generation

𝝏𝟐 𝑻
=𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐
…(13)

(v) Steady state, two-dimensional, without internal heat generation

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚𝟐
…(14)

(vi) Unsteady state, one-dimensional, without internal heat generation

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
= .
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝜶 𝒅𝒕
…(15)

GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

While dealing with problems of conduction of heat through systems

having cylindrical geometries (e.g., rods and pipes) it is convenient to use
cylindrical coordinates.

Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (𝒓, ∅, 𝒛), for

three-dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig. 2.2.
𝑸(𝒛+𝒅𝒛)
𝑍 𝑑∅
𝑟 𝑟𝑑∅
𝐴 (𝑟, ∅, 𝑧) 𝑸(∅+𝒅∅)
𝑄𝑟 𝑑𝑟
Element
𝐴 (𝒓, ∅, 𝒛)
𝑧 𝑄∅ Volume
𝑌 𝑑𝑧 𝑸(𝒓+𝒅𝒓)
∅ 𝑟
𝑋
𝑄𝑧
 The volume of the element = 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒓. 𝒅𝒛

Let, 𝒒𝒈 = Heat generation (uniform) per unit volume per unit time.

Further, let us assume that 𝒌 (thermal conductivity), 𝝆 (density), ∁

(specific heat) do not alter with position.

A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat all the
coordinate directions considered:

Heat flow in radial direction (𝒙 − ∅) plane:

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′𝒓 = −𝒌(𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓
…(i)
𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(𝒓+𝒅𝒓) = 𝑸′𝒓 + (𝑸𝒓 )𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓
…(ii)

∴ Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in radial direction,

𝒅𝑸′𝒓 = 𝑸′𝒓 − 𝑸′(𝒓+𝒅𝒓) [Subtracting (ii) from

(i)]
𝝏
=− (𝑸′𝒓 )𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
=− [−𝒌(𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) (𝒓. ) 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) (𝒓 + ) 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) [ + ] 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓
…(16)

Heat flow in tangential direction (𝒓 − 𝒛) plane:

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′∅ = −𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒅𝒛) 𝒅𝒕
𝒓.𝝏∅
…(iii)
 𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(∅+𝒅∅) = 𝑸′∅ + (𝑸′∅ )𝒓𝒅∅
𝒓.𝝏∅
…(iv)

Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in tangential

direction,

𝒅𝑸′∅ = 𝑸′∅ − 𝑸′(∅+𝒅∅) [Subtracting (iv) from

(iii)]
𝝏𝑻
=− (𝑸∅ )𝒓. 𝒅∅
𝒓.𝝏∅

𝝏 𝝏
=− [−𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒓. 𝒅∅
𝒓.𝝏∅ 𝒓.𝝏∅

𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) ( . ) 𝒅𝒕
𝝏∅ 𝒓 𝝏∅

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) . . 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅𝟐
…(17)

Heat flow in axial direction (𝒓 − ∅ 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆):

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′𝒛 = −𝒌(𝒓. 𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒓) 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒛
…(v)
𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(𝒛+𝒅𝒛) = 𝑸′𝒛 + (𝑸′𝒛 )𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒛
…(vi)

Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in axial direction,

𝒅𝑸′𝒛 = 𝑸′𝒛 − 𝑸′(𝒛+𝒅𝒛) [Subtracting (vi) from (v)]

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
=− [−𝒌(𝒓. 𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒓) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒅𝒛
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛

𝝏𝟐 𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛) . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒛𝟐
…(18)

Net heat accumulated in the element

 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
= 𝒌. 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛 [ 𝟐
+ . + 𝟐
. 𝟐
+ ] 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛𝟐
…(19)

B. Heat generated within the element (𝑸′𝒈 ):

The total heat generated within the element is given by

𝑸′𝒈 = 𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛). 𝒅𝒕

…(20)

C. Energy stored in the element:

The increase in thermal energy in the element is equal to

𝝏𝑻
= 𝝆(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛). 𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒕
…(21)

Now, (A) + (B) = (C) …Energy

balance/equation
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
∴ 𝒌. 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛 [ 𝟐
+ . + 𝟐
. 𝟐
+ ] 𝒅𝒕 +
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛𝟐
𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛). 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝑻
= 𝝆(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛). 𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒕

Dividing both sides by 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅∅. 𝒅𝒛. 𝒅𝒕, we have

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌[ 𝟐
+ . + 𝟐
. 𝟐
+ ] + 𝒒𝒈 = 𝝆. 𝒄.
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈 𝝆𝒄 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
or, [ 𝟐
+ . + 𝟐
. 𝟐
+ ]+ . = .
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝒌 𝝏𝒕 𝜶 𝝏𝒕
…(22)

Equation (22) is the General heat conduction equation in cylindrical

coordinates.

In case there are no heat sources present and the heat flow is steady and
one-dimensional, then eqn. (22) reduces to
 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
+ . =𝟎
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓
…(23)
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
or, + . =𝟎
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝒅𝒓

𝟏 𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
or, . (𝒓. )=𝟎
𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓

𝟏
Since ≠ 𝟎, therefore,
𝒓

𝒅 𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
(𝒓. ) 𝒐𝒓 𝒓. = constant
𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓
…(24)

Equation (22) can also be derived by transformation of coordinates, as

follows:

𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅, 𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 = 𝒛

Now, by chain rule:

𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
= . + . = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
or, 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅. + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . by Multiplying both sides by
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅).(i
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
Also, = . + . = (−𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅) + (𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅)
𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒙 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒚 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
or, . = −𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ . 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . by Multiplying both sides by
𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
)…(ii)
𝒓

From Eqns. (i) and (ii), we have

𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
. = −𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ + [𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅ ]
𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒙

𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
=− + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒓
 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻
∴ = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ − .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅
…(iii)

Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝒙, we have

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻
( )= [𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . − . ]
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
or, = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . ( )− . ( )
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒙 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒙

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . (𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . − . )− . (𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ . −
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻
. )
𝒓 𝝏∅

𝝏𝑻
[Substituting the value of from (iii)] =
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅.𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝝏𝑻
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅. 𝟐
− . + . + . + . …(iv)
𝝏𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅ 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅ 𝝏𝟐 𝑻

Similarly, = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅. + . − . + . −
𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅ 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝝏𝑻
. .(v)
𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅

By adding (iii) and (iv), we get

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
𝟐
+ = + . + .
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝝏∅𝟐

Substituting it in eqn (8), we get,

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
[ 𝟐
+ . + 𝟐
. 𝟐
+ ]+ = .
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝜶 𝝏𝒕

Which is the same as eqn. (22)

GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES

Consider an elemental volume having the coordinates (𝒓, ∅, 𝜽), for three
dimensional heat conduction analysis, as shown in Fig 3.
𝑄(𝜃+𝑑𝜃)
𝑍
𝑟 sin 𝜃 . 𝑑∅

𝐴 (𝑟, ∅, 𝜃)
𝑄(∅+𝑑∅)
𝑟 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃 𝐴 (𝑟, ∅, 𝜃)
𝜃 𝑄∅
𝑌 Element
volume
 ∅
𝑑𝑟
𝑋
𝑄𝜃
Fig. 3. Element volume for three dimensional heat conduction analysis –
Spherical coordinates.

The volume of the element = 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅∅

Let, = Heat generation (UniformP per unit volume per unit

time. Assuming that 𝒌 , 𝝆 , 𝒄 do not alter with position.

A. Net heat accumulation in the element due to conduction of heat from all
the coordinate directions considered:-

Heat flow through 𝒓 − 𝜽 plane; ∅-direction:

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′∅ = −𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽) 𝒅𝒕
𝒓.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.𝝏∅
…(i)
𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(∅+𝒅∅) = 𝑸′∅ + (𝑸′∅ )𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅
𝒓.𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.𝝏∅
…(ii)

∴ Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the ∅-directin,

𝒅𝑸′∅ = 𝑸′∅ − 𝑸′(∅+𝒅∅) [Subtracting (ii) from (i)]

𝟏 𝝏
=− . (𝑸′∅ )𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅
𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏∅

=
𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
− . [−𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽) . . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅
𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏∅ 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏∅

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅) . 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝝏∅𝟐
…(25)

Heat flow in 𝒓 − ∅ plane, 𝜽-direction:

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′𝜽 = −𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅) . 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝝏𝜽
…(iii)
 𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(𝜽+𝒅𝜽) = 𝑸′𝜽 + (𝑸′𝜽 )𝒓𝒅𝜽
𝒓𝝏𝜽
…(iv)

∴ Heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow in the 𝜽-direction,

𝒅𝑸′𝜽 = 𝑸′𝜽 − 𝑸′(𝜽+𝒅𝜽) [Subtracting (iv) from (iii)]

𝝏
=− (𝑸′𝜽 )𝒓. 𝒅𝜽
𝒓.𝝏𝜽

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
=− [−𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒓. 𝝏𝜽
𝒓.𝝏𝜽 𝒓.𝝏𝜽

𝒌 𝒅𝒓.𝒓𝒅∅.𝒓𝒅𝜽 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . ] 𝒅𝒕
𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽

𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌 (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . 𝒅∅) . [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 . ] 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽
…(26)

Heat flow in 𝜽 − ∅ plane, 𝒓-direction:

𝝏𝑻
Heat influx, 𝑸′𝒓 = −𝒌(𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅) . 𝝏𝒕
𝝏𝒓
…(v)
𝝏
Heat efflux, 𝑸′(𝒓+𝒅𝒓) = 𝑸′𝒓 + (𝑸′𝒓 ) 𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓
…(vi)

∴ Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in the 𝒓-direction,

𝒅𝑸′𝒓 = 𝑸′𝒓 − 𝑸′(𝒓+𝒅𝒓) [Subracting (vi) from (v)]

𝝏
=− (𝑸′𝒓 ) 𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
=− [−𝒌(𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅) . 𝒅𝒕] 𝒅𝒓
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓

𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌 𝒅𝜽. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒓 [𝒓𝟐 . ] 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓

𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅) . [𝒓𝟐 . ] 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
…(27)

Net heat accumulated in the element

 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
= 𝒌 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅ [ . + . (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. )+
𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝝏∅𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽
𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
. (𝒓𝟐 . )] 𝒅𝒕
𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
…(28)

B. Heat generated within the element (𝑸′𝒈 ):

The total heat generated within the element is given by,

𝑸′𝒈 = 𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅)𝒅𝒕

…(29)

C. Energy stored in the element:

The increase in thermal energy in the element is equal to

𝝏𝑻
𝝆(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅)𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒕
…(30)

Now, (𝑨) + (𝑩) = (𝑪) …Energy balance/equation

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
∴ 𝒌 𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅ [ . + . (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. )+
𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝝏∅ 𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽
𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻
𝟐
. (𝒓𝟐 . )] 𝒅𝒕 + 𝒒𝒈 (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅)𝒅𝒕 =
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓
𝝏𝑻
𝝆(𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅)𝒄. . 𝒅𝒕
𝝏𝒕

Dividing both sides by 𝒌. (𝒅𝒓. 𝒓𝒅𝜽. 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. 𝒅∅)𝒅𝒕, we get

𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝒒𝒈 𝝆𝒄 𝝏𝑻 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
[ . + . (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽. )+ . (𝒓𝟐 . )] + = . = .
𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝝏∅𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒌 𝒌 𝝏𝒕 𝜶 𝝏𝒕
..(31)

Equation (31) is the general heat conduction equation in spherical

coordinates.

In case there are not Heat sources present and the heat flow is steady and
one-dimensional, then eqn. (31) reduces to
𝟏 𝒅 𝒅𝑻
𝟐
. (𝒓𝟐 . )=𝟎
𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓
…(32)
Equation (31) can also be derived by transformation of coordinates as
follows:

𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅; 𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅; 𝒛 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE AND COMPOSITE WALLS

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE WALL

Case 1: Uniform thermal conductivity

Refer to Fig. 4 (a) Consider a plane wall of homogeneous material through

which heat is flowing only in 𝒙-direction.
𝑇

𝑇1 Plane wall
𝑘
𝑑𝑇 𝑄
𝑄
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑇2

1 2
𝐿
(𝑎)
𝑇2 𝑄
𝑄 𝑇1
𝐿
(𝑅𝑡ℎ )𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. =
𝑘𝐴
(𝑏)
Fig. 4. Heat conduction through a plane wall.

Let, 𝑳 = Thickness of the plane wall,

𝑨 = Cross-sectional area of the wall,

𝒌 = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, and

𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 = Temperatures maintained at the two faces 1 and

2 of the wall, respectively.

The general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates is given by

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒒𝒈 𝟏 𝝏𝑻
𝟐
+ 𝟐
+ + = . …[Eqn. 8)]
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛𝟐 𝒌 𝜶 𝝏𝒕
If the heat conduction takes place under the conditions, steady state
𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻
( = 𝟎), one-dimensional [ = = 𝟎] and no internal heat generation
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐
𝒒𝒈
( = 𝟎) then the above equation gives
𝒌

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝒅𝟐 𝑻
= 𝟎, or =𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟐
…(33)

By integrating the above differential twice, we have

𝒅𝑻
= 𝒄𝟏 and 𝑻 = 𝒄𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒄𝟐
𝒅𝒙
…(34)

where 𝒄𝟏 and 𝒄𝟐 are the arbitrary constants. The values of these constants
may be calculated from the known boundary conditions as follows:

𝑨𝑻 𝒙 = 𝟎 𝑻 = 𝑻𝟏

𝑨𝑻 𝒙 = 𝑳 𝑻 = 𝑻𝟐

Substituting the values in the eqn. (34), we get

𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝒄𝟐 and 𝑻𝟐 = 𝒄𝟏 𝑳 + 𝒄𝟐
𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏
After simplification, we have, 𝒄𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 and 𝒄𝟏 =
𝑳

Thus, the eqn. (34) reduces to:

𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏
𝑻=( ) 𝒙 + 𝑻𝟏
𝑳
…(35)

The eqn. (35) indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear
and is independent of thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall
can be found by using Fourier’s equation as follows:
𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨 (where, = Temperature gradient)…Eqn.(1)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝑻 𝒅 𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏
But, = [( ) 𝒙 + 𝑻𝟏 ] =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝑳 𝑳
 (𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 ) 𝒌𝑨(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
∴ 𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨 =
𝑳 𝑳
…(36)

Eqn (36) can be written as:

(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 ) (𝑻 −𝑻𝟐 )
𝑸= (𝑳/𝒌𝑨)
= (𝑹 𝟏 )
𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅.
…(37)

where, (𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅. = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Fig. 4 (b)

shows the equivalent thermal circuit for heat flow through the plane wall.

Let us now find out the condition when, instead of space, weight is the main
criterion for selection of the insulation of a plane wall.
𝑳
Thermal resistance (conduction) of the wall, (𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅. =
𝒌𝑨
...(i)

Weight of the wall, 𝑾 = 𝝆 𝑨 𝑳

…(ii)

Eliminating 𝑳 from (i) and (ii), we get

𝑾 = 𝝆 𝑨. (𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅.
…(38)

The eqn., (38) stipulates the condition that, for a specified thermal
resistance, the lightest insulation will be one which has the smallest product
of density (𝝆)and thermal conductivity (𝒌)

Case II. Variable thermal conductivity

A. Temperature variation in terms of surface temperature (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 ):

Let the thermal conductivity vary with temperature according to the relation

𝒌 = 𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻)
…(39)

where, 𝒌𝟎 = Thermal conductivity at zero

temperature.
The Fourier’s equation,
𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨 is written as:
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻) .𝑨
𝒅𝒙
…(40)
𝑸
or, . 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻)𝒅𝑻
𝑨

𝑸 𝑳 𝑻
or, ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒌𝟎 ∫𝑻 𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻)𝒅𝑻
𝑨 𝟎 𝟏

𝑸.𝑳 𝜷 𝑇2
or, = −𝒌𝟎 [𝑻 + 𝑻𝟐 ]
𝑨 𝟐 𝑇1
𝑸.𝑳 𝜷
or, = −𝒌𝟎 [(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + (𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )]
𝑨 𝟐
…(41)
𝜷
= 𝒌𝟎 [(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) + (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )(𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐 )]
𝟐

𝜷
= 𝒌𝟎 [𝟏 + (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )] (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝟐

= 𝒌𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝒎 ](𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) where 𝑻𝒎 =

𝑻𝟏 +𝑻𝟐
𝟐

𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 +𝑻𝟐 )
∴ 𝑸 = 𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝒎 ).
𝑳

From eqn. (39) 𝑻 is replaced by 𝑻𝒎 , then

𝒌𝒎 = 𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝒎 )
…(42)
𝑻𝟏 +𝑻𝟐
∴ 𝑸 = 𝒌𝒎 𝑨 [ ]
𝑳
…(43)

Further, if 𝑻 is the temperature of the surface at a distance 𝒙 from the left

surface (Fig.5), then eqn. (41) becomes
𝑸𝒙 𝜷
= −𝒌𝟎 [(𝑻 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )]
𝑨 𝟐
…(44)
From eqns. (41) and (44), we have
𝜷 𝑿 𝜷
[(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + (𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )] = [(𝑻 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )]
𝟐 𝑳 𝟐

[Equating the values of 𝑸 and

rearranging]

Solving the above equation for 𝑻, we get

𝟏 1𝑿⁄2 𝟏
𝑻 = [(𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝟏 )𝟐 −{(𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝟏 )𝟐 − (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻𝟐 )𝟐 } ] −
𝜷 𝑳 𝜷
…(45)

B. Temperature variation in terms of heat flux (𝑸) :

Fourier’s equation for heat conduction is given by

𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
𝑸 = −𝒌𝑨. = −𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻)𝑨.
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

or, 𝑸. 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒌𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑻)𝑨. 𝒅𝑻

Integrating both sides, we have

𝜷
𝑸𝒙 = −𝒌𝟎 𝑨 (𝑻 + 𝑻𝟐 ) + 𝑪 (i)
𝟐

To evaluate 𝑪, applying the condition: 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝟏 , we get

𝜷
𝑪 = 𝒌𝟎 𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐

Substituting the values of the constant 𝑪 in (i), we get

𝜷 𝜷
𝑸𝒙 = −𝒌𝟎 𝑨 (𝑻 + 𝑻𝟐 ) + 𝒌𝟎 𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟐

Dividing both sides by 𝒌𝟎 𝑨 and rearranging, we obtain,

𝜷 𝑸𝒙 𝜷
𝑻𝟐 + 𝑻 + [ − (𝑻𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐𝟏 )] = 𝟎
𝟐 𝒌𝟎 𝑨 𝟐

By solving the above quadratic equation, we have

𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝑸𝒙 1⁄2
= − + [(𝑻𝟏 + ) − ]
𝜷 𝜷 𝜷𝒌𝟎 𝑨
Hence,
1⁄2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝑸𝒙
𝑻 = − + [(𝑻𝟏 + ) − ]
𝜷 𝜷 𝜷𝒌𝟎 𝑨
…(46)

𝑇1 𝛽(+𝑣𝑒) wall
𝛽=0
𝑄 𝑄

𝛽(−𝑣𝑒) 𝑇2
𝑘 = 𝑘0 (1 + 𝛽𝑇)

𝑋
𝐿

Fig. 5.

