➢ Study of living things

➢ but also the things which affect living things in anyway

➢ Definition of life?
➢ It isn’t the scope of biology
➢ Biologists usually work on how living things work

➢ For biologists, life is a set of characteristics

➢ Living organism are…
➢ highly organized
➢ Complex
➢ Composed of cells
➢ have genetic material
➢ Can acquire & use energy
➢ Perform metabolism
➢ Grow in size
➢ Maintain their internal environment
➢ Respond to changes
➢ Produce offspring
➢ Ecology
➢ study of organisms and how they interact with the environment

➢ Embryology
➢ concerned with the study of embryos and their development

➢ Physiology
➢ the study of how the living systems function and work together

➢ Morphology
➢ the study of the size, shape, and structure of living things

➢ Anatomy
➢ involves the study of the structure (internal) of the human body
➢ Paleontology
➢ the study of fossils, evolution and pre-historic life on earth

➢ Histology
➢ Study of the microscopic structure of cells, tissues and organs

➢ Evolution
➢ Study of the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life

➢ Genetics
➢ study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms

➢ Zoogeography
➢ deals with the geographical distribution of animals
➢ Molecular Biology
➢ study of the cells and their organelles at molecular level

➢ Environmental Biology
➢ study of organisms in relation to their environment

➢ Microbiology
➢ study of microorganisms which include Bacteria, Viruses etc.

➢ Freshwater Biology
➢ Branch that deals with the organisms living in freshwater bodies

➢ Marine Biology
➢ study of the marine life and their characteristics

➢ Parasitology
➢ study of parasites: their structure, transmission, life histories & host
➢ Human Biology
➢ exploration of human life, anatomy, physiology, and health processes.

➢ Sociobiology
➢ study of social behavior and communal life of living things

➢ Biotechnology
➢ Use of living organisms to make technological advances in various fields
 LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

➢ Despite immense complexity, only about 16 makeup living things

➢ These are called bio-elements

➢ And then, only 6 account for the 99% of everything

➢ So, these element mut have some properties

➢ Biological organization is complex

➢ Complexity allows living things to perform various functions

➢ Living things have built-in regulatory controls

➢ Homeostasis

➢ To make understanding these things easier, we divide biology in various levels

 Atomic & Subatomic level

➢ Everything is made of subatomic & atomic particles

➢ Such as protons, electrons & neutrons

Important when it comes to creation of bonds

 Molecular Level Of Biological Organization

➢ Elements in living systems don’t occur in isolated forms

➢ They merge together to form biological molecules
▪ Merging occurs via various bond types creating great diversity

Micro-molecules Vs. Macro-molecules

➢ Micro-molecules: They are low-weight / e.g. water & CO2
➢ Macro-molecules: are of high weight / e.g. starch, proteins etc.

Organic Vs. Inorganic Molecules

➢ organic molecule has both carbon & hydrogen
➢ Inorganic molecules do not…

➢ A living system has/needs 100s of biological molecules to function

➢ Some most important & abundant are amino acids and nucleotides like ATP, ADP, AMP etc.
 Organelles & Cells
➢ Micro- & macro-molecules arrange to form organelles
➢ Organelles in turn form cells

➢ Some simple organism are only one cell e.g. bacteria

➢ While, some other e.g. animals/plants are muti-cellular

➢ Organelles are also called sub-cellular structures

➢ Examples nucleus, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum etc.
➢ Organelles are like the organs of a cell

➢ Prokaryotes have limited organelles & no membrane-bound organelles

➢ Eukaryotes have many organelles and many membrane-bound organelles
 Tissue Level Of Organization
➢ Present in multicellular organism
➢ Cells (similar/of related function) arrange together
➢ Cells are arranged either in bundles or loose sheets

➢ Tissues have specific functions in an organism

➢ muscle tissue = movement
➢ glandular tissue = secretion
➢ xylem tissue & phloem tissue = transport

➢ Their structure is also related with their function

 Organs Level

➢ Tissues of related function assemble together to form an organ

➢ This increases the output/efficiency of their work
➢ Organs like tissues perform specific functions in body

➢ Stomach = food digestion (proteins mostly)

➢ It has a secretory epithelium (a tissue) which secretes the gastric juice
➢ and a muscular tissue (smooth) for contracting & mixing food with the enzyme

➢ Intestines = function = absorption/digestion/ movement

➢ It also has smooth muscles tissue to move food
➢ Blood tissue to absorb and transport food

➢ Likewise, liver & gall bladder also have digestive functions

 Organ Systems

➢ Organs of similar function arrange to form organ systems

➢ Digestive system, excretory system, nervous system etc.

