1 s2.0 S2667010023000719 Main

Environmental Challenges 13 (2023) 100747
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc
Environmental waste management strategies and vermi transformation for

sustainable development
Younis Ahmad Hajam a, Rajesh Kumar b, *, Ajay Kumar b
a
Department of Life Sciences and Allied Health Sciences, Sant Baba Bhag Singh University, Punjab India
b
Department of Biosciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, H.P. India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The world population is increasing at an alarming rate and tremendous quantity of waste is getting produced due
Waste management to urbanization, industrialization, increase in human population, and various anthropogenic activities that cause
Earthworms serious problems of disposal and management. In developing countries, the most common practice of waste
Vermicomposting
processing and management includes (i) land-filling (ii) incineration (iii) unscientific dumping, and (iv) vermi-
Vermi-biotechnology
Sustainable development
composting. The first three methods have one or another drawback including, contamination of soil and
Circular economy groundwater, environmental pollution by burning biomass, and impacting human health and hygiene of the
Eco-friendly environment. One of the safest methods for managing organic waste is vermi-composting, an eco-friendly
bioremediation process mediated by earthworms for the conversion of organic waste into compost in a sus
tainable and eco-friendly manner. Earthworms play very important roles in human welfare such as waste de
composers, bio-fertilizer manufacturers, land reclaimer, protein producers, food and vitamin source, natural
detoxicant as bio-indicator of pollution, bait, industrial raw materials, and above all drug sources. However, the
contribution of earthworms is still underdetermined in modern human society. In this article, efforts have been
made to summarize the current scenario of waste management, vermi-composting, and the potential of earth
worms in waste decomposition to find a sustainable, eco-friendly, and economic solution to manage organic
waste.
Introduction industrial activities in factories, mills, and mines.

Agricultural waste can be recycled back into the soil as organic
Environmental degradation caused by anthropogenic activities, such matter and nutrients through techniques such as composting, anaerobic
as overexploitation of natural resources and pollution, is a major global digestion, and biogas production. However industrial waste may be
issue. The continuous growth of the human population has led to an hazardous or non-hazardous (Asokan et al., 2006). The proper man
increase in waste generation, which significantly contributes in the agement of industrial waste involves prevention of environmental
environmental degradation. Waste can be defined as any material that is pollution, waste reduction, and recycling measures, such as closed-loop
no longer needed by the owner, producer, or processor and has lost its production systems and eco-design (Winkler, 2011) (Fig. 1).
utility (Sutherland et al., 2013). On the basis of the source waste differ Therefore, aim of this review study is to explore environmental waste
from one another. management strategies, with a particular focus on vermi transformation,
There are several types of waste, including municipal solid waste, in order to promote sustainability development. The objectives include
agricultural waste, biomedical waste, and industrial waste. Municipal reviewing existing waste management strategies, understanding vermi
solid waste is generated from household and commercial activities and transformation, assessing environmental benefits, analysing challenges
consists of food waste, paper, plastic, metal, glass, and other materials and limitations, and recommending strategies for sustainable
(Rouf Ahmad Bhat et al., 2018a, b; Verma et al., 2016) (Fig. 1). Source of development.
agricultural waste includes livestock waste, agricultural crop residues,
and agro-industrial by-products and tourism waste (Bhat et al., 2012).
Whereas industrial waste is generated during manufacturing or
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Kumar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100747
Received 5 April 2023; Received in revised form 14 June 2023; Accepted 13 July 2023
Available online 17 July 2023
2667-0100/© 2023 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Y.A. Hajam et al. Environmental Challenges 13 (2023) 100747
Waste generation: an alarming call for environmental instability Need of this study
Waste generation is increasing at an alarming rate and has become a The need for this study arises due to the increasing global population,
global issue. The total quantity of waste generated annually in the world industrialization, and urbanization, which results in the generation of a
is predicted to reach 2.2 billion tons by 2025 (David et al., 2019). In vast quantities of waste. The improper disposal of waste develops sig
2016 alone, 242 million tons of plastic waste was generated globally nificant environmental problems and threatens the sustainability of the
(Dastjerdi et al., 2019). Rate of waste generation in small towns of India planet. Waste management strategies, including land filling, incinera
is 0.41 kg/capita/day, and in rural areas, 0.3 to 0.4 million metric tons tion, and unscientific dumping, have various drawbacks, including
of solid waste is generated on daily basis (Kibria, 2017). Mostly of the environmental pollution, soil and groundwater contamination and
waste is organic in nature, consisting of cattle dung and crop residues. human health risks. In this context, eco-friendly vermi-transformation
The increase in waste generation is attributed to various factors, such as technology has emerged as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative for
industrialization, urbanization, population explosion, and unsustainable waste management. However, the effectiveness of this technology needs
economic development. Moreover, higher increase has been predicted in to be critically appraised, and its comparative assessment with other
lower-income countries (Sharma and Jain, 2019). waste management strategies is necessary to ensure environmental
It has been reported that over 75% of waste is managed through the sustainability.
landfilling method globally (Zuberi and Ali, 2015). However, landfills This study aims to provide a comprehensive comparative assessment
generate leachate, which contaminates the surface and groundwater of different waste management strategies, including eco-friendly vermi-
(Kinobe, 2015). Solid waste decay contributes to about 5% of green transformation technology, and critically appraise their effectiveness in
house gas emissions including methane, which in turn exacerbating the achieving environmental sustainability. This study will evaluate the
climate change (Rodic-Wiersma, 2013). However, every component of ecological, economic, and social implications of different waste man
solid waste can be used if it is converted into a functional product agement strategies, such as land filling, incineration, unscientific
through a suitable scientific method (Bhat et al., 2019). Therefore, This dumping, and vermi-composting. It will also examine the potential of
review highlights the need for efficient waste management techniques vermi-transformation technology as an eco-friendly alternative for
that utilize scientific approaches to reduce the impact of waste on the waste management and evaluate its effectiveness in comparison to other
environment (Agarwal et al., 2015; Kumar, 2015). Hence, waste man waste management strategies.
agement has become critical aspect of environmental protection and
sustainable development that needs to be addressed through scientific Materials and methods
methods, awareness, and proper management techniques. Failure to do
so will lead to a further increase in waste generation and environmental This review discusses the progressive efforts to deepen our under-
threats. It involves the adoption of scientific and effective strategies to standing in assessing waste valorisation through vermicomposting and
reduce waste generation, promote waste reduction and recycling, and it’s monitoring through enzyme activity. Vermicomposting related ref
prevents contamination of environmental. This proper waste manage erences and works mostly original research were reviewed from 20,000
ment is essential will help us to preserve natural resources, protects the to present based on the following criteria: origin of waste, sources of
environment, and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come. waste, generation of waste, Waste management strategies (11R strategy,
Waste to energy (WtE), waste to energy and circular economy, com
posting, benefits of functional compost, comparative evaluation of
Fig. 1. Showing the origin of waste from different sources.
2
chemical fertilizers and vermicompost, Eco-friendly innovative vermi- Table 1

transformation technology, selection of suitable species of earthworm Showing the list of waste management strategies, applications, uses and their
for vermicomposting, Role of vermi-technology in agriculture, Eco drawbacks.
nomic perspective of vermi-biotechnology, earthworms and their clas Waste Applications Uses Disadvantages
sification, Earthworms as valuable bioreactors for sustainable solid Management
waste management, Role of earthworms in the management of waste Strategy
and sustainable environment, Earthworms: Cinderella of Organic Landfill Disposal of Provides a Negative impact on
Farming, Earthworms as waste Engineers, soil conditioners, intestines of municipal solid temporary solution the environment
waste, to waste due to the release of
earth/farmer’s ploughman, Earthworms and soil fertility, key indicators
construction management, cost- greenhouse gases,
of soil health and sustainable farming practices, Vermitechnology and waste, and effective method contamination of
climate change, Barriers in Effective Implementation of vermicompost hazardous waste for waste disposal, soil and water,
ing, were reviewed to ascertain how various waste management stra generates methane potential risks to
tegies are used to recycle the different types of biodegradable wastes, that can be used as human health
a source of energy
their limitations, innovations, eco-friendly waste management strate Incineration Disposal of Generates Air pollution,
gies, roles of earthworms in the recycling of waste and the production of medical waste, electricity, reduces release of toxic
vermi-composting, significance of vermicompost (as organic fertilizer, hazardous waste, waste volume by emissions, high cost
soil conditioner, soil aerator etc.) and the nutrients during vermi and municipal up to 90%, destroys of construction and
solid waste pathogens and maintenance, not
composting. Fig. 1 illustrates the different patterns of literature survey
toxic substances suitable for all types
about the waste management strategies and eco-friendly approach of of waste
vermicomposting for the recycling of waste. Recycling Processing of Reduces the High initial
materials such as amount of waste investment, requires
Consequences of improper waste management paper, plastic, sent to landfill, proper segregation
glass, and metal conserves natural of waste, limited
into new products resources, reduces availability of
Improper waste management practices, including dumping waste in energy recycling facilities
open areas, continue to be a major concern worldwide. As reported by consumption in certain areas
Kaza et al. (2018), half of the world’s population, or more than 3.5 Composting Processing of Provides a natural Requires large
organic waste fertilizer for amounts of space,
billion people, lack awareness of proper waste management strategies
such as food and agricultural use, may produce
(Kaza et al., 2018). This has resulted in the generation of an estimated yard waste into reduces the amount unpleasant odors,
1.3 billion tons of municipal solid waste in 2012, which is projected to nutrient-rich of waste sent to requires proper
increase to 2.2 billion tons by 2025 (Rodic-Wiersma, 2013). While land compost landfill, improves management and
filling and incineration are the most commonly adopted waste man soil health monitoring
Source Prevention of Reduces waste May require
agement techniques globally, alternative and eco-friendly methods such Reduction waste generation generation and changes in
as waste-to-energy and composting are gaining increasing attention as through reduction associated costs, consumer
sustainable options to manage and transform organic waste into useful of waste at the conserves natural behaviour, limited
resources such as energy and fertilizer (Agarwal et al., 2015). To over source resources application for
certain types of
come the burden and adverse consequences of waste such as environ
waste
mental pollution, health risks, habitat destruction, soil degradation and Anaerobic Processing of Produces High initial
resource depletion, various strategies have been developed for the Digestion organic waste renewable energy investment, requires
management of waste. Addressing these issues through proper waste such as food and in the form of proper management
management practices is crucial to mitigate the adverse effects on the animal waste to biogas, reduces the and monitoring,
produce biogas amount of waste limited availability
environment, safeguard human health, conserve resources, and preserve and fertilizer sent to landfill, of anaerobic
the beauty and sustainability of our communities. provides a natural digestion facilities
fertilizer for in certain areas
Waste management strategies agricultural use
Various technologies can be employed for waste management,