In most of the practical applications where the variation of temperature is

small, the average value of 𝒌 for the given temperature range is commonly
used as given in eqn. (42).

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL

Refer to Fig. 6 (a). Consider the transmission of heat through a

composite wall consisting of a number of slabs.

Let, 𝑳𝑨 , 𝑳𝑩, 𝑳𝑪 = Thickness of slabs 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 respectively (also called path

lengths),

𝒌𝑨 , 𝒌𝑩 , 𝒌𝑪 = Thermal conductivities of the slabs 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪 respectively,

𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟒 (𝑻𝟏 > 𝑻𝟒 ) = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4 respectively,
and

𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 =Temperature at the interfaces 2 and 3 respectively.

Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit area through each slab/layer
is same, we have,
𝒌𝑨 . 𝑨(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 ) 𝒌𝑩 . 𝑨(𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟑 ) 𝒌𝑪 . 𝑨(𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟒 )
𝑸= = =
𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑩 𝑳𝑪

(Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no

temperature drop occurs across the interface between the materials).

𝑇1 Interfaces
𝑇2
𝑄 𝑇3
𝑄
Temperature
profile
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑇4
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶
1 2 3 4
𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶

Fig. (6𝑎)
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4 𝑄
𝑄 𝑇1
𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐴 𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐵 𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐶

𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑩 𝑳𝑪
𝑹𝒕𝒉.𝑨 = , 𝑹𝒕𝒉.𝑩 = , 𝑹𝒕𝒉.𝑪 =
𝑲𝑨 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑩 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑪 . 𝑨

(𝒃)
Fig. 6. Steady state conduction through a composite wall.

Rearranging the above expression, we get

𝑸 .𝑳𝑨
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 =
𝑲𝑨 . 𝑨
…(i)
𝑸 .𝑳𝑩
𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟑 =
𝑲𝑩 . 𝑨
…(ii)
 𝑸 .𝑳𝑪
𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 =
𝑲𝑪 . 𝑨
…(iii)

Adding (i), (ii) and (iii), we have

𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑩 𝑳𝑪
(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 ) = 𝑸 [ + + ]
𝑲𝑨 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑩 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑪 . 𝑨

𝑨(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟒 )
or, 𝑸= 𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑩 𝑳𝑪
[ + + ]
𝑲𝑨 𝑲𝑩 𝑲𝑪

…(49)
(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟒 ) (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟒 )
or, 𝑸= 𝑳𝑨 𝑳 𝑳 = [𝑹
[ + 𝑩 + 𝑪 ] 𝒕𝒉−𝑨 + 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑩 + 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑪 ]
𝑲𝑨 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑩 . 𝑨 𝑲𝑪 . 𝑨

…[49(a)]

If the composite wall consists of 𝒏 slabs/layers, then

[𝑻𝟏 −𝑻(𝒏+𝟏) ]
𝑸= 𝑳
∑𝒏
𝟏 𝒌𝑨
…(50)

In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and

parallel thermal resistances, the electrical analogy may be used. A typical
problem and its analogous electric circuit are shown in Fig. 7.
∆ 𝑻𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥
𝑸= ∑ 𝑹𝒕𝒉
…(51)
Composite
𝐸 wall
𝐵 𝑘𝐸
𝑄 𝑘𝐵 𝑄
𝐴 𝐷 𝐹
𝑘𝐹
𝐶 𝑘𝐷
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝑘𝐺

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮
𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮 𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐹

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮
𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑮
Thermal contact resistance. In real systems, due to surface roughness and
void spaces, the contact surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus there
is not a single plane of contact,

THE OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

While dealing with the problems of fluid to fluid heat transfer across a
metal boundary, it is usual to adopt an overall heat transfer coefficient 𝑼
which gives the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time per degree
temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the metal.

Refer to Fig. 9

Let, 𝑳 = Thickness of the metal wall,

𝒌 = Thermal conductivity of the wall material,

𝑻𝟏 = Temperature of the surface – 1,

𝑻𝟐 = Temperature of the surface – 2,

𝑻𝒉𝒇 = Temperature of the hot fluid,

𝑻𝒄𝒇 = Temperature of the cold fluid,

𝒉𝒉𝒇 = Heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to metal surface,

and

𝒉𝒄𝒇 = Heat transfer coefficient from metal surface to cold fluid.

(The suffices 𝒉𝒇 and 𝒄𝒇 stand for hot fluid and cold fluid respectively.)

𝑇ℎ𝑓 Metal
wall

𝑇1
𝑄 ℎ𝑐𝑓
Hot ℎℎ𝑓 𝑇2
fluid Cold
film fluid film
𝑇𝑐𝑓
1 2
𝐿
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝒄𝒇
𝑻𝟏
 𝑻𝒉𝒇
𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒉𝒉𝒇 . 𝑨 𝒌 .𝑨 𝒉𝒄𝒇 . 𝑨

Fig. 9. The overall heat transfer through a plane wall.

The equation of heat flow through the fluid and the metal surface are given
by

𝑸 = 𝒉𝒉𝒇 𝑨(𝑻𝒉𝒇 − 𝑻𝟏 )
…(i)
𝒌.𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
𝑸=
𝑳
…(ii)

𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄𝒇 𝑨(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝒄𝒇 )

…(iii)

By rearranging (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

𝑸
𝑻𝒉𝒇 − 𝑻𝟏 =
𝒉𝒉𝒇 . 𝑨
…(iv)
𝑸𝑳
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 =
𝒌 .𝑨
…(v)
𝑸
𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝒄𝒇 =
𝒉𝒄𝒇 . 𝑨
…(vi)

Adding (iv), (v) and (vi) we get

𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒇 − 𝑻𝒄𝒇 = 𝑸 [ + + ]
𝒉𝒉𝒇 . 𝑨 𝒌 .𝑨 𝒉𝒄𝒇 . 𝑨

𝑨(𝑻𝒉𝒇 −𝑻𝒄𝒇 )
or, 𝑸= 𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒉𝒉𝒇
+𝒌+𝒉
𝒄𝒇

…(52)

If 𝑼 is the overall coefficient of heat transfer, then

 𝑨(𝑻𝒉𝒇 −𝑻𝒄𝒇 )
𝑸 = 𝑼 . 𝑨(𝑻𝒉𝒇 − 𝑻𝒄𝒇 ) = 𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒉𝒉𝒇
+𝒌+𝒉
𝒄𝒇

…(53)
𝟏
or, 𝑼= 𝟏 𝑳 𝟏
𝒉𝒉𝒇
+𝒌+𝒉
𝒄𝒇

It may be noticed from the above equation that if the individual

coefficients differ greatly in magnitude only a change in the least will have
any significant effect on the rate of heat transfer.

Example 1. Discuss the effects of various parameters on the thermal

conductivity of solids.

Example 2. A reactor’s wall, 320 mm thick, is made up of an inner layer of

fire brick (k = 0.84 W/m℃) covered with a layer of insulation (k = 0.16
W/m℃). The reactor operates at a temperature of 1325℃ and the ambient
temperature is 25℃.

(i) Determine the thickness of fire brick and insulation which gives
minimum heat loss;
(ii) Calculate the heat loss presuming that the insulating material has a
maximum temperature of 1200℃. If the calculated heat loss is not
acceptable, then state whether addition of another layer of
insulation would provide a satisfactory solution.

Fire brick
Insulation

𝐴 𝐵 𝑇3 = 25℃
𝑇1 = 1325℃

𝑇2 = 1325℃

1 2 3
𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵
𝐿 = 320𝑚𝑚
Fig.10
Solution. Refer to Fig. 10.

Given: 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓℃; 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎℃, 𝑻𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓℃

𝑳𝑨 + 𝑳𝑩 = 𝑳 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝐨𝐫 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 𝒎

∴ 𝑳𝑩 = (𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 − 𝑳𝑨 );
…(i)

𝒌𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝑾/𝒎℃;

𝒌𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝑾/𝒎℃.

(i) 𝑳𝑨 : 𝑳 𝑩 :

The heat flux, under steady state conditions, is constant throughout the wall
and is same for each layer. Then for unit area of wall,
𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟑
𝒒= = =
𝑳𝑨 /𝒌𝑨 + 𝑳𝑩/𝒌𝑩 𝑳𝑨 /𝒌𝑨 𝑳𝑩 /𝒌𝑩

Considering first two quantities, we have

𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓−𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓−𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟓
= or, )
=
𝑳𝑨 /𝟎.𝟖𝟒 + 𝑳𝑩 /𝟎.𝟏𝟔 𝑳𝑨 /𝟎.𝟖𝟒 𝟏.𝟏𝟗𝟎𝑳𝑨 + 𝟔.𝟐𝟓(𝟎.𝟑𝟐−𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑨

𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟓

or, = or, = or,
𝟏.𝟏𝟗𝟎𝑳𝑨 + 𝟐−𝟔.𝟐𝟓𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑨 𝟐−𝟓.𝟎𝟔𝑳𝑨 𝑳𝑨
𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑳𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟓(𝟐 − 𝟓. 𝟎𝟔𝑳𝑨 )

or, 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑳𝑨 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 − 𝟓𝟑𝟏. 𝟑𝑳𝑨

𝟐𝟏𝟎
or, 𝑳𝑨 = (𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔 𝒎 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎
+𝟓𝟑𝟏.𝟑)

∴ Thickness of insulation 𝑳𝑩 = 𝟑𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟔 = 𝟐𝟎𝟓. 𝟒 𝒎𝒎 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

(ii) Heat loss per unit area, 𝒒:

𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓−𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
Heat loss per unit area, 𝒒 = = = 𝟗𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟑 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
𝑳𝑨 /𝒌𝑨 𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟔/𝟎.𝟖𝟒

If another layer of insulating material is added, the heat loss from the wall
will reduce; consequently the temperature drop across the fire brick lining
will drop and the interface temperature 𝑻𝟐 will rise. As the interface
temperature is already fixed, therefore, a satisfactory solution will not be
available by adding another layer of insulation.

Example 3. The insulation boards for air-conditioning purposes are made of

three layers, middle being of packed grass 10 cm thick (k = 0.02 W/m℃) and
the sides are made of plywood each of 2 cm thickness (k = 0.12 W/m℃). They
are glued with each other.

(i) Determine the heat flow per m2 area if one surface is at 35℃ and
other surface is at 20℃. Neglect the resistance of glue.
(ii) Instead of glue, if these three pieces are bolted by four steel bolts of
1cm diameter at the corner (k = 40 W/m℃) per m2 area of the
board then find the heat flow per m2 area of the combined board.

Plywood
Grass

𝑇1 = 35℃
𝑇4 = 20℃
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

1 2 3 4
𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶
= 2𝑐𝑚 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 2𝑐𝑚
(𝑎)
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇4

𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐴 𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐵 𝑅𝑡ℎ−𝐶

(𝑏)
Fig.11

Solution. (i) When the layers are glued:

Refer Fig.11.

Thickness of each of the plywood layer, 𝑳𝑨 = 𝑳𝑪 = 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎

Thickness of grass layer,

𝑳𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏

Thermal conductivities:

𝒌𝑨 = 𝒌𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑾/𝒎℃;

𝒌𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝑾/𝒎℃;

Temperatures : 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓℃; 𝑻𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎℃

Heat flow per m2 area, 𝒒:

(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 )
𝒒=
𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑨 + 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑩 + 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑪
(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 )
=
𝑳𝑨 𝑳 𝑳
+ 𝑩 + 𝑪
𝒌𝑨 . 𝑨 𝒌𝑩 . 𝑨 𝒌𝑪 . 𝑨
(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎)
=
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
+ +
𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝑿 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏
𝟏𝟓 𝑾
= = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 + 𝟓. 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒎
(ii) When the layers are joined by steel bolts: Refer to Fig.13.

Number of steel bolts used = 4

Diameter of each bolt, 𝒅𝒃 = 𝟏𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒎

𝝅
∴ Area of each bolt 𝑨𝒃 = 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐
𝟒

Thermal conductivity of bolt material, 𝒌𝑫 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑾/𝒎℃

The equivalent thermal resistance (𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒆𝒒. of the thermal circuit for the
system is given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
= (𝑹 )
=
(𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒆𝒒. 𝒕𝒉−𝑨 +𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑩 +𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑪 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫

(𝑳𝑨 +𝑳𝑩+𝑳𝑪 ) 𝟎.𝟎𝟐+𝟎.𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟐

where 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫 = = = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟓𝟔℃/𝑾
𝒌𝑫.𝑨𝒃 𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟕.𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟓
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
∴ = (𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕+𝟓.𝟎+𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕) = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟔
(𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒆𝒒. 𝟒𝟒.𝟓𝟔

𝟏 𝟏
or, 𝒐𝒓 (𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟐𝟑℃/𝑾
(𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒆𝒒. 𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟔

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷

𝑇1 = 35℃
𝑇4 = 20℃

Bolts 1 cm

1 2 3 4 (𝑎)

𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒
𝑻𝟏
𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑨 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑩 𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑪

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫

𝑹𝒕𝒉−𝑫
(𝑏) Thermal circuit for the system.
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟏𝟐.

Heat flow per m2 area, 𝒒:

 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟒 ) 𝟑𝟓−𝟐𝟎
𝒒= = = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
(𝑹𝒕𝒉 )𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝟑.𝟔𝟐𝟑

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW AND COMPOSITE CYLINDERS

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER

Case 1. Uniform conductivity:

Refer to Fig. 29. Consider a hollow cylinder made of material having constant
thermal conductivity and insulated at both ends.

Hollow (Heat 𝑇flows

1 > 𝑇2
𝑄
cylinder radially outwards)
Element
(length = L)

No heat flows
in the axial
𝑟2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 direction
𝑟1

𝑇1
𝑑𝑇

𝑇2
𝑑𝑟
𝑄 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑄

1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟏𝟒.
Let, 𝑟1, 𝑟2 = Inner and outer radii;

𝑇1, 𝑇2 = Temperature of inner and outer surfaces, and

 𝑘 = Constant thermal conductivity within the given temperature range.

