ISU MODULE TEMPLATE

Subject: - Utilities 2

1. Title of the Module

Module 1, Chapter 1 Building Plumbing System

2. Overview / Introduction

Plumbing is defined as the art of science of installing pipes, fixtures and other
apparatus to convey and supply water in buildings and to dispose and discharge waste
water and other liquids, gases and other substances out of buildings in a safe, orderly,
healthy and sanitary way to ensure the health and sanitation of life and property.

3. Learning Outcome / Objective

The following are the learning outcome:

a. Name, describe and distinguish between sources of potable water.
b. Name, describe and distinguish between key types of and components in a
plumbing supply / distribution system.
c. Identify, describe and distinguish between types of and uses for water heaters.
d. Name and explain basic properties of fluid flow of a building plumbing system (i.e.
flow rate, velocity, pressure, pressure drop etc.)
e. Calculate maximum probable flow rate of building plumbing system.
f. Calculate pressure drop in lines of a building plumbing system.
g. Compute the minimum required size of distribution line of a building plumbing
system.
h. Name, describe and distinguish between method of waste disposal in buildings.
i. Identify, describe and distinguish between key component of a drain, waste and
vent (DWV) system.
j. Compute the minimum required size of drainage and vent lines of a building
plumbing system.
k. Interpret plumbing system and DWV system design and detailing information.

4. Learning Content

1. Sources of water

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 The Ambuklao Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant in Bokod, Benguet, Philippines.
The Philippines’ main sources of water are rivers, lakes, river basins, and groundwater
reservoirs. The longest and largest river, Cagayan River, discharges approximately 53,943
million cubic meters of water annually. Its groundwater reserves are 47,895 million cubic
meters replenished by rainfall and seepage from rivers and lakes. The lakes are utilized
mainly for fish cultivation. The four major groundwater reservoirs are in Cagayan, Central
Luzon, Agusan, and Cotabato. There are 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams. Dams and
reservoirs are mainly used for water storage, water supply, irrigation, regulation of flood, and
hydropower.[1]
The water in the metropolitan area of Manila is mostly supplied by the Angat Dam, Ipo Dam,
and La Mesa Dam (also known as Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system). Well-known and larger
dams in the rural areas include Ambuklao Dam (developed for flood control, irrigation, and
hydroelectric power source of Baguio and some regions in Luzon) and Magat Dam (irrigation
and hydroelectric power source in Isabela).

2. Plumbing Water Supply and Distribution Systems and Fixtures

The plumbing system is one of the most important elements of any home. This system
includes the pipes that connect the sink, toilet, water tank and other water delivery
appliances to the sewer or septic tank outside the home. Your plumbing system also
includes drains, faucets and valves.

3. There are five main styles of water heater available and each one has its
benefits and potential drawbacks. Here’s a little bit about each style of water heater to
help you choose which one is best for you and your home.

a. Conventional Storage Tank Water Heater

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This style of water heater is the most popular and probably the one you are most familiar
with.

This style of water heater features a tank that holds water to be heated. This means that the
capacity of the tank determines how much hot water you have available at once. The tank is
insulated so that when the water heats up, it remains warm until it is needed. This tank
features two valves, the temperature control valve, and the pressure control valve. The
temperature control valve opens to release heat and moderate temperature when the water
reaches over 120 degrees Fahrenheit. The pressure release valve opens to lower the
pressure when it reaches about 150 psi. This is the most common type of water heater
among family homes, but you are limited to how much hot water you can hold. If your tank is
too small or you need an excessive amount of hot water one day, you may run out and have
to wait for the next tank to be heated.

b. Tankless water heater

The “tankless” water heater features modern technology and can offer nearly endless hot
water for your home.

A tankless water heater, as you can probably guess, has no tank. Instead, there are super-
heated coils that fill with water and heat water in a flash as you need it, which is why it is
alternatively known as an on-demand water heater. This is great for heating water quickly,
even for large families who need a large amount of hot water at once. This style of water
heater comes in different sizes, and you do need to ensure that you have the right size for
your household, as a smaller tankless water heater will not be able to keep up with your
water usage otherwise and it will result in lukewarm or cold water. These models work well in
homes that use natural gas to power their water heater, but larger models require a larger
gas line and more gas to run correctly. Larger tankless hot water heaters that run on
electricity may require you to increase the electricity capacity of your home, which could be
costly.

c. Heat Pump Water Heater

This water heater hybrid can help save money on electricity because it doesn’t directly
generate heat.

This style of water heater is unique in that is uses heat in the air and in the ground to heat
water. This means that electricity is only used to move heat from the ground or air to the
water, instead of the alternative where electricity is used to generate heat. Heat pump water
heaters can use up to 60 percent less electricity than traditional styles of water heaters.
Because the pump is on the top, you may need quite a bit of room for this water heater,
sometimes up to eight feet of vertical clearance.

d. Solar Water heater

A solar powered water heater allows you to draw energy from the sun. This is a great idea if
you already have solar panels or are considering adding them.

This style of water heater may be the most energy-efficient of them all and relies on roof-
mounted solar panels as its energy source. The energy is transferred to a closed loop
system containing a heat-conductive material, which then heats the water in the tank. This
can save lots of money on sunny days and works particularly well for those who live in
warm, sunny climates. However, this system often requires a backup plan, such as natural
gas or electricity, so that the water heater can continue to run on cloudy days.

e. Condensing Water Heater

This water heater uses your home’s unused gas fumes to heat your water.

The condensing water heater may be the absolute best option if your family’s home uses
primarily natural gas as its energy source. This type of water heater funnel heated exhaust
from the natural gas system and uses it to heat the water, which is held in a tank much like
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the conventional version of the water heater. The gas fumes funnel through a coil placed at
the bottom of the tank to heat the water. Therefore, very little energy is used (aside from gas
already burned elsewhere, like by your oven or heater) to heat the water for your home. It is
a tank style water heater, so you will need to be sure to purchase one large enough for your
family size.

4. Fluid flow of a building plumbing system.

The water supply system must be designed to achieve appropriate water pressure and flow,
and to avoid contamination to potable water.
On this page:
• Water pressure
• Water flow rate
• Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions
• System layout
• Connection to the mains supply
• Backflow
• Mains connection
• Pipe materials and specifications
Also see installation, noise and air locks, pipe jointing systems, and valves and controls.
As well as avoiding contamination and achieving the right pressure and flow, the system
must be suitable for the temperature of water carried. A well-designed and installed system
will also be durable, minimise noise from water flow and from problems such as water
hammer, and support efficient use of water.
All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of different dimensions and materials),
valves and outlets to deliver water to building users. Some water supply systems also use
storage tanks and pumps. Designing a water supply system involves getting all of these
elements right so that clean water is delivered to the user at the appropriate rate and
temperature.
Water pressure
If the aim is to provide for building users’ needs while also using water efficiently, the right
water pressure is crucial. If water pressure is too low, this will be inconvenient for building
users – for example, because showers have poor water flow, and baths take a long time to
fill. If pressure is too high, this will lead to wastage of water, as well as high wear and tear on
the system.
Typically, new buildings in areas with mains water supply will have mains pressure systems.
Existing buildings, and buildings that are not connected to mains water, may have low
pressure systems or unequal pressure systems (with different pressures for hot and cold
water supply).
As an example of the difference in water usage, a low pressure hot water system shower
flow may average about 7 litres per minute, while a mains pressure shower may average
around 12–20 litres per minute.
Mains pressure systems require pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves to control
water pressure and temperature. Typically, pressure limiting or pressure reducing valves will
be used to control pressure in mains-supplied hot water systems or where high pressure
may lead to problems such as burst pipes.
Low pressure systems require few valves or controls. In low or unequal pressure systems,
pressure can be increased to adequate levels by storing water in a header tank (typically in
the ceiling space) so that gravity can be used to create water pressure. If a tank is being
used, see the BRANZ publications Water and Plumbing for details of installation
requirements.
Pressure can also be raised to adequate levels using a pressurising pump, in which case it
may be necessary to use pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves.
Water flow rate
The Building Code requires that sanitary fixtures and appliances have adequate water
supply at an adequate flow rate.
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As with water pressure, flow rates are crucial. A flow rate that is too high will result in water
being wasted, whereas a flow rate that is too low will mean that sanitary fixtures and
appliances don’t work properly.
Flow rate is affected by:
• Water pressure
• Pipe diameters – The smaller the internal diameter of the pipe, the lower the
pressure and flow rate. (Note that pipes are generally referred to by their inside
nominal diameter (DN), but it is actually the internal diameter that counts; a pipe
rated as DN 15 may have an actual inside diameter ranging between 10–18 mm.)
• Water temperature – higher temperatures will tend to raise pressure and flow rates
(note: also see materials below).
A flow regulator can be used to maintain a constant flow, independent of water pressure. As
an example, if someone is in the shower and the kitchen tap is turned on full, the
temperature and flow are likely to remain more stable if a flow regulator is used.
Limiting the flow for a tap or appliance to a reasonable rate helps balance the available
pressure throughout the system. Regulating flow allows a simpler design and minimum pipe
sizes as peak flow rates can be specified accurately and can also reduce noise, splashing
taps, and water hammer.
Manufacturers’ recommendations must be referred to for pressure and flow information
when selecting tempering valves and outlets (taps, mixers and shower heads).
Flow rate can also be controlled by specifying low-flow outlets.
Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions
Building Code Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 sets out flow rates and pipe sizes. Pipes must
be sized to achieve flow rates set out in accordance with Table 3 (see table below), or the
pipes must be sized in accordance with Table 4.
When calculating pipe size, the speed of the water (velocity) moving through the pipes must
not exceed 3.0 m/s.

Acceptable flow rates for fixtures and appliances

Fixture Flow rate (l/s) and

temperature °C

Basin 0.1 at 45 °C

Bath 0.3 at 45°C

Sink 0.2 at 60°C (hot) and 0.2

(cold)

Shower 0.1 at 42°C

Laundry tub 0.2 at 60°C (hot) and 0.2

(cold)

Dishwasher and washing 0.20

machine

Adapted from G12/AS1 Table 3

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The flow rates in Table 3 must be capable of being delivered simultaneously to the kitchen
sink and one other fixture.
System layout
In the design process, the layout of the plumbing system will largely follow room layout.
Nonetheless, there are many things to consider which relate to Code compliance, building
users’ comfort, and sustainability.
When planning a water supply layout, the following must be considered:
• Pipe runs and lengths – Keep pipe runs as short as possible. Pass pipes close to
fixtures to minimise the number of branches and unnecessary elbows, tees and
joints. Having longer pipe runs and more fixtures will reduce flow rate, increase heat
losses, and increase use of materials
• Point of entry into the building – This should be into a utility space such as garage/
laundry and include an accessible isolating valve, line strainer and pressure limiting
valve (if required)
• Water heating system – Locate centrally to reduce the length of pipe runs to fixtures
because longer pipe runs require more water to be drawn off before hot water is
discharged. Install a separate point-of-use water heater for fixtures that are more
than 10 m from the main water heater
• Noise prevention – Avoid running pipes over or near bedrooms and living areas.
Backflow
Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the
water supply system. The system must be designed and used to prevent contamination from
backflow. See backflow prevention for more.
Mains connection
Where the water source is a mains supply, the network utility operator is responsible for the
water supplied to the property boundary. The property owner is then responsible for
providing the pipework to bring the water into the building.
An isolating valve must be fitted at the point of connection to allow for maintenance and
repair of the building’s water supply system if required.
Pipe materials and specifications
The pipes used in a building must not contaminate potable water supply, and must be
suitable for the water pressure, flow rate and temperature of water they will be carrying. This
will be influenced by the materials used and also by other factors such as the wall thickness.
Other considerations are durability, ease of installation, cost, and sustainability. Common
materials for domestic water supply include copper, polybutylene (PB), polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP-3 or PP Type 3), and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).

5. Maximum probable flow rate of building plumbing system.

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Building Water Flow Rate
Calculation & Measurement Procedures thanks to Shelly Weinberg

Empirical Flow Rate Measurement Using a Bucket & Stopwatch

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One can purchase flow meters like the Savant digital flow meter above and that connect to
various plumbing fixtures to make water usage measurements,
and there are "flow meters" sold to home inspectors that pretend to make such a
measurement at a sink tap, but remember that we are measuring the flow rate at the
particular fixture - that number that does not describe the water flow rate capability of the
water supply system nor the capacity of water that could be delivered to the building.

Our photo shows water running into a five-gallon plastic bucket. If this is the only fixture
running water in the building we can time the number of seconds or minutes needed to fill
the bucket.
For example, if the time required to fill the five gallon bucket is one minute, then the water
flow rate at this plumbing fixture is 5-gallons per minute or 5 gpm.
Watch out: measuring "flow rate" at any faucet or fixture served by a well pump system will
be inaccurate and will reflect pump capacity, piping restrictions, fixture restrictions, and even
actual well flow rate variations where pump protection tailpieces or similar devices are
installed. Measuring flow rate at a fixture does not measure the well's true flue rate.
The measurement of water flow rate at a particular plumbing fixture does not accurately
measure the true water flow rate of the plumbing system because:
• Different flow rates will be found at individual fixtures depending on the water
flow restriction of the fixture itself, its' faucet strainer or even a disk that has been
inserted into the faucet or shower head (for example) to deliberately restrict the water
flow rate.
• Water piping supplying a particular fixture may restrict flow rate depending on
the length and diameter of piping as well as possible hidden errors in the plumbing
system such as a partial pipe blockage by solder at a copper joint, or blockage in the
water supply piping if it is clogged by minerals or rust.
• Water flow on a well pump and tank system will vary during the measurement
period depending on just when the water pressure drop turns the well pump on or off.
• Pump protection device effects on flow rate: Water flow rate on a well pump and
tank system will also vary if the well flow rate or well recovery rate is also varying and
if a well protection device such as a tailpiece is installed.

