Point-of-Care Ultrasound Manual

July 2021 - June 2022

Department of Medicine
Massachusetts General Hospital
Harvard Medical School
Boston, MA

Editors
Andrew Abboud, MD
Nicky Singh, MD
Sean Mendez, MD
MGH Point-of-Care Ultrasound Manual Preface

It is an honor to present the 2nd edition of the MGH Department of Medicine Point-of-Care Ultrasound Manual. In its
second edition, “The Gray Book” is updated as a trusted resource for medical residents and other clinicians at MGH to in-
troduced to the basics of Point-of-Care Ultrasound (POCUS).

The Gray Book is comprised of a collective of clinical experiences on the medical services as well as an annual review of the
literature. This book is a product of diligent work of many resident contributors (listed on the bottom of each page) and MGH
Department of Medicine faculty and leadership who are committed to the integration of POCUS into daily medical practice.

We extend our sincere gratitude to those residents who contributed significant time and energy in writing the content for
the entire sections of this manual:

Knobology: Vladislav Fomin, Zachary Sporn Renal: Lauren Maldonado, Esra Gumuser
Cardiac: Chris Marnell, Alli Levin Abdominal: D.J. Flynn, Vladislav Fomin
Pulmonary: Krystle Leung, Krishna Pandya Soft Tissue: D.J. Flynn, Zachary Sporn

We would like to thank the many faculty who assisted with this book, particularly Daniel Restrepo who in his role as the As-
sociate Program Director for POCUS has championed the creation of this manual alongside a POCUS curriculum.

And of course, none of this would be possible without the guidance and support of so many amazing people that make up
the Department of Medicine. In particular, we extend special thanks to Gabby Mills, Libby Cunningham, and Paula Prout for
supporting this project. In addition, we would like to thank our Chief Residents – Ali Castle, Rashmi Jasrasaria, Arielle Med-
ford, and Jon Salik – as well as Jay Vyas and Katrina Armstrong for their undying support and endless devotion to the hous-
estaff and our education. We will always be grateful for their unwavering leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic.

It has been an incredible honor to create and edit The Gray Book. We look forward to the contributions of future generations
of authors and editors in the years to come.

Andrew Abboud, MD
Nicky Singh, MD
Sean Mendez, MD

Department of Medicine
Massachusetts General Hospital, June 2021

As with any other medical reference, this manual is NOT intended to provide specific clinical care decisions in an individual
case, and should NOT substitute for clinical judgment. Every clinical care decision must be made by the exercise of
professional judgment by the individual responsible for the care of a patient based on the facts of that individual case, which
may differ from the facts upon which entries in this manual are based. You should consult other references and your fellow
residents, fellows, and attendings whenever possible. We have carefully inspected every page, but errors may exist. If you
find any errors, we would appreciate it if you would inform next year’s editors to make sure these errors are corrected.

Page ii
 MGH Point-of-Care Ultrasound Manual Table of Contents

Knobology
Page 1

Cardiac POCUS
Page 7

Pulmonary POCUS
Page 14

Renal POCUS
Page 21

Abdominal POCUS
Page 25

Soft Tissue POCUS

Page 29

Page iii
 Knobology
Introduction to Ultrasound
Fundamentals
What is ultrasound?
• Ultrasounds use an array of high-frequency sound waves to create a cross-sectional 2D image of underlying
structures and acoustic artifact.
How does ultrasound work?
• Piezoelectric crystal in transducer transforms electrical current to sound waves
• Sound waves (usually 2-20 MHz) travel through tissue and bounce back. The sound that bounces back is captured
by the probe and transformed to image on screen
• Higher frequencies provide a higher resolution but are not able to penetrate as deeply. Lower frequencies pene-
trate deeper into tissue but have a lower resolution.
Ultrasounds in the DOM

• 6 Butterfly iQ handheld, all-in-one probes located on White 8, 9, 10, Bigelow 7 and 11, and Lunder 9.
• 1 SonoSite Edge cart-based machine: Blake 15 (through Ellison 15).
• 1 Mindray TE7 cart-based machine: Blake 15 (through Ellison 15). Please discuss with HMU prior to using.

