Contents

Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology

Chapter 2 Psychological Research
Methods and Statistics

Psychology is the study

of the human mind and
human behavior.
 hat do you expect to learn in this introductory
W psychology course? You may learn more about
yourself and more about others. This unit will explain
why psychologists study human and animal behavior.
Psychologists attempt to explain and predict why people
behave, feel, and think as they do. They attempt to learn
ways in which people can improve the quality of life.
 READINGS IN PSYCHOLOGY
These excerpts describe two experiments. The first experiment, related in The
Story of Psychology, took place in an ancient time, when humans were just
beginning to question the origin of their own thoughts. The second excerpt
appeared in History of Psychology and details the attempts of one scientist to
change the behavior of a wild boy.

language of humankind—the natural language of its

Reader’s Dictionary most ancient people—which, he expected to show,
was Egyptian.
Assyrians: people of an empire in the Middle East, To test his hypothesis, Psamtik commandeered
c. 650 B.C. two infants of a lower-class mother and turned
spontaneously: arising naturally, without external them over to a herdsman to bring up in a remote
influence area. They were to be kept in a sequestered cottage,
Phrygians: people of an ancient country located in properly fed and cared for, but were never to hear
Anatolia, or present-day Turkey anyone speak so much as a word. The Greek histo-
innate: existing in an individual from birth rian Herodotus, who tracked the story down and
inarticulate: incapable of understandable speech learned what he calls “the real facts” from priests of
erratic: strange; not normal Hephaestus in Memphis, says that Psamtik’s goal
“was to know, after the indistinct babblings of infancy
were over, what word they would first articulate.”

EXPERIMENT
The experiment, he tells us, worked. One day,
An when the children were two years old, they ran up
to the herdsman as he opened the door of their cot-
tage and cried out “Becos!” Since this meant nothing
in the to him, he paid no attention, but when it happened
SEVENTH CENTURY B.C. repeatedly, he sent word to Psamtik, who at once
ordered the children brought to him. When he too
heard them say it, Psamtik made inquiries and
BY MORTON HUNT
learned that becos was the
A most unusual man, Psamtik I, King of Egypt. Phrygian word for bread.
During his long reign, in the latter half of the He concluded that,
seventh century B.C., he not only drove out the disappointingly, the
Assyrians, revived Egyptian art and architecture, Phrygians were an
and brought about general prosperity, but found older race than the
time to conceive of and conduct history’s first Egyptians.
recorded experiment in psychology. We today may
The Egyptians had long believed that they were smile condescend-
the most ancient race on earth, and Psamtik, driven ingly; we know from
by intellectual curiosity, wanted to prove that flat- modern studies of
tering belief. Like a good psychologist, he began children brought up
with a hypothesis: If children had no opportunity to under conditions of
learn a language from older people around them, isolation that there is
they would spontaneously speak the primal, inborn no innate language

4 Unit 1 / Approaches to Psychology

and that children who hear no speech never speak. 1st Aim—To interest him in social life by ren-
Psamtik’s hypothesis rested on an invalid assump- dering it more pleasant to him than the one he was
tion, and he apparently mistook a babbled sound for then leading, and above all more like the life which
an actual word. Yet we must admire him for trying to he had just left.
prove his hypothesis and for having the highly origi- 2nd Aim—To awaken his nervous sensibility by
nal notion that thoughts arise in the mind through the most energetic stimulation, and occasionally by
internal processes that can be investigated. intense emotion.
3rd Aim—To extend the range of his ideas by
giving him new needs and by increasing his social
contacts.
4th Aim—To lead him to the use of speech by
inducing the exercise of imitation through the
imperious law of necessity.
5th Aim—To make him exercise the simplest
BY DAVID HOTHERSALL
mental operations upon the objects of his physical
needs over a period of time, afterwards inducing the
In 1799 [Phillipe] Pinel was asked to examine a application of these mental processes to the objects
wild boy, believed to be about twelve years old, who of instruction. (Itard, 1894)
had been found by three hunters in the woods of So Itard undertook Victor’s rehabilitation. With
Saint-Serin near Aveyron in southern France. From the assistance of a Madame Guerin, Itard succeeded,
reports of hunters who had caught glimpses of him, after truly heroic efforts, in teaching Victor to pay
it was believed that he had lived in the woods for attention, to keep clean and to dress himself, to eat
some years. He was virtually naked, covered with with his hands, to play simple games, to obey some
scars, dirty, and inarticulate. Apparently he had sur- commands, and even to read and understand simple
vived on a diet of acorns and roots. He walked on all- words. However, despite all their efforts, Victor
fours much of the time and grunted like an animal. never learned to talk. At times he showed signs of
News of the capture of this wild boy caused a sensa- affection, but often, and especially under stress, his
tion in Paris. The newly formed Society of Observers behavior was erratic, unpredictable, and violent.
of Man arranged for him to be brought to the capital Victor learned simple discriminations, but when they
for study. . . . Taken to Paris in 1800 and exhibited inwere made more difficult, he became destructive,
a cage, the wild boy sat rocking back and forth and biting and chewing his clothes, sheets, and even the
was completely apathetic. He was a great disap- chair mantlepiece. After working with Victor for five
pointment to the hordes of curious spectators. . . . years, Itard gave up hope of ever attaining his goals.
After examining the boy, Pinel concluded that far Victor’s background and the “passions of his adoles-
from being a noble savage, the boy was an incurable cence” could not be overcome. Victor lived with
Madame Guerin until 1828, when he died at the age
idiot. Despite this conclusion, one of Pinel’s assistants,
Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard (1744–1835), undertook to of forty.
care for the wild boy and to try to edu-
cate him. First he gave him a name,
Victor, and then made a working Analyzing the Reading
assumption that Victor’s behavior
1. What was Psamtik’s hypothesis? Why was it invalid?
was due to his social isolation
rather than the result of brain dam- 2. Why was Psamtik’s experiment important even though his
age or some other organic condi- hypothesis was flawed?
tion. Itard had five aims: 3. Critical Thinking Do you think Itard’s experiment was worth-
while? Why or why not?