• Water pressure regulator settings will affect any measurement of water flow rate at
a building since the water pressure regulator setting might set a limit on the water
flow rate through that control. Water pressure regulators are found at most buildings
supplied with community or municipal water supplies (from water mains) and they
may be found on private water supply systems, including on pump and well systems.
On a pump and well system when we turned on water at just the kitchen sink (DYNAMIC
WATER PRESSURE) the flow rate dropped slowly until the pump turned on. Then the water
pressure rose slowly until the pump turned off. Water pressure varied between 38 psi (pump
off) and 25 psi (pump on).
When we turned on water at a bath tub faucet (photo just above) water pressure dropped to
about 28 psi and stayed there as the well pump ran continuously, delivering water to the
building at that rate. Here is a photo of our PRESSURE GAUGE reading 28 psi [image]
Also see WATER PRESSURE REDUCER / REGULATOR for a discussion of how we reduce
building water pressure to a safe level and how we assure uniform building water pressure
and flow using a pressure reducing valve or pressure regulator.
Readers whose building is served by a private pump and well system should
see WATER PUMP PRESSURE CONTROL SWITCH.
Typical Building Water Flow Rates at Various Fixtures or Test Points
If we actually measure the flow rate at various building fixtures and faucets we will see water
flow, measured in gallons per minute or liters per minute in these ranges:

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 Typical Water Flow Rates in Residential Properties
Plumbing fixture or measurement Water Flow Rate in
Comments / notes
location GPM / LPM
Bath tub faucet with no flow restrictor
3-5 gpm [1]
installed
Bathroom sink faucet 1-3 gpm [1]
Kitchen sink faucet 2-4- gpm [1]

Outdoor hose bib 3-6 gpm [1]

Shower head, no flow restrictor 2-6 gpm [1]
Shower head with flow restriction
1.25 - 3.5 gpm [1], average 2 gpm.
device installed
Shower heads prior to 1980 5 gpm (19 lpm)

Shower heads, flow restrictors ca

3.5 gpm
1985
Shower heads, flow restrictors, ca
3.0 gpm
1989
US National Energy
Policy Act 1992,
Shower heads, flow restrictors, 1992 2.5 gpm (9.5 lpm)
requirement waived in
2010
Shower head with high flow
1.8 gpm
restriction device
Water pressure tank drain 3-6 gpm [1]
Notes to the table above
[1] Typical field measurements by home inspectors
Typical incoming water pressure at residential properties ranges between 20 psi and 70 psi.
At properties served by a private pump and well system the actual flow rate will vary
continuously between the pump's cut-in rate and cut-out rate. All flow rates are also affected
by pipe diameter, length, restrictions, and other factors including water turbulence and
building height.
Aerating shower heads restrict water flow rate by adding air mixed in with flowing water to
increase perceived water volume.

Atomizing shower heads restrict water flow rate by water turbulence to create very fine high
velocity water droplets.
Shower head flow restrictors in simplest form consist of a disc insert with a small center hole
to meter water flow.
Some non-restrictive and non-compliant shower heads may permit water flow rates as much
as 10 gpm (38 lpm).

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Volumetric Flow Rate Calculation

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The equation of continuity states that flow rate can be calculated from the multiple of the
velocity times the cross-sectional area of flow.
Definition of Volume Flow Rate
The volume flow rate Q, given by the equation below, is the volume of liquid that can pass
through the cross-sectional area of a pipe over a given time interval.
The volume flow rate equation relates the cross-sectional area of the pipe (area of a circle of
a given diameter if the pipe is round) and the time over which the flow occurs expressed
usually as a velocity in feet per second.
Flow Rate Q = A x V or V = Q/A
or
Flow Rate Q = Volume / Time
where
• Flow Rate Q = flow rate in ft3 / second or cubic feet per second
•
• or if we are using S.I. units, Q = flow rate in M3 / second or cubic meters per second
• Area A = cross sectional area flow in sq. ft. of the pipe is given by two equivalent
formulas:

Using the diameter of the pipe:

A = π x D2/4

where pi or π = 3.1416
•
• D = Diameter or D2 = diameter squared
•
• Using the traditional formula for area of a circle we use the radius of the circle.
•
• From algebra we learned that the area of a circle
•
• A = π r2
•
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 • where r is the radius (half the diameter) of the circle
•
• Because 2 x radius or 2r is exactly equal to D or diameter, both formulas are
equivalent.
• V = velocity in ft/sec - for systems where V varies use the average fluid velocity in the
pipe either in feet per second or in meters per second.
•
• If we use feet per second then the volume flow rate will be in cubic feet per second
•
• If we use meters per second then the volume flow rate will be in cubic meters per
second. Or if you want cubic liters per second just divide meters/second by 1000.

Examples of Pipe Volume Flow Rates

Q = A x V for 1 meter per second through a 1-meter pipe
Shelly Weinberg, one of the greatest teaches I [DF] ever met, teaching at IBM's System
Research Institute, was conducting a course in queuing theory. To demonstrate a service
time optimization algorithm that looked daunting, Shelly asked us to pick any number and he
would demonstrate how easy the calculation was.
The class sat mute, frozen.
"OK" Shelly said, "We'll pick ONE. ONE's a good number, right?"
In honor of Shelly Weinberg, let's set everything in the volume flow rate equation to 1 and
see what happens.
A = 1 square meter cross sectional area of pipe
V = 1 meter per second flow rate
V = A x V or 1 x 1 = M3 / second

The flow of a fluid traveling at an average velocity of a 1 meter per second through a pipe
with a 1 square meter cross-sectional area is 1 cubic meter per second - volumetric flow rate
before considering fluid density.
Q = A x V for 1 foot per second through a 1-inch diameter pipe
A = π x D2/4
A = 3.1416 x 1 / 4
A = 3.1416
V = 1 ft. per second
Q = 3.1416 x 1
Q = 3.14 = ft3 / second or 3.14 cubic feet per second of volume flow rate

6. Pressure drop in a pipe system.

Calculating the Pressure Drop in a Pipe The friction factor itself is dependent on internal
pipe diameter, the internal pipe roughness and the Reynold's number which is in turn
calculated from the fluid viscosity, fluid density, fluid velocity and the internal pipe diameter.

Pipe Friction Loss Calculations

Flow of fluid through a pipe is resisted by viscous shear stresses within the fluid and the
turbulence that occurs along the internal pipe wall, which is dependent on the roughness of
the pipe material.

This resistance is termed pipe friction and is usually measured in feet or metres head of the
fluid, which is why it is also refered to as the head loss due to pipe friction.
Head Loss in a Pipe
A large amount of research has been carried out over many years to establish various
formulae that can calculate head loss in a pipe. Most of this work has been developed based
on experimental data.

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Overall head loss in a pipe is affected by a number of factors which include the viscosity of
the fluid, the size of the internal pipe diameter, the internal roughness of the inner surface of
the pipe, the change in elevation between the ends of the pipe and the length of the pipe
along which the fluid travels.
Valves and fittings on a pipe also contribute to the overall head loss that occurs, however
these must be calculated separately to the pipe wall friction loss, using a method of
modeling pipe fitting losses with k factors.
Darcy Weisbach Formula
The Darcy formula or the Darcy-Weisbach equation as it tends to be referred to, is now
accepted as the most accurate pipe friction loss formula, and although more difficult to
calculate and use than other friction loss formula, with the introduction of computers, it has
now become the standard equation for hydraulic engineers.
Weisbach first proposed the relationship that we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach equation
or the Darcy-Weisbach formula, for calculating friction loss in a pipe.
Darcy-Weisbach equation:

hf = f (L/D) x (v^2/2g)

where:
hf = head loss (m)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)

or:

hf = head loss (ft)

f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (ft)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (ft)
v = velocity of fluid (ft/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s²)
The establishment of the friction factors was however still unresolved, and indeed was an
issue that needed further work to develop a solution such as that produced by the
Colebrook-White formula and the data presented in the Moody chart.
The Moody Chart
The Moody Chart finally provided a method of
finding an accurate friction factor and this
encouraged use of the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, which quickly became the method
of choice for hydraulic engineers.

The introduction of the personnel computer from the 1980's onwards reduced the time
required to calculate the friction factor and pipe head loss. This itself has widened the use of
the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the point that most other equations are no longer used.
Hazen-Williams Formula
Before the advent of personal computers the Hazen-Williams formula was extremely popular
with piping engineers because of its relatively simple calculation properties.
However the Hazen-Williams results rely upon the value of the friction factor, C hw, which is
used in the formula, and the C value can vary significantly, from around 80 up to 130 and
higher, depending on the pipe material, pipe size and the fluid velocity.
Also the Hazen-Williams equation only really gives good results when the fluid is Water and
can produce large inaccuracies when this is not the case.
The imperial form of the Hazen-Williams formula is:

hf = 0.002083 x L x (100/C)^1.85 x (gpm^1.85 / d^4.8655)

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where:
hf = head loss in feet of water
L = length of pipe in feet
C = friction coefficient
gpm = gallons per minute (USA gallons not imperial gallons)
d = inside diameter of the pipe in inches
The empirical nature of the friction factor C hw means that the Hazen-Williams formula is not
suitable for accurate prediction of head loss. The friction loss results are only valid for fluids
with a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes, where the velocity of flow is less than 10 feet
per sec, and where the pipe diameter has a size greater than 2 inches.
Notes: Water at 60° F (15.5° C) has a kinematic viscosity of 1.13 centistokes.

Common Friction Factor Values of C hw used for design purposes are:

Asbestos Cement 140

Brass tube 130
Cast-Iron tube 100
Concrete tube 110
Copper tube 130
Corrugated steel tube 60
Galvanized tubing 120
Glass tube 130
Lead piping 130
Plastic pipe 140
PVC pipe 150
General smooth pipes 140
Steel pipe 120
Steel riveted pipes 100
Tar coated cast iron tube 100
Tin tubing130
Wood Stave 110
These C hw values provide some allowance for changes to the roughness of internal pipe
surface, due to pitting of the pipe wall during long periods of use and the build up of other
deposits.

7. Size of distribution line of a building plumbing system.

Three Steps to Sizing Plumbing Piping Systems

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Sizing plumbing piping systems is not a difficult task when you have the resources to
calculate the correct size pipe. The International Plumbing Code (IPC) includes a variety of
charts to assist you to properly size plumbing piping systems. Once you understand how to
use these charts, you can quickly complete uniform and easily built plumbing systems in
buildings. There are three steps to calculating the proper size for a plumbing piping system:
1. Add up the total number of water supply fixture units (wsfu) required in the facility
2. Estimate demand using the table from the IPC that correlates wsfu to expected
demand
3. Size the pipe using demand vs. friction loss curves found in the IPC charts
Following is an explanation of each of these steps and instructions on using the related IPC
charts.
The wsfu values for typical plumbing fixtures are listed on IPC table E103.3(2) (Figure 1).
Locate the type of fixtures to be used in the facility and then add up the total wsfu values for
all plumbing fixtures being served. Find the number closest to the wsfu value on Table
E103.3(3) (Figure 2) to estimate system demand in gallons per minute (gpm). Because the
chart includes the supply required for both flush tanks and flush valves, you must determine
if the system is predominantly one or the other, bearing in mind that most commercial jobs
will be flush valve. Most likely, the number you calculated in step one is in between wsfu
values found in the second chart. This means you will have to Interpolate to find demand,
which will be illustrated in the upcoming example. Finally, IPC Chart E103.3(6) (figure 3)
enables you to determine the pipe size using the appropriate demand vs. friction loss
curves.
The following example illustrates how all of this works. Let’s assume you are assigned to
determine the domestic cold water for a public bathroom with four flush valve water closets
and two lavatories. You can tell by using the IPC chart (see figure 1) that the wsfu values are
10 for the water closets and 1.5 each for the lavatories. The total wsfu required is calculated
like this:

WCs: 4 X 10 wsfu = 40 wsfu

2 Lavs: 2 X 1.5 wsfu = 3 wsfu
Total wsfu: 40 + 3 = 43

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When you look for this number on the Table for Estimating Demand, (Figure 2), you see that
the total wsfu of 43 falls in between to listed loads: 40 and 45. This is where it is necessary
to interpolate the actual demand. To accomplish this, use a formula that determines the
difference between the two load amounts and the related gpm’s. In our example, it would
look like this:

𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑=48−(48−46)∗(45−43)(45−40) 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑=47.2 gpm

Finally, you turn to “Friction Loss in Fairly Rough Pipe” table (figure 3) to determine the
proper size pipe for the application in our example. Assuming a maximum velocity of eight
feet per second (fps), we will plot on the graph where our demand (47.2) meets this velocity.
From that point, you select the nearest pipe size to the left of the 8 fps velocity curve. In this
example, you will select a two inch pipe. If you want to know the pressure drop, calculate it
by reading the friction loss from the bottom of the chart.
Now that you have seen how to use the IPC charts and tables, you are ready to quickly and
accurately size plumbing piping systems.

Any pipe that receives and conveys discharges of water closet, with or without discharge
coming from other fixtures to the house drain or house sewer is called soil pipe.

Size of the soil pipe

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 8. Method of waste disposal in buildings.

The sewage and its disposal

The collection and safe disposal of human waste are among the most critical problems of
environmental health. Recent statistical reports revealed that most of the water borne
diseases such dysentery, typhoid, diarrhea, and other intestinal disorders are prevalent in
areas where there is no proper and scientific Sewage Disposal System.

Types of Sewage Disposal System

1. Cesspool
2. Privy
3. Septic tank
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4. Public sewer line

Table
Technical data in determining volume of septic tank
Minimum width 90 cm
Minimum length 150 cm
Minimum depth 120 cm

For residential building to serve larger number of people

0.14 to 0.17 cu.m. liquid per person
For small residential house to serve 12 persons liquid content not more than 2.0
cu.m.
Fro school, commercial and industry establishment
0.057 cu.m. to 0.086 cu.m. per person

Example:
Determine the size of septic tank to serve 200 persons in a commercial establishment.

SOLUTION:
1. To determine the volume of a septic tank, Refer to the technical data. For a commercial
establishment we find the value of 0.057 cubic meters. Multiply:

200 person x 0.057 = 11.4 cu.m.

2. Assume 1.2 meter width of the tank per 100 persons. For 200 individuals multiply:

200/100 x 1.2 = 2.40 meters width

3. The maximum depth of a septic tank liquid is 1.50 meters. Solve for the length of the
septic tank.

L x width x depth = Volume

L = (Volume/Width x Depth)
L= (11.4 / (2.40 x 1.50))
L = 3.20 meters.

4. The value of L is only for the length of the digestive chamber. Divide by 2 then add the
result to the value of L to include the leaching well.

L/2 + L = 3.20/2 + 3.20

Total Length = 4.80 meters.

Therefore the size of the tank to serve 200 persons is 2.40 m. wide by 4.8- meters
long.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Homework ( assignments), Research works, etc.

Assignment 1: Names and describe the sources of potable water in the Philippines?
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Assignment 2: What are the key types of and components in a plumbing supply / distribution
system?
Assignment 3: Identify, describe and distinguished the different types of and uses for water
heaters?
Assignment 4: Calculate maximum probable flow rate of building plumbing system Having a
pipe dimension of 2 meters square at an average velocity of 3 meters per second?
Assignment 5: Determine the size of septic tank to serve 1000 persons in a school
establishment?
Assignment 4: Name and explain basic properties of fluid flow of a building plumbing system
(i.e. flow rate, velocity, pressure, pressure drop etc.)?
Assignment 6: Assume you are assigned to determine the domestic hot water for a public
bathtub with four flush valve water closets, two lavatories, two kitchen sink, 3 shower head.
Using the IPC chart (see figure 1).

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Remote (module, exercises, problem sets.)

8. Assessment Task

Quizzes:
1. What are the different sources of potable water in the Philippines?
2. Name the different component of plumbing distribution system?
3. What are the different usage of water heater in the building?
4. Compute maximum probable flow rate of building plumbing system Having a pipe
dimension of 4 meters square at an average velocity of 2 meters per second?
5. Calculate the size of septic tank to serve 6000 persons in a school establishment?
Assume 1.2 meter width of the tank per 100 persons. Use maximum depth of septic tank
liquid is 1.5 meters.

