Computer Communication Development Institute – Naga

College of Computer Studies

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM

Overview
This module provides an understanding of operating systems as an intermediary between the
user of a computer and the computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide
an environment in which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner. An
aspect of operating systems is how they vary in accomplishing these tasks. We have mainframe
operating systems that optimize utilization of the hardware. While operating system in personal
computers support complex games, business application, etc. There are other functions also that
the operating system does such as traffic manager, dispatcher, etc.

Objectives
At the end of this module, the student can be able to:
• Summarize the objectives and functions of modern operating systems.
• Determine the functions of a contemporary operating system with respect to convenience,
efficiency, and ability to evolve.
• Compare and contrast different types of operating system.

Lesson 1: Definition, Function, and Goals of Operating

System
What is Operating System?
Operating System4 is the primary
software installed on a computer that
manages all the hardware and other
software on a computer the Operating
System also known as OS interface with the
computer hardware and provides services
that application can use.

An operating system, or "OS," is also a

software that communicates with the
hardware and allows the running of other
programs. It consists of system software, or
the basic files that your computer needs to
boot and work. Every desktop computer,
tablet, and Smartphone includes an
operating system that provides basic
functionality for the device.

A program that is initially loaded by a boot

program into the computer manages all other application programs within a computer. The
application programs make use of the Operating System by making request to service through
application program interface (API).

Additionaly, users can interact directly with the Operating System through a user interface such
a computer command line or graphical user interface (GUI).In its most general sense is software

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that allows the user to run another application on a computing device. Without an Operating
System a computer and software would be useless.

Since the operating system serves as a computer's fundamental user interface, it significantly
affects how you interact with the device. Therefore, many users prefer to use a specific operating
system.

Functions of Operating System

The Operating System determines which application should run in a specific order and how much
time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn to be
processed. In Operating System there are multiple programs that can be running at the same
time. It provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and management of memory
allocations for any additional installed software application programs. It manages the sharing
internal memory among multiple applications. OS handles Input and Output to and from attached
hardware devices such as hard disk drives, printers, and dial up ports. The management of batch
jobs (i.e. printing) may be offloaded in order to free the initiating application from this task. On
computers that can provide parallel processing, an Operating System can manage how to divide
the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time. There are different kinds of
Functions of Operating System:

1. Memory Management
It refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. There are some activities
that follow for the memory management: It keeps tracks of primary memory, the memory
addresses that have already been allocated and the memory addresses of the memory that has
not yet been used. In multi programming, the OS decides the order in which process are granted
access to memory, and for how long. It allocates the memory to a process when the process
requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O
operation.

Table 1.1: Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Random Access Memory Read-Only Memory

Temporary storage Permanent storage
Store data in MBs Store data in GBs
Volatile Non- volatile
Used in normal operations Used for startup process of computer.
Writing data is faster Writing data is slower

2. Processor Management
The OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much time this
function is called process scheduling. It does 3 job. The first one is to keep tracks of processor
status of a process. The program responsible for this task is known as traffic controller. The
second one is allocating the processor (GPU) to a process and the third one is De-allocating the
processor when a process is no longer required.

3. Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does
the following activities for device management: a. Keeps tracks for all devices. The program
responsible for this task is known as the I/O Controller. b. Decides which process gets the device

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when and for how much time. c. Allocates the device in the most efficient way. d. De-allocates
devices.

4. File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directories. An OS does the following activities for file
management: a. Keeps track of information, location, uses, status, etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system. b. Decides who gets the resources. c. Allocates the resources d. De-
allocates the resources

5. Security
Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the data stored
on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion. By means of password and similar other
techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.

6. Control over system performance

Recording delays between request for a service and response from the system.

7. Job Accounting
Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.

8. Error detecting aids

Protection of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error detecting
aids.

9. Coordination between other software and users

Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software
to the various users of the computer systems.

Goals of the Operating System

The Operating System has many goals. The main goal is efficient use. The OS ensures efficient
use of memory, CPU and Input Output devices. Operating system can consume CPU and
memory resources

Overhead, besides operating system monitors use of resources to make certain of efficiency.

The second goal of Operating System is user convenience to make user comfortable to done their
task OS ensures user friendly interfaces such as GUI (Graphical User Interface) it makes that
user is easy to done their task further more noninterference in the activities of its user. User can
face interference in computational activities. The operating system also prevents illegal file access
because the system knows which data can access by whom only the authorize user can access
the data.