Example of Butterfly IQ ultrasound

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 1

 Knobology
Ultrasound Machine Overview

There are several different ultrasound machines in use

at MGH. Bellow are the guidelines for the Butterfly
10 ultrasound available for resident use.
9 1
8
1 = Image gallery, Click to save image
2 = Depth measurements
3 = Record
7 4 = Actions: Doppler, M-mode, annotations,
2 linear/area measurements, volume calculation
5 = Presets (Lung, cardiac, vascular etc.)
6 = Freeze
7 = Vertical swipe = change depth, Horizontal
swipe= change gain
8 = Probe indicator
6
9 = Selected preset
5 3
10 = User data
4

Probe Overview

Linear Array Probe: >7.5MHz. In-

creased resolution with decreased
depth. Primarily used for shallow
imaging including musculoskeletal,
soft tissue, and vascular
Curved Array Probe: 2-5 MHz. De-
creased resolution with increased
depth. Used for abdominal imaging,
but can be also be useful for lung
and thoracic ultrasound
Phased Array Probe: 1-5MHz. Use-
ful for deeper imaging with a short
footprint that allows the probe to fit
between rib spaces making it ideal

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 2

 Knobology
Using the Transducer
Be cautious to avoid dropping ultrasound probes. They contain fragile crystals that can break AND avoid letting the cart’s wheels or feet
trample over the transducer cords as these can be permanently damaged costing thousands of dollars to repair.

If using a cart-based machine to perform a diagnostic scan, place the ultrasound at the head of the bed and position yourself between the
machine and the patient. If doing procedures with dynamic ultrasound guidance, place the machine on the opposite side of the bed.

While different exams or situations require adjusting how you hold the probe, the best method is to mimic the way you hold a pencil to
write with the base of your hand planted on the patient’s skin for stability (demonstrated below)

Place the probe surface lightly on the skin provided there is an adequate coupling agent such as gel or sterile lubricant to displace air be-
tween the probe and tissue surface.

Orient the probe marker (a notch or dot on one end of the long axis of the probe) to the orientation marker on the screen. By convention in
general ultrasound, the marker is on the left of the image on the screen, and you will want to keep the probe marker to the patient’s right
or towards the patient’s head.

Correct Standard Position Incorrect Incorrect Incorrect

Cardinal Probe Movements

The act of deliberate scanning means moving the transduc-
er in one direction at a time and progressing to the next
movement in response to the real time image. Thus, to
achieve a high quality scan, it is important to understand
the language of cardinal movements.

Slide: Moving the probe over the skin along Y axis without
changing the orientation of the beam

Rock: Keeping the probe on a fixed point along the skin,

change the angle of orientation along the probe’s long axis
(Y)

Fan: Keeping the probe on a fixed point along the skin,

change the orientation along probe’s short axis (X).

Rotate: Keeping the probe on a fixed point, perform clock-

wise or counterclockwise movement within a particular
angle

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 3

 Knobology
Ultrasound Terminology

Echogenicity: Ability to reflect or transmit US waves

in the context of surrounding tissues.
- Hyperechoic (white on the screen)
- Hypoechoic (gray on the screen)
- Anechoic (black on the screen)
Gain: Amplifies signal which results in brighter im-
age (higher gain) and dimmer image (lower gain)
Depth: Changes the field of view
Modes:
- B mode (Brightness Mode): The standard 2-D
used for most imaging
- D mode (Doppler Mode): Detects flow. Useful for
imaging blood vessels, flow across valves
- M mode (Motion Mode): Plots waveform of a
fixed B-Mode slice over time. Often used to study
motion of valves.

Ultrasound Effects and Artifacts

Reflection: Process by which sound waves hit tissue and redirect back to its source. The number of waves re-
flected is proportional to amount of acoustic impedance between two tissues
Acoustic Impedance: The resistance to propagation of ultrasound waves through tissues. Each tissue has a
unique impendence by which we are able to distinguish dur-
ing sonography
Acoustic Shadowing: Creation of a “no-image” zone deep
to a structure of high density that will not allow passage of
sound past it. This typically occurs in the context of solid
structures, such as bones or stones.

Reverberation: Sound beam bouncing between re-

flective structures causing arcs that display at equi-
distant intervals from transducer. Produces “A-lines”
and “comet tails” (see Lung ultrasound).

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 4

 Knobology
Ultrasound Effects and Artifacts

Refraction: Governed by Snell’s Law sin θ1/sinθ2 = c1/c2. (θ = inci-

dent angle, c = speed). The equation describes how sound
waves travel as they strike boundary of two tissues at an
oblique angle. This direction of the wave changes according to
Snell’s and causes an acoustic shadow that can usually seen at
edge of transverse structures, like blood vessels. This phenome-
non is also known as acoustic edge shadowing.

Mirror Image Artifact: Occurs when sound waves are reflected

multiple times, after which it may either be reflected off the
boundary and returned to the probe or reflected off boundary
and bounced between and the object and the boundary again
before returning to the probe. It can lead to incorrect interpre-
tation by ultrasound machine resulting in mirror image on the
other side of reflective surface.