9. References

Plumbing Design and Estimate by Max B. Fajardo Jr. 2001

National Fire Protection Association
International Fire code, International Code Council,
Plumbing Code, International Code Council,
National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.

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 ISU MODULE TEMPLATE
Subject: - Utilities 2

4. Title of the Module

Module 2, Chapter 2 Life Safety System

2. Overview / Introduction

The protection of building structure from hazards of fire is one utmost concern of the
government. Hence, planners and builders have their own contributions in this campaign, by
making their plans and constructions conform to the fire code requirements. Despite the
advancement in fire protection technology, fire is still common occurrence in buildings of all
types. Record showed that the loss of life and damages to property is considerably
enormous in every incident of fire.

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3. Learning Outcome / Objective

The following are the learning outcome:

a. Identify, describe, distinguish between passive and active fire protection.
b. Identify, describe, distinguish and interpret fire resistance and spread of fire
ratings.
c. Name, describe and distinguish between types and key components of building fire
extinguisher, sprinkler and stand pipe system, fire detection system
and fire alarm system.
d. Interpret building fire protection system design and detailing information.

4. Learning Content

a. What is the Difference Between Active and Passive Fire Protection?

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It has become more apparent over the years how important it is to have adequate fire
protection in every building. For most people, what comes to mind when they think of fire
protection are smoke detectors and fire extinguishers. However, these two elements only
cover a small portion of the protection services you should have at all times. There are
many parts of a building’s fire protection that often go overlooked or are completely forgotten
about. There are in fact two types of fire protection: Active Fire Protection (AFP) and Passive
Fire Protection (PFP). One type of protection must not be chosen over the other. On the
contrary, both AFP and PFP must be used together for full fire protection. It is important to
underst and the difference between AFP and PFP so that you are confident that your
building is protected by both types.

Active Fire Protection:

Active Fire Protection consists of the components of fire protection that require some kind of
action to work. This action may be manual, like using a fire extinguisher, or automatic like
the sprinkler system dousing flames. The action that results from active fire protection is
triggered by some sort of alert or signal. The action itself will help contain, suppress, or
extinguish a fire that has already started. Although fire suppression systems are the most
obvious examples of AFP, fire detection or fire alarm systems are equally as important and
are also considered AFP. After picking up a signal, these systems will trigger a response
such as alerting the fire department, activating sprinklers, or closing fire doors. Working fire
alarm system and fire suppression systems can greatly increase your chances of
suppressing a fire or even extinguishing it before it causes harm.

Passive Fire Protection

Passive Fire protection is frequently overlooked but is a fundamental component of your fire
protection. Despite its name, it is always working. PFP are a set of components used to
compartmentalized a building in order to keep a fire from spreading and require no action to
work. Passive fire protection is usually structural and built into the building. By using fire-
resistant walls and floors, PFP gives people time to escape from a building that has a fire.
Other examples of PFP include dampers which prevent the spread of fire and smoke
through a building’s ductwork, and fire doors which compartmentalize fires. Fire-proofing
successfully compartmentalizes fires and keeps damage to a minimum by eliminating
possible fuel a fire could use to spread or ignite with in the first place. A small fire or a fire
restricted to a small area gives you a greater chance of putting it out, avoiding costs, and
avoiding injury.

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b. Classes of fire
• Class A - fires involving solid materials such as wood, paper or textiles.
• Class B - fires involving flammable liquids such as petrol, diesel or oils.
• Class C - fires involving gases.
• Class D - fires involving metals.
• Class E - fires involving live electrical apparatus. (Technically ‘Class E’ doesn’t exists
however this is used for convenience here)
• Class F - fires involving cooking oils such as in deep-fat fryers.
Types of extinguishers

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Water extinguishers
Water extinguishers are one of the most cost-effective ways to fight Class A fires, those
fuelled by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles.
There are four different types of water extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with
additives and water mist or fog.
• Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials,
cooling them and preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical
equipment.
• Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is
surrounded by air which is non-conductive. Most water spray fire extinguishers carry
a 35 kV dielectric test approval which means they have been tested on a 35,000 Volt
electrical source at one meter.
• Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals
added. The water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the
burning materials more effectively. Adding the chemicals to the water means that a
smaller extinguisher can produce the same fire rating as a larger, water only,
extinguisher.
• Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets
are much smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. The smaller the
droplet, the larger its surface area in relation to its size, the quicker the droplet
evaporates which absorbs the heat energy faster. The downside is the smaller the
droplet the less it weighs and therefore the less powerful the cloud of water.
All water extinguishers have a red label.
Foam extinguishers
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Foam fire extinguishers can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to
extinguishing liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet
extinguishers because they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. The foam
extinguishes liquid fires by sealing the surface of the liquid, preventing flammable vapour
reaching the air and starving the fire of fuel. They are not suitable for use on free flowing
liquid fires.
Foam extinguishers have a cream label.
Powder extinguishers
Powder extinguishers are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used
on Class A, B and C fires. They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment
however, they do not cool the fire so it can re-ignite. Powder extinguishers can also create a
loss of visibility and may create breathing problems. They are not generally recommended
for use inside buildings unless there is absolutely no alternative.
Powder extinguishers have a blue label.
Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2)
CO2 extinguishers are ideal for places with a lot of electrical equipment such as offices or
server rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus. Carbon
dioxide extinguishers do not leave any residue, unlike a foam extinguisher. They can also be
used on Class B fires, those involving flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol. CO2
extinguishers work by smothering the fire and cutting off the supply of air.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.
Wet chemical extinguishers
Wet chemical extinguishers are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and
fats, such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. They are extremely effective,
when used correctly. The wet chemical rapidly knocks the flames out, cools the burning oil
and chemically reacts to form a soap-like solution, sealing the surface and preventing re-
ignition. Although they are primarily designed for use on Class F fires, cooking oils and deep
fat fryers. They can also be used on Class A fires (wood, paper and fabrics) and Class B
fires (flammable liquids).
Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow label.
Fire blankets
Fire blankets are primarily for use on hot oil fires such as frying pans or small deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on someone whose clothing has caught fire. They work by
smothering the fire, stopping access to the oxygen fuelling it and extinguishing it.

c. Fire Protection system

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

Purpose of Fire Alarm Systems
A properly designed, installed, operated, and maintained fire alarm system can reduce the
losses associated with an unwanted fire in any building. These losses include property and,
more importantly, human life. The primary motivation for fire alarm system requirements in
building and fire codes is to provide early notification to building occupants so they can exit
the building, and to notify the fire service so it can respond to the fire. In settings such as
hospitals the fire alarm system provides notification to staff so they can respond to the fire
emergency (as opposed to evacuating the building). This module will explain the basic
features of fire alarm systems and the inspection of these systems. It should be noted that
fire alarm systems also are called "protective signaling systems," especially in NFPA
documents and in other codes and standards.
Basic Components of a Fire Alarm System
Fire alarm systems generally have the following components.
Alarm Initiating Device Circuits
These are the circuits which connect initiating devices such as smoke detectors, heat
detectors, manual pull stations, and water flow alarms. Additionally, many system monitor
devices important to the overall fire safety of the building also tie in to initiating circuits.
These devices indicate an "abnormal" condition, not a fire or "alarm" condition. They
SM PS-3
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
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 are referred to as "supervisory devices." One example would be the valve supervisory
switch or tamper switch of a valve controlling the automatic sprinkler system. These types of
devices also may be connected to supervisory type circuits.
Alarm Indicating Appliance Circuits
Audible and visible alarm indicating appliances tie in to these circuits to provide warning to
the building occupants. Devices which send a signal off premises also can be connected to
these circuits.
Fire Alarm Control Panel
The fire alarm control panel contains the electronics that supervise and monitor the fire
alarm system. The initiating and indicating circuits are connected directly into this panel.
Primary Power Supply
The primary electrical supply powers the entire fire alarm system. Primary power for fire
alarm systems typically is provided by connecting into the local commercial power service.
Secondary Power Supply
A separate power supply that will operate automatically when the primary power fails and is
capable of operating the entire system is considered a secondary power supply.
Initiating Devices
Initiating devices fall into one of two main categories: either those that indicate an alarm
condition, or those that indicate an abnormal condition of a monitored device. A brief
description of the common types of devices follows.
Fire detection can occur by using any device that responds to conditions caused by fire. The
most common byproducts of fire are heat, smoke, flames, and fire gases.
In addition, people can detect a fire and initiate an alarm by activating a manual pull station.
Also, when a sprinkler system activates and causes an alarm, it is a result of the sprinkler
system detecting heat produced by the fire (if the sprinklers have fusible links). We will now
look briefly at heat
SM PS-4

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

detectors, smoke detectors, flame detectors, gas sensors, manual fire alarm boxes,
automatic suppression systems, and indicating appliances.
Heat Detectors
Heat detectors commonly are used to detect fires. They are not as prone to false alarms and
are less expensive than smoke detectors. However, the response of heat detectors may not
be adequate in many instances, which limits their usefulness. Heat detectors are slower to
respond to fires than are smoke detectors because heat detectors cannot respond to smoke.
Heat detectors typically are best suited for detecting fast-growing fires in small spaces. Heat
detectors are also a means of fire detection in locations that smoke detectors cannot protect
due to such environmental effects as mist, normally occurring smoke, and high humidity.
Heat detectors have several different operating mechanisms.
Fusible-element type mechanisms use a eutectic alloy that melts rapidly at a predetermined
fixed temperature. When this temperature is reached and the fusible alloy melts, an
electrical contact occurs and causes an alarm. Fusible alloys also are commonly used in
sprinkler heads. These mechanisms must be replaced after each operation.
Bimetallic type mechanisms combine two metals with different thermal expansion
coefficients. As the mechanism heats, one metal expands more than the other, causing a
deflection in the shape of the element. This deflection causes an electrical contact, thus
initiating an alarm. These types of mechanisms are self-resetting as the element cools.
Rate-compensated heat detectors respond to a given temperature of the surrounding air
regardless of the rate at which the temperature rises. This, in effect, compensates for
thermal lag, which standard thermal detectors do not do. This can be compared to the rate-
of-rise detectors discussed immediately below.
Some heat detectors operate on what is commonly referred to as the "rate of rise" principle.
Regardless of the ambient temperature, if the detector senses a rise in temperature
exceeding a set amount, an alarm occurs. One method of accomplishing this is using a
container that has a small vent hole. As air is heated it expands; this can cause a set of
contacts
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
to close and send an alarm. If the expanding air can leak out of a vent hole, the resulting
pressure will be reduced. However, if the air expands at a rate faster than the vent hole can
compensate for, the contacts will close and an alarm will be sent.
Combination heat detectors can combine the two operating principles of reaching a fixed
temperature and reaching a set rate of rise. Smoke and heat detectors also can be
combined into a single unit. It should be noted that some combination smoke/heat detectors
activate when either condition is reached, while others require both the smoke and heat
mechanisms to operate. In most cases, little benefit, if any, results from the combination
detector which requires both heat and smoke to cause an alarm.
Other types of heat detectors include heat-sensitive cables and liquid expansion detectors.
Figure 1 Heat Detectors
SM PS-6

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Smoke Detectors
One cannot overemphasize the benefits of smoke detectors. However, smoke detectors are
not usable in all environments and their effectiveness varies depending on the fire scenario
and occupant capability. The two basic operating mechanisms currently used in smoke
detectors are photoelectric and ionization.
Ionization smoke detectors have a small amount of a radioactive material located within the
detector that "ionizes" the air entering the detection chamber. Once ionized, the air particles
become conductive, allowing a current to flow through the detector circuitry. Smoke entering
the ionization chamber causes a reduction in the current flowing through the detector's
circuitry. At a certain reduced level of current flow, the detector signals an alarm.
Figure 2
Example of Ionization Smoke Detector with Air Sampling Tubes
for Installation in Duct Work for Air Handling System
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Photoelectric smoke detectors use one of two methods to detect smoke; however, both use
a light-emitting source and a receiver. Photoelectric smoke detectors that operate on the
"light obscuration" principle work as follows. A light source is directed at a receiver which is
accustomed to receiving a certain intensity of light. When smoke particles enter the
detection chamber they partially block the light traveling from the emitter to the receiver.
When the light is reduced or obscured by a certain amount, the detector's built-in circuitry
sounds an alarm.
The second operating principle used in photoelectric detectors is that of "light scattering." It
is more common and operates as follows. The receiver in the detection chamber is located
so that the light emitted is normally not "seen" by the receiver. That is, the light emitter and
receiver are not aligned as with the light obscuration method. When smoke enters the
detection chamber, light from the emitter strikes it. A fraction of the light striking the smoke
particles is scattered or "reflected" away from the smoke particle. Some of this scattered light
lands on, or strikes, the photo receiver. When a preset amount of light lands on the receiver,
the detector signals an alarm.
Detectors that operate on the photoelectric principle are generally appropriate in locations
where slow-growing, smoldering fires are expected. These fires typically generate large size
particles (0.3-10 microns). They also respond better to light gray smoke as opposed to very
dark smoke. Ionization-type detectors respond better to fast-flowing, flaming fires that
produce smaller particles (0.01-3.0 microns). Ionization detectors respond better to dark
smoke than to light smoke. Photoelectric detectors are better suited than ionization detectors
for locations with high humidity. Air velocity also may affect smoke detector operation.
A special type of photoelectric smoke detector is the projected-beam detector. Here the
operating principle is the same as a light-obscuration- based detector but the light emitter
and the receiver are physically separated across large areas (e.g., the length of a room).
Smoke at any location between the two components can result in an alarm. These detectors
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also can be used in conjunction with mirror systems so that the projected beam is directed in
several directions before ultimately striking the receiver.
Another special type of smoke detector is the cloud chamber smoke detector. This detection
system uses a pump to sample
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

the air from a given room. The air is pumped into a high humidity chamber and the pressure
in the chamber then is reduced slightly. If smoke particles are present, as the pressure is
lowered, moisture will condense on the smoke particles. This creates a "cloud" within the
chamber. The photoelectric principle discussed above is then used to detect the presence of
the "cloud" and, hence, smoke.
Figure 3
Examples of Photoelectric Smoke Detectors
Light Obscuration Principle
Figure 4
Example of Beam Smoke Detector
Recent data indicate that health care facilities, for example, are experiencing an average of
approximately 15 unwanted alarms for every real alarm. One problem resulting from these
high averages is that people may ignore the fire alarm's warnings during fire drills and actual
emergencies, believing it to be "just another false alarm." Quite obviously this could lead to a
tragedy. Many of the unwanted alarms are attributed to "field" problems such as insects in
the detector and other maintenance deficiencies.
Some modifications in detector design are helping to reduce the unwanted alarm problem.
Alarm verification recently was approved by U/L. This allows the fire alarm panel to "wait" for
a specified time period to see whether the signal from the detector is just from a brief
exposure to smoke or from electrical "noise." Device manufacturers are modifying their
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

products continually to reduce the unwanted alarm rate. System maintenance can have a
profound effect on the false alarms at facilities.
There are other ways to deal with the unwanted alarm situation: proper system design,
installation, and acceptance test procedures. For example, the specification could specify a
certain sensitivity rating such as 2.5 percent or 3 percent which would eliminate detectors
that are too sensitive. During the acceptance test one should verify the sensitivity of the
detectors. Also, proper location of smoke detectors with respect to air diffusers will assist in
reducing unwanted alarms. As a general rule of thumb, a detector should have a three-foot
separation from a supply air diffuser.
Flame Detectors
Another method of fire detection is detectors that are sensitive to the light waves emitted by
fires. These typically operate by detecting ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR) energy. These
detectors are extremely quick to operate and typically are used only in high hazard areas
such as industrial process facilities, fuel-loading areas, and areas where explosions may
occur. Explosion suppression systems protect them. One problem with IR detectors is that
they will respond to sunlight, creating an unwanted alarm problem. Besides, both types of
flame detectors must "see" the flame to detect it so they usually have to be pointed toward
the locations where fires are likely to originate.
SM PS-10
Figure 5 Infrared Flame Detectors