Two major goals of an Operating System:

1. Make the computer system convenient to use.
- Convenience is important in personal computers.

2. Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

- Efficient use is important when a computer is shared with several users.

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Note: Use convenience has higher priority than efficient use of a computer in windows operating
system while efficient use of a computer system has higher priority than use convenience in Unix
Operating system.

Lesson 2: History of Operating System

The history of operating system is linked with the
history and development of various generations of
computer systems. The first true digital computer was
designed by English mathematician Charles Babbage.
He is also known as a Father of Digital Computer.
Computer had a Mechanical Design, It was slow and
unreliable and they are known as <Analytical Engine=.

As you can see in this figure were Charles Babbage

has developed an analytical engine like a computer.
Figure 1.1: Babbage's Analytical Engine (Generation Zero)

The First Generation (1940’s to early 1950’s)

Back in the 19409s, first electronic computers were introduced. These electronic
computers were made without any Operating Systems. All programming was done in absolute
machine language often by wiring up plug boards to control the machine9s basic functions.
Operating systems were not necessary because the general purpose of the computer during this
time is to perform simple mathematical calculations.

The First Generation started from 1945 to 1955 were technology has been used as a
vacuum tubes and operating system was not present and the language was a machine language
which is called binary language.

The Second Generation (1955 to 1965)

General Motors created the first operating system in the early 1950s. It was called GMOs
and is used to run single IBM (International Business Machines) mainframe computers. This
machine performs in large computer rooms and is handled by professional operators. Only
huge corporations and government agencies could afford these types of machines. The
operation works having people with different set off jobs. First the programmers would construct
a program on a piece of paper. The program will then be punched on cards and will be
brought to the operator. The program will be handed to the operator until the input is done
and ready to be given to the programmer again. Using this new system, the data
accumulated was submitted into groups and thus they were called single-stream batch processing
systems.

The second generation was from 1955 to 1965 were technology was transistors, operating
system is present, and the language was used assembly and high level language. Around 1955,
transistors were introduced and first operating system was Fortran Monitor System was introduce
in a computers, and also FORTRAN is a high level language was used.

Batch System was used in this generation to reduce the time new methodology is adopted
known as a batch system. Also to execute the program two commuters were used IBM 1401 for
reading cards, copying tapes, and printing output, and IBM 7094 for real computing. The working

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of batch system in second generation were all magnetic tapes are mounted on a tape drive;
operator load special program which read the first job from the tape and run it. Output was written
unto the second tape, after each job finished, the OS automatically read next job from the tape
and output tape inserted into IBM 1401 for printing.

The advantages of second generation able to compute scientific and engineering

calculations, cost and size of a computer is reduced, and programmer9s job was simplified. The
features on second generation computers are computers used transistors as their main electronic
component. These computers were much smaller, reliable and more powerful. Some high level
languages of this generation are COBOL and FORTAN were introduced towards the end of
second generation. Printers, Tapes storage, memory were started from second generation of
computers and also processing speed improve to microseconds.

The Third Generation (1965 - 1980)

During the early 1960s, computer manufacturers have two different product lines.
New problems regarding the time consumption of the operating system aroused. Before, it
was easy for programmers during the first generation since they have the machines for
themselves; however, in the third generation, they are in need of a machine that can quickly
process jobs.

By the late 19609s Operating System designers were able to develop the system of
multiprogramming in which a computer program will be able to perform multiple jobs at the same
time. The introduction of multiprogramming is a major part in the development of Operating
Systems because it allowed a CPU to be busy nearly 100 % of the time that it was in operation.
Another major development during the third generation was the phenomenal growth of mini
computers starting with the DEC PDP-1 in 1961. The PDP-1 had only 4K of 18-bit words, but at
$120,000 per machine (less than 5 percent of the price of a 7094), it sold like hotcakes. These
microcomputers help create a whole new industry and the development of more PDP's. These
PDP's helped lead to the creation of personal computers which are created in the fourth
generation. In the same year, the first version of the UNIX operating system was created. This
operating system was easily adapted to new systems and has attained rapid acceptance. It
is written in C and is free to use during the first few years.