The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates is given by,

𝜕2 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞𝑔 1 𝜕𝑇
[ 2
+ . + 2
. 2
+ ]+ = . …(Eqn.
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
22)
𝜕𝑇
For steady state ( = 0), unidirectional [𝑡 ≠ 𝑓 (∅, 𝑥 )] heat flow in radial
𝜕𝑡
direction and with no internal heat generation (𝑞𝑔 = 0), the above equation
reduces to
𝑑2 𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇
2
+ . =0
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
or, . [𝑟. ]=0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
Since, ≠ 0, therefore, [𝑟. ]=0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑇
or, 𝑟. = 𝐶 (constant)
𝑑𝑟
…(54)

Integrating the above equation, we get

𝑇 = 𝐶 ln(𝑟) + 𝐶1
…(55)

(where 𝐶1 = Constant of integration)

Using the following boundary conditions, we have:

𝐴𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑟1, 𝑇 = 𝑇1; 𝐴𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑟2, 𝑇 = 𝑇2

∴ 𝑇1 = 𝐶 ln(𝑟1) + 𝐶1
…(i)

𝑇2 = 𝐶 ln(𝑟2 ) + 𝐶1
…(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we have

 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝐶=− )
and 𝐶1 = 𝑇1 + ln(𝑟1)
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
…(56)

Substituting the values of these contents in eqn. (55), we have

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑇 = 𝑇1 + )
ln(𝑟1 ) − . ln(𝑟1)
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
…(57)

[Equation 57 is the expression for temperature distribution in a hollow

cylinder].

or, (𝑇 − 𝑇1) ln(𝑟2/𝑟1) = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2) ln(𝑟1) − (𝑇1 − 𝑇2) ln(𝑟)

= (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) ln(𝑟) − (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) ln(𝑟1) = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1) ln(𝑟/𝑟1)

𝑇−𝑇1 ln(𝑟/𝑟1 )
or, = (Dimensionless form)
𝑇2 −𝑇1 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
…(58)

From the above equation, the following points are worth noting:

(i) The temperature distribution is logarithmic (not linear as in the case

of plane wall).
(ii) Temperature at any point in the cylinder can be expressed as a
function of radius only.
Isotherms (or lines of constant temperatures (are then concentric
circles lying between the inner and outer boundaries of the hollow
cylinder.
(iii) The temperature profile [Eqn. (57)] is nearly linear for values of
(𝑟2/𝑟1)

Determination of conduction heat transfer rate (Q):

The conduction heat transfer rate is determined by utilizing the temperature

distribution [Eqn. (57)] in conjunction with Fourier’s equation as follows:
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟

𝑑 𝑇1 −𝑇2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )

= −𝑘𝐴 [𝑇1 + )
ln(𝑟1) − ln(𝑟1)]
𝑑𝑟 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
 [Substituting the value of 𝑇 from Eqn. (57)]
−(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
= −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟. 𝐿) [ ]
𝑟 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) ∆𝑇 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

= 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 )
= ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) [= ] (where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = )
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 𝑅𝑡ℎ 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
2𝜋𝑟𝐿

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Hence, 𝑄= ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
2𝜋𝑟𝐿

…(59)

Alternative method:

Refer to Fig. 14. Consider an element at radius ′𝑟′ and thickness ′𝑑𝑟′ for a
length of the hollow cylinder through which heat is transmitted. Let 𝑑𝑇 be the
temperature drop over the element.

Area through which heat is transmitted, 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟. 𝐿.

Path length = 𝑑𝑟 (over which the temperature falls is 𝑑𝑇)

𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴. ( )
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘. 2𝜋𝑟. 𝐿 per unit time
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑟
or, 𝑄. = −𝑘. 2𝜋𝐿. 𝑑𝑇
𝑟

Integrating both sides, we get

𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑇
𝑄 ∫𝑟 2 = −𝑘. 2𝜋𝐿 ∫𝑇 2 𝑑𝑇
1 𝑟 1

𝑟 𝑇
or, 𝑄[ln(𝑟)]𝑟21 = −𝑘. 2𝜋𝐿[𝑇] 𝑇21

or, 𝑄. ln(r2 /r1) = −𝑘. 2𝜋𝐿 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 𝑘. 2𝜋𝐿 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)

𝑘.2𝜋𝐿(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
∴ 𝑄= = ln(r2 /r1 )
ln(r2 /r1 ) [ ]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

...(60)

LOGARITHMIC MEAN AREA FOR THE HOLLOW CYLINDER

 Invariably it is considered convenient to have an expression for the
heat flow through a hollow cylinder of the same form as that for a plane
wall. The thickness will be equal to (𝑟2/𝑟1) and the area A will be an
equivalent area 𝐴𝑚 as shown in the Fig. 15. Now, expressions for heat flow
through the hollow cylinder and plane wall will be as follows:

𝐴𝑚 = Equivalent area
𝑇1
𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑘
𝑘

𝑟1
𝑟2 (𝑟2 , 𝑟1 )

(𝑎)Hollow cylinder (𝑎)Plane wall

𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟏𝟓.

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄= ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) …Heat flow through cylinder
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄= (𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) …Heat flow through plane
𝑘𝐴𝑚

wall.

𝐴𝑚 is so chosen that heat flow through cylinder and plane wall will be equal
for the same thermal potential.
(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
∴ ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) = (𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐴𝑚

ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) (𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

or, =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐴𝑚

2𝜋𝐿(𝑟2 −𝑟1 ) 2𝜋𝐿𝑟2 −2𝜋𝐿𝑟1

or, 𝐴𝑚 = =
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) ln(2𝜋𝐿𝑟2 /2𝜋𝐿𝑟1 )

𝐴𝑜 −𝐴𝑖
or, 𝐴𝑚 =
ln(𝐴𝑜 −𝐴𝑖 )
…(67)

where 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐴𝑜 are inside and outside surface areas of the cylinder.
The expression is known as logarithmic mean area of the plane wall and the
hollow cylinder. By the use of this expression a cylinder can be transformed
into a plane wall and the problem can be solved easily.
𝐴𝑜
If, < 2, then we can take,
𝐴𝑖

𝐴𝑖 + 𝐴𝑜
𝐴𝑎𝑣. = which is within 4% of 𝐴𝑚 (where, 𝐴𝑎𝑣. =
2
Average area)
2𝜋𝐿(𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
Further, 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑚 𝐿 =
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

Obviously, logarithmic mean radius of the hollow cylinder is

2𝜋𝐿(𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
𝑟𝑚 =
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
…(68)

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSITE CYLINDER

Consider flow of heat through a composite cylinder as shown in Fig. 16.

Let, 𝑇ℎ𝑓 = The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside the cylinder,

𝑇𝑐𝑓 = The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric air),

𝑘𝐴 = Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A,

𝑘𝐵 = Thermal conductivity of the outside layer B,

𝑇1, 𝑇2, 𝑇3 = Temperature at the points 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 16)

𝐿 = Length of the composite cylinder, and

ℎℎ𝑓 , ℎ𝑐𝑓 = Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients.

The rate of heat transfer is given by

𝑘𝐴 .2𝜋𝐿(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄 = ℎℎ𝑓 . 2𝜋𝑟1. 𝐿(𝑇ℎ𝑓 − 𝑇1) =
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
 𝑘𝐵 .2𝜋𝐿(𝑇2 −𝑇3 )
= = ℎ𝑐𝑓 . 2𝜋𝑟3. 𝐿(𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑐𝑓 )
ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 ) Cold fluid (air)
𝑇𝑐𝑓
𝑄 ℎ𝑐𝑓

𝐵
𝑻𝒉𝒇 𝐴
Hot
Fluid
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑
𝒉𝒉𝒇 𝒉𝒉𝒇 𝑇𝑐𝑓

𝑟1
𝑟2
𝑟3
Fig. 16.

Rearranging the above expression, we get

𝑄
𝑇ℎ𝑓 − 𝑇1 =
ℎℎ𝑓 .𝑟1 .2𝜋𝐿
…(i)
𝑄
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑘𝐴 .2𝜋𝐿
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

…(ii)
𝑄
𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑘𝐵 .2𝜋𝐿
ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 )

…(iii)
𝑄
𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑐𝑓 =
ℎ𝑐𝑓 .𝑟3 .2𝜋𝐿
…(iv)

Adding (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we have

𝑄 1 1 1 1
[ + 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵 + ] = 𝑇ℎ𝑓 − 𝑇𝑐𝑓
2𝜋𝐿 ℎℎ𝑓 .𝑟1 ℎ𝑐𝑓 .𝑟3
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 )

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇ℎ𝑓 −𝑇𝑐𝑓 )
∴ 𝑄=
1 1 1 1
[ + 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵 +ℎ ]
ℎℎ𝑓 .𝑟1 𝑐𝑓 .𝑟3
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 )
 2𝜋𝐿(𝑇ℎ𝑓 −𝑇𝑐𝑓)
or, 𝑄= 1 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 ) 1
[ + + + ]
ℎℎ𝑓 .𝑟1 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 ℎ𝑐𝑓 .𝑟3

…(69)

If there are ′𝑛′ concentric cylinders, then

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇ℎ𝑓 −𝑇𝑐𝑓 )
𝑄= 1 1 1
[ + ∑𝑛=𝑛
𝑛=1 ln{r(n+1) /rn } + ]
ℎℎ𝑓 .𝑟1 𝑘𝑛 ℎ𝑐𝑓 .𝑟(𝑛+1)

…(70)

If inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered then the
above equation can be written as
2𝜋𝐿[𝑇1 −𝑇(n+1) ]
𝑄= 1
∑𝑛=𝑛
𝑛=1 ln[r(n+1) /rn ]
𝑘𝑛

…(71)

Example 5. A steam pipe (inner diameter = 150 mm and outer diameter = 160
mm) having thermal conductivity 58 W/m℃ is covered with two layers of
insulation, of thickness 30 mm and 50 mm respectively and thermal
conductivities 0.18 W/m℃ and 0.09 W/m℃ respectively. The temperature of
inner surface of steam pipe is 320℃ and that of the outer surface of the
insulation layers is 40℃.

(i) Determine the quantity of heat lost per metre length of steam pipe
and layer contact temperature, and
(ii) If the condition of the steam is dry and saturated, find the quality of
the steam coming out of one metre pipe assuming the quantity of
steam flowing is 0.32 kg/min.

Solution. Refer to Fig. 17. Steam pipe (A)

Insulation (B)
Insulation (C)

Steam 1 2 3 4
 𝑟1 30
𝑟2 mm 50
mm
𝑟3
𝑟4

Fig. 17.

150
𝑟1 = = 75mm = 0.075m
2

160
𝑟2 = = 80mm = 0.08m
2

𝑟3 = 80 + 30 = 110mm = 0.11m

𝑟4 = 110 + 50 = 160mm = 0.16m

𝑇1 = 320℃, 𝑇4 = 40℃

𝑘𝐴 = 58 𝑊/𝑚℃

𝑘𝐵 = 0.18 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝑘𝐶 = 0.09 𝑊/𝑚℃

(i) Quantity of heat lost per meter (Q) and layer contact temperatures
(𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 ):

Quantity of heat lost is given by

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇1 −𝑇4 )
𝑄 = ln(𝑟2−𝑟1) ln(𝑟3 −𝑟2 ) ln(𝑟4 −𝑟3 )
+ +
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶

2𝜋 𝑋 1 𝑋(320−40)
= ln(0.08/0.075) ln(0.11/0.08) ln(0.16/0.11) = 𝟐𝟗𝟔. 𝟓 𝑾/𝒎 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
58
+ 0.18
+ 0.09

2𝜋 𝑋 1(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) 2𝜋 𝑋 1(𝑇2 −𝑇3 ) 2𝜋 𝑋 1(𝑇3 −𝑇4 )

Also, 𝑄= ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) = ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 ) + ln(𝑟4 /𝑟3 )
𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶

2𝜋 (320−𝑇2 ) 296.5 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )

∴ 296.5 = ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) or 𝑇2 = 320 − 𝑋
2𝜋 𝑘𝐴
𝑘𝐴

296.5 ln(0.08/0.75)
= 320 − 𝑋 = 𝟑𝟏𝟗. 𝟗𝟓℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
2𝜋 58

2𝜋 (319.95−𝑇3 )
Similarly, 296.5 = ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 )
𝑘𝐵

296.5 ln(𝑟3 /𝑟2 ) 296.5 ln(0.11/0.08)

or, 𝑇3 = 319.95 − 𝑋 = 319.95 − 𝑋 =
2𝜋 𝑘𝐵 2𝜋 0.18
𝟐𝟑𝟔. 𝟓℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
(ii) Quality of steam coming out of one meter pipe, 𝒙:

Total heat of steam when it is saturated at 320℃ = 2703𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 … from steam

tables

Heat carried by steam per minute after losing heat in the pipe
296.5 𝑋 60
= 0.32(𝑘𝑔/min) 𝑋 2703 (𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔) − (𝑘𝐽/min) =
1000
847.17 𝑘𝐽/min

Now 847.17 = 0.32(ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔 )

Corresponding to 320℃ saturated temperature, from steam tables, we have

ℎ𝑓 = 1463 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 1240𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

∴ 847.17 = 0.32(1463 + 𝑥 X 1240) = 468.16 + 396.8𝑥

(847.17−468.16)
or, 𝑥= = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟓 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
396.8

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW AND COMPOSITE SPHERES

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH HOLLOW SPHERES

Case 1. Uniform conductivity:

Refer Fig. 18. Consider a hollow sphere made of material having constant
𝑄(Heat flows radially
thermal conductivity.outwards, 𝑇 > 𝑇 )
1 1

Hollow sphere

𝑑𝑟
Element
𝒓𝟏
𝒓
𝒓𝟐
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

𝑄 𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑄

(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
(𝑅𝑡ℎ = )
4𝜋𝑘𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟏𝟕. 𝐒𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡 𝐚 𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞
Let, 𝑟1, 𝑟2 = Inner and outer radii,

𝑇1, 𝑇2 = Temperatures of inner and outer surfaces, and

𝑘 = Constant thermal conductivity of the material with the given

temperature range.

The general heat conduction equation is spherical coordinates is given as

follows:
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞𝑔 1 𝜕𝑇
(𝑟 2 )+ . + (sin 𝜃 )+ = .
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 sin2 ∅ 𝜕∅ 2 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
…[Eqn.31]
𝜕𝑇
For steady state ( = 0), unidirectional heat flow in the radial direction
𝜕𝑡
{𝑇 ≠ 𝑓(𝜃, ∅)} and with no heat generation (𝑞𝑔 = 0), the above equation
reduces to
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
(𝑟 2 )=0
𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝑑 𝑑𝑇 1
or, (𝑟 2. ) = 0 as ≠0
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟2

𝑑𝑇
or, 𝑟 2. = 𝐶 (a constant)
𝑑𝑟
…(72)

Integrating the above equation, we obtain

𝐶
𝑇 = − + 𝐶1
𝑟
…(73)

(where 𝐶1 = 𝑎 constant of integration)

Using the following boundary conditions, we have

𝐴𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑟1, 𝑇 = 𝑇1; 𝐴𝑇 𝑟 = 𝑟2, 𝑇 = 𝑇2

𝐶
∴ 𝑇1 = − + 𝐶1
𝑟1
…(i)
 𝐶
𝐶=− + 𝐶1
𝑟2
…(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we have

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐶=
𝑟1 −𝑟2

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2

and, 𝐶1 = 𝑇1 +
𝑟1 −𝑟2

Substituting the values of these constants in eqn. (73), we get

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑇=− + 𝑇1 +
𝑟(𝑟1 −𝑟2 ) 𝑟1 (𝑟1 −𝑟2 )

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )

or, 𝑇=− )
+ 𝑇1 +
𝑟(1/𝑟2 −1/𝑟1 𝑟1 (1/𝑟2 −1/𝑟1 )

(𝑇 −𝑇2 ) 1 1
or, 𝑇 = 𝑇1 + (1/𝑟1 )
[ − ]
2 −1/𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟
…(74)
𝑇−𝑇1 1/𝑟−1/𝑟1
or, =
𝑇2 −𝑇1 1/𝑟2 −1/𝑟1

𝑇−𝑇1 𝑟2 𝑟−𝑟1
or, = [ ] [Dimensionless form]
𝑇2 −𝑇1 𝑟 𝑟2 −𝑟1
…(75)

From the eqn. (75) it is evident that the temperature distribution associated
with radial conduction through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.

Determination of conduction heat transfer rate, 𝑸:

The conduction heat transfer rate is determined by using the temperature
distribution expression [Eqn. (75)] in conjunction with Fourier’s equation as
follows:
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟
 𝑑 (𝑇 −𝑇2 ) 1 1
= −𝑘. 4𝜋𝑟 2 . [𝑇1 + (1/𝑟1 )
( − )]
𝑑𝑟 2 −1/𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟

𝑇 −𝑇2 1
= −𝑘. 4𝜋𝑟 2 . (1/𝑟1 𝑋 − (− 2 )
2 −1/𝑟1 ) 𝑟

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) 1
= −𝑘. 4𝜋𝑟 2 . 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑋
[ 1 2] 𝑟2
𝑟1 .𝑟2

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )

= −4𝜋𝑘 (𝑟1 −𝑟2 )
= 4𝜋𝑘 (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
= (𝑟
2 −𝑟1 )/4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) ∆𝑇
i.e 𝑄= (𝑟 −𝑟 ) [ ]
[ 2 1 ] 𝑅𝑡ℎ
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

…(76)

where the term (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )/4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1𝑟2 is the thermal resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ ) for heat
conduction through a hollow sphere.

Alternative method:

Refer Fig. 17. Consider a small element of thickness 𝑑𝑟 at any radius 𝑟.

Area through which the heat is transmitted, 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝑇
∴ 𝑄 = −𝑘. 4𝜋𝑟 2 .
𝑑𝑟

Rearranging and integrating the above equation, we obtain

𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑇
𝑄 ∫𝑟 1 = − 4𝜋𝑘 ∫𝑇 2 𝑑𝑇
𝑟2 1

𝑟 −2+1 𝑟 2 2
or, 𝑄[ ] 1 = −4𝜋𝑘[𝑇]𝑇𝑇 1
−2+1 𝑟

1 1
or, −𝑄 ( − ) = −4𝜋𝑘 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
𝑟2 𝑟1

𝑄(𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
or, = 4𝜋𝑘 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2)
𝑟1 𝑟2

4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2 (𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) 𝑇1 −𝑇2

or, 𝑄= (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
= (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
[ ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

…(77)
Logarithmic mean area for the hollow sphere

Adopting the same concept as used for hollow cylinder, we can write
(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
[ ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
[ ]
𝑘 𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚 is so chosen that the heat flow through cylinder and plane wall will be
equal for the same thermal potential.