➢ Organ level of organization is much less definite in plant

➢ We can only distinguish roots, stems, leaves etc.
➢ Roots anchor the plant, store food and bring water and minerals.
➢ The shoot supports the entire plant
➢ Leaves are primary organs for food manufacture.
➢ Flowers or other reproductive structures

➢ Organ systems are also very limited in plants

➢ There is only a shoot system and a root system
 Organism Level Of Organization
➢ Also known as individual level of organization
➢ An individual is a collection of various organ systems
➢ An individual has its own individuality
➢ All systems in an organism work together

➢ For example, if a man is engaged in continuous and hard exercise

➢ Not only his muscles get strong and hardy
➢ But his respiratory system also develops
➢ His heart is also made stronger to push more blood

➢ These system work together through co-ordination

➢ Coordination is provided by the nervous and hormonal system

➢ Organism works as a whole

➢ Also, it interacts and responds to the environmental changes as a whole.
 Population Level Of Organization
A population is a group of organisms of same species in same place at same time

➢ Just like an individual, a population also has its own attributes

➢ Some biological traits of a population include

➢ gene frequency
➢ gene flow
➢ age distribution
➢ population density,
➢ population pressure
 Community Level Of Organization
populations of different species (plants and animals) in the same habitat form a community

➢ In a community, a population may increase/decrease due to…

➢ Biotic & abiotic factors

➢ Some communities are complex and well interrelated

➢ Other communities may be simple.

➢ In a simple community any change can have drastic and long lasting effects
 Ecosystem, Biome & Biosphere

➢ An ecosystem is a community plus the environment.

➢ Forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, grassland ecosystem

➢ A biome is a large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife
➢ Biomes are named after type of major plants or major feature of the ecosystem
➢ Aquatic, grassland, forest, desert all over the world

➢ Biosphere is made up of the parts of Earth where life exists

➢ all ecosystems & all biomes on earth
 Living World In Time (PTB)

➢ Many organisms have evolved since the origin of life

➢ Some have dominated entire planted during different geological times
➢ This can be seen in fossil evidence buried in earth’s crust
➢ The fossil record allows us to place organisms in a time sequence

➢ As time passes, new geological layers are placed down

➢ So, the older the organism, the deeper it will be buried

➢ And we can date rocks, through radio isotopes present in them

➢ Older layers have less radio active elements than the new

➢ Also, fossils record in the same layer must be alive in the same time
Living World In Time (PTB)
 Phyletic Lineage (PTB)
➢ Biodiversity: the number and variety of species in a place

➢ There are nearly 2,500,000 species, currently know

➢ insects (53.1%)
➢ 7.6 % are vascular plants.
➢ Animals other than insects are 19.9 %
➢ 9.4 % are fungi, algae, protozoa, and various prokaryotes

➢ But estimates say there are 5 to 30 million species on earth

➢ Where did all of this diversity came from?

➢ It came via Phyletic lineages

➢ Phyletic lineage are evolving populations of the organisms living in the remote past.
 Phyletic Lineage
➢ A phyletic lineage is an unbroken series of species
➢ It is arranged in ancestor to descendant sequence
➢ Each later species having evolved from one before it

➢ Evolution produces new species and then increases biodiversity.

➢ If we had all data, we could track all life back to its origin
➢ But we don’t because many soft bodied animals don’t leave fossils
 Biological Method
➢ Science it systematized knowledge
➢ Biology has a set methodology based on experiments

➢ The knowledge begins with observation

➢ Observation is made through our senses

➢ Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Observations

➢ Quantitative observations are more accurate
➢ Quantitative observations record results in numbers

➢ Hypothesis
➢ Based on observations & collected data, researchers give a statement
➢ This statement can also include some background knowledge
➢ This statement is known as hypothesis

➢ Hypothesis = tentative explanation of observation

 Biological Method
➢ Hypothesis is usually formed in one of two ways
➢ Deductive reasoning
➢ Inductive reasoning

➢ Deductive reasoning
➢ It moves from general to specific
➢ Logic “if” and “then” are commonly used
➢ Example
➢ If all birds having wings, sparrows must have wings
➢ If all plants need light, any plant in dark will die

➢ Inductive Reasoning
➢ Moves from specific to general
➢ Example
➢ Eagles have wings and it is a bird
➢ And since sparrows, vultures and ducks are birds; they must also have wings
 Other Methods To Make Hypothesis
➢ Imagination or intuition
➢ The theory of the Gaia hypothesis
➢ the Earth is a self-regulating system that maintains conditions

➢ Aesthetic Preference
➢ Male birds often have brightly colored feathers
➢ They use it to attract the females

➢ Religious or philosophical ideas

➢ Life on earth exists due to an intelligent design
➢ The intelligent design is made by God

➢ Comparison and analogy

➢ Discovery of one thing while looking for

➢ But no matter what hypothesis, all are rigorously tested.