environmental sustainability (Fig. 2).
including waste-to-energy conversion, and recycling. Implementing
The 11R strategy for waste management is an approach that focuses
effective waste management practices is critical to reduce the quantity
on reducing, reusing, recycling, recovering, repairing, redesigning,
of waste that ends up in landfills or pollutes the environment, thereby
regulating, raising awareness, researching, rewarding, and rethinking
contributing to a sustainable future (Table 1).
waste management practices (Fletcher et al., 2021). This approach is
designed to address the environmental, economic, and social impacts of
11 R strategy
waste and promote sustainable waste management (Sharma et al., 2021;
Yeheyis et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2011).
The accumulation of organic waste and its unscientific disposal in the
The 11R strategy for waste management is highly significant as it
environment poses a significant threat to human health and the envi
promotes key principles of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover, Refuse,
ronment (Sharholy et al. 2008; Sharholy et al., 2005; Rathi, 2007). This
Rethink, Repair, Regulate, Research, Revenue, and Responsibility. This
is due to the offensive odour, groundwater contamination, and soil
comprehensive approach aims to minimize waste generation, maximize
pollution caused by such waste (Mishra et al., 2016). To mitigate these
resource recovery, and foster a sustainable and circular economy.
negative effects, safe and eco-friendly disposal methods are required.
One such approach is the "11 R formula," which involves Rethinking our
consumption patterns, refusing unnecessary products, reducing waste Waste to energy (WtE): a temptation for municipalities
generation, reusing items, repurposing old items, Recycling materials,
Regifting, Repairing broken items, Refilling containers, rotting organic Waste to Energy (WtE) technologies comprises a group of techniques
waste, and Repeating this cycle (Kaza et al., 2018). This approach em that convert waste into useful forms of energy, such as heat, electricity,
phasizes the importance of reducing waste at the source, reusing and and alternative fuels like biogas (Moya et al., 2017; Soltani et al., 2016)
recycling materials, and safely disposing of organic waste to promote (Fig. 3). These techniques include incineration, co-processing, anaerobic
3
Fig. 2. Showing the role of 11R strategy for the management of waste.
Fig. 3. Showing the concept of waste to energy generation process.
digestion, landfill gas collection, and pyrolysis/gasification and are generation. Advanced WtE technologies have been successfully imple
useful for recycling various of waste. Improper waste management can mented in developed countries, simple technology transfer is often not
lead to global warming and energy shortages and WtE plants can help successful in developing and emerging countries. Some advanced WtE
address these issues by turning waste into a resource for energy technologies are in practice in rapidly growing cities of developing and
4
emerging countries, but anaerobic digesters fed with separated organic (Fig. 4). The significance of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) in the Circular
MSW and technologies like pyrolysis and gasification are still not widely Economy lies in its ability to address two critical challenges simulta
implemented beyond pilot scale in these countries (Fig. 3 and table 2). neously: waste management and resource recovery. WtE facilities pro
Waste to Energy (WtE) presents a significant opportunity for munici vide an environmentally sustainable solution for non-recyclable waste
palities as it enables the conversion of waste into energy, thereby by converting it into valuable energy. This reduces the reliance on fossil
addressing two pressing challenges simultaneously: waste management fuels, decreases landfill usage, and helps to close the resource loop by
and energy production. By harnessing the calorific value of waste, WtE extracting maximum value from waste materials. By integrating WtE
facilities generate electricity or heat, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, into the Circular Economy, we can promote a more efficient and sus
mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting a more sustainable tainable use of resources while minimizing the environmental impact of
and self-sufficient energy mix. waste disposal (Fig. 4).
Composting
Waste-to-Energy and the circular economy
Composting is a natural process of biotransformation that converts
Waste-to-Energy (WtE) plays a crucial role in the Circular Economy
organic waste into stable and nutrient-rich manure, which is free from
concept. In the Circular Economy, resources are used in a closed-loop
any toxicants. The word "compost" is derived from the Latin word
system, where waste is minimized, and materials are recycled and
’componere’, which means to put together. Composting is an econom
reused. WtE complements this approach by converting non-recyclable
ical and environmentally friendly method for managing various types of
waste into energy instead of sending it to landfills. By extracting en
waste, such as animal manure, industrial waste, crop straws, and
ergy from waste, WtE facilities contribute to resource recovery, reduce
municipal solid waste (Sayara et al., 2020).
the need for fossil fuel-based energy production, and promote a more
The process of composting involves depositing organic materials in
sustainable and circular use of resources.
containers and allowing them to decompose through the action of mi
While some WtE technologies have been successful in developed
croorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. The waste composition of
countries such as Europe, North America, Japan, and China, transferring
developing countries, which often contains high moisture content,
these technologies to developing and emerging countries has not always
makes composting a suitable method for the management of municipal
been successful due to financial requirements, input material composi
solid waste (Sayara et al., 2020; Zhou and Wang, 2020). This method is
tion, and local capacities (Quitzow et al., 2017). However, some
commonly used to convert organic waste into organic manure
advanced WtE technologies have been implemented successfully in
(compost), which recycles mineral nutrients such as nitrogen, phos
rapidly growing cities of developing and emerging countries. Major
phorus, and potassium, making it suitable for agricultural practices
contributors and their key findings have been documented in table 2 and
(Ahmad et al., 2019; Mupambwa and Mnkeni et al., 2018).
Composting under thermophilic conditions provides hygienic
Table 2 compost by destroying pathogenic organisms within the waste (Onwosi
Showing the key researchers and their finding for the waste to energy generation
et al., 2017). The high temperatures required for the thermophilic phase
technology.
of composting are optimal for the degradation of lignin in compost.
Study Key Points Moreover, during composting, decomposition and humification lead to
Moya et al., 2017 Waste-to-energy technologies can transform waste into useful the production of humic acid and humic-like substances, which can be
forms of energy such as heat, electricity, and biogas. used for soil remediation and heavy metal immobilization (Kulikowska
Soltani et al., Different waste-to-energy techniques (manufacturing of et al., 2015; Hermann et al., 2011).
2016 cooking gas in household digesters, methane gas collection from
landfills, incineration, co-processing, anaerobic digestion,
In addition, composting is an environmentally friendly approach to
landfill gas collection, and pyrolysis/gasification. manage organic waste, as it can help to remove large quantities of
Ajay et al., 2021 The applicability of each waste-to-energy technique should be toxicants, pollutants, plastic molecules, and residues, and have a posi
evaluated independently based on the local context and waste tive impact on the biotic community, including biodegrading microor
stream.
ganisms and soil-dwelling animals, such as earthworms (Kyrikou and
Barbier, 2023 Improper waste management contributes to global warming and
power generation shortfall, and waste-to-energy can potentially Briasssoulis, 2007). During the initial phase microorganisms de
resolve these issues while creating business opportunities. composes soluble organic compounds (starch and lipids) followed by
Shah et al., 2021 Waste-to-energy can play a significant role in energy supply and proteins. Some highly resistant compounds, such as cellulose,
waste management. hemi-cellulose, and lignin, are partially degraded and converted into
Quitzow et al., Transferring waste-to-energy technologies to developing and
2017 emerging countries can be challenging due to financial
humus (Moreno et al., 2011). The pH of the composting material also
requirements, input material composition, and local capacities. changes during the process, with an initial decrease due to the produc
Mutz et al., 2017 Co-processing of waste in cement kilns and landfill gas tion of organic acids from the breakdown of starch and lipids, followed
collection used in sanitary landfills have been successfully by an increase as the microorganisms degrade proteins (Zhang et al.,
implemented in rapidly growing cities of developing and
2022).
emerging countries.
Zamri et al., 2021 Anaerobic digesters fed with separated organic MSW and Composting holds significant importance as a sustainable waste
technologies like pyrolysis and gasification have not moved management practice. It involves the decomposition of organic mate
beyond the pilot scale for composite MSW fractions in rials such as food scraps, yard waste, and agricultural residues into
developing countries. nutrient-rich compost. The significant contribution of composting can
Salhofer et al., The 3R strategy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) is an important step in
2008 waste management, involving reducing the quantity of solid
be assessed as Soil enrichment, waste reduction, carbon sequestration,
waste, reusing discarded materials, and recycling them into sustainable landscaping and environmental protection. Therefore,
secondary raw materials. composting is significant as it promotes sustainable waste management,
Deselnicu et al., Recycling plastic or paper can save more energy in production soil enrichment, waste reduction, carbon sequestration, water conser
2018 than waste-to-energy plants can generate from these materials.
vation, and environmental protection. By embracing composting prac
Klemeš et al., After extensive recycling, some waste may be left over which is
2020 hazardous but has calorific value and can be used as fuel. tices, we can create a more sustainable and resilient future for our
Kosajan et al., Thermal treatment methods like incineration or co-processing, planet.
2021 which comply with environmental emission standards, can
contribute to the destruction of toxic substances and remove Functional compost
them from the circular material flow.
Functional compost is compost that has reached a level of maturity
5
Fig. 4. Waste-to-Energy and the Circular Economy.
where it can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil health and