∴ 𝑄𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑄𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
(𝑟 −𝑟 ) = (𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
[ 2 1 ] [ ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑘 𝐴𝑚

𝑟2 −𝑟1 𝑟2 −𝑟1
or, =
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑘 𝐴𝑚

or, 𝐴𝑚 = 4𝜋 𝑟1 𝑟2

or, 𝐴2𝑚 = (4𝜋 𝑟1𝑟2)2 = (4𝜋𝑟12) 𝑋 (4𝜋𝑟22)

or, 𝐴2𝑚 = 𝐴𝑖 𝑋 𝐴0

or, 𝐴𝑚 = √𝐴𝑖 𝐴0
…(78)

Further, 𝐴𝑚 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑚2 = 4𝜋 𝑟1𝑟2

or, 𝑟𝑚 = √𝑟1𝑟2

(where 𝑟𝑚 = logarithmic mean radius of hollow sphere).

Example 7. A spherical shaped vessel of 1.4m diameter is 90mm thick, find

the rate of heat leakage, if the temperature difference between the inner and
outer surfaces is 220℃. Thermal conductivity of the material of the sphere is
0.083 W/m℃.
 Spherical
shaped vessel

𝑟2
𝑘
𝑟1
𝑇1 𝑇2

90
mm
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟏𝟗.

Solution. Refer to Fig. 19

1.4
𝑟2 = = 0.7𝑚.
2

90
𝑟1 = 0.7 − = 0.61
1000

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 220℃;

𝑘 = 0.083 𝑊/𝑚℃

The rate of heat transfer/leakage is given by

(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
𝑄= (𝑟2 −𝑟1 ) Fig. (17)
[ ]
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟1 𝑟2

220
= (0.7−0.61)
[ ]
4𝜋 𝑋 0.083 𝑋 0.61 𝑋 0.7

= 1088.67 𝑊

i.e., Rate of heat leakage = 1088.67 𝑊 𝐴𝑛𝑠. )

CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

INSULATION – GENERAL ASPECTS

Definition. A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable

effectiveness is known as ‘Insulation’. Insulation serves the following two
purposes:

(i) It prevents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings;
(ii) It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system.
Applications:

The fields of application of insulations are:

(i) Boilers and steam pipes;

(ii) Air-conditioning systems;
(iii) Food preserving stores and refrigerators;
(iv) Insulating bricks (employed in various types of furnace);
(v) Preservation of liquid gases etc.

“The thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which heat flow
decreases is termed as critical thickness. In case of cylinders and spheres it is
called ‘Critical radius’.

A. Critical thickness of insulation for cylinder:

Consider a solid cylinder of radius 𝑟1 insulated with an insulation of

thickness (𝑟2 − 𝑟1) as shown in Fig. 20.
Solid cylinder
Fluid film
Insulation

ℎ𝑜
𝑘
𝑇1
𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑟1 (𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 )

𝑟2
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟐𝟎. Critical thickness of insulation for cylinder

Let, 𝐿 = Length of the cylinder,

𝑇1 = Surface temperature of the cylinder,

𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 = Temperature of air,

ℎ𝑜 = Heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of the insulation, and

𝑘 = Thermal conductivity of insulating material.

Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the solid cylinder to the
surrounding is given by
2𝜋𝐿(𝑇 −𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟 )
𝑄 = ln(𝑟2/𝑟11) 1
𝑘
+ℎ
𝑜 .𝑟2

…(82)
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 )
From Eqn. (82) it is evident that as 𝑟2 increases, the factor increases
𝑘
1
but the factor decreases. Thus 𝑄 becomes maximum when the
ℎ𝑜 .𝑟2
ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) 1
denominator [ + ] becomes minimum. The required condition is
𝑘 ℎ𝑜 .𝑟2

𝑑 ln(𝑟2 /𝑟1 ) 1
[ + ]=0 (𝑟2 being the only variable)
𝑑𝑟2 𝑘 ℎ𝑜 .𝑟2

1 1 1 1
∴ . + (− 2 ) = 0
𝑘 𝑟2 ℎ𝑜 𝑟2

1 1
or, − =0 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜 . 𝑟2 = 𝑘
𝑘 ℎ𝑜 .𝑟2

𝑘
or, 𝑟2(= 𝑟𝑐 ) =
ℎ𝑜
…(83)

The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance and
consequently*maximum heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which
resistance to heat flow is minimum is called the ‘critical radius (𝑟𝑐 ). The critical
radius 𝑟𝑐 is dependent on the thermal quantities 𝑘 and ℎ𝑜 and is independent
of 𝑟1 (i.e cylinder radius).

*It may be noted that the second derivative of the denominator is

evaluated, it will come out to be positive; this would verify that heat flow rate
will be maximum, when 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑐 .

In eqn. (82) ln(𝑟2/𝑟1) /𝑘 is the conduction (insulation) thermal

resistance which increases with increasing 𝑟2 and 1/ℎ𝑜 . 𝑟2 is convective
thermal resistance which decreases with increasing 𝑟2. 𝐴𝑇 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑐 the rate of
increase of conductive resistance of insulation is equal to the rate of decrease
of convective resistance thus giving a minimum value for the sum of thermal
resistances.
 In the physical sense we may arrive at the following conclusions:

(i) For cylindrical bodies with 𝑟1 < 𝑟𝑐 the heat transfer increases by adding
insulation till 𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑐 as shown in Fig. [21 (a)]. If insulation thickness is further
increased, the rate of heat loss will decrease from this peak value, but until a
certain amount of insulation denoted by 𝑟2′ 𝑎𝑡 𝑏 is added, the heat loss rate is
still greater for the solid cylinder. This happens when 𝑟1 is small and 𝑟𝑐 is large.
𝑣𝑖𝑧., the thermal conductivity of the insulation 𝑘 is high (poor insulating
material) and ℎ𝑜 is low. A practical application would be the insulation of
electric cables which should be a good insulator for current but poor for heat.

(ii) For cylindrical bodies with 𝑟1 < 𝑟𝑐 , the heat transfer decreases by adding
insulating [Fig. 21 (b)]. This happens when 𝑟1 is large and 𝑟𝑐 is small, 𝑣𝑖𝑧., a
good insulating material is used with low 𝑘 and ℎ𝑜 is high. In steam and
refrigeration pipes heat insulation is the main objective. For insulation to be
properly effective in restricting heat transmission, the outer radius must be
greater than or equal to the critical radius.
𝑄/𝐿 𝑄/𝐿

𝑎 𝑏

𝑟1 𝑟𝑐 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 𝑟1
𝑟2′
(Cylinder radius) (Cylinder radius)
𝑘 𝑘
𝑟1 ≤ 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑟1 > 𝑟𝑐 =
(𝑎) ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜 (𝑏)
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟐𝟏. Dependence of heat loss on insulation thickness.

HEAT CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

Following are some of the cases where heat generation and heat conduction
are encountered:

(i) Fuel rods – nuclear reactor;

(ii) Electrical conductors;
(iii) Chemical and combustion processes;
(iv) Drying and setting of concrete.

It is of paramount importance that the heat generation rate controlled

otherwise the equipment may fail (e.g., some nuclear accidents, electrical
fuses blowing out). Thus, in the design of the thermal systems temperature
distribution within the medium and the rate of heat dissipation to the
surroundings assume ample importance / significance.

PLANE WALL WITH UNIFORM HEAT GENERATION

𝑻
Element
Plane
wall

𝑻𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝑻(𝒙)

𝑻𝒘𝟏
𝑻𝒘𝟐

𝑸𝒙
𝑸(𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙) 𝑻𝒘𝟏 = 𝑻𝒘𝟐 = 𝑻𝒘

𝑸𝒈

𝑿
𝒙=𝟎 𝒙 = 𝑳/𝟐 𝒙=𝑳
𝒙 𝒅𝒙

(𝒙 + 𝒅𝒙)
𝑳

Fig. 24. Plane wall uniform heat generation. Both the

surfaces maintained at a common temperature.

Refer to Fig. 24. Consider a plane wall of thickness 𝐿 (small in comparison with
other dimension) of uniform thermal conductivity 𝑘 and in which heat sources
are uniformly distributed in the whole volume. Let the wall surfaces are
maintained at temperature 𝑇1 and 𝑇2.
 Let us assume that heat flow is one dimensional, under steady state
conditions, and there is a uniform volumetric heat generation within the wall.

Consider an element of thickness at a distance 𝑥 from the left hand face

of the wall.

Heat conducted in at distance 𝑥,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥

Heat generated in the element,

𝑄𝑔 = 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑞𝑔

(where 𝑞𝑔 = heat generated per unit volume per unit time in the element)

Heat conducted out at distance

𝑑
(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ), 𝑄(𝑥+𝑑𝑥) = 𝑄𝑥 + (𝑄𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

As 𝑄𝑔 represents an energy increase in the volume element, an energy balance

on the element of thick 𝑑𝑥 is given by

𝑄𝑥 + 𝑄𝑔 = 𝑄(𝑥+𝑑𝑥)
𝑑
or, 𝑄𝑔 = (𝑄𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
or, 𝑞𝑔 . 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥 = [−𝑘𝐴 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑇
= −𝑘𝐴. . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑇 𝑞𝑔
or, + =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘
…(85)

Eqn. (85) may also be obtained from eqn.(8) by assuming one-dimensional

steady state conditions.

The first and second integration of Eqn. (85) gives respectively

𝑑𝑇 𝑞𝑔
=− 𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
…(86)
 𝑞𝑔
𝑇=− . 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2
2𝑘
…(87)

Case 1. Both the surfaces have the same temperature:

Refer to Fig. 25.

At 𝑥 = 0 𝑇 = 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑤 , and

At 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑤

(where 𝑇𝑤 = temperature of the wall surface).

Using these boundary conditions in eqn. (87), we get

𝑞𝑔
𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑤 and 𝐶1 = .𝐿
2𝑘

Substituting these values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in eqn. (87), we have

𝑞𝑔 𝑞𝑔
𝑇= 𝑥2 + . 𝐿. 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑤
2𝑘 2𝑘
𝑞𝑔
or, 𝑇= (𝐿 − 𝑥 )𝑥 + 𝑇𝑤
2𝑘
…(88)

In order to determine the location of the maximum temperature,

differentiating the eqn. (88) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑇 𝑥 and equating the derivative to zero, we
have
𝑑𝑇 𝑞𝑔
= (𝐿 − 2𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2𝑘
𝑞𝑔
Since, ≠ 0, therefore,
2𝑘

𝐿
𝐿 − 2𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥=
2

Thus the distribution of temperature given by eqn. (88) is the parabolic and
𝐿
symmetrical about the midplane. The maximum temperature occurs at 𝑥 =
2
and its value equals
𝑞𝑔
𝑇𝑚𝑎x = [ (𝐿 − 𝑥 )𝑥] + 𝑇𝑤
2𝑘
𝐿
𝑥=2
 𝑞𝑔 𝐿 𝐿
or, =[ (𝐿 − ) ] + 𝑇𝑤
2𝑘 2 2
𝑞𝑔
i.e. 𝑇𝑚𝑎x = . 𝐿2 + 𝑇𝑤
8𝑘
…(89)

Heat transfer then takes place towards both the surfaces, and for each surface
it is given by
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 or 𝑥=𝐿

𝑞𝑔
= −𝑘𝐴 [ (𝐿 − 𝑥 )]
2𝑘 𝑥=0 or 𝑥=𝐿
…(90)
𝐴𝐿
i.e., 𝑄= . 𝑞𝑔
2

When both the surfaces are considered,

𝐴𝐿
𝑄 =2𝑋 𝑞𝑔 = 𝐴. 𝐿. 𝑞𝑔 …[90
2
(a)]

Also heat conducted to each wall surface is further dissipated to the

surrounding atmosphere at temperature 𝑇𝑎 ,
𝐴𝐿
Thus, . 𝑞𝑔 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑎 )
2
𝑞𝑔
or, 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑎 + .𝐿
2ℎ
…(91)

Substituting this value of 𝑇𝑤 in eqn. (88), we obtain

𝑞𝑔 𝑞𝑔
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎 + .𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑥 )𝑥
2ℎ 2𝑘
…(92)

At 𝑥 = 𝐿/2 𝑖. 𝑒., at the midplane:

𝑞𝑔 𝑞𝑔 𝐿2
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎x = 𝑇𝑎 + .𝐿 +
2ℎ 8𝑘
 𝐿 𝐿2
or, 𝑇𝑚𝑎x = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑞𝑔 [ + ] …[92
2ℎ 8𝑘
(a)]

𝑻 midplane 𝑻

𝑻𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝑻(𝒙)

𝑻(𝒙) Plane wall

𝑻𝒘 𝑻𝒘
𝑻𝒘𝟏
Insulated face

𝑻𝒘𝟐
𝒒𝒈
Real
wall

𝑿 𝑿
𝒙=𝟎 𝒙=𝑳 𝒙 = 𝟐𝑳 𝑳
𝑳 𝑳
Fig. 25. Heat conducted in an Fig. 26. Plane wall with uniform heat
insulated wall. generation - Both the surfaces of
the wall having different
temperatures.

The eqn. (92) also works well in case of conduction in an insulated wall Fig.
(25).

The following boundary conditions apply in the full hypothetical wall of

thickness 2𝐿:
𝑑𝑇
At 𝑥 = 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑥

At 𝑥 = 2𝐿 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤
The location 𝑥 = 𝐿 refers to the mid-plane of the hypothetical wall (or
insulated face of given wall).

Example 10. The rate of heat generation in a slab of thickness 160 mm 𝑘 =

180 𝑊/𝑚℃) is 1.2 𝑋 106 𝑊/𝑚3. If the temperature of each of the surface of
solid is 120℃, determine:

(i) The temperature at the mid and quarter planes:

(ii) The heat flow rate and temperature gradients at the mid and quarter
planes.

𝑘 = 180 𝑊/𝑚℃

𝑞𝑔 = 1.2 x 106 𝑊/𝑚3

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑤1 = 𝑇𝑤2 = 𝑇𝑤 = 120℃

𝑇𝑤1
𝑇𝑤2
𝑞𝑔

𝑋
𝑥=0 𝑥= 𝑥= 𝑥 = 3𝐿/4
𝐿/4 𝐿/2

𝐿
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟐𝟖

Solution. Refer to Fig. 28.

Thickness of slab, 𝐿 = 160mm = 0.16m

The rate of heat transfer, 𝑞𝑔 = 1.2 𝑋 106 𝑊/𝑚3

Thermal conductivity of slabs, 𝑘 = 180 𝑊/𝑚℃

The temperature of each surface,

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑤 = 120℃

(where 𝑇𝑤 = temperature of the wall surface)

The temperature at the mid and quarter planes:

𝑞𝑔
𝑇= (𝐿 − 𝑥 )𝑥 + 𝑇𝑤 …[Eqn.
2𝑘
(88)]
𝐿
AT mid plane: 𝑥 =
2

1.2 𝑋 106 𝐿 𝐿
∴ 𝑇𝑚𝑝 = (𝐿 − ) 𝑋 + 120
2 𝑋 180 2 2

1.2 𝑋 106 0.16 0.16

or, 𝑇𝑚𝑝 = (0.16 − )𝑋 + 120 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟑𝟑℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
2 𝑋 180 2 2

At quarter planes: 𝑥 = 𝐿/4 and 𝑥 = 3𝐿/4

1.2 𝑋 106 𝐿 𝐿
∴ 𝑇𝑞𝑝(𝑥 = 𝐿/4) = (𝐿 − ) 𝑋 + 120
2 𝑋 180 4 4

1.2 𝑋 106 0.16 0.16

or, 𝑇𝑞𝑝(𝑥 = 𝐿/4) = (0.16 − )𝑋 + 120 =
2 𝑋 180 4 4
𝟏𝟑𝟔℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
1.2 𝑋 106 3𝐿 3𝐿
Similarly 𝑇𝑞𝑝(𝑥 = 3𝐿/4) = (𝐿 − )𝑋 + 120 =
2 𝑋 180 4 4
𝟏𝟑𝟔℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

(ii) The heat flow rate and temperature gradients at the mid and quarter
planes:

For unit area, i.e., 1m2

Heat flow: 𝑄(𝑥 =𝐿/2) = 𝑞𝑔 𝑋 𝐴 𝑋 𝑥

= 12 𝑋 106 𝑋 1 𝑋 (0.16/2) = 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

𝑄(𝑥 =𝐿/4) = 1.2 𝑋 106 𝑋 1 𝑋 (0.16/4) = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑄
Temperature gradients: 𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴. 𝑜𝑟 =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
 𝑑𝑇 96000
( ) =− = −𝟓𝟑𝟑. 𝟑℃/𝒎 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 =𝐿/2 180 𝑋 1

𝑑 48000
( ) =− = −𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕℃/𝒎 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 =𝐿/4 180 𝑋 1

HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES (FINS)(adapted from

Rajput,2010)

INTRODUCTION
 When the available surface is found inadequate to transfer the required
quantity of heat with the available temperature drop and convective heat
transfer coefficient, extended surface or fins are used. This practice, Invariably,
is found necessary in heat transfer between a surface and gas as the
convective heat transfer coefficient is rather low in these situations. The finned
surfaces are widely used in :

(i) Economisers for steam power plants;

(ii) Convectors for steam and hot-water heating systems;
(iii) Radiators of automobiles;
(iv) Air-cooled engine cylinder heads;
(v) Cooling coils and condenser coils in refrigerators and air conditioners;
(vi) Small capacity compressors;
(vii) Electric motor bodies;
(viii) Transformers and electronic equipments etc.