Third generation was from 1965-1975 were technology was integrated circuits, operating
system was present and the language was used is high level language. In this generation
computers are based on Integrated Circuits and was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby in
1958-1959.
Integrated Circuits are
single component containing
number of transistors. Few
examples of this are PDP-8, PDP-
11, ICL 2900,IBM 360,IBM 370
and many more. Also like the
second generation, third
generation are also fast, reliable
and high-level languages
appeared. The used of IC in a
computer provides a small part of
a computer not only to reduce but
also improves the performance of Figure 1.2: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
a computer as compared to

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others or previous computers because these computers reduced the computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds. In this generation, it uses an operating system for better resources
and used the concept of time-sharing and multiple programing. But IC chips are difficult to
maintain first it required air conditioning and the technology required the manufacturing of IC
chips. And this IC chips are cheaper than the second generation.

The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)

Personal computers became largely popular during the fourth generation. They are
quite similar to minicomputers but are less costly that almost every individual is able to one.
Microsoft soon began to emerge. In the 1980s, IBM was creating a new PC and is looking for a
suitable software to run on it. They approached Bill Gates and together found a suitable
operating system called the DOS (Disk Operating System). The system was revised and
renamed into MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) and it quickly topped the market.
MS-DOS was widely used. However, these operating systems only used typing as a method
of inputting commands. Doug Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute soon invented
the GUI (Graphical User Interface), it uses icons, menus, and windows for easier access and
is user-friendly.

Along with the creation of Microsoft is the making of Apple Macintosh. Steve Jobs, co-
inventor of Apple computer, adapted GUI and Apple Macintosh became a huge success not
only because it is cheaper but with the adaption of GUI it is user-friendly. When Microsoft
decided to build a newer version of MS- DOS, it became solely based on the success of
Macintosh and Windows was created.

During the mid-1980s, there where growths of network operating systems and
distributed operating systems being used in every personal computer. Today, numerous types
of operating system are being used in different types of machines.

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Lesson 3: Types of Operating System

Batch Operating System
In this type of operating system, there is no immediate cooperation or interaction between
the OS and the PC. An operator is involved in batch OS, this operator takes similar jobs with the
same requirement and it will group them into different groups or batches. Basically, the operator
is responsible for sorting the tasks with similar demands or requirements. Examples of this OS
include bank statements, payroll system, etc.

Figure 1.3: Batch OS Visual Representation

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors of the
batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time for batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
• Batch systems are hard to debug
• It is sometime costly
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any jobs fail.

Time-Sharing Operating System

In this type of operating system (OS), every one of the various tasks are given their own
opportunity to execute for them to work efficiently. The time given to each task to execute is
called quantum. After this time interval is finished, the OS executes the next task. Every user
gets the time of the central processing unit (CPU) because they use only one system. Time-
Sharing OS are also known as Multitasking systems. As the name suggests, Time-sharing
OS can work with, or perform more than one task. The tasks can come from a single user or
from different users as well. Examples of Time-Sharing Operating System include Unix, Multics
etc.

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Figure 1.4. Time−Sharing OS Visual Representation

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Each task gets an equal opportunity
• Less chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem

Distributed Operating System

This type of operating system is commonly described as a recent development in the field
of computer technology and are currently widely accepted throughout the world.

In this type of OS, several independent yet interconnected computers can communicate
with each other using a shared communication network. These so called <independent systems=
have their own memory unit and central processing unit (CPU). These systems can also be
referred to as loosely coupled (distributed) systems. In loosely coupled systems, the
components are less dependent on each other or depend on each other to the least extent
possible. Also, in this OS, it is possible for a user9s system to access the files or software of
another system given that the systems are both connected on the same network. An example of
this OS is LOCUS.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
• Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
• To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet

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• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that
the underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet.

Figure 1.5: Distributed OS Visual Representation

Network Operating System

This type of operating system involves a server on which the systems run on. This system
provides the ability or capacity to manage users, data, applications, and other several networking
functions. This type of system also allows sharing access to files, printers, applications, etc. in a
small private network.

Figure 1.6: Network OS Visual Representation

In this OS, all users are aware of the configuration of other users within the same network
(i.e., individual connections) which allows the users and the system itself to function or work more
efficiently. Which is why systems in this type of OS are also known as tightly coupled systems.
In tightly coupled systems, hardware and software components are highly independent on each
other, which explains the reason why all the users should be aware of the configuration of other
users. Examples of this OS include Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X.