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 6 Ultraviolet Flame Detectors
Gas Sensing and Other Phenomena Detectors
Gas sensing detectors and "other phenomena" detectors are not common. Special gas
detectors sense specific gases given off by a fire; these gases indicate a fire. For example,
there are carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide detectors. The use of carbon monoxide gas

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detectors in the home is becoming very popular as a way of warning residents of gases
produced by malfunctioning heating equipment.
Basically, any method of fire detection not already mentioned is considered under the "other
phenomena" category. One example is pressure. If a fire burns in a sealed room (the Apollo
capsule, for example), excessive pressures develop quickly and can be detected. Some
explosion detection devices operate this way.
Manual Fire Alarm Boxes (Pull Stations)
Very common initiating devices, the manual fire alarm boxes usually are referred to as
manual pull stations. These are simple devices which operate manually, i.e., they require
that a person operate the mechanism. These are found throughout building hallways, near
exits, and at other strategic locations such as a nurse's station or security center.
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 7 Manual Pull Box
The manual fire alarm devices provide a means of manually activating the fire alarm system
and are used in all types of fire alarm systems. They may be the only initiating devices
provided, or they may be used with automatic initiating devices, such as heat or smoke
detectors.
Manual fire stations generally are located near main exits from a building or from a floor of a
multistory building and in certain work areas containing unusual fire hazards, valuable
equipment, or records subject to fire damage. Paint shops, aircraft repair areas, computer
rooms, and telephone equipment rooms are examples of such work areas.
Automatic Suppression Systems
Fire suppression systems can connect into a fire alarm panel so that activation of the system
causes the panel to signal an alarm. Wet pipe automatic sprinkler systems commonly have
water flow detectors. As water starts to flow in the sprinkler piping, it causes a vane to swing
into an alarm position; this sends an alarm to the fire alarm panel. Dry pipe sprinkler systems
may have pressure sensors for the same reason.
All other fire suppression systems also can be connected to the fire alarm panel. As
mentioned above, not all devices signal an alarm condition.
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Many devices tie into the fire alarm system so that they will alert for abnormal conditions.
Perhaps the most common example is that of a valve supervisory switch or "tamper switch"
on a sprinkler system. To assure valves that control a sprinkler system are in the proper
position, they can have a tamper switch that will operate if the valve position changes. If the
valve moves, a signal will appear at the fire alarm panel indicating the valve should be
inspected. This is important since someone could inadvertently, or purposely, close a valve
on the sprinkler system, rendering the system inoperable.
Many other indicating devices can connect into the fire alarm panel for supervision. The
following is a partial list.
• water level and temperature in a gravity tank;
• water level and air pressure in storage tank;
• status of fire pump;
• air pressure on dry pipe system; and
• temperature in the sprinkler control valve room.
Figure 8
Examples of Water Flow Detectors
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Indicating Appliances
Signal Circuit Appliances
When a fire alarm system goes into an alarm condition because of the operation of an
initiating device, several activities can occur. NFPA 101 and the building codes may require
that a signal be sent to the fire department. Activation of the fire alarm panel may cause
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other events to happen. In most cases the fire alarm system also provides audible and visual
indications that an alarm condition has occurred. This latter function is the most important
when considering an occupied building.
Figure 9
Audible and Visual Alarm Appliances on Indicating Circuits
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

A fire alarm panel also can perform functions as needed or required. Examples of these
would be to control a remote annunciator or to operate relays that capture and recall
elevators. These and other functions will be discussed further in following sections.
Figure 10
Local Fire Alarm System Diagram
Secondary Power Supply
The secondary, or backup, power supply is required so that fire alarm operations can
continue if failure of the main power supply occurs. The secondary power supply should
activate automatically within 30 seconds of the primary power failure to maintain its normal
operating voltage. Secondary power supplies should be capable of powering the system at
maximum loading for at least a 24-hour period and then be capable of operating all alarm
appliances for another 5 minutes. The time period requirements for secondary power
operation capabilities vary and can be found in NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code.
Batteries with chargers are a common form of secondary power supply and engine-driven
generators also are acceptable.
SM PS-15

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Trouble Signal

An important feature of any fire alarm system is the trouble signal. Upon the detection of an
abnormal condition within the fire alarm system, the trouble alarm signal activates to attract
attention to the system so that the condition can be repaired. NFPA 72 requires as a
minimum that all systems provide an abnormal condition trouble signal for a signal open or
ground fault of the system's initiating, indicating circuits, and loss of primary and secondary
power supply to the system.
All components of fire alarm systems should be listed for fire alarm system use by an
acceptable testing agency such as Underwriters Laboratories (U/L). Additionally, all
components must be used only for the specific function for which they have been designed
and tested.
Types of Fire Alarm Systems
In 1993 the National Fire Protection Association incorporated all of the existing 72 series
standards into one standard that also included NFPA 71. This new standard is titled NFPA
72, National Fire Alarm Code.
Fire alarm systems can be designed and configured to meet the requirements of local fire
codes. In addition to the basic features or components common to most fire alarm systems,
there are several "types" of fire alarm systems. These are described here (with a reference
to the standard prior to being incorporated into NFPA 72).
Local Protective Signaling System
This type of fire alarm is contained entirely within the building which it services. The main
purpose of this type of system is to provide an evacuation alarm for occupants of that
building. The system need not be connected by any means to the fire service. Therefore,
notification of the fire service can occur only if someone hearing the evacuation alarm calls
and reports the fire alarm. This is the most common type of fire alarm and was covered
previously in NFPA 72A, now part of NFPA 72.
SM PS-16

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Auxiliary Protective Signaling System
This type of system is connected to a municipal coded fire alarm box dedicated to that
building. Upon activation of the fire alarm within the building, the municipal box is tripped and
sends a signal to the fire service. It uses the same line as the street fire alarm boxes
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available to the public. This type of system, covered previously in NFPA 72B, is now part of
NFPA 72.
Remote Station Protective Signaling System
This type of system uses leased telephone lines to connect the fire alarm system of a given
building to a remote receiving station such as the local fire or police station. This type of
system, covered previously in NFPA 72C, is now part of NFPA 72.
Central Station Protective Signaling System
In this type of system the fire alarm system is connected to a privately owned central station.
The central station monitors the fire alarm system and takes the necessary action when an
alarm is received, such as to call the local fire department to report an activated fire alarm.
This type of system, covered previously in NFPA 71, is now part of NFPA 72.
Proprietary Protective Signaling System
This type of system is similar to the central station system discussed above, except that the
central station is owned by the same concern as the building being monitored. The
building(s) being protected may or may not be on the same property as the central station.
Many large facilities use this type of system with the security center serving as the central
station. This type of system, covered previously in NFPA 72D, is now part of NFPA 72.
Voice-Alarm Communication System
Systems can include an emergency voice/alarm communication system. Inclusion of this
equipment within the fire alarm system provides for the transmission of information to
occupants of the building. The fire
SM PS-17

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

department also can use this equipment while operating within the building. This type of
equipment, covered previously in NFPA 72F, is now part of NFPA 72.
Audible and Visual Alarm Indicators
To make occupants of a building aware of a possible fire emergency, they must be notified in
some manner. Fire alarm systems typically accomplish this through audible and visual
indicating devices. So that occupants don't mistake the signals' purpose, and because the
building may be occupied by handicapped persons, there is a need for both types of signals.
For example, a deaf person will not hear a fire alarm bell and a blind person cannot see a
fire alarm strobe light. Bells, chimes, horns, buzzers, and speakers as well as strobe lights,
rotating beacons, and flashing lights are common examples of these devices. Many times
the audible devices will ring in what is referred to as "march time." This means the ringing is
not constant but in an on-off manner. The flashing of lights or strobes acts better to alert
occupants than a steadily illuminated light. It is common practice, but not always desirable,
to locate the audible and visual devices in one unit.
In addition to march-time signals, there are "coded signals." Coded signals, as the name
implies, have a pattern (code) that provides information regarding the initiation of the alarm.
The code may indicate a location such as a floor or wing where the alarm started. It also
could alert the occupants about the required action. The extent and meaning of any coded
fire alarm signal must suit the needs of a particular facility. In hospitals, for example, where
loudspeaker warnings are common, either coded or direct, such warnings and any fire alarm
warnings need coordination so that the two do not interfere with one another. All signaling
systems should be engineered and tested to ensure they are capable of alerting all
occupants. This requires a knowledge of the anticipated background noises. For example, a
mechanical room that has equipment operating that produces high noise levels may require
special attention.
SM PS-18

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Other Functions Controlled By Fire Alarm Systems
As mentioned above, fire alarm systems can do more than receive an indication of an
emergency and send an alarm. This section will identify some of the common functions
controlled by fire alarm systems. The list is not intended to be all-inclusive.
The fire alarm panel can send a signal to the fire department or other desired facility via one
of the methods described at the beginning of this section. Elevator capture and recall is a
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common function that fire alarm panels can perform easily. Upon receiving an alarm, the fire
alarm panel can operate one or more relays that control the actions of the elevator. The
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system (HVAC) or a smoke control system also can
be controlled through fire alarm panels.
Fire alarm systems frequently include remote annunciators. Briefly, a remote annunciator
"displays" the condition of the fire alarm panel at a remote location, usually through lights
(LEDs) on graphic or tabular displays. Remote annunciators also can have switches that
control the main fire alarm panel. The fire alarm panel may be in a secured area out of the
public way. However, it must be remembered that those investigating an alarm need to
inspect the indicators on a fire alarm or annunciator panel to determine the cause of the
alarm and the location of the initiating device. Remote annunciators can be at locations such
as the main lobby of a building, or at a security desk, so that the needed information on the
condition of the fire alarm panel is readily available.
Earlier we said that fire suppression systems can tie into fire alarm panels so that their
activation is monitored. Another important function that a fire alarm panel can control is the
activation of fire suppression systems. In this function, the fire alarm panel identifies a fire
through its initiating circuits, and activates a fire suppression system such as a halon or CO2
system, through a control circuit. This means that fire alarm systems can both alert when a
fire suppression system is activated, and serve as a control mechanism when suppression
systems are activated. Other types of fire suppression systems that fire alarm panels can
control are preaction and deluge sprinkler systems. We will talk more about these later.
SM PS-19

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

FIRE SUPPRESSION AGENTS AND SYSTEMS Basic Fire Suppression
Fire suppression and extinguishment involve two essential variables: the extinguishing agent
and the system or procedure for applying the agent. The primary methods of achieving fire
suppression can be explained through the use of the fire tetrahedron which evolved from the
familiar fire triangle. The fire triangle is a graphic representation of the three components that
must be present for combustion to occur: 1) fuel, 2) heat, and 3) oxygen. If some of these
components are removed or sufficiently reduced, combustion ceases. Fire suppression
involves the removal or reduction of one or more components of the fire triangle. Or so it
was thought until fairly recently.
With the advent of halon and a re-evaluation of the dry chemical extinguishing agents, came
a necessity to modify the fire triangle. In addition to the removal of one of the three
components just described, fire can be put out by interfering with the complex chemical
reactions that are constantly occurring during the combustion process. This "uninhibited
chain reaction" now adds a fourth side to the fire triangle, and the fire triangle becomes the
fire tetrahedron.
Water
Water is the most common fire extinguishing agent used because it has several features that
make it a desirable extinguishing agent. It also has some limitations. Water can extinguish
fire by cooling the fuel below the temperature at which the fuel can produce flammable
vapors. Water also can extinguish by smothering, dilution, and emulsification.
Water has a very high specific heat; it needs a great deal of heat before it can change from
the liquid to the gaseous phase. Therefore, water applied to a fire will absorb a large portion
of the heat released by the fire. If there is enough water to absorb the heat, the fire will go
out since the fuel cools below the temperature required to liberate additional flammable
vapors. Once water is converted to steam, it is still an effective fire extinguishing agent,
since the steam can continue to absorb a great deal of heat. It is best to introduce water into
the fire area in the form of a spray as opposed to a stream. A spray will allow for the quicker
absorption of heat. For this reason, sprinklers discharge water in a spray pattern.
SM PS-20

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

When water transforms into steam, its volume increases approximately 1,600 times. This
acts to displace the oxygen from the fire area. This will result in the smothering, or oxygen
depletion, of the fire. Without adequate oxygen, the fire soon will die. Thus, water
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transferring to steam acts as a suppression agent in two ways: heat absorption and oxygen
displacement.
Extinguishment by dilution means the introduction of water into a burning liquid. The dilution
acts to cool the liquid and reduces the vapor production at the fuel surface, since the
flammable liquid is diluted.
Emulsification is another method of fire extinguishment using water. Basically, an emulsion is
formed when immiscible liquids are mixed and one of the liquids becomes dispersed in the
other. The emulsion that forms at the surface will retard the liberation of flammable vapors
and the fire will die. Dilution and emulsification have several limitations and generally are not
a good way to extinguish a fire. Spills and boilovers may occur in some tanks, causing the
fire to spread and possibly causing injuries.
Perhaps the main benefit of water as a suppression agent is that it is relatively cheap and
readily available in most areas, especially if there is a municipal water supply. The major
limitations of water are that it is extremely heavy, it conducts electricity, it can damage
property, and it can freeze. However, there are design methods, including the selection of
other agents, that can minimize the negative aspects of water as a suppression agent.
Water With Modifiers
Occasionally the water used for fire suppression has modifiers added to change some of its
characteristics. Foam is perhaps the most common example. Low- to high-expansion foam
concentrates frequently are added to water to form a foam solution for fighting certain types
of fire, such as flammable liquid spills. Additives also include surface tension reducing
agents frequently called wetting agents. These increase the ability of water to penetrate
combustibles; in turn this allows the water to attack deep-seated fire. Antifreeze is used to
reduce the freezing point of water when temperatures at or below freezing threaten the
proper use of water- based fire suppression systems. NFPA's Fire Protection Handbook
discusses other water additives used with less frequency.
SM PS-21