In practice all kinds of shapes and sizes of fins are employed; some common
types of fin configurations are shown in Fig. 29.
 Annular fin

For the proper design of fins, the knowledge of temperature distribution along
the fin is necessary. In this article the mathematical analysis for finding out the
temperature distribution and heat flow from different types of fins is dealt
with.

The following assumptions are made for the analysis of heat flow through the
fin:

1. Steady state heat conduction.

2. No heat generation within the fin
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient (ℎ) over the entire surface of the fin.
4. Homogeneous and isotropic fin material (i.e. thermal conductivity of
material constant).
5. Negligible contact thermal resistance.
6. Heat conduction one-dimensional.
7. Negligible radiation.
8.

HEAT FLOW THROUGH “RECTANGULAR FIN”

Consider a rectangular fin protruding from a wall surface as shown in Fig. 30.

Perimeter, 𝑃 = 2(𝑏 + 𝑦)

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.
𝑇𝑜 𝑙
𝑘 𝑦
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑄𝑥 𝑄(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑏
Cross-sectional
area,
 ℎ, 𝑇𝑎
Wall 𝐴𝑐𝑠 = 𝑏. 𝑦
Element

𝑥 Fig. 30. Rectangular fin of uniform cross-section.

Let, 𝑙 = Length of the fin (perpendicular to surface from which heat is to be

removed),

𝑏 = Width of the fin (parallel to the surface from which heat is to be

removed),

𝑦 = Thickness of the fin,

𝑝 = Perimeter of the fin [= 2(𝑏 + 𝑦)],

𝐴𝑐𝑠 = Area of cross-section (= 𝑏𝑦),

𝑇0 = Temperature at the base of the fin, and

𝑇𝑎 = Temperature of the ambient/surrounding fluid,

𝑘 = Thermal conductivity (constant), and

ℎ = Heat transfer coefficient (convective).

In order to determine the governing differential equation for the fins, shown in
Fig. 30, consider the heat flow to and from an element 𝑑𝑥 thick at a distance 𝑥
from the base.

Heat conducted into the element at plane 𝑥,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑥 = −𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] …(i)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Heat conducted out of the element at plane (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥)

𝑑𝑇
𝑄(𝑥+𝑑𝑥) = −𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] …(ii)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+𝑑𝑥

Heat convected out of the element between the planes 𝑥 and (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 ),

 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ (𝑝. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 )

Applying an energy balance on the element, we can write

𝑄𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 .

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
−𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] = −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] + ℎ (𝑝. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …(100)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

Making a Taylors’s expansion of the temperature gradient at (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) in

terms of that at 𝑥, we get
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑑2 𝑑𝑇 (𝑑𝑥)2
( ) =( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + 2
( ) +⋯
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2!

Substituting this in eqn. (100), we have

𝑑𝑇
−𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑 2𝑇
= −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] − 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 3 𝑇 (𝑑𝑥)2
− 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ 3 ] +. . + ℎ(𝑝. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 2!

Neglecting higher terms as 𝑑𝑥 → 0, we have

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑 2𝑇
−𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] = −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ] − 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑥 + ℎ (𝑝. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑇
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑥 − ℎ(𝑝. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Dividing both sides by 𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑥, we get,

𝑑2 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
𝑘 − (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐴𝑐𝑠

𝑑2 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
or, − (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = 0 …(101)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠

Eqn. (101) is further simplified by transforming the dependent variable by

defining the temperature excess 𝜃 as,
 𝜃(𝑥) = 𝑇(𝑥) − 𝑇(𝑎)

As the ambient temperature 𝑇𝑎 is constant, we get by differentiation

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑇 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑2 𝑇
= ; 2
= …(102)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝜃
Thus, − 𝑚2 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

ℎ𝑃
where 𝑚=√
𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠

Eqns. (101) and (102) represent a general form of the energy equation for one-
dimensional heat dissipation from an extended surface (fin). The parameter 𝑚,
for a given fin, is constant provided the convective film coefficient ℎ is constant
over the whole surface and the thermal conductivity 𝑘 is constant within the
temperature range considered. Then the general solution of this linear and
homogenous second order differential equation is of the form:

𝜃 = 𝐶1𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 …(103)

or, [𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐶1𝑒 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 ]

where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are the constant, these are to be determined by

using proper boundary conditions.

One boundary conditions is :

𝜃 = 𝜃0 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 at 𝑥 = 0

The other boundary condition depends on the physical situation. The following
cases may be considered:

Case I. The fin is infinitely long and the temperature at the end of the fin is
essentially that of the ambient/surrounding fluid.

Case II. The end of the fin is insulated.

Case III. The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection.

Heat dissipation from an infinitely long fin (𝑰 → ∞):

Refer to Fig. 31. In this case the boundary conditions are:

𝑇𝑜
 Temperature
profile [𝑇(𝑥)]
𝑇
𝑥=0

𝑇𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎 (at 𝑥 = ∞)
𝑥

𝑥=0 𝑥=𝑙=∞

𝑥 Fig. 31. Infinitely long fin (Case 1).

(i) At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇0 (Temperature at the base of fin equals the

temperature of the surface to which fin
is attached.)

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 (in terms of excess temperature)

or, At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 𝜃0

(ii) At 𝑥 = ∞, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎

(Temperature at the end of an infinitely long fin equals that of the

surroundings)

At 𝑥 = ∞, 𝜃 = 0 (in terms of excess temperature

Substituting these boundary conditions in eqn. (103), we get,

𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 𝜃0
…(i)
−𝑚(∞)
𝐶1𝑒 𝑚(∞) + 𝐶2𝑒 =0
…(ii)
or, 𝐶1𝑒 𝑚(∞) + 0 = 0 ∴ 𝐶1 = 0

and, 𝐶2 = 𝜃0 [From eqn.(i)]

Inserting these values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in eqn. (103), we get the temperature

distribution along the length of the fin,
𝑇−𝑇𝑎
𝜃 = 𝜃0𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 ; (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 [or = 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 ]
𝑇0 −𝑇𝑎
…(104)
𝑇−𝑇𝑎
The dependence of dimensionless temperature [ ] along the fin length for
𝑇0 −𝑇𝑎
different values of parameter 𝑚(𝑚1 < 𝑚2 < 𝑚3) is shown in Fig. 32; the plot
indicates:

(i) As the value of 𝑚 increases, the dimensionless temperature falls;

(ii) As the length of fin increases to infinity all the curves approach
𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 0 asymptotically.
𝑇0 −𝑇𝑎

𝑚1
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑚2

𝑚3

𝑚1 < 𝑚2 < 𝑚3
𝑜 𝑥
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟑𝟐. Temperature distribution in a fin.

The heat flow rate can be determined in either of the two ways:

(a) By considering the heat flow across the root (or base) by conduction;
 (b) By considering the heat which is transmitted by convection from the
surface of the fin to the surrounding fluid.
(a) The rate of hat flow across the base of the fin is given by (Fourier’s
equation)
𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

𝑑𝑇
[ ] = [−𝑚(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 ]𝑥=0 = −𝑚(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
…[From
eqn.(104)

∴ 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = −𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑋[−𝑚(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )] = 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑚 (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 )

i.e., 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑚(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …(105)

𝑃ℎ
or, 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 √ (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 ) (Substituting for m)
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠

or, 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …[105(a)]

(b) Alternatively:
∞
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = ∫0 ℎ (𝑃. 𝑑𝑥 )(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …convective rate of heat
flow
∞
= ∫0 ℎ 𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 [From Eqn. (104)]
∞ −𝑚𝑥
= ℎ 𝑃(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ∫0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠
= ℎ 𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = ℎ 𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 )√ (Substituting for
𝑚 𝑃ℎ
m)

or, 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …[Same as Eqn. 105(a)]

[An infinitely long fin is one for which 𝑚𝑙 → ∞, and this condition may be
approached when 𝑚𝑙 > 5] From the Eqn. (104) it is evident that the
temperature falls towards the tip of the fin, thus the area near the fin tip is not
utilized to the extent as the lateral area near the base. Hence beyond a certain
point the increase in the length of the fin does not contribute much in respect
of increase in the dissipation of heat. Consequently a tapered fin is considered
to be a better design since its lateral area is more near the base/root where
temperature difference is high.

Example 11. Calculate the amount of energy required to solder together two
very long pieces of bare copper wire 1.5 mm in diameter with solder that melts
at 190℃. The wires are positioned vertically in air at 20℃. Assume that the
heat transfer coefficient on the wire surface is 20 𝑊/𝑚2℃ and thermal
conductivity of wire alloy is 330 𝑊/𝑚2℃.

Solution. Given: 𝑑 = 1.5 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0015 𝑚; 𝑇𝑜 = 190℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 20℃;

ℎ = 20𝑊/𝑚2 ℃; 𝑘 = 330𝑊/𝑚℃.

Energy required to solder :

𝜋 𝜋
Area of cross-section, 𝐴𝑐𝑠 = 𝑑 2 = 𝑋 0.00152 = 1.767 𝑋 10−6 𝑚2
4 4

Perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝜋𝑑 = 𝜋 𝑋 0.0015 = 4.712 𝑋 10−3 𝑚

Heat dissipation from a long fin is given by,

𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑚(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …[Eqn. (105)]

ℎ𝑃 20 4.712 𝑋 10−3
where, 𝑚=√ =√ 𝑋 = 12.71𝑚−1
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 330 1.767 𝑋 10−6

∴ 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 330 𝑋 1.767 𝑋 10−6 𝑋 12.71 (190 − 20) = 1.26 𝑊

∴ Total energy required for two wires = 2 𝑋 1.26 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟐 𝑾 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Example 12. It is required to heat oil about 300℃ for frying purpose. A ladle is
used in the frying. The section of the handle is 5 mm x 18 mm. The
surroundings are at 30℃. The conductivity of the material is 205 𝑊/𝑚℃. If the
temperature at a distance of 380 mm from the oil should not reach 40℃,
determine the convective heat transfer coefficient.

Solution. Refer to Fig. 33. 𝑇𝑜 = 300℃; 𝑏 = 18𝑚𝑚 = 0.018𝑚; 𝑦 = 5𝑚𝑚 =

0.005𝑚; 𝑙 = 380𝑚𝑚 = 0.38𝑚; 𝑘 = 205 𝑊/𝑚℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 30℃.
𝑧
 𝑇𝑜 = 300℃
40℃
Handle
5 mm

380 mm 18 mm
Sectional zz

𝑧
Fig. 33.
Convective heat transfer coefficient, 𝒉:

Assuming the fin to be long one, we have

𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 𝑒 −𝑚𝑥 …[Eqn.(104)]
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
or, = 𝑒 𝑚𝑥
𝑇−𝑇𝑎

300−30
or, = 𝑒 𝑚 𝑋 0.38 (∵ 𝑥 = 380 𝑚𝑚 = 0.38 𝑚)
40−30

or, 𝑒 0.38𝑚 = 27 𝑜𝑟 𝑚 = 8.673

ℎ𝑃
But, 𝑚=√ = 8.673
𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠

ℎ𝑃
or, = 75.22
𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠

ℎ 𝑋 [0.018 +0.005)𝑋 2]
or, = 75.22
205 𝑋 (0.018 𝑋 0.005)

75.22 𝑋 205 𝑋 (0.018 𝑋 0.005)

or, ℎ= (0.018 𝑋 0.005) 𝑋 2
= 𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 ℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
Heat dissipation from a fin insulated at the tip :

Fig. 34. Illustrates a fin of finite length with insulated end (i.e. no heat loss from
the end of the fin).

𝑇𝑜

𝑇(𝑥)

𝑑𝑇
𝑇𝑎 [ ] =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑙
𝑥

Insulated
end
𝑥=0 𝑥=𝑙
𝑙
𝑥
Fig. 34. The fin with insulated end (Case II).

The boundary conditions are :

(i) At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑜
 𝑑𝑇
(ii) At 𝑥 = 𝑙, =0
𝑑𝑥

Applying these boundary conditions to eqn. (103), and solving to get

𝜃 𝑒 𝑚(𝑥−𝑙) +𝑒 𝑚(𝑙−𝑥) 𝑒 𝑚(𝑙−𝑥) +𝑒 [−𝑚(𝑙−𝑥)]

=[ ]=[ ]
𝜃𝑜 𝑒 𝑚𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑚𝑙 𝑒 𝑚𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑚𝑙

The above expression, in terms of hyperbolic functions, can be expensed as

𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎 cos ℎ{𝑚(𝑙−𝑥)}
= = …(106)
𝜃𝑜 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎 cos ℎ(𝑚𝑙)

…Expression for temperature distribution

𝑒 𝑚(𝑙−𝑥) + 𝑒 [−𝑚(𝑙−𝑥)] 𝑒 𝑚𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑚𝑙

[∵ cos ℎ {𝑚(𝑙 − 𝑥 )} = , and cos ℎ (𝑚𝑙) = ]
2 2

The rate of heat flow from the fin is given by

𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = −𝑘 𝐴𝑐𝑠 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0

∴ 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑚(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) tan ℎ (𝑚𝑙) …(107)

(substituting for m)

or, 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) tan ℎ (𝑚𝑙) …[107

(a)]

Example 13. Aluminum fins of rectangular profile are attached on a plane wall
with 5 mm spacing. The fins have thickness 𝑦 =1 mm, length 𝑙 =10 mm, and
the thermal conductivity, 𝑘 = 200W/mK. The wall is maintained at a
temperature 200℃, and the fins dissipate heat by convection into the ambient
air at 40℃, with heat transfer coefficient ℎ = 50 W/m2K. Determine the heat
loss.

Solution. Given : 𝑇 = 1 𝑚𝑚 = 0.001 𝑚; 𝑙 = 10 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚; 𝑦 = 1 𝑚𝑚 =

0.001 𝑚; 𝑘 = 200 𝑊/𝑚𝐾; 𝑇𝑜 = 200℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 40℃; ℎ = 50 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾.

Heat loss Q :
 ℎ𝑃 ℎ(𝑏 +𝑦) 𝑋 2
𝑚=√ =√
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 𝑘(𝑏 𝑋 𝑦)

ℎ 𝑋 2𝑏
=√ , assuming 𝑏 >> 𝑦
𝑘 𝑋 𝑏𝑦

2ℎ 2 𝑋 50
=√ =√ = 22.36
𝑘𝑦 200 𝑋 0.001

For unit width of the fin, (𝑏 = 1 𝑚)

Plane wall

Fin

𝑏
𝑙

𝑇𝑜 = 200℃ 𝑦
𝑇𝑎 = 40℃

Fig. 35.

𝑄 = √𝑃ℎ𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) tan ℎ (𝑚𝑙)

= √(2 𝑋 1) 𝑋 50 𝑋 200 𝑋 (1 𝑋 0.001) 𝑋 (200 − 40) 𝑋 tan ℎ (22.36 𝑋 0.01)

= tan ℎ (0.2236) = 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟖 𝑾/𝒎 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Example 14. Find out the amount of heat transferred through an iron fin of
length 50 mm, width 100 mm and thickness 5 mm. Assume 𝑘 = 210 𝑘𝐽/𝑚ℎ℃
and ℎ = 42 𝑘𝐽/𝑚2 ℎ℃ for the material of the fin and the temperature at the
base of the fin as 80℃. Also determine the temperature at tip of the fin, if the
atmosphere temperature is 20℃.

Solution. Given : 𝑙 = 50 𝑚𝑚 = 0.05 𝑚; 𝑏 = 100 𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚; 𝑦 = 5 𝑚𝑚 =

0.005 𝑚; 𝑘 = 210 𝑘𝐽/𝑚ℎ℃; ℎ = 42𝑘𝐽/𝑚2 ℎ℃; 𝑇𝑜 = 80℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 20℃.

Fin
𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑜

𝑏
𝑦

𝑙
Fig. 36.