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Advantages of Network Operating System:

• Highly stable centralized servers
• Security concerns are handled through servers
• New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated to the system
• Server access are possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

• Servers are costly
• User has to depend on central location for most operations
• Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Real-Time Operating System

This type of operating system is used for the real-time

https://www.thecrazyprogrammer.com/
The Crazy Programmer. 10 Aug. 2019,
systems. Examples of real-time systems are: Air Traffic Control

Source: Real−Time OS. Digital Image.

Systems, Networked Multimedia Systems, and Command Control

2019/03/types−of−operating−
Systems etc. In real- time systems, the time interval needed to
process and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called
response time.

In this type of system, every second counts, even a second is

system.html
crucial for the system to function efficiently. This system is used when
the time requirements for the specific response time is very strict like
missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc. Examples of
Real-Time Operating Systems include medical imaging systems, Figure 1.7: Real−Time OS Visual
industrial control systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc. Representation

Two types of Real-Time Operating System (RTOS):

• Hard Real-Time Systems: These OSs are meant for the applications where time
constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These
systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or air bags which are required to
be readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is almost never found in these
systems.

• Soft Real-Time Systems: This type of Real-Time OS is used when the application9s time
constraints is less strict. In soft real-time system, meeting the time limit is not compulsory
for every time and task but of course, the system cannot miss the deadline for every task or
process, it can miss the deadline but not every time. If the deadline is not met frequently
then there will be consequences, up to the point where the system can no longer be used.
Examples of soft real-time systems are personal computers, audio system, video system,
etc.

Table 1.2: Major Differences between Hard and Soft Real-Time Systems
Characteristic Hard Real-Time Soft Real-Time
Response Time Hard-required Soft-required
Peak-load performance Predictable Degraded
Control of pace Environment Computer
Safety Often critical Non-critical
Size of data files Small/Medium Large

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Redundancy type Active Checkpoint-recovery

Data integrity Short-term Long-term
Error detection Autonomous User assisted

The above table shows the major differences between hard and soft real-time systems.
The response time requirements of hard real-time systems are in the order of milliseconds or less
and can result in a catastrophe if not met. In contrast, the response time requirements of soft real-
time systems are higher and not very stringent. In a hard real-time system, the peak-load
performance must be predictable and should not violate the predefined deadlines. In a soft real-
time system, a degraded operation in a rarely occurring peak load can be tolerated. A hard real-
time system must remain synchronous with the state of the environment in all cases. On the other
hand soft real-time systems will slow down their response time if the load is very high. Hard real-
time systems are often safety critical. Hard real-time systems have small data files and real-time
databases. Temporal accuracy is often the concern here. Soft real-time systems for example, on-
line reservation systems have larger databases and require long-term integrity of real-time
systems. If an error occurs in a soft real-time system, the computation is rolled back to a previously
established checkpoint to initiate a recovery action. In hard real-time systems, roll-back/recovery
is of limited use.

Advantages of RTOS:
• Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more output
from all the resources
• Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example
in older systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to another and in latest
systems it takes 3 micro seconds.
• Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications
which are in queue.
• Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs are small,
RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
• Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these type of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS:
• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on
few applications to avoid errors.
• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they
are expensive as well.
• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to
write on.
• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupt signals
to response earliest to interrupts.
• Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.

Handheld Operating System

This type of operating system is designed to run on machines that have processors with
lower speed and less memory, they are designed to use less memory and they also require fewer
resources compared to other types of OS.

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Handheld OS are created to work with different types of hardware other than the standard
desktop operating systems. Examples of handheld operating systems include Palm OS, Pocket
PC, Symbian OS, Linux, Windows, etc. Handheld systems also include Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs), such as Palm- Pilots or Cellular Telephones the ability to connect to a network
such as the Internet. They are usually of limited size, most handheld devices have limited amount
of memory, slow processors, and small display screens.

Advantages of Handheld OS:

• Used on portable devices in which it allows the user to take their work wherever they go.
• Costs will be cheaper since the resources used are limited compared to the other types of
OS.
• It does not rely on non-portable power sources.

Disadvantages of Handheld OS:

• Memory is limited. As a result, the operating system must manage memory efficiently.
• Many of the handheld devices do not support or use virtual memory, which is why the
developers need to work with very limited physical memory.
• Faster processors require more power. Since handheld devices have limited source of
power, the processors that can be used have limited speed.