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

CO2 is a substance with many commercial uses. Perhaps the most familiar is the
carbonation in soda pop and other carbonated beverages. CO2 also
has a number of properties which make it a good fire extinguishing agent. One of the most
common uses of CO2 systems is to protect kitchen cooking equipment. The hood, ducts,
and enclosed broilers may be protected with a total flooding application. Deep fryers require
local application protection.
At room temperature and pressure, CO2 can exist as a vapor or a solid. Eventually the solid
form (dry ice) will transfer to the gaseous form. For fire extinguishing purposes CO2 cannot
exist at pressures below 75.1 psi absolute (about 60 psi). At this pressure, the liquid, vapor,
and solid phases of CO2 can all exist simultaneously. This point is of importance when
designing piping systems to carry liquid CO2. Pressure in the pipeline must not drop below
this point or the attendant formation of dry ice will block the pipe and stop the flow.
In any fire, heat results from the rapid oxidation of the fuel. Some of the heat generated
brings the unburned portion of the fuel to its ignition temperature, while a large portion of the
heat and combustion escapes by radiation and convection to the surroundings. If the
atmosphere that supplies oxygen to the fire is diluted by adding carbon dioxide, the rate of
heat generated by oxidation is reduced. When the rate of heat generation is less than the
rate of heat loss, the fire will die. Complete extinguishment will occur when all of the fuels
involved cool below their ignition temperatures.
When the liquid is discharged to atmospheric pressure, it "flashes" over to vapor and dry ice.
The percentage of dry ice and vapor produced depends primarily on the storage condition of
the liquid. The superheated CO2 vapor is about 50 percent more dense than air. The dry ice
has a temperature of about -110°F at atmospheric pressure. In spite of the low temperature
of the dry ice particles, the heat capacity of the CO2 is rather low compared to other fire
extinguishing agents such as water. Thus the cooling effect, though present, is not as
significant on a pound-for-pound basis as the cooling produced by water. Most of the dry ice
from a typical total flooding discharge is sublimated by the air in the enclosure.
SM PS-22

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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
The evaporation of the dry ice in the fire zone removes heat from surroundings at a rate
between 60 and 110 Btus per pound of liquid CO2 discharged. While this cooling is small
compared with the cooling obtained with other agents (water provides ten times the cooling
effect per pound), it does contribute to extinguishing effectiveness.
The relative high density of CO2 vapor makes it useful for blanketing the surface of a fuel.
The oxygen in the surrounding air physically separates
from the surface of a fuel. This effect is noticeable particularly with local application.
Halon
Halon is a fire extinguishing agent commonly used to protect electronic and electrical
equipment, surface burning solids such as some plastics, flammable liquids, and gases.
Halon generally is not successful in protecting reactive metals (e.g., magnesium, sodium,
etc.) and in extinguishing many fires that can become deep seated. For these fires, high
concentrations and a long soak time would be required. Fuels that contain their own
oxidizing agent will burn freely in halon, making it ineffective. Halons also are quite
expensive, a concern when determining the type of agent and system to use for fire
protection.
Halon extinguishes fire by entering into, and disrupting, the chemical combustion chain
reaction; the exact mechanism still is not understood completely. This is unique for a fire
extinguishing agent in that it affects the chemical chain reaction as opposed to quenching
(removal of heat by water) or smothering (by CO2).
The breaking of the chain reaction allows halon to suppress fires quickly. In addition, halon is
considered a "clean" agent, in that it leaves no residue after discharge. It is almost
completely electrically nonconductive; hence its wide use in electronics. Halon is also
noncorrosive to many materials. Since Halon 1301 is a gas when discharged, it has good
volume filling capabilities. However, Halon 1211, another fairly common agent, does not
vaporize as readily as Halon 1301. The concentrations required typically are low, on the
order of five percent by volume. This results in smaller storage containers. Halon is
approximately 2-1/2 times more effective than CO2 on a weight basis. Finally, halon is
colorless, which allows people caught in a discharge to see through it.
SM PS-23

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Halon systems often protect data processing centers and other areas which contain
sensitive electrical equipment. Such systems also exist in electric and telephone switchgear
rooms. In addition to the type of hazard protected, another critical criterion for using halon is
the need to provide a tight enclosure. Since halon is a gas, it can leak through improperly
sealed openings and, as a result, the required design density is not maintained.
Lately, there has been great concern over the effects halon has on the environment, and in
particular its depletion effect on the ozone layer. This has resulted in a re-evaluation of the
use of halon as a fire suppression agent. In addition, the use of halon in acceptance testing
has been subject to study, and options such as using different test gases (e.g., sulfur
hexafluoride, SF6) are now being evaluated. Several new products are now under
development to replace the halon agent in existing fire suppression systems.
Dry Chemical
Dry chemical extinguishing agents can extinguish extremely fast if introduced directly into
the flaming area. Smothering and cooling result from the application of dry chemical agents,
but the primary extinguishing capabilities result from the combustion-chain-reaction-breaking
abilities of the dry chemical agent. This is the same principal extinguishing feature of halons.
Dry chemical fire suppression systems use a dry chemical powder mixture as an
extinguishing agent. Common dry chemical agents include sodium bicarbonate, potassium
bicarbonate, urea-potassium bicarbonate, and monoammonium phosphate. Additives in the
base compound reduce caking, promote water repellence, and increase flow and storage
characteristics. Examples of common additives include metallic stearates, tricalcium
phosphates, and silicones. Multipurpose dry chemical usually refers to the monoammonium
agent which can be used to suppress fires involving ordinary combustibles, and energized
electrical equipment as well as flammable liquids.

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Regular dry chemical is not considered a good agent for ordinary combustibles, since water
also must be applied to attack any subsurface burning which the regular dry chemical cannot
reach. The multipurpose agent does have penetrating abilities, thus its multipurpose listing.
Agents should never be mixed unless specifically listed for mixing, as some agents will
generate CO2. This may cause containers to explode and the agent to cake.
SM PS-24

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Dry chemical agents can be applied via portable fire extinguishers, hand hoselines, or fixed
systems. Portable extinguishers and fixed systems are covered later in this section.
Here are some examples of hazards for which dry chemical agents are effective.
• Flammable and combustible liquids and combustible gases.
• Combustible solids that melt when involved in fire (such as
naphthalene and pitch).
• Those fuels released from transfer facilities, including transfer piping leaks.
• Electrical hazards similar to transformers and oil circuit breakers.
• Multipurpose, ordinary combustibles and some plastics, if all
involved surfaces can be covered by the agent.
• Kitchen hoods and ducts as well as surface cooking units and deep fat fryers (a very
common application).
Here are examples of hazards for which dry chemical agents are not considered satisfactory.
• Chemicals containing their own oxygen supply, such as cellulose nitrate.
• Combustible metals, unless the agent is specifically listed for such use.
• Deep-seated fires in ordinary combustibles when multipurpose dry chemical agents cannot
cover all involved surfaces.
• In addition, it is not wise to use a dry chemical to prevent reignition if a heat source is
present.
Dry chemical agents are likely to leave sticky residues, may adhere to electrical
components, are slightly corrosive, and may affect occupant breathing and reduce vision. If
the agent does become moist, it may not flow properly through the systems and will not
discharge properly. Dry chemical agents, however, are considered nontoxic.
SM PS-25

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 11
Local Application Dry Chemical System Installation
Wet Chemical
Wet chemical suppression agents are a relatively new means of suppressing fires involving
cooking equipment. Leading manufacturers of wet chemical suppression systems introduced
these systems in the early 1980s. Wet chemical suppression systems currently are accepted
only for the protection of restaurant, commercial, and institutional hoods, plenums, ducts,
and associated cooking appliances. Only pre-engineered systems are used.
Wet chemical extinguishing agents typically are potassium carbonate- based, potassium
acetate-based, or a combination of these, mixed with water. These solutions are alkaline-
based and discharge through system piping by an expellent gas. The primary extinguishing
capability of the wet agent is its characteristic of mixing with cooking grease to form a foam
barrier over the burning fuel. This blanket effect prevents the flammable volatiles from mixing
with the oxygen needed for combustion. It also acts to cool the fuel surface; this aids in fire
suppression.
SM PS-26

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The wet chemical agents generally are harmless to humans. Any effects that may occur
usually disappear once contact with the agent ends. The agents may have corrosive effects
on some metals; the manufacturer's literature should be consulted for such information.
Manufacturers' warnings to use the right agent in the right system are very important. In part,
this is due to the testing of specific systems with specific wet chemical agents. Using
nonapproved agents, or agents from other manufacturers may make a system inoperative.
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 Figure 12
Restaurant Range Hood Wet Chemical System
TYPES OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The two basic types of systems are public systems and private systems.
Public Water Systems
Public water systems usually fall under a unit of local government or an "authority" with legal
responsibility. The water utility department and the fire department need to develop and
maintain a good working relationship. They should support each other and work together to
plan, design, and maintain the system for the benefit of the community. If a public water
system and the fire department are both units of the local government, it is easier to work
together.
SM PS-27

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

This becomes even more critical when the water authority is separate from local
government.
Private Water Systems
Private water systems usually are owned by land development or manufacturing companies.
They may supply water utility service to a particular site or in some instances to a
community. When serving a single site, the water usually is used for manufacturing,
processing, and fire protection. Generally, the system has its own water storage and, in
some cases, its own water processing equipment.
The water distribution system (pipes and valves) is only for use on the site and generally is
not connected to a public system. The system may have standard water distribution
hardware, or hardware manufactured for the private system owner. If nonstandard hardware
is used, sometimes the hydrants and hose connection are not compatible with the local fire
department's apparatus. If you have any private systems within your jurisdiction, preplan the
site and make arrangements with the private system operators for appropriate hardware so
that the fire department's equipment and the equipment at the site system are compatible or
are adaptable for compatibility.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS
All water supply systems, either private or public, have the same basic functional
components: a water source, water storage, water distribution systems (pipes and valves),
and hydrants or other end-user devices (sprinkler systems, etc.).
Water Sources
The source of a utility's water varies around the country, and perhaps even within smaller
geographic areas. The two sources for water supply systems are ground water and surface
water. Although most water systems have only one source, there are instances of both.
SM PS-28

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ground Water Sources
Ground-water-source users receive the water from wells, where the water is pumped up
from the ground; ground-level springs; or subterranean springs from which the water is
either drained off or pumped out of the springs. Once brought to the surface it is either
stored or sent through the distribution system. Ground-water-source users may or may not
treat the water prior to distribution.
Surface Water Sources
Surface water sources include lakes, rivers, ponds, coastal waters, and natural or artificial
reservoirs.
Surface water users usually will treat the water, since water from this source tends to be
exposed to contaminants more than ground water. In some coastal areas the local water
utility may operate a desalination plant to convert salt water to fresh water.
Two Systems
There is a trend today, in parts of the country, to have two separate systems in the
community. One system provides potable water and the other system supplies nonpotable
water. Potable water is used for human consumption and for food preparation or processing.

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The nonpotable water generally is used for industrial processes, irrigation of crops or
landscapes, and fire suppression systems.
This nonpotable water is referred to as "gray water." It is processed water residue from
sewage treatment plants; all solids have been removed, but the water is not purified enough
to be potable. These systems use water normally discharged into lakes or rivers, or pumped
underground into wells. By using this "gray water" the community is able to conserve the
potable supply and get good use out of water that it otherwise would discard.
SM PS-29

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS Water Storage

Storage of water prior to delivery in water systems normally occurs in elevated tanks;
ground-level tanks or underground storage; or a combination of elevated and ground-level
tanks.
Elevated Storage
Elevated storage tanks or reservoirs are common because they do not require pumping
water into the distribution system; gravity supplies pressure to the distribution system.
Generally a pumping system increases water main pressure in the event of a larger demand
for water. The use of the system for firefighting could put a larger-than-normal demand on
the system, and the utility company could supply larger pressures and volumes with pumps.
In some systems elevated tanks are used solely for storage of water for fire protection. For
these tanks to be reliable, they must be properly located, have an adequate capacity, and be
of sufficient height to develop the required pressures.
Ground-Level and Underground Storage
Ground-level storage tanks, which lack the gravitational pressure of elevated tanks, usually
cannot supply the minimum pressure demands for normal use. Therefore, pumps maintain a
minimum pressure and can increase the pressure should there be a demand.
Combination Storage Systems
Some systems use a combination of elevated and ground-level tanks for storage.
Pumps
The main components of water distribution systems are pumps, pipes (mains), valves,
hydrants, and fire protection connections.
SM PS-30

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Pumps provide proper pressure and volume in the water distribution system. Normal system
pressure may have to be increased in the event an increased demand is placed on the
system or part of the system. Such a demand may result from a main break, flushing of the
system, or a large fire or multiple fires occurring at the same time.
Pipes (Mains)
Water mains form the foundation of a good water supply. Size, location, tie-ins, and
materials, along with proper maintenance, all affect the quality and quantity of water service
delivered. For this reason, communities and water departments must consider the quality,
capability, and reliability of new system installations and retrofits. The fire department should
be consulted any time that modifications are made to a system to assure that fire
department requirements are met, and that the system will supply enough pressure and
quantity of water for fire protection purposes.
The first fire mains in the Colonies were hollowed-out logs. Water mains today generally are
constructed out of cast iron, ductile iron, steel, cement asbestos, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or
a combination of these materials.
Water mains usually have the larger diameter pipe closer to the water source. From that
point to the end user, the size gradually decreases.
Valves
Valves control the flow of water through the water distribution system. Valves are broadly
divided into two categories: indicating and nonindicating.
Indicating valves visually show the position of the gate or valve seat to indicate whether it is
closed, partially closed, or open. The primary types of indicating valves used for connections
to fire suppression systems are OS&Y (Outside Screw and Yoke), YPIV (Yard Post
Indicating Valve), and indicating Butterfly Valves.
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 SM PS-31

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Valves supplying water for fire protection and suppression systems should be chained and
locked in the open position at all times. If not chained and locked, the valve should have a
valve tamper alarm, which activates a trouble signal on an alarm system if the valve is not in
the full open position.
Nonindicating valves do not have any visible means to show their position. Except for a few
valves in plants and pumping stations, valves in water supply systems are of the
nonindicating type. Valves in water distribution systems usually are buried or installed in
manholes.
When properly installed, a buried valve is operable from above ground through a valve box.
A long-handled wrench, known as a "T" wrench, is inserted in the valve box to operate the
valve. It is very important that valves are in the full open position, as a partially closed valve
will not deliver the amount of water needed for the system and can hamper or even cripple
firefighting operations.
Valves should be tested at least once a year to assure their proper operation. Valves should
be spaced so that only a short length of pipe will be out of service at one time should a break
occur.
Hydrants
Early methods of obtaining water for firefighting purposes were crude. Water systems used
hollowed-out logs for water mains. Pits were dug at specified intervals to expose the mains.
A hole was made in the main and a wooden plug was inserted. These plugs were known as
"fire plugs," and this term is still sometimes used to identify hydrants. When a fire occurred,
the wooden plug was removed from the main, water filled the pit, and fire apparatus drafted
from the pit. However, the flow of water was so meager that the system was seldom
effective.
Cast iron pipe permitted the system pressure to be increased, and this led to the
development of the post-type fire hydrant. An opening at the upper end of the standpipe
provided a place for the fire pumpers to receive their supply.
Two basic types of fire hydrants used today are dry barrel and wet barrel.
SM PS-32