Amount of heat transferred through the fin, Q :

Perimeter, 𝑃 = 2(𝑏 + 𝑦) = 2(0.1 + 0.005) = 0.21 𝑚

Area, 𝐴𝑐𝑠 = 𝑏 + 𝑦 = 0.1 𝑋 0.005 = 0.0005 𝑚2

ℎ𝑃 42 𝑋 0.21
𝑚=√ =√ = 9.165
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 210 𝑋 0.0005

∴ 𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ) tan ℎ (𝑚𝑙)

…[Eqn.(107)]

= √0.21 x 42 x 210 x 0.0005 x (80 −

20) tan ℎ (9.165 x 0.05)

= 0.9263 x 60 x 0.4286

= 𝟐𝟒. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑱/𝒉 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Temperature at the tip of the fin, 𝑸𝑳 :

We know that,
𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎 cos ℎ{𝑚(𝑙−𝑥)}
= = …[Eqn.(106)]
𝜃0 𝑇0 −𝑇𝑎 cos ℎ(𝑚𝑙)

At 𝑥 = 𝑙, we have
𝑇−20 1
=
80−20 cos ℎ(𝑚𝑙)

60
or, 𝑇= + 20 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟐𝟏℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
cos ℎ(9.165 x 0.05)

TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION(Unsteady state ht conduction)

Introduction:

Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to the transient conditions wherein

the heat flow and the temperature distribution at any point of the system vary
continuously with time. Transient conditions occur in:

(i) Cooling of I.C. engines;

(ii) Automobile engines;
(iii) Heat and cooling of metal billets;
(iv) Cooling and freezing of food;
(v) Heat treatment of metals by quenching;
(vi) Starting and stopping of various heat exchange units in power
installation
(vii) Brick burning;
(viii) Vulcanization of rubber etc.

The temperature field in any transient problem, in general, is given by

𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

The change in temperature may follow a periodic or non-periodic variation.

(i) Non-periodic variation. In a non-periodic transient state,

temperature at any point within the system varies non-linearly with
time.
Examples:
(i) Heating of an ingot in a furnace;
(ii) Cooling of bars, blanks and metal billets in steel works, etc.

(ii) Periodic variation. In a periodic transient state, temperatures

undergo periodic changes (within the system) which are either regular or
irregular but definitely ‘cyclic’.

A regular periodic variation is characterized by a harmonic sinusoidal or

nonsinusoidal function, and irregular periodic variations by any function which
is cyclic but not necessarily harmonic.

Examples: The temperature variations in

(i) cylinder of an I.C. engine;

 (ii) building during a period of 24 hours;
(iii) surface of earth during a period of 24 hours;
(iv) heat processing of regenerators (whose packings are heated
alternately by fuel gases and cooled by air) etc.

The transient heat conduction problems may be solved by the following

methods:

(i) Analytical; (ii) Graphical;

(iii) Analogical; (iv) Numerical.

HEAT CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS HAVING INFINITE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

(NEGLIGIBLE INTERNAL RESISTANCE) – LUMPED PARAMETER ANALYSIS

All solids have a finite thermal conductivity and there will be always a
temperature gradient inside the solid whenever heat is added or removed.
However, for solids of large thermal conductivity with surface areas that are
large on proportion to their volume like plates and thin metallic wires, the
𝐿
internal resistance [ ] can be assumed to be small or negligible in comparison
𝑘𝐴
1
with the convective resistance [ ] at the surface. Typical examples of this
ℎ𝐴
type of heat flow are:

(i) Heat treatment of metals;

(ii) Time response of thermocouples and thermometers etc.

The process in which the internal resistance is assumed negligible in

comparison with its surface resistance is called the Newtonian heating or
cooling process. The temperature, in this process, is considered to be uniform
at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped parameter analysis because
the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function of its temperature and
total heat capacity is treated as one lump.

Let us consider a body whose initial temperature is 𝑇𝑖 throughout and which is

placed suddenly in ambient air or any liquid at a constant temperature 𝑇𝑎 as
shown in Fig. 1(a). The transient response of the body can be determined by

Control 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.

surface
relating its rate change of internal energy with convective exchange at the
surface. That is:

= ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Negligible 𝑑𝑇
= −𝜌ℎ𝐴
internal thermal 𝑑𝑡

Body resistance

System
𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑖
𝑡 > 0, 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
(a) General system for unsteady
heat conduction

𝑆
𝑇𝑖

1
𝐶𝑡ℎ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑅𝑡ℎ =
ℎ𝐴𝑠

𝑇𝑎
(b) Equivalent thermal circuit for lumped
capacitance solid
Fig. 1. Lumped heat capacity system.

𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝜌𝑉𝑐 ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) …(1)
𝑑𝑡

where, 𝜌 = Density of solid, kg/m3

𝑉 = Volume of the body, m3,

𝑐 = Specific heat of body, J/kg℃,

ℎ = Unit surface conductance, W/m2℃,

 𝑇 = Temperature of the body at any time, ℃,

𝐴𝑠 = Surface area of the body, m2,

𝑇𝑎 = Ambient temperature, ℃, and

𝑡 = Time, s.

After rearranging the eqn. (1), and integrating, we get

𝑑𝑇 𝑠 ℎ𝐴
∫ (𝑇−𝑇 ) = − 𝜌𝑉𝑐 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
…(2)
ℎ𝐴𝑠
or, ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = − 𝑡 + 𝐶1
𝜌𝑉𝑐
…(3)

The boundary conditions are:

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 (initial surface temperature)

∴ 𝐶1 = ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) [From eqn. (3)]

ℎ𝐴𝑠
Hence ln(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 ) = − 𝑡 + ln(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ) [Substituting the values in eqn.
𝜌𝑉𝑐
(3)]
𝑇−𝑇𝑎 𝜃 ℎ𝐴𝑠
or, = = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− 𝑡]
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜃𝑖 𝜌𝑉𝑐
…(4)

Following points are worth nothing:

1. Eqn. (4) gives the temperature distribution in the body for Newtonian
heating or cooling and it indicates that temperature rises exponentially with
time as shown in Fig. 2.

Exponential heating 𝑇𝑎
𝑇𝑖
mperature , ℃
 Exponential heating

𝑇𝑎
Time, 𝑡
Fig. 2. Newtonian heating or cooling.

1.0
1
𝑡𝑡ℎ = ( ) (𝜌𝑉𝑐 )
ℎ𝐴𝑠
= 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑡ℎ

𝜃
𝜃𝑖

0
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3
Time, 𝑡
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟑. Transient temperature response.
𝜌𝑉𝑐
2. The quantity has the dimensions of time and is called Thermal time
ℎ𝐴𝑠
constant, denoted by 𝑡𝑡ℎ . Its value is indicative of the rate of response of a
system to a sudden change in its environmental temperature i.e., how fast a
body will response to a change in the environmental temperature.
1
𝑡𝑡ℎ = [ ] (𝜌𝑉𝑐 ) = 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑡ℎ
ℎ𝐴𝑠

1
where, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = [ ] = Resistance to convection heat transfer, and
ℎ𝐴𝑠

𝐶𝑡ℎ (= 𝜌𝑉𝑐 ) = Lumped thermal capacitance of solid.

Fig. 3. Shows that any increase in 𝑅𝑡ℎ or 𝐶𝑡ℎ will cause a solid respond more
slowly to changes in its thermal environmental and will increase the time
required to attain thermal equilibrium (𝜃 = 0).

Fig. 1(b) shows an analogus electric network for a lumped heat capacity
system, in which 𝐶𝑡ℎ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 represents the thermal capacity of the system. The
value of 𝐶𝑡ℎ can be obtained from the following thermal and electrical
equations, by similarity.

𝑄 = (𝜌𝑉𝑐 )𝑇 = 𝐶𝑡ℎ . 𝑇 …Thermal equation.

𝑠 = 𝐶. 𝐸 …Electrical equation.

where, 𝑠 = Capacitor charge,

𝐶 = Capacitance of the condenser, and

𝐸 = Voltage.

When the switch is closed [Fig. 1(b)] the solid is charged to the temperature 𝜃.
On opening the switch, the thermal energy stored as 𝐶𝑡ℎ is dissipated through
1
the thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ = [ ] and the temperature of the body decays
ℎ𝐴𝑠
with time. From this analogy it is concluded that 𝑅𝐶 electrical circuits may be
used to determine the transient behavior of thermal systems.
ℎ𝐴𝑠
The power exponential, i.e., 𝑡 can be arranged in dimensionless form as
𝜌𝑉𝑐
follows.
ℎ𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝑉 𝐴2𝑠 𝑘 ℎ𝐿𝑐 𝛼𝑡
𝑡=( )( 𝑡) = ( ) ( 2)
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑘𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑐 𝑘 𝐿𝑐
…(5)
𝑘
where 𝛼 = [ ] = Thermal diffusivity of the solid
𝜌𝑐

Volume of the solid (𝑉)

𝐿𝑐 = Characteristic length =
Surface area of the solid (𝐴𝑠 )

The values of characteristic length (𝐿𝑐 ), for simple geometric shapes, are given
below:
𝑉 𝐿𝐵𝐻
Flat plate: 𝐿𝑐 = = = 𝐿/2 = semi-thickness
𝐴𝑠 2𝐵𝐻
 where 𝐿, 𝐵 and 𝐻 are thickness, width and height of the
plate.
𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿 𝑅
Cylinder (long): 𝐿𝑐 = = where, 𝑅 = radius of the cylinder.
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 2
4
𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅
Sphere: 𝐿𝑐 = 3
= where, 𝐿 = Side of the cube.
4𝜋𝑅 2 3

Further, from eqn. (5):

ℎ𝐿𝑐
(i) The non dimensional factor is called the Biot member 𝑩𝒊 ,
𝑘

It gives an indication of the ratio of internal (conduction) resistance to

surface (convection) resistance. When the values of 𝐵𝑖 is small, it indicates that
the system has a small internal (conduction) resistance, i.e., relatively small
temperature gradient or the existence of practically uniform temperature
within the system. The convective resistance then predominates and the
transient phenomenon is controlled by the convective heat exchange.

If 𝐵𝑖 < 0.1, the lumped heat capacity approach can be used to

advantage with simple shapes such as plates, cylinders, spheres and cubes. The
error associated is around 5%.
𝛼𝑡
(ii) The non-dimensional factor = Fourier number
𝐿2𝑐

It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a

solid. Using non-dimensional terms, eqn. (4) takes the form of
𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= = 𝑒 −𝐵i𝐹0
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎
…(6)

The graphical representation of eqn. (5) for different solids (Infinite plates,
infinite cylinders and infinite square rods and cubes and spheres) is shown in
Fig. 4. 1.0

Infinite
plates
 0.1

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 Infinite
0.01 cylinders
& Infinite
square rods
Cubes
& spheres

0.001
0 2 1 3 4 5
𝐵𝑖 𝐹0
𝐅𝐢𝐠. 𝟒. Newtonian heating or cooling (for various solids)
Instantaneous heat flow rate and total heat transfer:

The instantaneous rate of heat flow (𝑄𝑖 ) may be found as follows:

𝑑𝑇 𝑑 ℎ𝐴𝑠
𝑄𝑖 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 [𝑇𝑎 + (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )exp {− 𝑡}]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝑐

ℎ𝐴𝑠 ℎ𝐴𝑠
or, 𝑄𝑖 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 [(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ) {− } exp {− }]
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝜌𝑉𝑐

ℎ𝐴𝑠
or, 𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )exp [− 𝑡]
𝜌𝑉𝑐
…(7)

or, 𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0

…[7(a)]

The total or cumulative heat transfer is

𝑡
𝑄 ′ = ∫0 𝑄𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 ℎ𝐴𝑠
= ∫0 − ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )exp [− 𝑡] 𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝑉𝑐

exp(−ℎ𝐴𝑠 /𝜌𝑉𝑐)𝑡 𝑡
= [−ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ]
−ℎ𝐴𝑠 /𝜌𝑉𝑐 0

ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑡
= 𝜌𝑉𝑐 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ) [exp {− 𝑡}]
𝜌𝑉𝑐 0
 ℎ𝐴𝑠
or, 𝑄 ′ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ) [exp {− } − 1]
𝜌𝑉𝑐
…(8)

𝑄 ′ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )[𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0 − 1]

…[8(a)]

…in terms of non-dimensional 𝐵𝑖 and 𝐹0

number.

Example 1. A 50 cm x 50 cm copper slab 6.25 mm thick has a uniform

temperature of 300℃. Its temperature is suddenly lowered to 36℃. Calculate
the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of 108℃.

Take 𝜌 = 9000kg/m3; 𝑐 = 0.38 𝑘J/kg℃; 𝑘 = 370 𝑊/𝑚℃ and

ℎ = 90𝑊/𝑚2 ℃

Solution. Surface area of plate, 𝐴𝑠 = 2 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.5𝑚2 (two sides)

Volume of plate, 𝑉 = 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.00625 = 0.0015625𝑚3

𝑉 0.0015625
Characteristic length, 𝐿𝑐 = = = 0.003125 𝑚
𝐴𝑠 0.5

ℎ𝐿𝑐 90 x 0.003125
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 7.6 x 10−4
𝑘 370

Since 𝐵𝑖 is less than 0.1, hence lumped capacitance method (Newtonian

heating or cooling) may be applied for the solution of the problem.

The temperature distribution is given by

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 −ℎ𝐴𝑠
= exp [ 𝑡]
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝑐
…[Eqn.(4)]

Substituting the values, we get

108−36 90 x 0.5
= exp [ 𝑡] = 𝑒 −0.00842𝑡
300−36 9000 x 0.0015625 x (0.38 x 1000)

1
0.2727 = 𝑒 −0.00842𝑡 =
𝑒 0.00842𝑡

1
or, 𝑒 0.00842𝑡 = = 3.667
0.2727
or, 0.00842𝑡 = ln 3.667 = 1.2994
1.2994
or, 𝑡= = 𝟏𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟐 𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
0.0084

Example 2. A solid copper sphere of 10 cm diameter [ρ = 8954 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑐𝑝 =

383 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝐾, 𝑘 = 386 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾], initially at a uniform temperature 𝑇𝑖 = 250℃,
is suddenly immersed in a well-stirred fluid which is maintained at a uniform
temperature 𝑇𝑎 = 50℃. The heat transfer coefficient between the sphere and
the fluid is ℎ = 200 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. Determine the temperature of the copper block
at 𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 after the immersion.

Solution. Given : 𝐷 = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1𝑚; 𝜌 = 8954 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ; 𝑐𝑝 = 383 𝐽/

𝑘𝑔 𝐾, 𝑘 = 386 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 𝑇𝑖 = 250℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 50℃; ℎ = 200 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾; 𝑡 =
5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 300 𝑠.

Temperature of the copper block, 𝑻:

The characteristic length of the sphere is,

4
Volume (𝑉) 𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅 𝐷 0.1
𝐿𝑐 = = 3
= = = = 0.0167 𝑚
Surface area (𝐴𝑠 ) 4𝜋𝑅 2 3 6 6

ℎ𝐿𝑐 200 x 0.01667

Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 8.64 x 10−3
𝑘 386

Since 𝐵𝑖 is less than 0.1, hence lump capacitance method (Newtonian heating
or cooling) may be applied for the solution of the problem.

The temperature distribution is given by

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ℎ𝐴𝑠
= exp [− . 𝑡]
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝜌𝑉𝑐
…[Eqn.(4)]

Substituting the value, we get

𝑇−50 200
= exp [− x 300] = 0.35
250−50 8954 x 0.01667 x 383

𝐴𝑠 𝐿 1
(∵ = = )
𝑉 𝐿𝑐 0.01667
Example 3. A 15 mm diameter mild steel sphere (𝑘 = 42 𝑊/𝑚℃) is exposed
to cooling airflow at 20℃ resulting in the convective coefficient ℎ =
120 𝑊/𝑚2℃.

Determine the following:

(i) Time required to cool sphere from 550℃ to 90℃.

(ii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate 2 minutes after the start of cooling.
(iii) Total energy transferred from the sphere during the first 2 minutes.

For mild steel take: 𝜌 = 7850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑐 = 475 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ and 𝛼 =

0.045 𝑚2/ℎ.
15
Solution. Given: 𝑅 = = 7.5 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0075 𝑚; 𝑘 = 42 𝑊/𝑚℃; 𝑇𝑎 =
2
20℃, 𝑇𝑖 = 550℃; 𝑇 = 90℃; ℎ = 120 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃.

(i) Time required to cool the sphere from 𝟓𝟓𝟎℃ to 𝟗𝟎℃, 𝒕:

The characteristic length 𝐿𝑐 is given by,

4
𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅 0.0075
𝐿𝑐 = 3
= = = 0.0025 𝑚
4𝜋𝑅 2 3 3

ℎ𝐿𝑐 120 x 0.0025

Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.007143
𝑘 42

𝛼𝑡 0.045 x 𝑡
Fourier number, 𝐹0 = = (0.0025)2 = 7200 𝑡 (where 𝑡 is in hour)
𝐿2𝑐

Since 𝐵𝑖 < 0.1, so we can use lump theory to solve this problem.

The temperature variation with time is given by

𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

Substituting the values, we get

90−20
𝑒 −0.007143 x 7200 𝑡 = 𝑒 −51.43 𝑡
550−20

1
0.132 = 𝑒 −51.43 𝑡 or 𝑒 51.43 𝑡 = = 7.576
0.132

2.025
or 51.43 𝑡 = 2.025 or 𝑡= = 0.03937 ℎ =
51.43
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟕 𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
 (ii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate 2 minutes (0.0333 h) after the start
of cooling 𝑸𝒊 :

𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0 …[Eqn. 7(a)]

Now 𝐵𝑖 𝐹0 = (0.007143)(7200 x 0.0333) = 1.7126

∴ 𝑄𝑖 = −120 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 (0.0075) 2(550 − 20)𝑒 −1.7126

= −𝟖. 𝟏 𝑾 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

The negative sign shows that heat is given off by sphere.