Table 3
support plant growth. During the composting process, organic materials
Showing the characteristics of functional compost and benefits for the health of
such as food waste, yard waste, and other organic matter are broken
soil.
down by microorganisms into a nutrient-rich material that is high in
organic matter and beneficial microorganisms (S. Mahapatra et al., Characteristics of Functional Benefits for Soil Health
Compost
2022).
Rich in organic matter Improves soil structure and water holding
capacity
Functional compost has several benefits for soil health
Contains beneficial Enhances nutrient cycling and suppresses soil-
Compost improve structure of soil by improving soil porosity and microorganisms borne diseases
reducing soil compaction, which can help increase water infiltration and Low in heavy metals and Promotes healthy plant growth and reduces
reduce erosion (Fischer and Glaser, 2012). Compost is rich in nutrients pathogens risks of contamination
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which helps to increase Neutral pH or slightly alkaline Supports nutrient availability and uptake
Good C:N ratio Promotes balanced decomposition and
the soil fertility and support plant growth (A. Singh et al., 2020; Cai minimizes nitrogen loss
et al., 2019; Han et al., 2016). Presence of beneficial microorganisms Free from synthetic chemicals and Prevents soil degradation and promotes
helps to suppress plant diseases and pests by promoting healthy soil pesticides biodiversity
ecosystems (Pathma, and Sakthivel, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2019). Intro
duction of compost helps to improve soil water retention by increasing
applications, from agricultural practices to landscaping and gardening.
soil organic matter content and improving soil structure (Jashothan
Moreover, it can also help in nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration,
et al., 2021; Esmaeilzadeh and Ahangar, 2014). Using compost as a soil
water retention and erosion control, disease and pest suppression and
amendment can help reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers, which can
waste reduction.
help reduce environmental pollution and conserve natural resources
(Verma et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2019). Therefore, it can be suggested
Comparative assessment of chemical fertilizers and vermi-
that functional compost might be important tool for sustainable agri
compost
culture and soil management, as it can help promote soil health and
support healthy plant growth while reducing the environmental impact
Chemical fertilizers have been widely used in modern agriculture to
of conventional farming practices (Table 3).
increase crop production and fulfil the growing demand of food inse
Functional compost is a valuable tool for improving soil health,
curity. However, despite their benefits, the overuse of chemical fertil
providing numerous benefits that can lead to healthier, more productive
izers has been associated with various negative impacts on the
soils. By increasing soil organic matter and promoting beneficial mi
environment, natural resources, and human health (Table 4) (Najafi,
crobial activity, functional compost can help to support healthy plant
2003). The cost of chemical fertilizers is also high, making them inac
growth, reduce the risk of soil-borne diseases, and improve the overall
cessible to low-income farmers (Ogada et al., 2014).
resilience of the soil ecosystem. In addition, functional compost can also
Studies have shown that the use of chemical fertilizers can lead to
help to reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, which can
soil degradation, loss of soil fertility, and decreased agricultural pro
have negative impacts on soil health and biodiversity over time. Func
ductivity (Pahalvi et al., 2021; Itelima et al., 2018). Chemical fertilizers
tional compost plays a vital role in sustainable agriculture, ecosystem
can also contaminate air and water, and release greenhouse gases, which
health, waste reduction, and climate change mitigation. Its ability to
can be harmful to human health and biodiversity (Kumar et al., 2019;
improve soil fertility, retain water, suppress pests and diseases, and
Pahalvi et al., 2021). Additionally, the overuse of specific nutrients in
reduce greenhouse gas emissions makes it a valuable resource in various
6
Table 4 mineralization, soil enzymatic factors, and presence of various phyto