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Hydrant Installations
For hydrants to be immediately useful, they must be kept clear of obstructions such as
fences, walls, landscaping, and snow. The center of the large opening should be a minimum
of 18 inches above grade. The hydrant must be far enough from any adjacent object to allow
the hydrant wrench to turn in a continuous movement and to allow for hose connection.
The caps on the openings and the threads need to be inspected on a periodic basis to
assure that they operate freely and that the hose couplings can be connected. Any hydrants
found to be nonfunctional should be reported to the utility authority and a followup inspection
made to be sure the hydrant was repaired and placed in service.
One of the most common problems with out-of-service hydrants is that someone failed to
turn on the control valve for the hydrant after installation or maintenance. Usually each
hydrant on a system will have its dedicated valve so that only one hydrant will have to be out
of service for repair or replacement.
Hydrants come in many styles. Utility companies usually will have one type of hydrant on
their system; however, some communities may have more than one design of hydrant on the
system. Some large developments have hydrants designed to add to the aesthetics of the
development.
Dry Barrel Hydrants
Dry barrel hydrants operate with a valve at the bottom of the hydrant that opens at the water
main and, when closed, permits the water remaining in the barrel to drain out. These
hydrants are common in areas subject to freezing weather conditions and are by far the
most common hydrants today.
Current dry-barrel hydrant designs incorporate a traffic safety flange and operating rod
installed just above grade. With this type of design, if a vehicle hits the hydrant, it will shear
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the hydrant and operating rod and allow the main valve to remain closed. The safety flange
allows a new hydrant to be installed without digging down to the water main; this provides for
less expensive repair and decreases time out of service.
SM PS-33

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Wet Barrel Hydrants
Wet barrel hydrants may have a valve at each outlet or they may have only one valve that
controls the flow to all outlets.
In general, hydrant bonnets (tops), barrels, and foot pieces are made of cast iron. The
important working parts usually are made of bronze, but the valve facings may be made of
rubber, leather, or composition material. A standard hydrant is equipped with one large
opening (4 inch or 4-1/2 inch) and two outlets for 2-1/2-inch hose couplings.
Hydrant outlet threads must conform to the threads which the local fire department uses.
National Standard hose coupling threads are best suited for mutual-aid operations. Adapters
may be necessary when using hydrants in other response areas or those on private
systems.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
Many codes do not require a specific type of automatic suppression system, but generally it
is expected that an automatic sprinkler system will exist unless the hazard is not compatible
with water. Automatic sprinkler systems are the most common automatic fire suppression
systems. They consist of automatic sprinklers that operate at a predetermined temperature
and automatically distribute water upon a fire in sufficient quantity at least to contain, and
possibly to extinguish, the fire. The water reaches the sprinklers through a system of
overhead piping. Some reliable public or private water source supplies the overhead piping.
Sprinklers Have Two Main Purposes
Sprinkler systems have two main purposes: 1) to extinguish unwanted fires, and 2) to control
the size of a fire until trained fire suppression crews arrive to extinguish the fire. Either of
these activities results in increased property protection and life safety. When connected to an
approved fire alarm system, sprinkler systems provide the added benefit of acting as
initiating devices to activate the fire alarm system.
SM PS-34

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 13
Major Sprinkler System Components
Classifications of Automatic Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, defines the six major automatic
sprinkler systems.
Wet Pipe Systems
Wet pipe systems use closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system containing
water under pressure at all times. The wet pipe system is the most common type of sprinkler
system in use unless there is danger of the water in the pipes freezing or when other special
conditions require one of the other types of systems.
SM PS-35

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 14
Examples of Alarm Check Valves
Figure 15
Alarm Check Valve (Section)
Dry Pipe Systems
Dry pipe systems employ closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system which
contains air or nitrogen under pressure. When a fire occurs and an automatic sprinkler
activates, the air or nitrogen escapes. This reduces the pressure in the system to a point at
which the pressure on the water supply side causes the valve to operate, allowing water to
flow
SM PS-36
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FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
through the system piping. Dry pipe systems usually exist only in locations that cannot be
heated properly.
Figure 16 Dry Pipe Valve
Figure 17 Differential Dry Pipe Valve
SM PS-37

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Preaction Systems
Preaction systems employ closed automatic sprinklers attached to a piping system which
contains air, which may or may not be under pressure. When a fire occurs, a fire detecting
device, such as a smoke or heat detector, activates and causes the water control valve to
open and water to flow into the pipe system. Thereafter, when an automatic sprinkler
activates, water is available to flow through the sprinkler immediately. Preaction systems
commonly exist in areas where there is danger of serious water damage as a result of a
damaged automatic sprinkler or broken piping. Electrical equipment rooms, computer rooms,
and operating rooms are locations which use preaction sprinkler systems.
Deluge Systems
Deluge sprinkler systems employ automatic sprinklers which are open at all times. When a
fire occurs, a fire detecting device, usually a heat detector, activates and causes the deluge
valve to open. Water then will flow into the piping and discharge through all the open
sprinklers. Deluge sprinkler systems offer effective protection from severe hazards, such as
flammable liquids, where there is a possibility that the fire could flash ahead of the operation
of closed automatic sprinklers.
SM PS-38
Figure 18 Deluge System

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 19 Open Sprinkler Head
Combined Dry Pipe and Preaction Systems
These systems combine the essential features of each system and can operate as either
system. Typically the dry pipe feature serves as a supplemental operation in case of failure
of the preaction system. Such systems are effective in areas that are too large for a single
dry pipe system.
Antifreeze Systems
These types of systems are used to protect small, unheated areas. The system's piping is
filled with a special antifreeze solution to prevent freezing in the piping that protects the area.
Types of Automatic Sprinklers
There are various types of sprinklers. We will briefly examine the most commonly found
ones.
Standard
Automatic sprinklers are heat-sensitive devices designed to react at predetermined
temperatures to release a stream of water automatically, and to distribute it in a specified
pattern and quantity over designated areas. Under normal conditions, the discharge of water
from a closed automatic sprinkler is restrained by a cap or valve held tightly against the
orifice by the releasing mechanism. The standard automatic sprinkler
SM PS-39

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

orifice is one-half inch in diameter. The most commonly used release mechanisms include
fusible links, glass bulbs, and chemical pellets.
Figure 20
Fusible Link Automatic Sprinkler
Water flowing through the orifice strikes a deflector designed to create the specified
discharge pattern. Sprinklers are made for installation in an upright (SSU), pendent (SSP),
or sidewall position. While the shape of the deflector usually indicates the proper position of
the sprinkler, the letters "SSU" or "SSP" are stamped on the deflector's surface for easy
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identification. For upright and pendent sprinklers, the water spray flows downward in a
hemispherical pattern from the deflector. For sidewall sprinklers, which are mounted in a
horizontal or vertical position depending on design, the flow projects horizontally away from
the wall- mounted sprinkler. A small amount of water also hits the wall directly behind the
sidewall sprinkler.
SM PS-40

Special Heads
Extended Coverage
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Figure 21 Sprinkler Deflector Styles
NFPA 13 defines extended coverage sprinklers as "sprinklers with special extended,
directional discharge patterns." These are specially designed sprinklers and must be
installed according to their listings and the appropriate sections of NFPA 13.
Fast Response Sprinklers
Fast-response sprinklers, as the name implies, are specially designed to react more quickly
than standard sprinklers when subjected to the effects of fire. This group of sprinklers
includes three types of fast-acting sprinklers: 1) quick response sprinklers, 2) residential
sprinklers, and 3) early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinklers. A quick response early
suppression (QRES) is also under development.
SM PS-41

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Residential
These are sprinklers intended for use in residential applications only and which have been
listed according to U/L Standard 1626 and installed in accordance with the requirements of
NFPA 13, NFPA 13D, and NFPA 13R. These sprinklers typically use less pressure and flow,
and the design requirements stem from fires and conditions found in residential settings.
Because of this, they must not be used outside their listed uses and applications.
Figure 22 Residential Sprinklers
Quick Response
Recent technology has introduced "quick-response sprinklers." The sole criterion for this
special designation is performance on the Underwriters Laboratories' (U/L) plunge test,
presently a 14-second maximum operating time. The faster operating time holds promise of
improved life safety and property protection. The quicker response time results from an
actuation element that has a higher ratio of surface-area-to-mass than normal sprinklers.
The higher surface area allows for quicker transfer of heat into the element and the lower
mass requires less heating. Therefore, a shorter time is needed to reach the element's
activation temperature. A sprinkler that responds more quickly is more likely to attack a fire
before it can develop high velocity plumes, which are more difficult for water spray drops to
penetrate. Also, there is the probability that more sprinklers may activate, thus prewetting
areas the fire has yet to reach. This can help prevent the spread of the fire. Clearly, the
sooner sprinklers activate, the sooner they mitigate hazardous conditions.
SM PS-42

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR)
These sprinklers, intended for special fire-threat applications, were developed as a result of
the quick-response residential sprinkler research coupled with the high pressures and water
flows associated with existing large drop sprinklers. The result is basically a large drop
sprinkler with a quick response actuation element. These sprinklers attack a fire rapidly with
large amounts of water so that the activation of a small number of ESFR sprinkler heads
minimizes or prevents the spread of the fire.
Dry
In some instances it is desirable to use dry sprinklers attached to wet pipe sprinkler systems.
One common example is the protection of a freezer in an otherwise heated area. Dry
sprinklers have mechanisms that keep a tight seal in place, which prevents water from the
wet pipe system flowing into the dry sprinklers. The dry sprinklers typically have extended
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pipe lengths that are dry (without water) and which extend into the unheated area. When the
sprinkler fuses, the seal linkage drops out, allowing water to flow into the previously dry
sprinkler.
Figure 23 Grinnell ESFR Head
Ornamental, Flush, Recessed, and Concealed
In some cases it is desirable to change the appearance from that normally associated with
standard sprinkler installations. Aesthetics is one reason people do not use sprinklers.
Standard sprinkler heads are considered unsightly. Manufacturers have responded by
painting or finishing sprinklers heads or by giving them a low profile so they do not project
from the ceiling as much (flush, recessed, and concealed). In some cases, this also can be
used to limit damage to the sprinklers and prevent tampering. Prisons are one setting where
low profile sprinklers are desirable, as inmates cannot hang themselves from the sprinkler
heads.
SM PS-43

Large Drop
FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Figure 24
These sprinklers are designed to provide a water spray of large drops (as compared to
other sprinklers). These larger drops have an increased ability to travel through high-heat
and high-velocity fire plumes, thereby reaching the seat of the fire. Water drops from
standard design sprinklers may be dispersed by high-velocity fire plumes, significantly
reducing the sprinkler's ability to control and extinguish the fire.
Open
These sprinklers do not employ an actuating element. Therefore, when water flows into the
piping all sprinklers will flow immediately.
Nozzles
Nozzles are sprinklers used in applications which require special discharge patterns and
spray characteristics.
SM PS-44
Figure 25 Water Spray Nozzles

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Automatic On-Off
On-off sprinklers refers to any sprinkler head that has an integral water- flow control
mechanism which can allow or prevent the flow of water through the sprinkler. One common
use of these sprinklers is in the protection of computer facilities where limited water flow is
desirable. A common design uses a simple heat-driven valve which will allow flow if heated,
and will close if the sprinkler cools (i.e., if it appears the fire has been controlled).
Intermittent Level
These sprinklers include a shield located directly above the sprinkler which is designed to
prevent water from other sprinklers located at higher levels from cooling the sprinkler's
operating elements. Without this protection, sprinklers would respond more slowly, or not at
all, to fire conditions.
Corrosion Resistant
Sprinklers used in environments that are hostile to unprotected sprinklers may include
corrosion protection. This generally is some form of protective coating applied to the special
sprinkler.
System Readiness
Sprinklers are one part of the fire suppression system the inspector can more easily
examine and inspect. It is not realistic to expect the beginning inspector to be able to
determine the status of the jurisdiction's water system. But if a structure is sprinklered, the
inspector can at least check this part.
Without getting into design and testing issues, the inspector needs to make sure at a
minimum that none of the sprinkler heads is blocked, painted over, missing, or damaged. If
one suspects there are problems with the system, it would be wise to report this to one's
superiors. Obviously, it is not the inspector's job to test the sprinklers. This could be
disastrous.
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The next parts of the suppression system we need to examine are the standpipes and hose
systems.
SM PS-45

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

SM PS-46
Figure 26
Examples of Intermittent and Automatic On/Off Sprinkler Heads

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 27
Examples of Automatic Sprinkler Head Components
SM PS-47

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

STANDPIPE AND HOSE SYSTEMS Purpose
Standpipe and hose systems in buildings allow the occupants or fire service personnel to
suppress a fire without further help. Standpipe systems are an arrangement of piping,
valves, hose connections, and related equipment installed in a building in a fixed manner.
The systems may or may not have hoses permanently attached. Water supplies may or may
not be continually provided to standpipe systems. These features of a standpipe system are
dictated by the class and type of system. Fire department personnel trained in manual fire
suppression methods are the ones who primarily use standpipe systems. Many standpipe
systems no longer have occupant hoselines (small diameter 1-1/2 inch). The fixed piping of
a standpipe system in a building allows the fire service to connect its hoselines into a
pressurized water source near the fire floor. Consequently, the fire service is relieved of the
burden of extending hoses into the building from grade level to the location (floor) of the fire.
In mid- to highrise buildings, standpipe systems are extremely important for the prompt
manual extinguishment of fires.
Classes of Standpipe and Hose Systems
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems, defines three
classes of standpipe systems.
Class I
Class I systems have 2-1/2-inch hose connections on the system piping. This size hose
produces a heavy fire stream primarily for the fire service which supplies its own hoses for
fighting the fire.
Class II
Class II systems have 1-1/2-inch hose connections. This hose is primarily for occupant
control of a fire until the fire department arrives. A hose and nozzle connect to the system
piping.
SM PS-48

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Class III
Class III systems provide both 2-1/2-inch and 1-1/2-inch hose connections for use by either
the fire service or the building occupants. Typically, the two sizes of hose tie in by a 2-1/2-
inch connection to the system piping and a 1-1/2-inch reducer connection on the 2-1/2-inch
connection. The fire service can easily remove the reducer. This gives the fire service the
2-1/2-inch connection it requires for manual suppression. A small hose (1-1/2 inch) and
nozzle must be provided for occupant use.
Types of Standpipe and Hose Systems
There are four types of systems available.
• Wet systems with supply valves open and the system continually under pressure.
• Dry systems with a supply valve that automatically opens when a hose valve is opened.
• Dry systems with a supply valve that is opened by a remote control device located at each
hose station.