Posterior Acoustic Enhancement: Refers to the phenomenon of

increased echogenicity deep to an anechoic structure stemming
from enhanced transmission of sound through the structure.
This is characteristic of fluid filled structures, like blood vessels
gallbladder or urinary bladder.

Beam Width Artifact: At interface between structures of differ-

ent echogenicity, the echogenicity value of the reflected waves
(some of which are brighter and some dimmer) are averaged by
machine. In the example on the right, the gallbladder bile has a
consistent density throughout, but appears more anechoic near
the neck (arrow) than the fundus (asterisk).

Comet-Tail Artifact is a finding seen when small calcific / crystal-

line / highly reflective objects are interrogated and is believed to be
a special form of reverberation artifact . In the example on the right
a comet– tail is seen behind thyroid calcifications

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 5

 Knobology
Determinates of Image Quality
There are numerous factors discussed prior that impact overall image quality. A systemic way to think through both
assessing and improving your image quality through addressing the following factors:
Probe type: phased array, curvilinear, and linear
Presets: Exam type, for example: cardiac, abdominal, vascular etc.
Depth: Affects frequency and frame rate. Is your target structure shallow or deep?
Gain: Amplification of the ultrasonic signal that affects resolution. Is your target easily visible?
Patient: Affects quality of acoustic window, depth required etc
Ultrasonographer: Positioning and adjustments of the transducer etc

Protocol for Resident Scan Feedback

As POCUS use expands within the residency program, there has been a system trialed in order for residents to get
feedback on scans. This is meant for residents with prior experience (from electives, clinical experience, etc) rather
than new learners.

The basic workflow is:

• Resident will perform and save their exam on the Butterfly. Please enter pertinent details, like location of exam -
Volpicelli 1, bladder (saggital) - which can help guide interpretation. If you are not using a Butterfly, feel free to
useHaiku to save your image.
• Save images under MGH Med—Training folder
• If you are working with POCUS trained faculty, you can ask them to then review the images and provide feed-
back. Additional, Dan Restrepo is a willing to help with feedback as well.
• Keep a log of your scans that you do this for!

Remember: Do not base clinical decisions on POCUS exams unless the exam and decisions are supported by a super-
vising fellow or attending.

Vladislav Fomin and Zachary Sporn Page 6

 Cardiac POCUS: Overview

Click to
Focused Assessment Qualitative Assessment
add photo

 Parasternal Long Axis 1) Equality: Chamber/structure size comparison

(PLAX)
 Parasternal Short Axis 2) “Ejection”: Qualitative LV function. NOT true EF.
(PSAX)
 Apical Four Chamber 3) Effusion: Pericardial vs. pleural effusion?
(A4)
 Subxiphoid 4) Entry: IVC diameter, respirophasic variation
 Inferior Vena Cava
(IVC) 5) Exit: Aortic root diameter

Click to
Conventions in Probe Positioning
add photo

 There are two main conventions for cardiac ultrasound probe placement, the
Emergency Medicine Convention and the Cardiology Convention

 ED —> probe marker on the right of the screen, Cards —> probe marker on LEFT of
screen

 Although the probe orientation is inverted in each, the image procured is the same.

 For simplicity the Gray Book images are displayed in the Cardiology Convention,
however each scanner is encouraged to attempt both conventions.

Probe Indicator Orientation (cardiac convention)

Cardiology Emergency Medicine
PLAX Patient’s Right Shoulder Patient’s Left Hip
PSAX Patient’s Left Shoulder Patient’s Right Hip
A4 Superior Inferior
Subxiphoid Patient’s left Patient’s Right
IVC Superior Inferior
Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 7
 Cardiac POCUS: Parasternal Long Axis View (PLAX)

Assessment

1) Equality
-Qualitative EF
-RV:Ao:LA size is 1:1:1
-RV < LV
2) “Ejection”
-Anterior MV Leaflet
touches the septum
3) Effusion: See Page #13
DTA 4) Exit:
- Aortic root diameter

Probe Positioning Optimize View:

• Perpendicular to the patient’s chest wall, at left • Ideally see both MV and AV
parasternal border, aim indicator at patient’s clearly, centered on screen
right shoulder (cardiology convention)
• Depth adjustments may
• Start at 2-4th intercostal space, try different
spaces to see which gives optimized view help optimize

QuestionaddClickphoto
to
Pro Tip Click to
add photo Pitfall Click to
add photo

Be sure to adjust the

How is the squeeze? In patient’s with COPD, depth to capture the de-
the heart may be scending thoracic aorta
Is there an effusion?
displaced inferiorly. (~10-16 cm)

Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 8

 Cardiac POCUS: Parasternal Short Axis (PSAX)

Quality Metrics

1) Equality
-RV<LV (best seen in A4)
2) “Ejection”
-Ventricular walls collapse
centrally during systole

Landmarks
-Identify the MV and
the papillary muscles

Probe Positioning: PSAX view has different “levels”,

based on which structures you
• First, obtain a clear PLAX
visualize by fanning the probe
• Then, hold the probe steadily and
superiorly and inferiorly, which is a
rotate the indicator 90 degrees to- more advanced skill (start by
ward the patient’s left shoulder fanning to visualize the MV and
(cardiology convention) papillary muscles)

QuestionaddClickphoto
to
Pro Tip Click to
add photo Pitfall Click to
add photo

How is the squeeze? Attempt using two The RV can be difficult to

capture, practice rocking
Is there septal flattening hands as you rotate,
the probe until it comes
keeping LV in view. into view.
(D-sign)?

Andrew Abboud & Sirus Jesudasen Page 9

 Cardiac POCUS: Apical Four Chamber (A4)

Quality Metrics

1) Equality
-RV:LV ratio <1
2) “Ejection”
-Assess for anterior
excursion of the mitral
and tricuspid valves

Landmarks
-Septum should be
centered on the screen

Probe Positioning
• If able, have the patient roll into left lateral decubitus position to improve image
quality
th
• Place the probe in the left 5 intercostal space at the mid-clavicular line, or at
the PMI, with the indicator oriented superiorly.
• Attempt sliding up or down one rib space until the image comes into view, sliding
laterally if ventricular hypertrophy is suspected.

QuestionaddClickphoto
to
Pro Tip Click to
add photo Pitfall Click to
add photo

Palpate the PMI to find This can be a difficult

How is the squeeze?
optimal probe place- view to obtain,
Is there septal bowing? ment. Angle along the especially in patients
long axis of the heart with large habitus.

Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 10

 Cardiac POCUS: Subxiphoid View

Quality Metrics

1) Equality
-RV < LV
2) “Ejection”
-Global assessment of
squeeze
3) Effusion
-Excellent view to
assess for a pericardial
effusion

Make sure the patient is laying completely flat, and place the probe flat
against the patient’s abdomen near the xiphoid process.
Gently push the probe deep, such that the line of sight is aimed beneath the
rib cage.
Slide the probe towards the patient’s right in order to capture more of the
liver, using it as an acoustic window.

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

Is there an effusion? Identify the liver and use it as

an acoustic window; waves
Don’t forget to lay the
Is the heart beating? are transmitted better patient flat!
(example: in a code) through solid parenchyma Flat patient, flat probe.
than bowel gas.

Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 11

 Cardiac POCUS: Inferior Vena Cava View (IVC)

Quality Metrics

1) Entry
-Assess for IVC size and
collapse.
-Interpret using table
below, and within
clinical context
Caveats
-Always interpret within
clinical context.
- Not applicable if positive
pressure ventilation.

IVC <1.5cm
Obtain a clear subxiphoid view, and rotate Low CVP, volume likely to help
>50% collapse
the probe indicator superiorly.
IVC 1.5-2.5cm Volume may help, patient likely
Aim the probe deep towards the vertebral >50% collapse to tolerate
column, and fan left and right until a large IVC 1.5-2.5cm
Volume unlikely to help
blood vessel comes into view. <15% collapse
IVC >2.5cm
High CVP, volume likely to hurt
Slide or tilt superiorly to confirm IVC by view- <15% collapse
ing it drain into the right atrium. Measure IVC ~ 2 cm from entry of IVC to RA
Note: above is in setting of hypotension
Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

Fan left and right to Do not interpret IVC

Is the IVC collapsible? alternate views to collapsibility in isolation,
capture the IVC (enters synthesize it with all
RA) versus aorta. available clinical info.

Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 12

 Cardiac POCUS: Common Pathology

Pericardial Effusion

DTA

Pericardial Effusion
DTA Pleural Effusion

Click to
Pericardial vs. Pleural Effusions
add photo

 Pericardial effusions are best visualized in the PLAX or subxiphoid views, and are easily
visualized as anechoic collections anteriorly between the chest wall and pericardium.
 In the PLAX view, effusions can also be visualized posteriorly, however this may represent a
pericardial or pleural.
The position of the descending thoracic aorta (DTA) can help to distinguish
between a pericardial and pleural effusion
Pericardial: Effusions track along the heart and separate the aorta from the pericardium
and cross the midline, note the relationship to the DTA above.
Pleural: Effusions will accumulate posterolateral to the DTA.