Showing the Comparative analysis of chemical fertilizers and vermi-Compost. hormones in vermi-compost (Suthar, 2009).
Parameters Chemical Fertilizers Vermi-Compost Vermi-compost is a granular, peat-like material that is produced
through the non-thermophilic biodegradation and stabilization of
Nutrient content High nutrient content, Moderate nutrient content,
typically nitrogen, but provides a wider range of organic materials by earthworms and microorganisms (Emam and
phosphorus, and potassium in nutrients including micro- Mohamed, 2022; Gupta et al., 2019; Ahmed, 2015). It has a higher
specific ratios nutrients and beneficial porosity, aeration, drainage, water-holding capacity, and microbial ac
microorganisms tivity compared to other composts (Ghorbani et al., 2023; Ravindran
Application Typically requires more Longer-lasting effects,
frequency frequent applications to reducing the need for frequent
et al., 2022; Leno et al., 2021). Vermi-compost is produced from various
maintain nutrient levels in soil applications types of organic residues, including sewage sludge, animal wastes, crop
Impact on soil Can lead to soil acidification, Improves soil health, by residues, Kitchen waste, floral waste and industrial residues (Diksha
health reduction in soil organic increasing organic matter et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2021). Unlike other composts, vermi-compost
matter, and contribute to soil content, improving soil
does not have negative impacts on the environment, soil, or plants
degradation over time structure, and supporting
beneficial microbial activity (Table 5 & 6). It promotes root growth and nutrient absorption, leading
Environmental Can have negative Sustainable and eco-friendly, to increased nutrient content in the soil (de Sousa et al., 2021; Khan
impact environmental impacts such reduces waste and supports et al., 2019).
as eutrophication, water natural resource management Microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and ciliates, play a crucial
pollution, and contribute to
climate change
role in vermicomposting by breaking down and mineralizing organic
Cost Can be expensive due to high Cost-effective, as it can be residues (Goswami et al., 2021). These microorganisms secrete extra
production and transportation produced on-site and reduces cellular digestive enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex com
costs the need for external inputs pounds such as cellulose and phenolic compounds (Riaz et al., 2020;
Plant growth Provides rapid plant growth Supports sustainable plant
Pathma and Sakthivel, 2012). This mesophilic process, which utilizes
and yield and high yields in the short- growth, improving long-term
term, but can lead to long- yield and quality, and microorganisms and earthworms active at 10–30 ◦ C, is faster than
term soil degradation and increasing resilience to traditional composting because earthworms ingest waste materials and
reduced crop quality environmental stresses transform them into vermi-compost, or "black gold". Microbes play a
significant role in the degradation or composting process, producing a
unique and enriched organic soil amendmenting agent fortified with
chemical fertilizers can cause an imbalance in the supply of soil nutri
pest repellence features and plant growth regulators.
ents, resulting in the degradation and loss of equilibrium of a stable soil
The American Earthworm Technology Company is credited with
(Elbasiouny et al., 2022; Tayoh et al., 2020; Zaman et al., 2019).
pioneering this eco-friendly waste management technique in the late
To address these issues, scientists are exploring alternative sources of
1970s, producing 500 t of vermi-compost (Sinha et al., 2009; Gangaiah
fertilizers for organic farming. Organic fertilizers can provide a balanced
et al., 2017). Since then, the popularity of vermicomposting has spread
supply of essential nutrients and minerals, helping to maintain soil
fertility and productivity while reducing the negative impacts on the
environment and human health (Chen, 2006; Jat et al., 2015; Panhwar Table 5
et al., 2019). Therefore, chemical fertilizers have provided benefits in Comparison of Vermi-composting and Vermi-filtration.
terms of increased crop production and food security, their overuse has Aspect Vermi-composting Vermi-filtration
resulted in negative impacts on the environment, natural resources, and Purpose Waste decomposition Water filtration
human health. Input material Organic waste Water polluted with
organic matter
Eco-friendly innovative vermi-transformation technology Worm species Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Lumbriculus variegatus,
etc. Tubifex tubifex, etc.
Output product Compost Treated water
Earthworms are an important component of soil ecology and nutrient Advantages Rich soil amendment, reduces Low-cost water treatment,
cycling, as they break down organic matter and release nutrients such as waste volume eco-friendly
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium that can support plant growth Challenges Requires proper moisture and Limited effectiveness for
aeration, long process time certain pollutants,
(Edwards et al., 2022). In addition, earthworms help to aerate the soil,
potential odour issues
improving its texture and allowing water and air to circulate more easily Examples of Eco-Friendly Innovations in Vermi-Technology
(Usharani et al., 2019). Aristotle’s statement that "worms are the in Innovation Description
testines of the earth" emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living Vermi-bag A portable, low-cost vermi-
things and the importance of understanding the roles that different or composting system using
biodegradable bags and worms to
ganisms play in maintaining ecological balance. Now-a-days, most convert organic waste into
common species of earthworms used in vermi-composting include compost.
Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavatus, and Lumbricus Vermi-filtration A water treatment system using
rubellus (Medina-Sauza et al., 2019), which are known for their tolerance bioreactor worms to filter and break down
organic matter, producing clean
to environmental conditions such as temperature, pH, and moisture
water for reuse or discharge.
content (Ahmad et al., 2021; Samal et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2018). This Vermi- A method of irrigating crops using
highlights the continued recognition of the vital role that earthworms irrigation vermi-filtration effluent,
play in soil health and ecosystem functioning. providing nutrients and reducing
Earthworms are known to decompose organic waste into a humus- water pollution.
Vermi- A technique using worms to
like substance, which enhances nutrient mineralization rates and in remediation remove pollutants from
creases microbial diversity (Zuco et al., 2015). Vermi-compost-based contaminated soil or water, such
growth substrates have been shown to promote plant growth, as re as heavy metals or hydrocarbons.
ported by Olle (2016) in tomato plants, and Suthar (2009) in garlic Vermi-culture An approach to cultivating edible
worms for human or animal
plants, resulting in increased stem diameter, plant height, number of
consumption, providing a
leaves, and number of flowers. This could be attributed to the higher sustainable protein source with
nutrient content, diverse microbial structure and activity, low environmental impact.
7
Table 6 2017).
Comparison of Vermi-Technology with Other Waste Management Methods. Therefore, it can have concluded that, eco-friendly innovative vermi-
Aspect Vermi- Incineration Landfill transformation technology plays a vital role in waste reduction, soil
technology enrichment, carbon sequestration, water conservation, sustainable
Environmental Low carbon High carbon Methane emissions, agriculture, and community empowerment. Its adoption and imple
impact footprint, emissions, air groundwater mentation can contribute significantly to a more sustainable and envi
produces soil pollution contamination ronmentally friendly future (Fig. 5).
amendment
Input material Organic waste All types of waste All types of waste
Output product Compost, clean Ash, air pollutants Leachate, methane
Selection of suitable species of earthworm
water gas
Economic Low-cost, can High capital and Low-cost but limited
feasibility generate operating costs lifespan, potential for Selection of appropriate earthworm species is critical for successful
revenue from remediation costs vermi-composting, as the growth of Eisenia fetida and Eudriluseugeniae is
compost sales influenced by food quality and quantity, culture media, temperature,
Public Generally Controversial due NIMBY (not in my
acceptance positive, seen as to air pollution backyard) syndrome,
and moisture levels. Local earthworm species, such as Perionyx exca
eco-friendly and health risks often opposed by vates, Perionyx sansibarious, P. pallus, and Perionyx cressiseptatus, have
communities also been used for waste bioconversion. However, the best results have
been achieved using a composite culture of exotic worms in combination
with local species (Table 7). amongst the commonly used species for
to several countries, including the USA, Philippines, Japan, UK, Cuba,
vermi-composting, Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae, and Perionyx exca
France, Italy, and India Das et al., 2019; Shaojian Wang et al., 2022).
vates have demonstrated excellent degradation capabilities under semi-
Vermicomposting is a sustainable way of managing waste that has
natural conditions in India (Singh and Bhartiya, 2021).
numerous benefits, including reducing the amount of waste that goes to
Burrowing earthworms, such as endogeic and anecic species,
landfills, producing a high-quality fertilizer, and improving soil health
improve soil fertility by utilizing organic waste added to the soil, but
(Varjani et al., 2021; Ayilara et al., 2020; Chew et al., 2019). It is a
their slow breeding, low food requirements, and low population density
simple and low-cost technique that can be practiced at home or on a
make them unsuitable for waste management and composting. Epigeic
larger scale, making it an ideal solution for waste management in both
earthworms, or surface-dwelling worms, are more suitable for the bio-
rural and urban areas (Das et al., 2019; Coban et al., 2018; Jouhara et al.,
conversion of organic waste into high-quality compost (Varma and
Fig. 5. Showing the role of vermi-technology in the revival and survival of biosphere.
8
Table 7
Comparison of Earthworm Species for Vermicomposting.
Species Common Name Pros Cons
Eisenia fetida Red worm, Red Fast breeding, efficient composters, wide temperature tolerance, widely Sensitive to high acidity and salinity, may not tolerate
wiggler available extreme temperatures
Eudrilus African Fast breeding, efficient composters, large size, good for larger systems Sensitive to cold temperatures, may not tolerate high
eugeniae nightcrawler moisture levels
Perionyx Blue worm Good for tropical climates, can tolerate low oxygen levels, good for small- Slow breeding, may not tolerate low pH
excavatus scale vermicomposting
Lumbricus Red marsh worm Good for aerobic composting, tolerates a wide range of temperatures and Slow to mature, not as efficient as some other species
rubellus moisture levels
Eisenia Andrei Red worm, Red Similar to Eisenia fetida, but may tolerate colder temperatures and more Less studied than E. fetida, may not be as widely available
wiggler acidic conditions
Kalamdhad, 2014). They do not require soil for survival and thrive in
Table 8
organic waste with high humidity and good aeration, such as mixed
Role of Vermi-Technology in Agriculture.
cattle dung (Shafi and Ali, 2023; Appelhof and Olszewski, 2017). They
are fast breeders, voracious eaters, and collaborate with aerobic bacteria Application Description Benefits
to prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms in the waste (Patón et al., Soil Addition of vermicompost to Improves soil structure and
2023). Earthworms consume high-quality fungus and calcium as food, amendment soil as a nutrient-rich fertilizer water retention, enhances
and soil conditioner plant growth and yield,
which contain high quantities of sugar and nitrogen (Grimm et al., 2021;
reduces need for chemical
Sinha et al., 2010). The optimal temperature for the culture and prop fertilizers
agation of Eudrilus eugeniae is between 20–25 ◦ C (Blakemore, 2015). Pest control Use of vermi-extracts or Safe for the environment and
Inoculating earthworms in the conversion process maintains aerobic vermi-tea as natural pesticides human health, reduces pest
conditions in the medium, transforms organic materials into biomass, and soil inoculants and disease incidence,
improves soil microbiome
respiration products, and expels the remaining stabilized products
Bioremediation Use of vermi-remediation to Reduces pollution and health
(Suthar, 2009; Suthar, 2010). Epigeic earthworms have the ability to detoxify contaminated soil or risks, restores soil and water
recycle organic waste materials into value-added products (Wani and water quality, can generate revenue
Rao, 2013). During the vermi-composting process, the consumption of from remediation services
oxygen increases, indicating accelerated microbial activity (Palaniveloo Livestock feed Cultivation of edible worms as Sustainable and low-cost
a protein-rich feed source for alternative to traditional feed,
et al., 2020; Miranda-Carrazco et al., 2021). Free-living N2 fixing bac livestock reduces dependence on soy and
teria present in the gut of worms increase the quantity of nutrients other crops, can generate
(nitrogen and phosphorus), cellulase activity, and decrease the micro revenue from worm sales
bial biomass carbon in worms (Liu et al., 2019; Rouf Ahmad Bhat, et al., Aquaculture Use of vermi-filtration to treat Improves water quality and
and recycle water in fish health, reduces need for
2018; Das et al., 2016). The coprolites of fur animals generated by
aquaculture systems water exchange and chemical
Eisenia fetida have increased quantities of nitrogen, phosphorous, po treatments, can generate
tassium, calcium, and magnesium, signifying the degree of mineraliza revenue from water treatment
tion (Pereira et al., 2022). services
The selection of a suitable species of earthworm is significant for
various reasons. Earthworms play a vital role in enhancing soil fertility
promoting a symbiotic relationship between microbes and plants
and promoting overall ecosystem health. Here are a few reasons why
(Sharma and Garg, 2018; Dhiman et al., 2019). Earthworms have the
selecting the right species of earthworm is important for soil health,
ability to breakdown various types of organic wastes, including house
organic matter decomposition, soil structure and aeration, vermi
hold garbage, sewage sludge, and industrial wastes (Rouf Ahmad Bhat
composting, ecological balance. In summary, the selection of a suitable
et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2015). Vermitechnology has the potential to be
species of earthworm is significant because it ensures that the chosen
applied to a wide range of organic waste materials, crop residues, and
species can thrive in the specific soil conditions, effectively decompose
industrial refuse (Gupta and Garg, 2017; Raza et al., 2022) (Table 9).
organic matter, improve soil structure, enhance composting processes,
Vermi-technology, also known as vermiculture or vermicomposting,
and contribute to a balanced soil ecosystem. This selection process op
refers to the use of earthworms to decompose organic waste and produce
timizes the benefits that earthworms can provide to soil health and
nutrient-rich compost. This technique has several significant roles and
ecosystem sustainability.
benefits in agriculture such as waste management, soil health and
fertility, nutrient recycling, soil erosion control, biological pest control.
Role of vermi-technology in agriculture In summary, vermi-technology plays a significant role in agriculture by
providing an effective waste management solution, improving soil
Vermi-technology is a challenging field that requires further research health and fertility, recycling nutrients, controlling soil erosion, and
to establish model vermi-composting units and bridge the gap between offering biological pest control. By harnessing the power of earthworms,
laboratories and the field (Sherman, 2018). These units can serve as vermi-technology offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly
inspiration for various stakeholders such as farmers, animal keepers, approach to agriculture, contributing to increased productivity, reduced
agro-based industries, house-owners, entrepreneurs, and hobbyists to environmental impact, and long-term soil and ecosystem sustainability.
adopt vermi-composting (Table 8). Vermicomposting technology has
numerous benefits for sustainable development in agriculture, envi Economic perspective of vermi-biotechnology
ronment, socio-economic sectors, community health, and science and
technology, making it valuable for society as a whole (Obaideen et al., Vermi-compost market generated USD 63.55 million in 2019 and is
2022). projected to reach USD 222.42 million by 2027, indicating a growth rate
It involves the use of vermi-compost as organic manure, which is rich of 16.74% from 2020 to 2027. Successful life cycles of various earth
in NPK and beneficial for plant growth and soil health. It maintains soil worm species have been well documented, including African night
texture and water-holding capacity and increases soil microbes, crawlers, Eudrilus eugeniae, Eisenia fetida, and Perionyx excavates (Kabi
9
Table 9 sold or used in agriculture to increase crop yield.