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• Dry systems with no permanent water supply connection. This type requires that a system
be connected to a pressurized water supply, such as a fire department pumper. Such
systems may be filled with water for supervision purposes.
Standpipe and Hose System Standards
Where required, standpipe systems typically comply with the requirements of NFPA 14. If the
system is a combined sprinkler-standpipe system, the requirements of NFPA 13 also play a
role.
As with sprinkler systems, the Uniform Building Code has its own standpipe standard,
Uniform Building Code Standard No. 38-2. This standard is very similar to NFPA 14.
SM PS-49

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS Purpose of Fire Extinguishers
A portable fire extinguisher enables an individual with minimal training and orientation to
extinguish an incipient fire without risk after calling the fire department. There have been
many disastrous fires resulting from a delayed notification of the fire department while
someone attempted extinguishment with portable fire extinguishers. One was the Beverly
Hills Supper Club fire which claimed over 160 lives.
Extinguisher Use Based on Fire Classification
Fire extinguishers fall into four classes based on the type of fire(s) they are effective at
extinguishing.
Class A: Fires in ordinary combustibles such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and many
plastics. They can be extinguished by cooling, smothering, and insulation, or by inhibiting the
combustion chain reaction.
Class B: Fires involving flammable or combustible liquids and gases, including greases and
similar fuels. They can be extinguished by oxygen exclusion, smothering, and insulation, and
by inhibiting the combustion chain reaction.
Class C: Fires involving energized electrical equipment which requires the use of a
nonconductive agent for protection of the extinguisher operator. If electrical power is
eliminated, these fires become Class A or Class B, and may be extinguished accordingly.
Class D: Fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and
zirconium. They require the use of an agent that absorbs heat and does not react with the
burning metal.
Class A and Class B fire extinguishers also have a numerical rating according to the size of
the fire they potentially can extinguish. Although somewhat subjective, a 2-A extinguisher is
roughly equivalent to a 2-1/2- gallon water extinguisher; a 4-A extinguisher has about as
much extinguishing power as 5 gallons of water.
SM PS-50

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Class B extinguishers are given a numerical rating based on the area of flammable liquid
they potentially can extinguish. As an estimate, it can be assumed that for each unit of "B,"
one square foot of burning liquid can be extinguished. For example, a 10-B extinguisher can
be used to extinguish a ten-square-foot liquid fire. It must be emphasized that the numerical
rating is for estimating only, as the actual effectiveness will depend on such factors as user
qualifications and skill.
The classifications, including the numerical rating, can be compounded to provide
multipurpose extinguishers. For example, a fire extinguisher listed as 4-A:20-B:C has the
capacity of two 2-A extinguishers, 20 times the capacity of a single 1-B extinguisher, and it
can be used on electrical (C) fires.
To assist potential users, the NFPA has developed a color-graphic identification system for
rapid identification of fires related to a particular extinguisher. This system is described in
NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers.
Types of Portable Fire Extinguisher Agents
There are six common agents used in portable extinguishers.
Water Based
For the most part, extinguishers that use water are for use on Class A fires. An exception is
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) extinguishers, which will be discussed below. The
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remaining water-based extinguisher types include antifreeze additives, loaded streams, and
wetting agents. Other foams may be used, but generally are obsolete. Until 1969, there were
three methods of water-based extinguisher operation: 1) stored pressure, 2) pump tank, and
3) inverting type. The last type was discontinued in 1960; this made soda-acid extinguishers
obsolete.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Compressed CO2 provides both an agent and a discharge method, as the gas is under
pressure while in the storage container. CO2 extinguishes fire primarily by excluding oxygen
from the combustion region, although there is some cooling effect. In fact, the operator of a
CO2 extinguisher must be careful not to touch the horn of the extinguisher due to risk of
freezer burn
SM PS-51

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

injury. CO2 is for fighting Class B and Class C fires, but can be used on Class A if needed.
One advantage of CO2 is that it leaves no residue. A drawback of CO2 is that it is a gas and,
as such, may be carried away from the intended area by drafts and wind. Also, users must
avoid asphyxiation if the extinguisher is used in a confined place.
Dry Chemical
Dry chemical agents are either ordinary or multipurpose agents. Ordinary dry chemical
agents include sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, urea-potassium bicarbonate,
and potassium chloride. They are effective on Class B and Class C fires.
Multipurpose dry chemical is based on ammonium phosphate and can be used for Class A,
Class B, and Class C fires; hence, its "multipurpose" listing. Dry chemical agents extinguish
fires by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the combustion process; they also may have
a blanketing effect. Dry chemical extinguishers need either stored or cartridge- operated
pressure to force the dry chemical agent from the extinguisher. Typically, CO2 or nitrogen is
used for this purpose.
Halon
Halon 1211 can be used in portable fire extinguishers because it is not as volatile as Halon
1301 which instantly becomes gaseous when discharged. The low relative volatility of Halon
1211 allows the extinguisher user to direct the liquid flow toward the intended strike zone of
the fire. As with the larger halon systems, Halon 1211 extinguishes fires by inhibiting the
combustion chemical chain reaction. Like CO2, halon is a clean agent which leaves no
residue. Halon is for Class B and Class C fires as well as for Class A if needed.
Dry Powder
Dry powder agents are for fighting Class D (metal) fires and typically are sodium chloride
based. This type of agent extinguishes fire by reacting with the heat of the fire to form a
blanket over the fuel. This prevents the fuel and oxygen from meeting.
SM PS-52

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF)
AFFF is a special type of water-based fire extinguishing agent. It differs from other water-
based agents in that it can be used successfully for combating Class B fires, where it
extinguishes via oxygen exclusion, as well as on Class A fires, where it acts by cooling and
penetrating.
Some Obsolete Extinguishers
A note on some obsolete extinguishers to identify and remove from circulation. In addition to
operating difficulties, these older extinguishers had an unacceptably high test failure rate.
Soda-Acid extinguishers were quite popular years ago but are no longer acceptable because
they may explode when inverted to activate the extinguisher. Cartridge-Operated Water
extinguishers are similar to soda-acid extinguishers in operation and have the same
problems. Foam extinguishers look like the soda-acid extinguishers; these should be
replaced by newer AFFF extinguishers. Vaporizing-Liquid extinguishers have been banned
from service due to problems with toxicity of both the agent and products generated during
fire extinguishment. The most common type of this agent is carbon tetrachloride--CCl4.
Distribution of Portable Fire Extinguishers
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The first step in addressing extinguisher distribution requirements is determining the hazard
classification according to NFPA 10.
Light (Low) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A type combustibles is small. Examples
include offices, classrooms, churches, and assembly halls. Small amounts of Class B fuels
may exist but should be negligible, e.g., duplicating fluid or solvents in art rooms.
SM PS-53

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ordinary (Moderate) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A and Class B fuels is greater than that of
Light Hazard areas. Examples include offices, classrooms, mercantile shops and storage,
light manufacturing, research operations, auto showrooms, parking garages, and
workshops.
Extra (High) Hazard
These are areas where the total amount of Class A and Class B fuels is greater than that of
Moderate Hazard areas. Examples include woodworking shops, vehicle repair shops,
aircraft and boat service areas, product display areas, storage, and manufacturing
processes such as painting, dipping, and coating which use flammable liquids.
The next step is figuring the total area of each hazard. From here one simply consults the
tables in NFPA 10 which specify the fire extinguishers needed, based on the hazard class
and area to be protected. In addition, there are maximum travel distances allowed. For Class
A extinguishers it is 75 feet; for Class B it is either 30 feet or 50 feet, depending on
extinguisher size.
For each location with Class C fire threats, there must be a Class C rated extinguisher.
Similarly, for each location with Class D fire threats, there needs to be a Class D
extinguisher.
Basis for Code Requirements
Not all buildings require portable fire extinguishers, nor do all locations within a building need
extinguishers for a particular hazard. In general, portable fire extinguishers are a must in
occupancies that have people familiar with the building and the fire extinguishers. Hospitals,
factories, and mercantile occupancies are examples of buildings that may require portable
fire extinguishers. In some cases, the code may require portable fire extinguishers to provide
protection from a given hazard. A magnesium milling machine shop and a flammable liquid
process area are examples of locations which may need special portable fire extinguishers.
Locations where untrained people are normally the only ones present are generally exempt
from portable fire extinguisher requirements.
SM PS-54

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Installation, Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 10 places the responsibility for inspection, maintenance, and recharging on the
property owner. The local authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) may wish to verify that the
owners or their representatives are taking their responsibilities seriously.
Before being placed into service, fire extinguishers need to be inspected. Thereafter, fire
extinguishers should be inspected every 30 days unless circumstances dictate more
frequent inspections. NFPA 10 recommends the following items be checked during the
inspection:
• location in designated place;
• access or visibility not obstructed;
• operating instructions on nameplate are legible and facing outward;
• seals and tamper indicators are not broken or missing;
• determination of fullness by weighing or "hefting";
• examination for obvious physical damage, corrosion, leakage, or
clogged nozzle; and
• pressure gauge reading or indicator is in the operable range or
position.

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In addition, one needs to confirm the presence of the recordkeeping tag and review its
contents. One should remedy all deficiencies at once and replace all extinguishers removed
for servicing.
Extinguishers require maintenance at least once a year. It should cover three main areas:
mechanical parts; extinguishing agent; and expellent means.
In addition maintenance needs to cover these steps.
• Discharge stored pressure extinguishers before service.
• Perform a conductivity test of the hose assembly on carbon dioxide extinguishers. If found
conductive, the assembly should be replaced.
• Every 6 years, empty stored pressure extinguishers that require a 12-year hydrostatic test
and subject them to the applicable maintenance procedures.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Homework ( assignments), Research works, etc.

Research Works

1. What is passive and active fire protection.

2. What is fire resistance and spread of fire ratings.
3. Key components of building fire extinguisher, sprinkler and stand pipe system, fire
detection system and fire alarm system.
4. Building fire protection system design and detailing information.

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Remote (module, exercises, problem sets.)

8. Assessment Task

Quizzes, Major Exams, Problems Set, Mastery Test.

Quizzes:
1. Describe the difference between passive and active fire protection.
2. Identify the difference between fire resistance and spread of fire ratings.
3. Name the different types and key components of building fire extinguisher,
sprinkler and stand pipe system, fire detection system and fire alarm
system.
4. Name the different building fire protection system design and detailing information.

9. References

Plumbing Design and Estimate by Max B. Fajardo Jr. 2001

National Fire Protection Association
International Fire code, International Code Council,
Plumbing Code, International Code Council,
National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.

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 ISU MODULE TEMPLATE
Subject: - Utilities 2

1. Title of the Module

Module 3, Chapter 3: Conveying System

2. Overview / Introduction

Conveyor Systems are mechanical devices or assemblies that transport material

with minimal effort. While there are many different kinds of conveyor systems, they usually
consist of a frame that supports either rollers, wheels, or a belt, upon which materials move
from one place to another.
A conveyor system is used in many industries as a standard piece of mechanical
handling equipment to move goods, products, raw goods, and other materials from one
location to another, usually in the same area or building. They are extremely handy for
businesses that deal with heavy goods, sharp items, raw materials, and mass-produced
products.

Conveyor systems allow for quick and efficient transportation of a businesses materials and
products as well as being able to move heavy items such as cars down a production line
which make them popular in the material handling and packaging industries as well as the
manufacturing industries.

Although this is not their only use.

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Conveyors are also popular in consumer applications for food and people transportation
such as supermarkets, sushi restaurants, airports, and shopping centres. So not only do
they transport heavy items, but they are also useful for moving small plates and people in a
quicker and more efficient manner. Quite handy to use one in the airport if you’re going
between gates and you’re running late for a flight.

3. Learning Outcome / Objective

The following are the learning outcome:

a. Identify, describe, distinguish between types of conveying system that moves
people and freight vertically and horizontally (escalators, elevators, ramps, lifts, walkways).
b. Describe applications for building conveying system that move people and freight.
c. Interpret conveying system design and detailing information.

4. Learning Content
a. Types of conveying system that moves people and freight vertically and
horizontally.

Elevators, Escalators, and Moving Walkways Information

Elevators, escalators, and moving walkways are used to raise or move people or goods from
one location to another within a building. Elevators are transport devices that are used to lift
people and goods vertically up and down, from one floor to another. Because of handicap air
access laws, elevators are often legally required in multi-story buildings. Elevators are
platforms that are pulled or pushed by mechanical means. Most often, elevators are
enclosed in a cab mounted on a platform that travels in an enclosed shaft. There is more
than one type of elevator; traction elevators and hydraulic elevators are two examples.
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Elevators can open in a few different ways, but most often two sliding panels meet in the
middle to close the door.
Types
Elevators, or lifts, have been around for centuries in one form or another. The early ones
used simple winches to hoist a platform and cage with miners and ores out of vertical mine
shafts or moving items up to the top of towers like in a castle. Later, steam power was used
to hoist primitive elevator cabs. These were usually found in coal mines or mills that already
had steam engines. The first modern elevator, the Otis Safety Elevator, was developed in the
1850s. It had automatic emergency safety brakes. Electric motors replaced the steam
engines in the 1880s. Between these two modern innovations, the elevator as we know it
was born. Over the next 140 years, various aspects were improved such as the doors,
controls, and motors. Early elevators used either single speed AC motors or variable speed
DC motors. The trouble with the older DC motors is that they needed an AC motor-generator
pair to power it. That caused higher initial costs and increased energy consumption. Modern
elevators employ variable voltage and frequency AC motors and controllers that have
eliminated the need for DC motors. These efficient AC motors provide lower initial machinery
and energy costs compared to DC motors. Today’s elevators can have variable lifting speeds
depending on demand and traffic patterns.
Most elevators are cable hoist types, or traction powered. This style is used in very tall
buildings. Smaller buildings can utilize a hydraulic style elevator, where pressurizing a piston
ram pushes the elevator’s cab up and bleeding the pressure off lowers the cab. These
elevators are like the old-fashioned center piston automobile lifts. The limit for hydraulic
elevators is usually eight stories, using telescoping pistons. They use more energy than a
traction elevator, since they can’t exploit conventional counterweights of traction elevators.
But hydraulic elevators are simpler, easier to install and maintain, and are less expensive to
purchase. Newer elevators can come with no machine rooms to save space. The controls
and motors are small enough to fit into the elevator shaft way. Some state and local
regulations still require an elevator machine room. Also, for really tall buildings, the elevators
need a penthouse on top to house the extra-large winches and cable drums it needs to hoist
the elevator up hundreds of feet.
There is a third style of elevator, the climbing ones, or self-powered elevators. These are
used in industrial, maritime, or other applications where it is impossible to get external
power, limited or no space for a shaft way, or any way to hook up cables, winches, or rams.
In climbing elevators, the motors are attached to the cab. They can be gas powered or
electrically powered running off a vertical conductor rail. They can run off tracks attached to
the side of a stable column. Usually, these elevators have a low load limit with just two
people or one person and his or her tools, at the most. The elevator’s built-in motors power a
pinion drive that works on a vertical rack, like a vertical cog railway, to move the cab up and
down. These are usually used on tall masts or radio towers, mainly for worker access. Of
course, these elevators have safety brakes but lack all the amenities like today’s average
building elevators.