Click to Click to
Pro
add Tip
photo Pitfall
add photo

A small anterior hypoechoic If a new or increasing effusion

signal may represent the is visualized via POCUS, a
epicardial fat pad, as opposed formal echocardiogram
to a pericardial effusion. should be pursued.

Allison Levin & Christopher Marnell Page 13

 Pulmonary POCUS
Overview

Probe Positioning addClickphoto

to

Probe Selection
 Linear:
Use: pleural surface (for lung sliding)
Limitation: does not image deeper structures well
(specifically, cannot be used to visualize B-lines)
 Phased Array:
Use: deeper visualization (including B-lines, effu-
sions) and fits neatly between rib spaces.
 Curvilinear:
Allows evaluation of several lung fields within a zone
Patient Positioning
Supine or seated depending on pathology

Transducer Positioning
Probe indicator should be oriented superiorly toward the patient’s head.
Probe should be held perpendicular to the pleura and in between rib spaces.
Note: Best images are obtained when the probe is perpendicular to the pleura which is not necessarily
the same as perpendicular to the chest.

Click to
Volpicelli Lung Zones
add photo

 The third intercostal space divides up-

per and lower zones of the chest

 The anterior axillary line divides the ante-

rior and lateral zones in each hemithorax.

 Naming convention is moving towards 1-

4 on each side. Ex: 1R = 1. 2R = 2, 3R =
Right Left 3, 4R = 4. 1L = 5, 2L = 6, 3L = 7, and 4L =
8.

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 14

 Pulmonary POCUS
Normal Anatomy: Pleura & A-lines
Seen in Zones 1L/R, 2L/R, 3L/R

Quality Metrics
Rib Pleural
Line
 In the intercostal space,
a pleural line will be
seen slightly below the
surrounding rib lines
(bat wing sign).
A-lines
 A normal scan will show
ribs with posterior
rib shadowing

 A-lines are a reverberation

Rib Shadow
artifact from pleural air
reflections and are deep
to the pleural line.

Lung Sliding
 “Sliding” represents the normal movement of visceral pleura
against parietal pleura (occurs with respiration).
 In B-mode, the hyperechoic (bright) pleural line between two
ribs appears to move or shimmer (described as “ants-
marching” appearance)
 In M-mode, a normal image is described as the “seashore sign”
 “Waves” : motionless area superficial to pleural line
 “Sand”: grainy image (artifact of lung/air) below the pleural line

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

Fluid and air shift with

Is lung sliding present? Always scan in multiple positioning; attempt
Are A-lines present? lung fields. scanning in upright and
supine positions.

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 15

 Pulmonary POCUS
Pathology: Loss of Lung Sliding
Seen via linear probe
Click to
Pleural Separation add photo

 Leads to loss of lung sliding

(when parietal and visceral
pleura no longer slide against
each other)
In B-mode, pleural line ap-
pears static, with loss of shim-
mering / “ants marching”
In M-mode, loss of seashore
sign, instead visualizing the
“barcode sign”
 Barcode sign: a set of
parallel, non-moving
lines as the pleura are no
long in contact (image,
right).
Lung Point: the transition point between a segment where the pleura approximate and
where they separate; sliding appears next to an area without lung sliding

Click to
Differential Diagnosis
add photo

 Pneumothorax - a large pocket of air physically separates the visceral pleura (which is
still moving) from the parietal pleura
 Pleurodesis - chemical pleurodesis or chronic inflammation/fibrosis results in a genuine
loss of movement as the visceral and parietal pleura are fused
 Volume loss - pneumonectomy or large volume atelectasis (for instance, from mainstem
intubation)

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 16

 Pulmonary POCUS
Normal Anatomy: Diaphragm
Seen in Zones 4, 8

Image Acquisition

 Use B-mode.

 Place phased array

probe in Zone 4R or
Zone 4L, in the mid-
axillary line with the
(spine) indicator oriented su-
periorly.

Quality Metric:
 Lung, diaphragm, and liver (R) or spleen (L) should be visualized in one view.
 Visualizing the diaphragm as a landmark allows for detection of pleural fluid above the dia-
phragm, and abdominal free fluid below the diaphragm (see Pleural Effusion page).
 In patients without a pleural effusion, the spine is obscured by air in the lung but may be seen in
the abdomen (see Spine Sign, Page 19).
 Healthy aerated lung may fall into view during inspiration as a “Curtain Sign”, obstructing view
of abdominal organs.