 Hypothesis To Theory
➢ Any hypothesis that is tested again and again without being falsified
➢ is considered well supported and is generally accepted.
➢ increases researcher’s confidence that hypothesis is correct

➢ It can be used as the basis for formulating further hypothesis.

➢ And when it is supported by other hypothesis as well, it is called a theory.

➢ A good theory is predictive and has explanatory power.

➢ it may suggest new and different hypotheses.
➢ A theory of this kind is called productive.
 Theory To Scientific Law

➢ Any theory then goes through further testing

➢ Many scientists take it as challenge to disprove it

➢ If a theory survives all skeptical tests and is supported by experimnets

➢ It then becomes a law

➢ Scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature

➢ It is virtually an irrefutable theory.

➢ Biology is short in laws because of elusive nature of life

➢ Examples of biological laws are
➢ Hardy-Weinberg law and
➢ Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
 Biology & Service Of Mankind

➢ Biology has been helping mankind in many ways

➢ increasing food production;
➢ In combating diseases and
➢ in protecting and conserving environment.
➢ Biological advances have resulted in high standard of living

➢ Plant & Animal Production Tremendously increased

➢ by improving existing varieties
➢ Or by developing new high-yield and disease - resistant varieties

➢ Selective Breeding
➢ choosing parents with desired characters to breed and produce offspring
➢ new better varieties of wheat, rice, corn, chicken, cow and sheep
➢ broilers for getting quick and cheap white meat
 Biology & Service Of Mankind

➢ Genetic Engineering
➢ a process that alters the DNA makeup of an organism
➢ Sometimes used to insert foreign DNA into an organism

➢ Transgenic Organisms
➢ Organisms that have foreign DNA in their cells
➢ Genes for disease resistance and other desirable characters are introduced
➢ Then multiple copies of these organism are made…

➢ Cloning & Tissue Culture

➢ Cloning is the process of making identical copies of an organism (asexual reproduction)
➢ Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells in an artificial medium (mostly plants)
 Biology & Service Of Mankind
➢ Biological Control
➢ chemical fungicides and insecticides (pesticides) are harmful
➢ Pests can also become resistant to the chemical
➢ That is where Biological control comes in

➢ Biological control is the use of living organisms to suppress pest populations

➢ Examples of Biological Control

➢ Wasps to control aphids in plants
➢ Ducks used for insect control in rice puddles
➢ Some bacteria are also used as bio-pesticides

➢ Integrated Pest Management

➢ It combines use of biological, cultural and chemical methods to control pests
 Biology & Service Of Mankind
➢ Hydroponics
➢ The cultivation of plants in nutrient-enriched water rather than soil
➢ Why do this? It is because soil is complex and hard to manipulate for experiments

➢ Food Preservation & Biology

➢ To prevent food spoilage and to transport food over long distances
➢ Pasteurization: heat-treatment to destroy pathogens in certain foods and beverages
 Biology & Disease Control
➢ Preventive Measures
➢ Biology tells us about the causative agents of diseases and their mode of transmission
➢ This information can be used to control spread of diseases

➢ AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

➢ Caused by HIV (human immuno-deficiency virus)
➢ It spreads through
➢ free sexual contact
➢ blood transfusion
➢ And using contaminated syringes or surgical instruments etc.

➢ Hepatitis
➢ H. virus also spreads through blood transfusion
➢ Or by using contaminated syringes or surgical instruments
 Biology & Disease Control
➢ Vaccination/Immunization
➢ Immunization is making someone immune to a infectious disease
➢ Typically done by the process of vaccination

➢ Vaccination is introduction of a killed/weakened microbe to stimulate the immune system

➢ Many diseases Can be controlled by vaccination

➢ such as polio, whooping cough, measles, mumps etc.
➢ Vaccination is also called “shots” i.e., Flu shots

➢ Edward Jenner first developed the technique of vaccination

➢ He was studying cowpox and smallpox
➢ Vacca (from Latin: Vacca = cow).
➢ Today smallpox has been eliminated entirely
 Biology & Disease Control
➢ Drug treatment
➢ Anti-biotics: used to kill bacteria
➢ Antibiotics are however only useful in bacterial diseases

➢ In cancer, radiotherapy and chemotherapy are used

➢ In radiotherapy, the cancer is exposed to radiations from the radioactive materials repeatedly
➢ In chemotherapy; powerful chemicals are used to kill fast-growing cells
➢ Both radiotherapy & chemotherapy kill normal cells as well

➢ This is where GENE THERAPY can help!!!

➢ a technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease

➢ Integrated disease management

➢ the practice of using a many methods to prevent and manage diseases
 Cloning &
Protection & Conservation
Not parts of SLOs
But
MUST READ From PTB