Features
Parallel with the development of the lifting machinery of the elevators, are the evolution of
elevator controls and doors. The first elevators had simple controls and usually featured a
full-time operator. Later on, in parallel with the time and way the dial telephone superseded
the switchboard controlled telephone, elevators featured user operated controls. These are
the controls one takes for granted today such as pushing a button for the floor that one
wants. In order to satisfy safety codes in eliminating the dedicated human elevator operator,
items such as user activated alarms and emergency telephones in the cabs became part of
various legal codes. With the development of computer and micro-processor controls,
internal elevator operational controls went from simple mechanical relays and switches to
digital logic. That meant building elevator operations, especially in tall, heavily trafficked
buildings, could be refined and optimized for traffic flow and/or economy in real time.
One of the most important developments in elevator technology is the modern double sliding
safety doors. This way, both the riders in the cab and people near the shafts are protected
from any chance of falling into or getting hung up in the elevator. The older manual operated
doors, slide-up doors, and open cabs are now illegal in most places. Elevator doors also
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have various ways to prevent from shutting on obstructions, like a rider’s leg. Usually that is
accomplished with a pressure sensitive rubberized switch that runs the full height of both
sets of doors. When the rubber bumper switches senses an obstruction, the doors open up.
The doors also have interlocks to prevent the elevator from moving if the door switches
sense that any door is still open.

Escalators are conveying devices that are used to move people vertically on individual,
linked stairways. In installing escalators in a building, many things must be taken into
consideration. The most important factors are the height to be climbed and the distance
available to run the unit; since they determine the pitch and length of the escalator. Other
design factors include:
• location
• physical requirements
• traffic pattern
• safety precautions
Components of escalators include top and bottom landings, trusses, tracks, handrails, and
steps. Unlike an elevator, a disabled or powered down escalator can still be used as a
conventional flight of stairs. So building managers can shut them down without adversely
inconveniencing the users in the building, unlike an elevator.

Features
The average speed of an escalator falls between 1 ft. to 2 ft. per second, or .3 m to .6 m per
second. The angle of ascent of an elevator is usually around 30 degrees to the horizontal.
The max vertical ascent is usually around 60 ft., or 18 m. At a 30% incline, that means the
elevator truss length would be 120 in., or 36 m, long. Step width can vary from 16 in. to 40
in., or 40 cm to 1 m. The standard step width is 32 in. or 80 cm. Escalators are usually
powered by AC induction motors and usually run at one speed.

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Features
Like elevators and escalators, moving walkways are used to move people. They are also
known as moving sidewalks and are called “travelators” in the United Kingdom. Much like
escalators, moving walkways use a conveyor belt to transport people. However, moving
walkways move people and goods horizontally, or on a lower angle of incline to the
horizontal than an escalator. They are often found in large airports where people have
luggage and have to walk a long distance between various sub terminal buildings. Moving
walkways are often installed in pairs, for movement in each direction. They usually run about
half of walking speed, around 1.4 mph or 2.2 kmph and can be from 27 in. to 56 in., or 67.5
cm to 140 cm wide. They are usually powered by AC induction motors. Moving handrails,
like those found on escalators for code and safety reasons, are optional on horizontal
moving walkways.
Types
Moving walkways come in one of two basic styles: pallet type or moving belt. Pallet type
moving walkways are built from a series of connected metal plates that are joined together
to form a walkway. Pallet type moving walkways are essentially flat elevators. This type of
moving walkway has a metal surface, although they are available with a rubberized tread
bonded on top of the metal plates. Moving belt walkways are essentially human conveyor
belts. Moving belt walkways are typically built with mesh metal balls, which is a rubber
surface over metal rollers.
Specifications
All three types of these people movers require extensive architectural and structural
engineering support since they are heavy and need a stable base. Elevator shaft ways have
to be strong and straight and are usually framed with girders or at least reinforced concrete.
Elevator shafts can be the most problematic part of a building’s construction process. There
are modular elevator units that come enclosed in their own shaft and everything else one
needs for an elevator. But these are usually limited to 100 ft., or 30 m, tall and still require a
stable base pad to stand on. When adding an elevator to an older structure, especially a
wood-framed structure, a separate steel and concrete combination elevator shaft and fire
stairwell addition is usually built on to the side of that building. These refit jobs are a good

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place to install a modular elevator and do away with the extra expense and engineering
effort that a custom built shaft requires. Horizontal people movers need a good solid, usually
reinforced concrete base. All of these types of movers require high voltage, high current
power feeds, at least 440 VAC 3 phase power.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Homework ( assignments), Research works, etc.

Research Works
1. Research the different kind of conveying system that move people and freight.
2. Research work about the design and detailing information of conveying system

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Remote (module, exercises, problem sets.)

8. Assessment Task

Quizzes, Major Exams, Problems Set, Mastery Test.

Quizzes:
1. Describe the difference of vertical and horizontal conveying system.
2. What are the different kind of vertical and horizontal conveying system.
3. What is the application of conveying system in the building?
4. Interpret conveying system design and detailing information.

9. References

Plumbing Design and Estimate by Max B. Fajardo Jr. 2001

National Fire Protection Association
International Fire code, International Code Council,
Plumbing Code, International Code Council,
National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.

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 ISU MODULE TEMPLATE
Subject: - Utilities 2

1. Title of the Module

Module 4, Chapter 4: Acoustical Control System

2. Overview / Introduction

Acoustical Control in Buildings

Mitigating sound transfer between spaces through design, details, and insulating materials

3. Learning Outcome / Objective

The following are the learning outcome:

a. Identify, describe and interpret ratings related to acoustical control (STC, NRC).
b. Interpret acoustical control design and detailing information.

4. Learning Content
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND

Sound is energy, and like all energy, it radiates outward from a source. It moves the same
way that heat energy and light energy do by traveling through air, solids, and other materials.
While there are many beneficial sounds that we want to hear as they travel through space,
such as speech in a classroom or music at a concert, there are other sounds that we don’t
want to hear, which we call noise. This unwanted or interfering sound in building spaces can
come from a variety of sources both within and outside of a building, such as outdoor traffic,
activity in an adjacent room, or mechanical equipment.
A certain amount of background noise is certainly commonplace and even acceptable.
However, excessive background noise can seriously degrade the ability of people to
communicate, overshadow preferred sounds, or prevent audible signals from being heard.
The scientific study of sound and noise has not only looked at the physics of sound, but
evolved into the field of acoustics, which looks at sound in all its forms. Architectural
acoustics in particular is specifically related to the interactions of sound both within and
between architectural spaces and the impacts on people in those spaces. As such, a
significant body of knowledge is available on how to deal with sound in human environments
as part of the field we know as acoustical design.

Sound Generation

Sound can be generated from single or multiple sources but is typically characterized by
three characteristics.

• Frequency (Pitch): Sound has been observed to travel in oscillating waves that
radiate out from the source. Those waves are measured in terms of the cycle of the
sine-shaped wave that oscillates from neutral, down to negative, up to neutral, further
up to positive, and finally back to neutral. The time it takes to complete that one cycle
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 of a sound wave is measured in hertz (Hz). One Hz is equal to a frequency of one
cycle per second. The human ear can typically hear frequencies or sound “pitch”
between about 20 Hz (very low-pitched, bass sounds) up to around 20,000 Hz (very
high-pitched, piercing sounds) if the person is fairly young; older adults may hear
frequencies up to about 15,000 Hz. Sound exists above and below this range, but
our ears don’t hear it, unlike some animals, such as dogs or bats, that do indeed hear
very high-pitched sounds (over 20,000 Hz) or elephants that can hear lower sounds
(below 20 Hz).

• Image courtesy of CertainTeed Insulation

Sound is characterized by its frequency (pitch), wavelength, and amplitude (volume).

• Wavelength: The wavelength of a sound wave is the distance between the start and
end of a sound wave cycle or the distance between two successive sound wave
pressure peaks. Numerically, it is equal to the speed of sound in the material, such
as air divided by the frequency of the sound wave. For example, the wavelength of a
100 Hz tone at room temperature is 1,130 feet/second (the speed of sound in air)
divided by 100 Hz (a fairly low-pitched sound), which is equal to a wavelength of 11.3
feet. By comparison, dividing the speed of sound by a much higher pitch of say
10,000 Hz would produce a much shorter wavelength of .113 feet or a little more than
an inch.
• Amplitude (Loudness): The amplitude of a sound wave is visually its height from
bottom to top, but is in fact indicative of the strength of the energy in that wave. It is
measured in decibels (dB), such that the higher the dB rating, the more energy, and
hence the louder the sound that we hear. The common range begins at 0 dB
(threshold of hearing) to around 130 dB (threshold of pain), with human speech being
in the middle around 50 to 65 dB. The most widely used sound level filter is the A
scale, expressed as dBA. Using this filter, a sound level meter is less sensitive to
very high and very low frequencies.

Sound waves can travel through any media, such as air, water, wood, masonry, metal, etc.
Depending on the media through which it travels, sound is either considered airborne or
structure-borne. Airborne sound radiates from a source and travels through the air. The
sound of traffic passing our homes, the sound of music or voices from the next room or
office, the noise from low flying aircraft—all travel to our ears as airborne sound. Structure-

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borne sound travels through solid materials usually in direct mechanical contact with the
sound source or from an impact on that material. Examples are footsteps or objects falling
on the floor upstairs, a knock at the door, or vibration from loud speakers on the floor. All
structure-borne sound must eventually become airborne sound in order for us to hear it. We
can only feel structure-borne sound as vibrations in a material. In most noise control
situations, both airborne and structure-borne sound must be considered.

Sound Transmission

When sound travels through air and strikes a surface, such as a wall, floor, or ceiling, it
behaves like other energy. Some of the sound energy is reflected back off of the surface,
some is absorbed into the material or construction assembly, and some is transmitted
directly through it. This is directly akin to light, which can be reflected off a glossy surface,
absorbed into a dark surface, or transmitted through a translucent material. Similarly,
different amounts of sound energy can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted when striking
different surfaces, materials, and assemblies in buildings. The following is a summary of
terms and measures relating to principles of controlling sound transmission between spaces.

• Transmission Loss (TL) is a fundamental measurement of the ability of a material or

building assembly to block or reduce the amount of sound passing through it. It is
measured in decibels at different frequencies to determine how much sound
transmission is lost at each measured frequency. Generally speaking, a TL of 10
means that the sound is 10 dB quieter on the listening side compared to the sound-
originating side.
• Sound Transmission Class (STC) is determined by ASTM E90 test methods to
measure airborne transmission loss specifically in interior walls and ceiling/floor
assemblies. A higher STC rating means that more airborne sound is blocked by the
component or assembly. Lower STC ratings mean that more sound passes through
the components or assemblies, adding to the background noise level in the space. It
should be noted that, contrary to the popular notion that sound passes through a
structure, such is not the case. Sound generated on one side of a wall will energize
the wall structure and set it in motion, much like a diaphragm. The wall itself
becomes the transmitter of the sound energy, which can be heard on the opposite
side of the wall by the listener. Hence, the ASTM test methods used to determine
STC ratings have focused on this direct transmission process, although this testing
has changed over the years, meaning that STC results posted before 1999 may not
produce the same results today.

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 •
•
• Images courtesy of CertainTeed Insulation
The sound transmission class (STC) is a measure of airborne sound transmission
loss, while the impact insulation class (IIC) is a measure of structure-borne sound
transmission loss.

Currently, the STC number is derived from sound values tested at 16 standard frequencies
from 125 Hz to 4,000 Hz. These transmission-loss values are then plotted on a sound
pressure level graph, and the resulting curve is compared to a standard reference contour.
Acoustical engineers fit these values to the appropriate transmission loss curve to determine
a final STC rating. The STC measurement is accurate for speech sounds but less so for
amplified music, mechanical equipment noise, transportation noise, or any sound with
substantial low-frequency energy below 125 Hz. Nonetheless, since this is fundamentally a
measure of TL, the derived STC number generally reflects how many decibels quieter the
receiving side of a wall is compared to the sound-originating side (e.g. STC 45 means a
reduction of 45 dbA). In terms of people’s perception of sound, a general rule of thumb is
that each 10-point increase in STC value will decrease the perceived noise by one half of
the starting point.

• Outdoor Indoor Transmission Class (OITC) is a standard method used to rate the
amount of transmission loss in an exterior wall setting, such as determining how
much traffic noise an exterior wall can stop. The OITC covers a lower or broader
frequency range from 80 Hz to 4,000 Hz, where most aircraft, rail, and vehicular
traffic sounds would be found.

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 • Impact Insulation Class (IIC) is a measure of the ability of a floor-ceiling assembly to
absorb or deflect sound from impacts (such as people walking or objects dropping)
and keep it from being transmitted to the space below. It is not a measure of airborne
sound but rather of structure-borne sound. The IIC rating is determined by ASTM
Standard E989: Standard Classification for Determination of Impact Insulation Class
(IIC). Test data obtained in accordance with ASTM E492: Standard Test Method for
Laboratory Measurement of Impact Sound Transmission Through Floor/Ceiling
Assemblies Using the Tapping Machine, is used to determine the IIC rating of a floor.
• Ceiling Attenuation Class (CAC) is a measure for rating the performance of a ceiling
system as a barrier to airborne sound transmission through a common plenum
between adjacent closed spaces, such as offices. CAC for ceilings is similar to an
STC rating for walls, but is specific to suspended ceiling conditions where a dividing
wall is constructed only to the ceiling height, thus allowing sound to pass through a
plenum space above the ceiling. As an ASTM E1414 tested measurement, it is a ‘two
pass’ test in that the sound is looked at as it transmits up through the ceiling in one
space, across the ceiling plenum, and back down through the ceiling in an adjacent
space. A higher CAC rating means that less sound is transferred between spaces. A
ceiling system with a CAC below 25 is considered low performance, whereas one
with CAC above 35 is high performance.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Homework ( assignments), Research works, etc.

Research Works
1. Research the different kind of acoustical control.
2. Research work about the design and detailing information of acoustical control.

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Remote (module, exercises, problem sets.)

8. Assessment Task

Quizzes, Major Exams, Problems Set, Mastery Test.

Quizzes:
1. Describe the different kind of acoustical control.
2. Interpret the design and detailing information of acoustical control.

Midterm Exam
1. Identify the types of conveying system that moves people and freight vertically and
horizontally.
2. Define the different kind of conveying system i.e. escalators, elevators, ramps, lifts,
walkways.
3. Define what is acoustical control?

Final Exam
1. Describe applications for building conveying system that move people and freight.
2. Interpret conveying system design and detailing information.
3. Draw a simple design and detailing information of acoustical control.

9. References

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 Plumbing Design and Estimate by Max B. Fajardo Jr. 2001
National Fire Protection Association
International Fire code, International Code Council,
Plumbing Code, International Code Council,
National Plumbing Code of the Philippines.

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