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

If rib shadows obstruct the

Avoid scanning too an-
Can you find the dia- view, have the patient
teriorly. Keep your
phragm? sustain a prolonged breath
“Knuckles to the Bed”
to lower the diaphragm and
for the best views.
hold in place.

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 17

 Pulmonary POCUS
Pathology: B-lines
Seen via phased array probe

Click to
What is a B-line? add photo

B lines are an artifact created by thickened interlobular septa in the lung which
allows ultrasound waves to propagate through the tissue.
B lines have a “comet-tail”-like appearance, with lines that appear to almost origi-
nate from the probe, and move with lung sliding.
Criteria for Pathologic B-line
 Comet tail artifact, arising from the pleural line
 >3 B-lines in one view
 Depth of at least 15cm (i.e. cannot be visualized with the linear probe)

Click to
Differential Diagnosis
add photo (always consider the clinical context)

 Pulmonary edema - typically bilateral and diffuse B-lines

 Pneumonia - unilateral or asymmetric B-lines, sometimes with consolidation
 Pulmonary fibrosis - diffuse B-lines, sometimes with sub-pleural consolation and thickened
pleura.
 And many more. As above, always consider the clinical context.

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 18

 Pulmonary POCUS
Pathology: Pleural Effusions
Seen via phased array probe

Effusion

Compressed Diaphragm
Lung

Click to
Pleural Effusions add photo

 Seen as an anechoic space (black) above the diaphragm.

 Consolidated lung from compressive atelectasis may be floating in the fluid.
 Complicated effusions (typically exudative) may show septations, or lines of thin fi-
brous tissue that tether the visceral pleural to the parietal pleura.

 Spine Sign: the spine is only visualized in the presence of an effusion as ultrasound
waves travel through fluid. Normally, the spine is obscured by air in the lung.
 Absent Curtain Sign: In the presence of an effusion, aerated lung may no longer
obstruct the view of abdominal organs with inspiration.

Click to
Pro add
Tipphoto#1 ProaddClick
Tip
photo #2
to

Effusions are not always

Smaller effusions may be
anechoic; at times, exudative
more easily visualized if the
effusions have “echogenic
patient is in a seated position.
swirls” of debris in the fluid.

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 19

 Pulmonary POCUS
Pathology: Consolidation
Seen via phased array probe

Small Pleural Effusion

Pleural Effusion
Atelectatic
Diaphragm Lung

Hepatization Liver

Consolidated
Lung

Click to
Consolidation add photo

 Created by absence of air in parts of the lung due to any alveolar filling process
or atelectasis, resulting in hepatization (solid-appearance of the lung that ap-
pears as dense as the liver).

Bronchogram Shred Sign

Created by the visualization of air Aerated lung tissue adjacent to con-
(white) in consolidated lung solidated lung reflects ultrasound
waves, obscuring distant structures

Bron-
Bronchograms
chogram

Diaphragm

Krystle Leung & Krishna Pandya Page 20

 Renal & Bladder POCUS
Overview

Introduction: Renal
Click to
add photo

Probe Selection Curvilinear Probe

Patient Positioning
 Start with the patient in the supine position.

 Bowel gas can obscure visualization of the left kidney. Troubleshoot this by repositioning the

patient in the lateral decubitus or prone position.

Transducer Positioning
Step 1: Place the transducer at the R 10th rib, mid axillary line.
Step 2: Probe marker should be directed toward patient’s head. Slide/Rock the probe
superiorly and inferiorly to locate the longitudinal view of the kidney.
*You may need to rotate the probe to find the kidney in its longest axis.
Step 3: Rotate the transducer 90 degrees, to locate the transverse view of the kidney. Fan
the transducer superiorly and inferiorly to view the kidney from top to bottom.
Step 4: Place the transducer at the L 8th rib, posterior axillary line. Repeat Steps 2-4.

Click to
Introduction: Bladder
add photo

Basics
The bladder is an easily identifiable structure on ultrasound. In the setting of retention, POCUS can be used
quickly to estimate bladder volume.
Probe Selection Curvilinear Transducer
Patient Positioning Supine
Transducer Positioning
Step 1: Place transducer mid pelvis, superior to the pubic symphysis, to locate the longitudinal view. The
probe marker should be directed towards patient’s head.
Step 2: Sweep the probe left and right to view the bladder in the longitudinal plane.
Step 3: Rotate the probe 90 degrees to the right, to locate the transverse view. The probe marker should be
directed towards patient’s right
Step 4: Sweep the probe superiorly and inferiorly to view the bladder in the transverse plane.