(iii) Total energy transferred from the sphere during first 2 minutes
(0.0333 h), 𝑸′ :

𝑄 ′ = 𝜌𝑉𝑐 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )[𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0 − 1]

4
= 7850 x 𝜋 x (0.0075)3 (475)(550 − 20) [𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0 − 1]
3

= (−)𝟐𝟖𝟔𝟐. 𝟑 𝐉 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

TIME CONSTANT AND RESPONSE OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

Measurement of temperature by a thermocouple is an important

application of the lumped parameter analysis. The response of a
thermocouple is defined as the time required for the thermocouple to attain
the source temperature.
ℎ𝐴𝑠
It is evident from eqn. (4), that larger the quantity , the faster
𝜌𝑉𝑐
the exponential term will approach zero or the more rapid will be the response
of the temperature measuring device. This can be accomplished either by
increasing the value of ′ℎ′ or by decreasing the wire diameter, density and
specific heat. Hence a very thin wire is recommended for use in thermocouples
to ensure a rapid response (especially when the thermocouples are employed
for measuring transient temperatures).
 𝜌𝑉𝑐
The quantity (which has units of time) is called time constant
ℎ𝐴𝑠
and is denoted by the symbol 𝑡 ∗ . Thus
𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑘 𝑉
𝑡∗ = = .
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝛼ℎ 𝐴𝑠
…(9)
𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎 ∗)
and, = = 𝑒 −(𝑡/𝑡
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎
…(10)

At 𝑡 = 𝑡 ∗ (one time constant), we have [from eqn. (10)]

𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= = 𝑒 −1 = 0.368
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎
…(11)

Thus 𝑡 ∗ is the time required for the temperature change to reach

36.8 percent of its final value in response to a step change in temperature. In
other words temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2 percent. The
time required by a thermocouple to reach its 63.2 percent of the value of
initial temperature difference is called its sensitivity.

Depending upon the type of fluid used, the response times for
different sizes of thermocouple wires usually vary between 0.04 to 2.5
seconds.

Example 4. The temperature of an air stream flowing with a velocity of 3 m/s is

measured by a copper-constantan thermocouple which may be approximated
as a sphere of 2.5 mm in diameter. Initially the junction and air are at a
temperature of 25℃. The air temperature suddenly changes to and is
maintained at 215℃.

(i) Determine the time required for the thermocouple to indicate a

temperature of 165℃. Also determine the thermal time constant and
temperature indicated by the thermocouple at that instant.
(ii) Discuss the suitability of this thermocouple to measure unsteady
state temperature of a fluid when the temperature variation in the
fluid has a time period of 3.6 seconds.

The thermal junction properties are:

𝜌 = 8750 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑐 = 380 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃, 𝑘(thermocouple) = 28 𝑊/𝑚℃ and ℎ =
145 𝑊/𝑚2℃.
2.5
Solution. Given: 𝑅 = = 1.25 𝑚𝑚 = 0.00125 𝑚; 𝑇𝑖 = 25℃; 𝑇𝑎 =
2
215℃; 𝑇 = 165℃.

(i) Time required to indicate temperature of 165℃; 𝑡 ∗, 𝑇:

4
𝑉 𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅
Characteristic length 𝐿𝑐 = = 3
= = 0.0004167 𝑚
𝐴𝑠 4𝜋𝑅 2 3

𝑘 28
Thermal diffusivity, 𝛼= = = 8.421 x 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜌𝑐 8750 x 380

𝛼𝑡 8.421 x 10−6
Fourier number, 𝐹0 = = = 48.497 𝑡
𝐿2𝑐 (0.0004167)2

ℎ 𝐿𝑐 145 x 0.0004167
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.002158
𝑘 28

As 𝐵𝑖 < 0.1, hence lumped capacitance method may be used for the solution
of the problem.

The temperature distribution is given by

𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= = 𝑒 −𝐵𝑖𝐹0
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

165−215 1
or, = 𝑒 (−0.002158 x 48.497 𝑡) = 𝑒 −0.1046𝑡 =
25−215 𝑒 0.1046𝑡

1
or, 0.263 = or 𝑒 0.1046𝑡 = 3.802
𝑒 0.1046𝑡

or, 0.1046𝑡 = ln 3.802 = 0.1335

1.335
or, 𝑡= = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟔 𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
0.1046

Thus the thermocouple requires 12.76 s to indicate a

temperature of 165℃. The actual time requirement will, however, be greater
because of radiation from the probe and conduction along the thermocouple
lead wires.

The time constant (𝑡 ∗) is defined as the time required to yield a

value of unity for the exponent term in the transient relation.
 𝐵𝑖 𝐹0 = 1

or, 0.002158 x 48.497 𝑡 ∗ = 1 or 𝑡 ∗ = 𝟗. 𝟓𝟓 𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

At 9.55 𝑠, the temperature indicate by the thermocouple is given by

𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 𝑒 −1
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇−215
or, = 𝑒 −1
25−215

or, 𝑇 = 215 + (25 − 215)𝑒 −1 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

(iii) As the thermal time constant is 9.55 s and time required to effect the
temperature variation is 3.6 s which is less than the thermal time
constant, hence the temperature recovered by the thermocouple
may not be reliable.

TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS WITH FINITE CONDUCTION AND

CONVECTIVE RESISTANCES (𝒐 < 𝑩𝒊 < 100)

𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑖
Infinite
plane wall
ℎ
ℎ
 𝑥 𝑥

2𝐿
Fig. 5. Transient heat conduction
in an infinite plane wall.

As shown in Fig.7, consider the heating and cooling of a plane

wall having a thickness of 2𝐿 and extending to infinity in 𝑌 and 𝑍 directions.
Let us assume that the wall, initially, is at uniform temperature 𝑇𝑖 and both the
surfaces (𝑥 = ± 𝐿) are suddenly exposed to and maintained at the ambient
(surroundings) temperature 𝑇𝑎 . The governing differential equation is
𝑑2 𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝛼 𝑑𝑡
…(12)

The boundary conditions are:

(i) At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖
𝑑𝑇
(ii) At 𝑥 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑇
(iii) At 𝑥 = ± 𝐿; 𝑘𝐴 ( ) = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥

…(The conduction heat transfer equals convective heat transfer at the wall
surface)

The solutions obtained after rigorous mathematical analysis indicate that

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 𝑥 ℎ𝑙 𝛼𝑡
= 𝑓( , , 2)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝑙 𝑘 𝑙
…(13)

From the eqn. (13) it is evident that when conduction resistance is not
ℎ𝑙
negligible, the temperature history becomes a function of Biot numbers ( ),
𝑘
 𝛼𝑡 𝑥
Fourier number ( 2 ) and the dimensionless parameter ( ) which indicates the
𝑙 𝑙
location of point within the plate where temperature is to be obtained. The
𝑥 𝑟
dimensionless parameter is replaced by in case of cylinders and spheres.
𝑙 𝑅

For the eqn. (13) graphical charts have been prepared in a variety
of forms. In the Figs. From (8) to (10) are shown the Heisler Charts which
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
depict the dimensionless temperature [ ] versus 𝐹𝑜 (Fourier number) for
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎
1
various values of for solids of different geometrical shapes such as plates,
𝐵𝑖
cylinders and spheres. These charts provide the temperature history of the
solid at its mid-planes (𝑥 = 0); temperatures at other locations are worked
out by multiplying the midplane temperature by correction factors read from
charts given in Figs. (11) to (13). The following relationship is used:
𝜃 𝑇−𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= =[ ]x [ ]
𝜃𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎

The values 𝐵𝑖 (Biot number) and 𝐹𝑜 (Fourier number), as used in

the Heisler charts, are evaluated on the basis of a characteristic parameter s
which is the semi-thickness in case of plates and the surface radius in case of
cylinders and spheres.

When both conduction and convection resistances are almost of

equal importance the Heisler charts are extensively used to determined the
temperature distribution.

Example 5. A 60 mm thick large steel plate (𝑘 = 42.6 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝛼 =

0.043 𝑚2/ℎ, initially at 440℃ is suddenly exposed on both sides to an
environment with convective heat transfer coefficient 235 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃ and
temperature 50℃. Determine the centre line temperature, and temperature
inside the plate 15 mm from the midplane after 4.3 minutes.

Solution. Given: 2𝐿 = 60 𝑚𝑚 = 0.06 𝑚, 𝑘 = 42.6 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝛼 = 0.043 𝑚2/ℎ,

𝑇𝑖 = 440℃, ℎ = 235 𝑊/𝑚2℃, 𝑇𝑎 = 50℃, 𝑇 = 4.3 minutes.

Temperature at the midplane (centre line) of the plate 𝑻𝒐 :

60
The characteristic length, 𝐿𝑐 = = 30 𝑚𝑚 = 0.03 𝑚
2
 𝛼𝑡 0.043 x (4.3/60)
Fourier number, 𝐹𝑜 = = = 3.424
𝐿2𝑐 (0.03)2

ℎ 𝐿𝑐 235 x 0.03
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.165
𝑘 42.6

At 𝐵𝑖 > 0.1, the internal temperature gradients are not small, therefore,
internal resistance cannot

(There are Heisler charts here)

be neglected. Thus the plate cannot be considered as a lumped system.

Further, as the 𝐵𝑖 < 100. Heisler charts can be used to find the solution of the
problem.

Corrrsponding to the following parameteric values, from Heisler

charts, (Fig. 8), we have
1 1 𝑥
𝐹𝑜 = 3.424; = = 0.06 and = 0(midplane)
𝐵𝑖 0.165 𝐿

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
= 0.6 (From Heisler charts)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

Substituting the values, we have

𝑇𝑜 −50
= 0.6
440−50

or, 𝑇𝑜 = 50 + 0.6 (440 − 50) = 𝟐𝟖𝟒℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Temperature inside the plate 15 mm from the midplane, 𝑻:

The distance 15 mm from the midplane implies that

𝑥 15
= = 0.5
𝐿 30

𝑥 1
Corresponding to = 0.5 and = 6.06, from Fig. 11, we have
𝐿 𝐵𝑖

𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 0.97
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

Substituting the values, we get

 𝑇−50
= 0.97
284−50

or, 𝑇 = 50 + 0.97 (284 − 50) = 𝟐𝟕𝟔. 𝟗𝟖℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Example 6. A 6 mm thick stainless steel plate (𝜌 = 7800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, 𝑐 =

460 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃, 𝑘 = 55 𝑊/𝑚℃) is used to form the nose section of missile. It is
initially at a uniform temperature of 30℃. When the missile enters the denser
layers of the atmosphere at a very high velocity the effective temperature of
air surrounding the nose region attains the value 2150℃; the surface
convective heat transfer coefficient is estimated as 3396 𝑊/𝑚2℃. If the
maximum metal temperature is not to exceed 1100℃, determine:

(i) Maximum permissible time is these surroundings.

(ii) Inside surface temperature under these conditions.

Solution. Given: 2𝐿 = 6 𝑚𝑚 = 0.006 𝑚; 𝜌 = 7800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ; 𝑐 = 460𝐽/

𝑘𝑔℃, 𝑘 = 55 𝑊/𝑚℃; 𝑇𝑖 = 30℃; 𝑇𝑎 = 2150℃; 𝑇 = 1100℃.

(i) Maximum permissible time, 𝒕:

0.006
Characteristic length, 𝐿𝑐 = = 0.003 𝑚
2

ℎ𝐿 3395 x 0.003
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.185
𝑘 55

As 𝐵𝑖 > 0.1, Therefore, lumped analysis cannot be applied in this case. Further
as 𝐵𝑖 < 100, Heisler charts can be used to obtain the solution of the problem.
1 𝑥
Corresponding to = 5.4 and = 1 (outside surface of nose section, from Fig.
𝐵𝑖 𝐿
11, we have
𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 0.93
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇−𝑇𝑎

Also, =[ ]x[ ]
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎

1100−2150 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
or, =[ ] x 0.93
30−2150 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎 1 1100−2150
or, = [ ] = 0.495
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 0.93 30−2150
Now, from Fig. 8, corresponding to the above dimensionless temperature and
1
= 5.4, we get the value of Fourier number, 𝐹𝑜 = 4.4
𝐵𝑖

𝛼𝑡
∴ = 4.4
𝐿2𝑐

𝑘 𝑡
or, ( ) ( 2 ) = 4.4
𝜌𝑐 𝐿𝑐

55 𝑡
or, ( )( ) 4.4
7800 x 460 0.0032

4.4 x 0.0032 x 7800 x 460

or, 𝑡= = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟖 𝒔 (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
55

(ii) Inside surface temperature, 𝑻𝒐 :

The temperature 𝑇𝑜 at the inside surface (𝑥 = 0) is given by

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
= 0.495
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑜 −2150
or, = 0.495
30−2150

or, 𝑇𝑜 = 2150 + 0.495(30 − 2150) = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟔℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Example 7. A long cylindrical bar (𝑘 = 17.4 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝛼 = 0.019𝑚2 /ℎ) of

radius 80 mm comes out of oven at 830℃ throughout and is cooled by
quenching it in a large bath of 40℃ coolant. The surface coefficient of heat
transfer between the bar surface and the coolant is 180 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃. Determine:

(i) The time taken by the shaft centre to reach 120℃.

(ii) The surface temperature of the shaft when its centre temperature is
120℃. Also calculate the temperature gradient at the outside surface
at the same instant of time.

Solution. Given: 𝑅 = 80 𝑚𝑚 = 0.08 𝑚, 𝑇𝑖 = 830℃, 𝑇𝑎 = 40℃, ℎ =

180 𝑊/𝑚2℃, 𝑇 = 120℃, 𝑘 = 17.4 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝛼 = 0.019 𝑚2 /ℎ.

(i) The time taken by the shaft centre to reach 120℃, 𝒕:

𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿 𝑅 0.08
Characteristic length, 𝐿𝑐 = = = = 0.04 𝑚
2𝜋𝑅𝐿 2 2

ℎ 𝐿𝑐 180 x 0.04
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.413
𝑘 17.4
As 𝐵𝑖 > 0.1, therefore, lumped analysis cannot be applied in this case. Further
as 𝐵𝑖 < 100, Heisler charts can be used to obtain the solution of the problem.

The parametric values for the cylindrical bar are:

1 1
= = 2.42
𝐵𝑖 0.413

𝑇−𝑇𝑎 120−40
= = 0.1
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎 830−40

𝑟
=0 (centre of the bar)
𝑅

Corresponding to the above values, from the chart for an infinite cylinder (Fig.
9), we read the Fourier number 𝐹𝑜 = 3.2
𝛼𝑡 0.019 x 𝑡
∴ = 3.2 or = 3.2
𝑅2 0.042

3.2 x 0.042
or, 𝑡= = 0.2695 ℎ or 970.2 s (Ans.)
0.019

(ii) Temperature at the surface, 𝒕𝒔 :

𝑟 1
Corresponding to = 1; = 2.42, from the chart (Fig. 12) for an infinite
𝑅 𝐵𝑖
cylinder, we read
𝑇−𝑇𝑎
= 0.83
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇−40
or, = 0.83 or (𝑇 − 40) = 0.83 (120 − 40)
120−40

or, 𝑇(or 𝑇𝑠 ) = 40 + 0.83(120 − 40) = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟒℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

𝝏𝑻
Temperature gradient at the outer surface, :
𝝏𝒓

𝜕𝑇
at the outside surface is determined by the boundary condition 𝑟 = 𝑅 at
𝜕𝑟
which, rate of energy conducted to the fluid-solid surface interface from within
the solid = rate at which energy is convected away into the fluid.
𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝐴𝑠 = ℎ 𝐴𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝜕𝑟

𝜕𝑇
or, 𝑘 = ℎ (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝜕𝑟
 𝜕𝑇 ℎ
or, = (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝜕𝑟 𝑘

𝜕𝑇 180
or, = (106.4 − 40) = 𝟔𝟖𝟔. 𝟖𝟗℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )
𝜕𝑟 17.4

Example 8. A 120 mm diameter apple 𝜌 = 990 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, 𝑐 = 4170 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃, 𝑘 =

0.58 𝑊/𝑚℃). approximately spherical in shape is taken from a 25℃
environment and placed in a refrigerator where temperature is 6℃ and
average convective heat transfer coefficient over the apple surface is
12.8 𝑊/𝑚2℃. Determine the temperature at the centre of the apple after a
period of 2 hours.
120
Solution. Given : 𝑅 = = 60 𝑚𝑚 = 0.06 𝑚, 𝜌 = 990𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑐 =
2
4170 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃, 𝑘 = 0.58 𝑊/𝑚℃, 𝑇𝑖 = 25℃, 𝑇𝑎 = 6℃, ℎ = 5.8 𝑊/𝑚2℃, 𝑡 = 2
hours or 7200 𝑠.
4
𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅 0.06
Characteristic length, 𝐿𝑐 = 3
= = = 0.02 𝑚
4𝜋𝑅 2 3 3

ℎ 𝐿𝑐 12.8 x 0.02
Biot number, 𝐵𝑖 = = = 0.441
𝑘 0.58

Since 𝐵𝑖 > 0.1, a lumped capacity approach is inappropriate. Further as 𝐵𝑖 <

100 Heisler charts can be used to obtain the solution of the problem.

The parametric values for the spherical apple are:

1 1
= = 2.267
𝐵𝑖 0.441

𝛼𝑡 𝑘 𝑡 0.58 7200
𝐹𝑜 = =( ) =( )x( ) = 0.281
𝑅2 𝜌𝑐 𝑅2 990 x 4170 0.062

𝑟
= 0(midplane or centre of the apple)
𝑅

Corresponding to the above values, from the chart for a sphere (Fig. 13), we
read
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑎
= 0.75
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑎

𝑇𝑜 −6
or, = 0.75
25−6

or, 𝑇𝑜 = 6 + 0.75 (25 − 6) = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟓℃ (𝑨𝒏𝒔. )

Let us consider a wall with a uniformally distributed ht source as shown below

𝑄̇ = ht generated
0=𝑥

𝑇0 Per unit vol.