Role of Vermi-Technology in Agriculture, Environment, and Socio-economic Cost savings: Vermi-biotechnology can also result in cost savings
Sectors. compared to traditional composting methods. Vermicomposting can
Sector/ Description Benefits save up to 70% of the cost of traditional composting due to lower energy
Application consumption and the absence of the need for turning the compost.
Agriculture Soil amendment: Addition of Improves soil structure and Revenue generation: Vermi-biotechnology can also generate reve
vermicompost to soil as a water retention, enhances plant nue through the sale of vermicompost and earthworms. The sale of
nutrient-rich fertilizer and soil growth and yield, reduces need vermicompost can generate a revenue of up to 3600 INR (approximately
conditioner for chemical fertilizers
$50) per ton. The sale of earthworms can also generate revenue as they
Pest control: Use of vermi- Safe for the environment and
extracts or vermi-tea as natural human health, reduces pest and are used in various industries such as fisheries and poultry farming.
pesticides and soil inoculants disease incidence, improves soil Employment generation: Vermi-biotechnology can also create
microbiome employment opportunities, one ton of vermicompost production can
Vermi-farming: Cultivation of Generates income and generate employment for 2–3 people.
worms for use as feed, soil employment, sustainable and
inoculants, or sale low-cost alternative to
Environmental benefits: Vermi-biotechnology can also provide
traditional farming environmental benefits such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
Environment Bioremediation: Use of vermi- Reduces pollution and health improving soil health. Vermicomposting can reduce methane emissions
remediation to detoxify risks, restores soil and water by up to 80% compared to traditional composting.
contaminated soil or water quality, can generate revenue
The economic perspective of vermi-biotechnology, specifically ver
from remediation services
Waste management: Use of Reduces waste volume and micomposting, holds significant importance due to the following rea
vermicomposting to process odors, produces valuable sons such as cost savings, increased crop yield, value-added product,
organic waste into nutrient- fertilizer, reduces greenhouse diversification and entrepreneurship, environmental sustainability. In
rich compost gas emissions summary, the economic perspective of vermi-biotechnology highlights
Landscaping: Use of Improves aesthetic appeal,
the cost savings in waste management, increased crop yields, the value-
vermicompost in landscaping reduces water use, enhances
projects to enhance soil quality biodiversity added nature of vermicompost, opportunities for diversification and
and plant growth entrepreneurship, and the environmental sustainability associated with
Socio- Poverty reduction: Use of Generates income and this approach. By harnessing the economic benefits of vermi-
economic vermi-farming to provide employment, promotes gender
biotechnology, businesses, farmers, and entrepreneurs can create a
income and food security to equality, reduces dependence
marginalized communities on external aid more sustainable and profitable agricultural system.
Education and capacity Enhances knowledge and skills,
building: Use of vermi- promotes innovation and Earthworms
technology as a tool for entrepreneurship, fosters
education, research, and skill community engagement
development
Earthworms are a type of annelid, which is a phylum of segmented
Health and nutrition: Use of Improves nutrition and health worms. They are found in most parts of the world, from forests to fields
vermicomposting to produce outcomes, reduces food to gardens, and can range in size from just a few centimeters to over a
nutrient-rich food for human insecurity, promotes metre long. Earthworms have long, tube-shaped bodies with no legs or
consumption sustainable food systems
arms, and they move through the soil by contracting and extending their
Industry Livestock feed: Cultivation of Sustainable and low-cost
edible worms as a protein-rich alternative to traditional feed, muscles. They have a moist, slimy exterior that allows them to move
feed source for livestock reduces dependence on soy and through soil easily, and they breathe through their skin. Earthworms
other crops, can generate feed on organic matter, such as dead leaves and other decaying plant
revenue from worm sales material, and break it down into smaller particles. They are also used in
Aquaculture: Use of vermi- Improves water quality and fish
filtration to treat and recycle health, reduces need for water
various industries, such as fishing and composting, and have been
water in aquaculture systems exchange and chemical studied extensively for their potential in bioremediation efforts to clean
treatments, can generate up contaminated soil. Hence earthworms are a fascinating and impor
revenue from water treatment tant part of the ecosystem, playing a critical role in maintaining soil
services
health and supporting plant growth. Earthworms play a critical role in
Bioplastics: Use of Reduces plastic waste and
vermicomposting to produce pollution, promotes circular maintaining healthy soil and ecosystems, and their importance can be
biodegradable plastics from economy, fosters innovation seen in a variety of ways: Earthworms improve soil structure by bur
organic waste and entrepreneurship rowing and creating channels that allow air and water to penetrate
deeper into the soil, which promotes root growth and nutrient uptake
(Kautz, 2015). They also break down organic matter, turning it into
et al., 2020; Coulibaly and Bi, 2010). Companies such as Aoka Sanagyo
nutrient-rich soil, which helps plants grow. Moreover, it has been
Co. Ltd. and Toyohir Seiden Kogyo Company in Japan are utilizing
studied that earthworms are an important part of the food chain, serving
vermi-composting for handling tons of waste per month and producing
as a food source for a variety of animals including birds, rodents, and
high-quality castings and earthworms. Additionally, during 1985–97,
other soil-dwelling animals (Shaojian Wang et al., 2022; Hashimi et al.,
Japan procured 3000 million tons of earthworms from the USA for
2020). Their presence in the soil also encourages the growth of other
decomposing cellulose wastes of organic manure. Vermi-biotechnology
soil-dwelling organisms such as fungi and bacteria. Earthworms help to
can also create jobs in waste management and agriculture, and support
reduce the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides by improving soil
local food systems by providing a local source of organic matter for
quality and promoting plant growth (Al-Maliki et al., 2021; A. Singh
farming and gardening. Hence the value of vermi-biotechnology as a
et al., 2020). Earthworms are responsible for a range of ecosystem ser
sustainable waste management approach has been increasingly recog
vices including nutrient cycling, waste decomposition, and soil aeration
nized as a way to promote environmental, economic, and social
(Sofo et al., 2020; Dewi and Senge, 2015; Blouin et al., 2013). Moreover,
sustainability.
earthworms have been used in bioremediation efforts to clean up
Vermicompost production: Production of vermicompost using
contaminated soil. They are able to break down pollutants such as heavy
earthworms can yield 1.6–2.4 times more compost compared to tradi
metals and organic chemicals, and their burrowing activity can help to
tional composting methods. This means that vermi-biotechnology can
aerate the soil and promote the breakdown of contaminants (Shi et al.,
increase the yield of compost per unit of organic waste, which can be
2020; Lionetto et al., 2012; Hickman and Reid, 2008). (Therefore,
10
earthworms play a crucial role in maintaining soil health and ecosystem discovery of 11 new species of earthworms in the Peruvian Amazon,
sustainability, with a wide range of benefits that support agricultural highlighting the importance of continued research in these regions.
productivity and environmental resilience. Earthworms are a vital However, the classification of earthworms is an active area of research,
component of healthy and sustainable ecosystems, and their importance as new species are continually being discovered and existing classifica
in promoting soil health and agricultural productivity cannot be over tions are refined based on new data and evidence.
stated (Fig. 6 & 7, Table 10).
Earthworms as valuable bioreactors for sustainable solid waste