Esra Gumuser & Lauren Maldonado Page 21

 Renal & Bladder POCUS
Normal Anatomy

spine

Renal Anatomy

- Gerota’s Fascia/Capsule: fibrous surface of kidney, appears hyperechoic relative to peri-nephric fat. Using
these margins, the kidney’s pole to pole (longitudinal) length is typically about 10-12 cm.
- Renal cortex: Hypervascular area between the capsule and medulla, appears isoechoic to the liver. The corti-
cal thickness is typically about 7-10 mm, but can be reduced in CKD.
- Renal medulla: Consists of medullary pyramids (hypoechoic to the cortex) which are “bundles” of papillae
draining urine into calyces. They are discrete and separated by columns of Bertin (isoechoic to the cortex)
- Sinus fat: Fatty tissue that is hyperechoic to the cortex and isoechoic to the peri-nephric fat
- Renal pelvis: Area where renal calices meet the ureter that is hypoechoic to the cortex but typically
hyperechoic to the medullary pyramid. They are normally collapsed, but dilated and hypoechoic in obstruction.

Bladder Anatomy

- Bladder: Anechoic fluid filled structure (urine is black on US). Edge artifact casts shadows from the curved
edges of bladder.
- Ureteral Jets: The passage of urine from the ureter into the bladder can be seen when viewing the bladder in
the longitudinal plane in doppler mode indicating that the ureters are patent.
- Bladder volume: Bladder volume can be estimated with three orthogonal measurements of the bladder
Step 1: In the longitudinal view, measure the height of the bladder
Step 2: In the transverse view, measure the length and width of the bladder
Step 3: Estimated volume = L x W x H x 0.7
- Uterus: Visible left and deep of the bladder in longitudinal view
Esra Gumuser & Lauren Maldonado Page 22
 Renal & Bladder POCUS
Pathology: Hydronephrosis

mage from World J Nephrol 2019; 8(3):44

Pleural Effusions

Click to
Hydronephrosis add photo

- Obstruction can lead to dilation and decreased echogenicity of the renal collecting system including the re-
nal pelvis and calyces. POCUS has high sensitivity (Gaspari and Horst 2005).
- Mild: Dilation and increased hypoechoity of the of the renal pelvis and calyces with retained architecture of
the pelvis, calyces or medullar pyramids.
- Moderate: Collecting system, open and blunted, mimicing a “cauliflower appearance.” There is flattening of
the medullary pyramids with mild thinning of cortex.
- Severe: Ballooning of the pelvis and calyces with loss of cortico-medullary differentiation. The cortex is thin
and the kidney looks like a fluid filled bag

Question Asked
Click to
add photo QualityaddClickMetrics
to
photo
Pro Tip
Click to
add photo

Identify the pelvis and cortex in If difficult to identify,

Is hydronephrosis present? both longitudinal and transverse aim posteriorly near CV angle &
views, then fan through rotate probe to maximize window
the entire kidney. between ribs.

Esra Gumuser & Lauren Maldonado Page 23

 Renal and Bladder POCUS
Pathology: Nephrolithiasis

Image from World J Nephrol 2019; 8(3):44

Click to
Nephrolithiasis add photo

- POCUS can visualize stones in the calyces, renal pelvis and upper ureter. However, sensitivity is decreased
when size of stone < 7 mm (Fowler 2004). CT stone protocol is the more sensitive modality
- Stones appear as hyperechoic structures with acoustic shadowing distal to the structure from the probe
(*** in Image A and B)
- Doppler mode can cause a twinkling artifact over a the area of a stone due to turbulent flow of fluid
around the stone (Multicolored/Dopplers in Image A and B)

Esra Gumuser & Lauren Maldonado Page 24

 Abdominal POCUS
Hepatorenal “Morrison’s” Pouch

 Standing on the right side of the bed place the curvilinear Quality Metrics
probe in the mid-axillary line between the 8 and 11 rib spaces.
 Place the indicator to the head and knuckles to the bed.
 Fan the probe anteriorly to see the liver tip. The lung, diaphragm,
 Slide the probe caudally to evaluate diaphragm. and liver should be
 Slide the probe cephalad to visualize the liver tip, kidney and present in one view.
right paracolic gutter.

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

If difficult to obtain Beginners often scan

Is there abdominal image due to rib too anteriorly when
free fluid? shadowing, have trying to obtain this
patient hold breath. view.