𝑊
𝑇𝑤 𝑥
𝑇𝑤
𝐿 𝐿

Assumptions: (i) w = ∞

(ii) no ht flows in w direction

The governing difference equation is given by

𝑑2 𝑇 𝑄
X = O
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐾

The boway conditions are

at 𝑥 ± 𝐿, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑊
𝑑2 𝑇 𝑄
∴ = - ____ (1)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐾

Integrate once
𝑑𝑇 𝑄
= − 𝑥 + 𝐶1 ____ (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝐾

Integrate again
 𝑄𝑥 2
𝑇= − + 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2 ____ (3)
2𝐾

When 𝑥 = −𝐿, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤
𝑄𝐿2
∴ 𝑇𝑤 = − − 𝐶1𝐿 + 𝐶2 ____ (4)
2𝐾

When n = L
𝑄𝐿2
𝑇𝑤 = − + 𝐶1𝐿 + 𝐶2 ____ (5)
2𝐾

Adding (4) ∝ (5) to get

2𝑄𝐿2
2𝑇𝑤 = − + 2𝐶2
2𝐾

𝑄𝐿2
Or 𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑤 +
2𝐾

Substitute in (5) to get

𝑄𝐿2 𝑄𝐿2
𝑇𝑤 = − + 𝐶1𝐿 + 𝑇𝑤 +
2𝐾 2𝐾

⇒ 𝐶1 = 0

Therefore the heat equation reduces to

𝑄𝑋 2 𝑄𝐿2
𝑇 = − + + 𝑇𝑤
2𝐾 2𝐾

𝑄
= (𝐿2 − 𝑋 2 ) + 𝑇𝑤 ____ (6)
2𝐾

When 𝑋 = 0, let T = To
𝑄̇
∴ 𝑇0 = 𝐿2 + 𝑇𝑤 ____ (7)
2𝐾

From (6)
𝑄̇
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 = (𝐿2 − 𝑋2 ) ____ (8)
2𝐾

From (7)
𝑄𝐿2
𝑇0 – 𝑇𝑤 = ___ (9)
2𝐾
Divide (8) by (9) to get
𝑄(𝐿2 − 𝑋2 )
𝑇− 𝑇𝑤 𝐿2 − 𝑋2 𝑋 2
= 2𝐾
𝑄𝐿2
= =1− ( )
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿2 𝐿
2𝐾

𝑇− 𝑇𝑤 𝑋 2
∴ =1− ( )
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿

Now to get an expression for the midplane Temperature to is approched in this

manner.
At steady state, the ht lost in the two faces must be equal to the total ht
generated
𝑑𝑇
∴ 2 (−𝐾𝐴 |𝑥 = 𝑙) = QA.2L
𝑑𝑥

But we know that

𝑇− 𝑇𝑤 𝑋 2
=1− ( )
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿

𝑋 2
∴ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 = 1 − ( ) (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝐿

𝑑𝑇 2𝑥
Add /n-L = - (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 )⎜𝑛 − 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝐿2

2𝐿 2
= − (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝐿 𝐿
2
∴ 𝑄.̇2A.2L = 2(−𝐾𝐴) ( |𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝐿

4𝐾𝐴
2𝐴𝐿𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 )
𝐿
𝑄𝐿2
∴ 𝑇0 = + 𝑇𝑤
2𝐾

CYLINDER WITHT HEAT, SOURCES

The assumption is that we have a cylinder having radius R and uniform
distributal ht sources, K is consrant, long cylinder; neglet other directions in
which the heat can flow except in the radial direction and the and the
conditions are steady.

We know that the governing equation in general terms

𝑑 2𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑 2𝑇 𝑑 2𝑇 𝑄 1 𝑑𝑇
+ + + =
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑄 2 𝑑Ƶ2 𝐾 ∝ 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 2𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇 1 𝑑 2𝑇 𝑑 2𝑇 𝑄 1 𝑑𝑇
2 + + 2 2 + 2 = (+) (1)
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑄 𝑑Ƶ 𝐾 ∝ 𝑑𝑡

By our assumptions dierction Ƶ ∝ 𝑄 are not considered and so

𝑑2 𝑇 1 𝑑𝑇 𝑄
+ + = 0 _____ (2)
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐾

𝑅
𝑄̇

When r = R, T = 𝑇𝑤

Heat generated in the surface

= heat lost at the surface

𝑑𝑇
i.e 𝑄.̇ 𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿 = −𝐾. 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 /r=R
𝑑𝑟

The temperature is continuous at the and so

𝑑𝑇
= 0 when r=o
𝑑𝑟

Rewriting (2) to get

𝑑 2𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟̇
𝑟 2+ = −
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐾
But from our knowledge of differentiation
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 ⇒ when that =𝑈 + 𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑇
Here r= 𝑈1 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑟

𝑑2𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
∴𝑟 2 + = (𝑟 )
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟̇
∴ (𝑟 )=−
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝐾

Integrating both sides.

To get

𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟̇ 2
𝑟 = − + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑟 2𝐾

𝑑𝑇 𝑄𝑟̇ 𝐶1
Or = − + , 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑟 2𝐾 𝑟

To get

𝑄𝑟̇ 2
𝑇= − + 𝐶1 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶2
4𝐾
From this we can now use the boway conditions.
𝑑𝑇 ̇
𝑄𝑅 𝐶1 ̇
𝑄𝑅
Now /r=R = - − + = −
𝑑𝑟 2𝐾 𝑅 2𝐾

̇
𝑄𝑅 ̇
𝑄𝑅 𝐶1
∴ - = − + ⇒ 𝐶1 = 0
2𝐾 2𝐾 𝑅

Also using the boway conditions

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 at r = R than

𝑄𝑅̇ 2
𝑇𝑤 = − + 𝐶2 ⇒
4𝐾
𝑄𝑅̇ 2
⇒ 𝐶2 = 𝑇𝑤 +
4𝐾
∴ so that the gneral temperature distribution is then of the form
 𝑄̇
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 = (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 )
4𝐾
In dimensions form we have

𝑇−𝑇𝑤 𝑟 2
=1− ( ) / 𝑇0 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑜
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑤 𝑅

𝑄𝑅̇ 2
Add 𝑇0 = + 𝑇𝑤
4𝐾

Exercise: shidents are to show that for a hollow cylinder, the general

Solution is

𝑄̇ 𝑟
𝑇 − 𝑇0 = (𝑟02 − 𝑟 2) + 𝐶1 ln
4𝐾 𝑟0
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇0 + 𝑄̇(𝑟𝑖2 −𝑟02 )/4𝐾
Where 𝐶1 = 𝑟
ln𝑟 𝑖
0

Where 𝑟𝑖 = internal, 𝑟0 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 when 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑖

𝑇 = 𝑇0 when 𝑟 = 𝑟0

Special Cases:
Critical thickness of insolation of pipe. At tins, pipe are used either to carry hot
fluids or cold fluids which must still meet the reach of the end users. One why
which we will ordinarily think of solving the problem is to wntime to lag or
insulate the pipe till no ht gain or is lost to the surroundings.

constant
Consider the hollow pipe below. h
R ta
r r(variable)
Pipe
T(constant)
))
From the above sketch, (r-R) = thickness for fixed values of the ta, the addition
of innutation will alter the pipe surface temperature. T is however generally
regarded as constant’
Assuming that ht lost from the is of the form
𝑄 2𝜋(𝑇−𝑡𝑎)
= 1 ln 𝑟⁄𝑅
𝐿 +
ℎ𝑟 𝐾

Assuming also that ht is constant. We can differentiate this expression as. r.t.,
𝑄
r, so that is a maximum. When
𝐿

𝐾
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑐 =
ℎ
𝑟𝑐 = critical radius of the insolation

This implies as r increses, the thermal resistance of the insulating larger

increasing but the thermal resistance of the surface coefficent is decreased
because A increases. At 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑐, total resistance reaches a maximum.

Example: A pipe wt a surface temperature 250℃. Asbestus insulation P =

577kg/𝑚2, is to the applied to the pipe and a heat transfer coef. of 4w/𝑚2. 𝑘 is
expected to exist at the surface of the bone pipe or the surface of the
insulation after it is applied.
(a) Find the critical radius of insulation
(b) If the pipe diameter is 5cm, and the insulations of the radius found in
part (a) is applied to it, find the ht loss from the pipe b/4 & after the
insulation is applied.
(c) If the pipe diameter is 12mm and the insulation of the same thickness as
obtained in (b) is used, find the ht loss b/4 & after the insulation is
applied.
Solution:
Consider the sketch below.
250℃
𝑇 = 250℃ 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

4𝑊/𝑚 2 . 𝐾
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝑖𝑝𝑒 ℎ = 4𝑊/𝑚2 . 𝐾.
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇0 (𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛)

𝑡𝑎 = 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝐾
(a) The critical radius is defined as 𝑟𝑐 =
ℎ
To get the thermal conductivity of insulations, the film temperature is used i.e
(250 +30)/2 = 140℃. (this is estimated to be temperature to be used to on K).

There are tables listing h k we go to such table to extract k.

∴ 𝑘 = 0.20𝑤/℃. 𝑀.
𝐾 0.2
∴ 𝑟𝑐 = = = 0.05𝑚 = 5𝑐𝑚.
ℎ 4

(b) Pipe radius = 0⁄2 = 𝑅 = 2.5𝑐𝑚

Pipe surface temp = 250℃

Using Newtons Law of cooling, the ht loss from the pipe

𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ𝑙 (𝑇 − 𝑡𝑎)

= 2𝜋 𝑋 0.025 𝑋 4(250 − 30)𝑋𝐿

𝑄
Or ( )1 = 2𝜋 𝑋 0.025 𝑋 4 𝑋220 = 138.2𝑤/𝑚.
𝐿

When the insulation is applied with a radius equal 𝑟𝑐 = 5cm. The insulation
thickness is r-R = 5.0 – 2.5 = 2.5cm. If temperature of the pipe remains
unchanged at the outer surface, and the outer ht transfer coefficent still
applies the ht loss will be
𝑄 2𝜋(𝑇−𝑡𝑎)
( )2 = 1 ln 𝑟⁄𝑅 = 163.3w/m
𝐿 +
ℎ𝑟 𝐾

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
( )2 > ( ) 1. If insulation greater than 𝑟𝑐 is applied ( ) will be reduced below
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
16.3.w/m

If one pipe radius is R = 12/2 = 6cm

Then heat loss.

𝑄
= 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑎) = 2𝜋 𝑋 0.06 𝑋 4 (250 − 30) = 331.8
𝐿
But thickness of insulation in (b) is 2.5 (5 − 2.5)𝑐𝑚 if the thickness is now
applied so that r=8.5cm, then ht loss is as
𝑄 2𝜋(𝑇 − 𝑡𝑎) 2𝜋 (250 − 30)
= =
𝐿 1 ln 𝑟⁄𝑅 ln(8.5⁄6.0)
+ 1
ℎ𝑟 𝐾 +
4𝑋0.085 0.2
= 295.2w/m

Any insulation now reduces the ht loss since the bone pipe radius (6.0)cm is
freater than the critical radius which is 5cm.

Tutorials

1. A certain material has a thickness of 30cm and a thermal conductivity of

0.04w/m.k. At a particular insrant, in time, the temperature distribution with
distance x from the left face is given by T=150𝑥 2 − 30𝑥, where x is in meters.

Caculate the ht flow radius at x = o, and x = 30cm. Is the solid heating up or

colloing down.

2. A plane wall 6cm thick generate ht internally at the rate of 0.3mw/𝑚2. One
side of the wall is insulated and the other side is exposed to an environment at
93℃. The convections ht transfer coefficent b/2 the wall & the environment is
570w/𝑚2. The thermal conductivity of the wall is 21w/m.℃. Calculate the
maximum temperature in the wall,

3. Heat is generated uniformly in a stainless steel plate having K = 20W/M.℃.

The thickness of the plate is 1.0cm and 𝑄̇ = 500MW/𝑀3 . if the two sides of the
plate maintained at 100℃ and respectively. Calculate the temperature at the
centre of the plate.

4. Water flows on the inside of a steel pipe with ID of 2.5cm. The wall
thickness is 2mm & the correction coefficent on the inside is 500W/𝑀2 . ℃. The
convection coefficent on the outside is 12W/𝑀2 . ℃. Calculate the overall ht
transfer coefficent, if what is the main letering factor for U.

Summary of nodal formulas for finte-difference calculations (Dashed lines indicate element
volume.) †

Nodal equation for equal increments in x and y

Physical situation (second equation in situation is in form for Gauss-Seidel iteration)
(a)Interior node 0 = 𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 − 4𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑇𝑚,𝑛 = (𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 )/4

𝑚, 𝑛 + 1

∆𝑦
𝑚 − 1, 𝑛 𝑚, 𝑛

∆𝑦
𝑚, 𝑛 − 1 (𝑚 + 1, 𝑛)

∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

(b)Convection boundary node ℎ∆𝑥 1 ℎ∆𝑥

0= 𝑇 + (2𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1) − ( + 2) 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑘 ∞ 2 𝑘

𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + (𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1)/2 + 𝐵𝑖𝑇∞

𝑚, 𝑛 + 1 𝑇𝑚,𝑛 =
2 + 𝐵𝑖
ℎ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘
𝑚 − 1, 𝑛 ℎ, 𝑇∞
𝑚, 𝑛

∆𝑦

𝑚, 𝑛 − 1

∆𝑥
(a) Exterior corner with convection boundary ℎ∆𝑥 ℎ∆𝑥
ℎ, 𝑇∞ 0=2 𝑇 + (𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1) − 2 ( + 1) 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑚 − 1, 𝑛 𝑘 ∞ 𝑘
𝑚, 𝑛
(𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1)/2 + 𝐵𝑖𝑇∞
∆𝑦 𝑇𝑚,𝑛 =
1 + 𝐵𝑖
𝑚, 𝑛 − 1 ℎ∆𝑥
𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘
∆𝑥

(c)Interior corner with convection boundary

𝑚, 𝑛 + 1 𝒎 − 𝟏, 𝒏 𝒎, 𝒏

𝒎 + 𝟏, 𝒏

ℎ, 𝑇∞ ℎ∆𝑥 ℎ∆𝑥
0=2 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + 2𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 − 2 (3 + +) 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑘 ∞ 𝑘
𝑚, 𝑛 − 1
𝐵𝑖𝑇∞ + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 + (𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1)/2
𝑇𝑚,𝑛 =
3 + 𝐵𝑖
 (e) Insulated boundary ℎ∆𝑥
∆𝑦 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘 0 = 𝑇𝑚,𝑛+1 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 + 2𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 − 4𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑇𝑚,𝑛 = (𝑇𝑚+1,𝑛 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛−1 + 2𝑇𝑚−1,𝑛 )/4
𝑚, 𝑛 + 1
∆𝑥

Insulated
𝑚 − 1, 𝑛 𝑚, 𝑛

∆𝑦
𝑚, 𝑛 − 1

∆𝑥

2 2 2 2 1 1
(f) Interior node near curved boundary ‡ 0= 𝑇 + 𝑇 + 𝑇 + 𝑇 − 2 ( + ) 𝑇𝑚,𝑛
𝑏(𝑏 + 1) 2 𝑎 + 1 𝑚+1,𝑛 𝑏 + 1 𝑚,𝑛−1 𝑎(𝑎 + 1) 1 𝑎 𝑏

𝑚, 𝑛 + 1
ℎ, 𝑇∞ ③
② 𝑐 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
① 𝑏 ∆𝑥
𝑚 − 1, 𝑛 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑚 + 1, 𝑛
𝑎 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝑚, 𝑛 − 1

∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

(g) Boundary node with convection along 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎+1 ℎ∆𝑥

0= 𝑇1 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇𝑚,𝑛 + (√𝑐 2 + 1 + √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) 𝑇∞
curved boundary - node 2 for (𝑓) above § √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 √𝑐 2 + 1 𝑏 𝑘
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎+1 ℎ∆𝑥
−[ + + + (√𝑐 2 + 1 + √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2) ] 𝑇2
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 √𝑐 2 + 1 𝑏 𝑘

† Convection boundary may be converted to insulated surface by setting ℎ = 0(𝐵𝑖 = 0).

‡ This equation is obtained by multiplying the resistance formulation by 4/(𝑎 + 1)(𝑏 + 1).
§ This relation is obtained by dividing the resistance formulation by 2.