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Lesson 4: Components of Operating System

A component is a process, program, utility, or another part of a computer's operating
system that helps to manage different areas of the computer. Not to be confused with a hardware
component, a system component is similar to a computer program, but is not something an end-
user directly interact with when using a computer.

Components of Operating System

1. Shell - In computing, a shell is a user interface for access to an operating system's services.
In general, operating system shells use either a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user
interface (GUI), depending on a computer's role and particular operation. It is named a shell
because it is the outermost layer around the operating system.

GUI (Graphic User Interface) - This interface uses graphics to interact with an operating
system such as windows, scrollbars, buttons, wizards, painting pictures, alternative icons
and many more. In this interface the information will show in the use of videos, images,
plain text, and many more.

CLI (Command Line Interface) - In this interface you have a permission to put in writing
command or console window to interact with operating system. An example of this is in
the command prompt you will put the writing command you wanted to perform so that the
computer will do the task that you have given to it.

2. Memory Manager – This mainly focuses on the allocation of memory to the different tasks.
Memory manager handles the Main Memory or RAM (also known as Random Access Memory)
and tracks of memory spaces that is needed by the running process. Multitasking consumes
memory space. Allocation of memory happens if the portion of the memory after being checked
is valid for the request, while de-allocation happens when it9s time to reclaim the memory. The
memory manager protects the space in the main memory by not allowing any alterations to
happen.

3. Process Manager – This focuses on the scheduling of tasks and the utilization of the
processor. Process scheduling is the function in the operating system that decides about the
process that gets the processor. Information sharing and exchange of processes, protection of
resources from one process to another and providing facilities for sharing and synchronization of
processes are the examples of activities being handled by the process manager. The traffic
controller is the program that keeps track of the processor as well as its status. Handling the jobs
that enter the system and managing each process within the jobs are the two levels of Process
Manager.

4. Security Manager - This manager secure the whole computer into any unauthorized process,
application and many more.

5. Secondary Storage Manager - Unlike the main memory (RAM), this manager is used to store
data that can be manipulated further in the system.

6. Device Manager – This pertains to the control of the operating system on the peripheral
devices such as the mouse, monitor, and other pertinent devices. Whenever you save a file into
a disk, the operating system does instruct the device drivers to write/store the specific file into the
auxiliary storage device. The same happens whenever you want to print a document. The
operating system is the one that instructs the printer about the accommodation of the request to

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print the document. I/O controller is the program that keeps track of all the devices. Allocation and
de-allocation of resources are done by the Device Manager too.

7. File System Manager – this refers to the ability of the user in addition, deletion, modification,
and manipulation of the files. Some of the activities being handled by file manager are naming
and renaming specific files, copying files from one directory to another, and backup and recovery
of file. It simply pertains to the use of files. This manager does allocation and de-allocation of the
resources as well.

Reading Assignment
• http://openbookproject.net/courses/intro2ict/system/os_intro.html#:~:text=An%20operati
ng%20system%20(OS)%20is,are%20run%20on%20the%20machine.&text=Almost%20
all%20computers%20use%20an%20OS%20of%20some%20type.
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-of-operating-system-set-1/
• https://www.studytonight.com/operating-system/introduction-operating-systems
• https://www.guru99.com/operating-system-tutorial.html
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/index.htm

References / Sources / Bibliography

• Nutt, G. (2009), Operating Systems: A Modern Perspective, 3rd Edition, Pearson Addison-
Wesley Inc, Boston , Massachusetts.

• Silberschatz, A., Galvin, P., and Gagne, G.(2018). <Operating 8System Concepts=, 10th
ed. John Wiley and <Sons Inc.

• Stallings, Wiliam. (2018). <Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles= 9th ed.
Pearson Education Inc.

• Harris, J. Archer., <Schaum9s Outline of Theory and Problems of Operating Systems.

McGraw Hill Companies Inc., 2002

• https://ssmengg.edu.in/weos/weos/upload/EStudyMaterial/Cse/6th%20sem/Operating%
20system/operating%20system.pdf

• https://techterms.com/definition/operating_system

• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-computer-memory-ram-rom/

• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/operating_system_tutorial.pdf

• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-operating-systems/

• https://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/des_s99/real_time/

• http://www.cs.um.edu.mt/~jcor1/oldwebsite/OS4.pdf

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