Classification of earthworms management
Earthworms are classified in the phylum Annelida, which is a large Earthworms, members of the phylum Annelida, have long been
and diverse group of segmented worms. Within this phylum, earth recognized as beneficial organisms for farmers. Their burrowing nature
worms are classified in the class Clitellata, which includes both earth and consumption of soil mixed with organic matter can help to improve
worms and leeches. There are two main orders of earthworms: the soil quality and fertility, ultimately leading to increased crop produc
Lumbricidae and the Megascolecidae. tion. As they tunnel through the soil, they create channels that improve
The Lumbricidae family includes earthworms that are commonly soil structure and increase its porosity, allowing for easier passage of
found in Europe and North America. They are typically smaller in size, water and air. This increased porosity of the soil also supports the
with fewer segments and setae (bristles) compared to the Mega growth of aerobic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and ciliates
scolecidae family. Lumbricids are also known for their tendency to form (Hills et al., 2017). These microorganisms play a vital role in the con
burrows near the soil surface. version of organic waste into compost, enzymes, and growth factors that
The Megascolecidae family includes earthworms that are commonly help to maintain soil fertility (Ayilara, et al., 2020).
found in tropical and subtropical regions. They tend to be larger in size Earthworms and microorganisms form a symbiotic association that
and have more segments and setae compared to the Lumbricidae family. supports one another and is essential for sustainable agricultural prac
There is no single definitive answer to the total number of earthworm tices (Bender et al, 2016). The earthworms help to create a favourable
species, as new species are still being discovered and described by sci environment for the growth of microorganisms, while the microorgan
entists. However, according to current estimates, there are approxi isms provide essential nutrients and organic matter for the earthworms
mately 7000 known species of earthworms worldwide. Recent studies (Medina-Sauza et al., 2019). Therefore, role of earthworms in improving
have also identified several new species of earthworms, particularly in soil quality and promoting sustainable agriculture has been recognized
regions with high levels of biodiversity such as the tropics. For example, for thousands of years. Their interactions with microorganisms play a
a study published in 2020 in the journal ZooKeys described the critical role in maintaining the health and fertility of soil, ultimately
Fig. 6. Figure showing the contribution of earthworms in the maintenance of soil fertility.
11
Fig. 7. Showing the role of earthworms in different aspect of sustainable environment and life on biosphere.
Table 10 Table 11
Showing the importance of earthworms in the different aspects of biosphere. Earthworms as valuable bioreactors for sustainable solid waste management.
Aspect Role of Earthworms Role of Earthworms Description
Environmental Improve soil quality by increasing water infiltration and Waste decomposition Earthworms consume organic matter and break it down into
Sustainability nutrient cycling, reducing erosion and runoff, and smaller particles, helping to accelerate the decomposition of
promoting plant growth solid waste.
Biodiversity Promote biodiversity by increasing microbial activity, Nutrient cycling Earthworms excrete nutrient-rich casts (faeces) that are
enhancing soil food webs, and supporting a wide range of high in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which can be
plant and animal species used as fertilizer for plants. This helps to close the nutrient
Soil Health and Fertility Enhance soil health and fertility by improving soil cycle and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers.
structure, increasing organic matter content, and Soil aeration Earthworms burrow through soil, creating channels that
releasing plant-available nutrients allow air and water to penetrate deeper into the soil. This
Crop Production Improve crop production by promoting healthy root improves soil structure and helps to promote healthy plant
growth, increasing nutrient uptake, and reducing plant growth.
stress Microbial diversity Earthworms carry a diverse community of microorganisms
Nutritive Value Increase the nutritive value of crops by enhancing mineral in their gut, which can help to improve soil health by
uptake and promoting the growth of nutrient-rich plants increasing microbial diversity and activity.
Waste Management Contribute to waste management by converting organic Vermicompost Earthworms can be used to produce high-quality
waste into nutrient-rich vermicompost, reducing the need production vermicompost from solid waste. Vermicompost is a nutrient-
for synthetic fertilizers and reducing waste disposal costs rich soil amendment that can be used to improve soil
Economic Perspectives Provide economic benefits by reducing input costs, fertility and plant growth.
increasing crop yields and quality, and generating income Waste reduction By consuming organic waste, earthworms can help to
through vermicompost production and sales reduce the volume and weight of solid waste, which can
Soil Engineers Act as soil engineers by burrowing and mixing soil, help to reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal.
increasing aeration and water infiltration, and creating Economic benefits The use of earthworms for solid waste management can
channels for roots and beneficial microorganisms to thrive provide economic benefits by creating opportunities for
Beneficial Microbial Increase the diversity and activity of beneficial small-scale vermicomposting businesses, as well as reducing
Diversity microorganisms in soil, supporting nutrient cycling and the costs associated with waste disposal.
soil health. Earthworms can also host unique microbial Sustainability Earthworms offer a sustainable approach to solid waste
communities in their gut that contribute to soil health and management by promoting the use of organic waste as a
plant growth. resource for nutrient cycling and soil health improvement.
supporting the growth of healthy crops and contributing to food security Role of earthworms in the management of waste and sustainable
(Table 11). environment
Considering these characteristics, earthworms are valuable bio
reactors for sustainable solid waste management, offering a range of Earthworms play a crucial role in soil and waste management by
benefits including waste decomposition, nutrient cycling, soil aeration, converting organic materials into valuable compost (Fig. 6). They
microbial diversity, vermicompost production, waste reduction, eco enhance soil fertility and structure, improve water-holding capacity, and
nomic benefits, and sustainability. promote plant growth (Atkinson et al., 2018). Additionally, earthworms
can consume a variety of organic wastes, including household garbage,
sewage sludge, and industrial wastes, making them an important tool for
12
waste management (Bajsa et al., 2004). The global market for vermi enhancing plant resistance against pests (Kaur et al., 2020). Earthworms
compost is expected to continue to grow in the coming years, indicating can act as soil conditioners by improving the physico-chemical and
the increasing recognition of the value of earthworms in sustainable biological properties of soil, thereby providing nutrients that are
agriculture and waste management (Sharma and Garg, 2019; Lim et al., necessary for the healthy growth of plants (Subbulakshmi and Thir
2015). uneelakandan, 2011).
Earthworms: Cinderella of organic farming Earthworms as intestine of earth/farmer’s ploughman
Earthworms are important for managing solid waste and are a key Earthworms have been recognized for their important role in various
part of soil fauna communities in most ecosystems. They are also a biological processes since pre-historic times. Aristotle called them "The
source of essential minerals and trace elements (Berthelin et al., 2006). Intestine of Earth," and Carolus Linnaeus in his book "Systema Naturae"
Scientists have studied the vermi-composting ability of different earth reported on their contribution to soil fertility through their burrowing
worm species, and certain species are preferred for producing effective and feeding activities. Charles Darwin gave credit to earthworms for
and nutrient-rich compost through vermi-composting (Gajalakshmi, S. their great service in decomposing waste, and Dr. Thomas J. Barrett saw
and Abbasi, 2004; A. Singh et al., 2020; Sharma and Garg, 2019). their potential for improving barren dry lands into fertile farms. Other
Earthworms break down the waste into fragments, increasing the sur researchers have demonstrated the contribution of earthworms in the
face area for microbial colonization and accelerating mineralization conversion and recycling of organic matter, with symbiotic relationships
(Domínguez et al., 2010). Vermicompost contains valuable nutrients, between earthworms and microorganisms playing a crucial role in the
minerals, and beneficial microorganisms that are essential for healthy realization of mineral nutrients in the soil. Casts from earthworms
plant growth, making it a highly prized soil amendment often referred to contain more microbial flora than the surrounding soil, including
as "Black Gold (Wei et al., 2022; de la Vega, 2016; Rajiv et al., 2010). nitrogen-fixing bacteria that help to increase the beneficial microbes and
nitrogen fixers in the soil through vermi-composting. Therefore, earth
Earthworms as waste engineers worms and bacteria work together to decompose waste into compost,
and the use of earthworms in agriculture and waste management is an
Earthworms have been given various names such as ’rain-worms’, important aspect of sustainable development.
’manure-worms’, ’angle-worms’ or ’fish-worms’. Charles Darwin con
ducted extensive research on earthworms for 40 years and reported that Earthworms and soil fertility
an acre of British farmland contained about 50,000 worms, which
generated approximately 18 tons of worm-casts (excreta) per year. The Earthworms play a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility. They help
origin of earthworms in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to to decompose organic matter, which provides nutrients for plants to
1844, when Robert Templeton provided detailed information on grow (Ahmed and Al-Mutairi, 2022; Sofo et al., 2020). Earthworms eat
earthworms of India. Aristotle was the first to recognize the role of their way through soil, they produce casts, which are rich in nutrients
earthworms in soil turnover, calling them "the intestines of the earth". In such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These nutrients are
1881, Charles Darwin emphasized the importance of earthworms in the available in a form that can be easily absorbed by plants (Tammam et al.,
weathering process, their contribution to soil fertility through burrow 2022; Kumar et al., 2018). The burrowing action of earthworms also
ing and casting, and wrote the book "Formation of Vegetable Mould helps to create channels for air and water to move through the soil,
Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits". which is important for root growth and overall plant health (Fischer
Earthworms constitute about 40–90% of soil macro-faunal biomass and et al., 2014; Bagyaraj, et al., 2016). Research has shown that soil with a
8% of total soil biomass in some ecosystems (Sinha et al., 2013). healthy earthworm population tends to have higher levels of organic
Earthworms are widely distributed except in areas with constant matter, better soil structure, and improved fertility compared to soil
snow and lacking soil and vegetation. Some species are broadly scat without earthworms (Ahmed and Al-Mutairi, 2022; Fonte et al., 2010).
tered (peregrine), while others are not successfully distributed to other This is the reason that earthworms are often considered a key indicator
regions (endemic) (Tiunov et al., 2006). Earthworms have the ability to of soil health and are encouraged in sustainable farming practices.
decompose waste materials, which is significant considering the various
organic by-products generated during agricultural and industrial pro Earthworms are key indicator of soil health and sustainable farming
cessing that may become hazardous to the environment (Basheer and practices
Agrawal, 2013; Ghosh and Singh, 2005). Transforming waste into
bio-manure has become increasingly popular due to the expensive cost Earthworms are indeed a key indicator of soil health and are
of chemical fertilizers and their unavailability at times (Diacono and important for sustainable farming practices. Earthworms are considered
Montemurro, 2011). Earthworms mainly feed on organic waste, using ecosystem engineers because they play a crucial role in maintaining the
only a small portion for their own purposes, and excrete some of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil (Sutaria et al., 2022;
consumed materials in semi-digested form (Nagar et al., 2018). The Ojha and Devkota, 2014)and helps to improve soil structure, nutrient
presence of various microorganisms, enzymes, and hormones in their cycling, water infiltration, and overall soil fertility (Prasad et al., 2021;
intestines facilitates the rapid digestion of waste, transforming it into Usman et al., 2016). They are particularly sensitive to changes in soil
vermi-compost that is rich in plant nutrients (Sharma, 2003). quality and can indicate the health of the soil ecosystem (Muñoz-Rojas
et al., 2016; Ezeaku, 2015). For example, the absence of earthworms
Earthworms as soil conditioner may indicate soil compaction, low organic matter, or the presence of
toxins in the soil. Sustainable farming practices can help to promote
Earthworms are known to be vital contributors to soil fertility due to earthworm populations and maintain soil health (Bai et al., 2018; Singh
their remarkable nutrient cycling ability (Alagesaran and Dheeba, 2010; et al., 2018). These practices include reducing tillage, adding organic
Atiyeh et al., 2000). Recent studies have shown that earthworms can be matter to the soil, reducing chemical inputs, and practicing crop rotation
effectively used for the degradation and stabilization of various types of (Man et al., 2021; Sainju et al., 2018). By implementing these practices,
organic wastes (Atiyeh et al., 2000). Earthworms play a crucial role in farmers can help to maintain healthy soils that support plant growth and
breaking down organic matter in soil, releasing nutrients that are biodiversity (Salomon and Cavagnaro, 2022; Bouma and Veerman,
essential for plant growth, secreting plant growth hormones, promoting 2022). Overall, earthworms are an important part of a healthy soil
the proliferation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, aerating soil, and ecosystem and can be used as an indicator of soil health (MTahat et al.,
13
2020). Sustainable farming practices that promote healthy soils can help organic materials, such as kitchen scraps, yard waste, and other biode
to maintain earthworm populations and support sustainable agriculture. gradable materials, into nutrient-rich compost (S. Mahapatra et al.,
Earthworms play a vital role in sustainable farming practices because 2022). The vermicompost is a valuable soil amendment that can