Vladislav Fomin and DJ Flynn Page 25

 Abdominal POCUS
Splenorenal Pouch

 Standing on the right side of the bed place arm over the pa- Quality Metrics
tient and with your knuckles on the edge of the bed place the
ultrasound between the 6th and 9th rib spaces (more posteri-
orly than on the right) with probe indicator facing cephalad.
The lung, diaphragm,
 Move the probe caudally to evaluate diaphragm. Move the
probe cephalad to visualize the spleen , kidneys and left
and spleen should be
paracolic gutter. present in one view.

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

If difficult to obtain The Splenorenal Pouch

Is there abdominal image due to rib is often more difficult
free fluid? shadowing, have to visualize then the
patient hold breath. Hepatorenal Pouch

Vladislav Fomin and DJ Flynn Page 26

 Abdominal POCUS
Suprapubic Space

 Standing on the right locate the pubic symphysis and Quality Metrics
place the probe cephalad with the probe marker facing
the right.
 Increase the depth to visual behind the bladder. Visualize the bladder
 Sweep up and down to visualize the retro vesicular in the transverse and
space in men and the vesico-uterine pouch (pouch of longitudinal views.
Douglas) in women for the transverse view .

Click to
Question
add photo ProaddClick
Tip to
photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

Turn the probe 90 Visualizing the bladder

Is there free fluid degrees with probe may be difficult after
behind the bladder? facing the head for the voiding or when a foley
longitudinal view. catheter is in place.

Vladislav Fomin and DJ Flynn Page 27

 Abdominal POCUS
Free Fluid

Click to
Free Fluid add photo

 Free abdominal fluid is hypoechoic to the surrounding structures. To reliably

detect fluid, ultrasound requires at least 150cc-200cc of intraperitoneal fluid,
with the pelvic view as the most sensitive.

 Ultrasound can typically identify fluid, but cannot typically differentiate the type
of fluid. At best, hemorrhagic or purulent fluid can appear more echoic due to
clot or septations, making it difficult to distinguish from surrounding structures.

 Presence of bowel gas can obstruct view. Point the probe posteriorly when
looking in the RUQ and LUQ in order to avoid bowel.

Click to
Pro Tip
add photo Pitfall
Click to
add photo

Many structures look similar If you cannot see the uterus,

to fluid: hepatic vessels, the increase depth, but be careful to
gallbladder, and hypoechoic distinguish the bladder (distinct
renal parenchyma, borders) from free fluid.

Vladislav Fomin and DJ Flynn Page 28

 Soft Tissue POCUS
Soft Tissue Basics

 Ultrasound has high sensitivity and specificity for the soft tissue examination. It
can be used to evaluate for cellulitis, abscesses, and deeper fluid pockets.

 The linear probe (5-10 MHz) is used in the majority of cases.

 Subcutaneous tissue is primarily hypoechoic and contains connective tissue

strands. Orthogonal planes are hyperechoic. Muscle is striated, nerves appear
stippled. Lymph nodes can be identified by an echogenic center with a
hypoechoic periphery. Bone is quite hypoechoic with a hyperechoic periphery
(cortex) and demonstrates a shadowing phenomenon.

Pro Tip Pitfall

Hold transducer perpendicular to the skin To asses a deeper structure in an obese pa-
surface at the area of interest, and visual- tient, a lower frequency curvilinear probe
ize in at least two orthogonal planes. Scan may be substituted for a linear probe for
the entire extent of the affected area increased depth.
AND compared to the unaffected side.

D.J. Flynn Page 29

 Soft Tissue POCUS
Pathology: Soft Tissue Infections

 Soft tissue swelling demonstrates cobblestoning and echogenicity higher than normal subcu-
taneous tissue. For example, in cellulitis, inflammatory fluid is visualized around tissue, cre-
ating a cobblestone appearance (above left; seen in any edema and not specific to cellulitis).

 Abscesses (right) are typically hypoechoic but may enhance and become more echogenic at
deeper levels (known as posterior acoustic enhancement). They do not demonstrate pulsa-
tile Doppler flow but are often hyperemic on Doppler signal. Other signs include irregular
walls and heterogeneous/anechoic material inside.

 A “squish sign” may be observed, where compression causes fluctuance of purulent material
within the abscess. Necrotizing fasciitis will have subcutaneous thickening as in cellulitis, with
anechoic fluid and potentially subcutaneous gas (though ultrasound is not the imaging study
of choice for this).

Pro Tip Pitfall

Air within an abscess will Soft tissue pathology can be

cause reverberation artifact, subtle, so make sure to compare
much like A-lines in a normal to the contralateral side if there
lung scan. are subtle findings.

D.J. Flynn Page 30