they help to improve soil health and fertility (Akhila and Entoori, 2022). improve soil structure, fertility, and nutrient content (Ceritoğlu et al.,
Earthworms are natural tillers, aerators, and fertilizers of soil, and they 2018). The nutrient content of vermicompost can vary depending on the
can enhance plant growth and productivity by their activities in the soil feedstock used, the species of worms involved, and the composting
(Sinha et al., 2010). Here are some of the ways in which earthworms conditions (Barthod et al., 2018). Generally, vermicompost is rich in
contribute to sustainable farming: essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
Soil aeration: Earthworms create tunnels in the soil, which im (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and micronutrients like iron (Fe),
proves soil aeration and helps to promote root growth. This helps plants manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) (Nikbakht et al., 2008). The
to absorb nutrients more efficiently and can lead to higher crop yields. nutritional profile some important nutrients have been enlisted below.
Soil fertility: Earthworms help to break down organic matter in the Nitrogen (N): Typically ranges from 1% to 3%.
soil, which releases nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas Phosphorus (P) 0.5% to 1.5%.
sium. This helps to improve soil fertility and reduces the need for syn Potassium (K) 0.5% to 1.5%.
thetic fertilizers. Calcium (Ca) 0.5% to 2%.
Soil structure: Earthworms improve soil structure by mixing Magnesium (Mg) 0.2% to 0.5%.
organic matter with soil particles. This improves soil porosity, which
helps to regulate soil moisture and prevent soil erosion. Vermicomposting of waste vs mitigation of GHGs emission
Pest control: Earthworms are natural predators of pests such as slugs
and snails. By eating these pests, earthworms can help to reduce the Vermicomposting mitigation strategies include the use of C-rich
need for chemical pesticides. To encourage earthworm activity on a amendment materials as sawdust (Chen et al., 2016), red mud and fly
farm, sustainable farming practices include avoiding the use of chemical ash (Abu Khayer Md Muktadirul Bari Chowdhury et al., 2014), inorganic
fertilizers and pesticides, reducing tillage, and adding organic matter to material (Christensen et al., 2009), and an aeration system to reduce
the soil. Some farmers also use vermiculture, which is the practice of GHG emissions. Based on locally accessible agricultural leftovers, such
raising earthworms for the production of worm castings (a natural fer as wood chips (Colon et al., 2011) maize stalks [8], used up mushrooms,
tilizer) and for use in composting. and cotton gins (Cui et al., 2019) , a bulking agent is chosen. There is a
The statement highlights the significance of earthworms as key in wealth of literature that describes the function of biochar in reducing
dicators of soil health and sustainable farming practices. Earthworms greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Dhamodharan et al., 2019).
play a vital role in maintaining soil fertility and structure, as they Numerous variables, including aeration, the inclusion of a bulking
enhance nutrient cycling, improve soil aeration, and increase water agent, pH, temperature, and C/N ratio, affect greenhouse gas emission
infiltration. Their presence indicates a healthy and balanced soil during composting and vermicomposting (Ding et al., 2019). Numerous
ecosystem, which is crucial for sustainable agriculture. Monitoring and studies indicate that adding cow dung and sewage sludge greatly lowers
promoting earthworm populations can help farmers gauge the overall greenhouse gas emissions (Dominguez et al., 2016). According to Wang
health of their soil and implement practices that support long-term et al., adding reed straw to duck poo lowers N2O generation. However,
sustainability. as manure increases GHG generation, it cannot be used in vermi
composting (Ding et al., 2019). The amount of carbon in the garbage
Barriers in effective implementation of vermicomposting being utilised is related to greenhouse gas emissions. With the addition
of pelletized wheat straw, vermicomposting can be employed to reduce
There are certain limiting factors that can prevent the application of the methane emissions from sewage sludge (Duan et al., 2019). Ac
vermicomposting, including: cording to some reports, worm composting lowers CH4 emissions
Lack of suitable space: Vermicomposting requires adequate space compared to controlled circumstances because the earthworms keep the
to set up composting beds or bins, which may not be available in certain pile’s surroundings aerobic. The vermicomposting process emits less
settings, such as densely populated urban areas or small apartments. CH4 thanks to an extended aeration duration and appropriate mainte
Unsuitable climate: Certain types of worms, such as red wigglers, nance. Moisture plays a significant role in controlling greenhouse gas
thrive in warm and moist conditions, making them unsuitable for areas emissions throughout the vermicomposting process. In worm compost
with extreme temperatures or dry climates. ing bins, too much moisture kills the worms, boosts the nitrification and
Lack of suitable waste material: Vermicomposting requires denitrification processes, and encourages CH4 emissions by promoting
organic waste materials such as kitchen scraps and yard waste. If these the development of methanogenic bacteria in vermibeds.
materials are not available or are not suitable for composting, then The largest concentration of N2O is seen in the anoxic earthworm
vermicomposting may not be feasible. gut’s centre (Ermolaev et al., 2019; Ermolaev et al., 2014). The likeli
Lack of appropriate equipment: Vermicomposting may require hood that N2O is further reduced to N2 before it leaves the alimentary
specialized equipment such as composting bins, bedding materials, and canal may increase as the earthworm’s radius grows (Al-Ghussain et al.,
moisture meters. The cost and availability of these resources can be a 2019). According to certain research, conflicting redox mechanisms and
limiting factor for some individuals or communities. gut transit duration may have a significant role in the in vivo emission of
Lack of knowledge and expertise: Vermicomposting requires N2O and N2 by earthworms (Gage et al., 2003). The physical protection
proper knowledge and expertise to ensure the composting process is of soil organic matter inside cast aggregates results in increased C
successful and safe. Lack of understanding about the process can lead to storage since the transit through the earthworm stomach promotes the
issues such as unpleasant odors, pests, and harmful pathogens. degradation of organic matter due to mineralization, fragmentation, and
Regulations and restrictions: Some areas may have regulations or the ensuing increase in microbial activity. The feeding ratio is a crucial
restrictions on composting, including vermicomposting. These regula variable in determining the amount of greenhouse gases emitted during
tions may limit the ability to practice vermicomposting, or require the vermicomposting process.
permits or specific procedures to be followed.
Conclusions
Nutritional value
Vermi-transformation technology, particularly vermi-composting,
Vermicomposting is the process of using worms to decompose offers a viable and eco-friendly approach to converting organic waste
14
into nutrient-rich vermicompost. This process reduces waste volume, sustainable and eco-friendly approach that reduces waste volume, im
improves soil fertility, and promotes sustainable agriculture practices. proves soil fertility, and enhances plant growth. And also emphasizes the
Waste segregation at the source is crucial for effective waste man importance of waste segregation at the source to optimize waste man
agement. Proper separation of different waste streams enables efficient agement. Proper segregation of different waste streams allows for effi
recycling, composting, and disposal, minimizing environmental impacts cient recycling, composting, and disposal, reducing the environmental
and optimizing resource recovery. impact. Moreover, this study will support the implementation of a cir
Implementing a circular economy approach in waste management is cular economy approach in waste management. This involves mini
essential. By minimizing waste generation, promoting recycling and mizing waste generation, promoting recycling and reuse, and recovering
reuse, and recovering valuable resources from waste, a circular economy valuable resources from waste, leading to a more sustainable and
model can reduce environmental harm and create a more sustainable resource-efficient system. The findings highlight the significance of
and resource-efficient system. Moreover, community engagement plays community engagement in waste management. Educating and involving
a significant role in waste management. Educating and involving the the community in waste reduction practices, such as composting and
community in waste reduction practices, such as composting and recy recycling, fosters a sense of responsibility and contributes to long-term
cling, fosters a sense of responsibility and contributes to long-term environmental sustainability. Nonetheless, study emphasizes the need
environmental sustainability. Supportive policies and infrastructure for supportive policies and infrastructure to enable effective waste
are necessary for effective waste management. Adequate waste collec management. Adequate waste collection, recycling facilities, and regu
tion systems, recycling facilities, and regulations that encourage sus lations that encourage sustainable practices are crucial for achieving
tainable practices are critical for achieving environmental sustainability environmental sustainability goals.
goals. Therefore, it can be concluded that this study underscores the
In conclusion, the study highlights the importance of vermi- importance of vermi-transformation technology, waste segregation,
transformation technology, waste segregation, circular economy prin circular economy principles, community engagement, and policy sup
ciples, community engagement, and policy support in promoting envi port in promoting environmental sustainability in waste management.
ronmental sustainability in waste management. These findings
underscore the need for integrated and collaborative efforts to move Novelty statement
towards a greener future.
This study provides a comprehensive and critical evaluation of waste
Significance management strategies for environmental sustainability, with a partic
ular focus on the innovative and eco-friendly vermi-transformation
This study will be useful for policymakers, waste management au technology. Through the analysis of current literature and case studies,
thorities, and other stakeholders in making informed decisions about this paper highlights the potential of vermi-composting in mitigating the
waste management strategies. The study will provide insights into the negative impact of waste generation on the environment and presents
environmental, economic, and social implications of different waste recommendations for its widespread implementation and adoption.
management strategies, and will help in identifying the most effective
and sustainable approach for managing waste. Overall, this study’s need Challenges
is crucial in addressing the urgent need for sustainable waste manage
ment strategies and ensuring environmental sustainability. Waste management is an important aspect of environmental sus
The critical analysis of these strategies highlights their strengths, tainability, and various strategies have been developed to address this
limitations, and potential environmental impacts, emphasizing the need issue. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the use of eco-
for more sustainable alternatives. Vermi-transformation, utilizes earth friendly waste management technologies such as vermi-transformation
worms to decompose organic waste, has emerged as a promising waste technology (VTT). This technology involves the use of earthworms to
management solution. This study discusses the role of earthworms in convert biodegradable waste into nutrient-rich compost. While VTT has
enhancing nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and the production of valuable shown promise as a sustainable waste management strategy, there are
resources like vermicompost and vermitea. This study also discusses the still challenges that need to be addressed.
effective waste management strategies, such as recycling and vermi- One of the main challenges of VTT is the need for proper regulation
transformation, contribute to reducing the volume of waste sent to and monitoring of the process to ensure that it is being carried out safely
landfills or incinerators. This helps minimize greenhouse gas emissions, and effectively. In addition, there is a need for adequate training and
land and water pollution, and the depletion of natural resources. Vermi- education of individuals involved in VTT to ensure that the process is
culture will help to recover of resource enables the through the con being carried out correctly. Another challenge is the need for proper
version of organic waste into nutrient-rich vermicompost, which can be infrastructure and equipment to support the VTT process, including
used as a soil amendment in agriculture, horticulture, and urban suitable facilities for earthworm breeding and composting.
greening. This process facilitates the recovery of valuable resources, Another challenge of VTT is the potential for contamination of the
reducing the dependency on chemical fertilizers and promoting sus environment and human health risks. This is especially true if the waste
tainable agricultural practices. Moreover, implementation of sustainable being processed contains hazardous materials or pathogens. Therefore,
waste management practices, including vermi-transformation, plays a it is important to carefully assess the waste being processed and take
significant role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. By diverting appropriate measures to ensure that it is safe for processing.
organic waste from landfills, where it decomposes anaerobically and There is also a need to address the economic viability of VTT as a
produces methane, vermi-transformation contributes to mitigating waste management strategy. While the technology has the potential to
climate change. Vermicompost enhances soil health by improving its generate income through the production and sale of compost, there may
physical, chemical, and biological properties. This fosters plant growth, be significant costs associated with the infrastructure and equipment
promotes biodiversity, and supports sustainable land management needed to support the process. Therefore, it is important to carefully
practices. evaluate the costs and benefits of VTT to ensure that it is a sustainable
and economically viable option for waste management.
Significant findings In conclusion, while VTT shows promise as an eco-friendly waste
management strategy, there are still challenges that need to be
This study highlights the effectiveness of vermi-composting in con addressed. Proper regulation, monitoring, and training are needed to
verting organic waste into nutrient-rich vermicompost. It is found to be a ensure that the process is being carried out safely and effectively.
15
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Environmental Challenges 13 (2023) 100747

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Environmental waste management strategies and vermi transformation for

Introduction industrial activities in factories, mills, and mines.

Fig. 1. Showing the origin of waste from different sources.

chemical fertilizers and vermicompost, Eco-friendly innovative vermi- Table 1

Various technologies can be employed for waste management,

Fig. 3. Showing the concept of waste to energy generation process.

Fig. 4. Waste-to-Energy and the Circular Economy.

where it can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil health and

Table 4 mineralization, soil enzymatic factors, and presence of various phyto

Table 9 sold or used in agriculture to increase crop yield.

Earthworms as valuable bioreactors for sustainable solid waste

Earthworms: Cinderella of organic farming Earthworms as intestine of earth/farmer’s ploughman

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Environmental Challenges 13 (2023) 100747

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Environmental waste management strategies and vermi transformation for

Introduction industrial activities in factories, mills, and mines.

Fig. 1. Showing the origin of waste from different sources.

chemical fertilizers and vermicompost, Eco-friendly innovative vermi- Table 1

Various technologies can be employed for waste management,

Fig. 3. Showing the concept of waste to energy generation process.

Fig. 4. Waste-to-Energy and the Circular Economy.

where it can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil health and

Table 4 mineralization, soil enzymatic factors, and presence of various phyto­

Table 9 sold or used in agriculture to increase crop yield.

Earthworms as valuable bioreactors for sustainable solid waste

Earthworms: Cinderella of organic farming Earthworms as intestine of earth/farmer’s ploughman

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Table 4 mineralization, soil enzymatic factors, and presence of various phyto