Unit 1 / Approaches to Psychology 5

 Psychology Journal
Think about your personal
reasons for studying psychol-
ogy. Write an entry in your
journal of at least 100
words describing
what you hope
to gain from this
experience. ■

PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter Overview
Visit the Understanding Psychology
Web site at psychology.glencoe.com
and click on Chapter 1—Chapter
Overviews to preview the chapter.

6
 Why Study Psychology?

Reader’s Guide
■ Main Idea Exploring Psychology
Through the study of psychology, peo-
ple can discover psychological principles Addicted to the Internet
that have the potential to enrich the It’s 4 A.M. and “Steve” is engulfed in
lives of humans. the green glare of his computer screen,
■ Vocabulary one minute pretending he’s a ruthless
• physiological mafia lord masterminding a gambling
• cognitive empire, the next minute imagining he’s
• psychology an evil sorcerer or an alien life form.
• hypothesis Steve, a college student, is playing a
• theory Multiple User Dungeon (MUD) game—a
• basic science fictional game modeled after Dungeons
• applied science and Dragons that is played by sending
• scientific method online messages to other players. But as
he continually logs on for hours, Steve
■ Objectives
finds himself sleeping through classes,
• Describe the range of topics that are
covered in an introductory psychology forgetting his homework, and slipping
course. into “Internet addiction” . . .
• Cite the goals and scientific basis of —from the APA Monitor, June 1996
psychology.

rom a psychologist’s point of view, Steve is demonstrating complex

F behavior. Steve stays on his computer from midnight until morn-

ing, often ignoring physiological, or physical, needs such as sleep
and hunger. He engages in this behavior because of cognitive, or private,
physiological: having to do
with an organism’s physical
processes
unobservable mental, reasons. For example, Steve may go online because
he likes the intellectual challenge of outwitting the other players. Or cognitive: having to do with
Steve’s behavior may be motivated by emotions—he goes online to avoid an organism’s thinking and
the pressures of college life. There may also be subconscious, emotional, understanding
and behavioral reasons. For instance, does the Internet reinforce his
behavior? Does this Internet use reflect a weak self-concept? Learning
about psychology can help you gain a better understanding of your own
behavior, knowledge about how psychologists study human and animal
behavior, and practical applications for enriching your life.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 7

 GAINING INSIGHT INTO BEHAVIOR
Reading Check Psychology can provide useful insight into behavior. For example,
What insights might you suppose a student is convinced that he is hopelessly shy and doomed for-
gain from studying psychology? ever to feel uncomfortable in groups. Then he learns through social
psychology that different kinds of groups tend to have different effects on
their members. He thinks about this. He notes that although he is mis-
erable at parties, he feels fine at meetings of the school newspaper staff
and in the group he works with in the biology laboratory. In technical
terms, he is much more uncomfortable in unstructured social groups than
in structured, task-oriented groups. Realizing that he is uncomfortable
only in some groups brings him relief. He is not paralyzingly shy; he just
does not like unstructured groups. He is not alone in his feelings—and
thinking about his feelings helps him gain confidence in himself.

ACQUIRING PRACTICAL INFORMATION

Most of the chapters in this book include material that has a practi-
cal application in everyday life. You will learn concrete and detailed ways
to carry out a number of useful procedures psychologists have developed.
For example, Chapter 9 describes a systematic way of dispensing
rewards and punishments that psychologists call shaping. You will defi-
nitely find this useful if you ever have to train a puppy. (You give the
puppy a treat after it obeys a command.) You may find yourself wonder-
ing how you are shaping the behavior of people around you. Perhaps you
have two friends who are always happy to join you for a soda or a movie
but who never bring any money along. You have loaned them money
many times, and just as many times, they have failed to pay you back. You
know they can afford to
Figure 1.1 Psychology and You pay their share, and you
have repeatedly told them
Studying psychology may help you gain a better understanding of so. They are good friends,
human behavior. What is psychology? however, so you end up
paying their way again and
again. In doing so, you are
rewarding or reinforcing an
undesirable behavior pat-
tern. Is that what you really
want to do?
Chapter 10 includes a
description of several
mnemonic devices, or
memory aids, that help you
retain information. The
poem beginning “Thirty
days has September,” which
helps many people remem-
ber the number of days in

8 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

each month, is an example. With
mnemonic devices, you usually associ-
ate each item on a list with something
easier to remember, such as a picture, Why You
rhyme, or phrase. Although this may Overreact
require time and effort, memory experts
Your friend makes a simple comment about your hair
have shown that it is worth the trouble.
or clothes, and you blow up, getting violently angry and
In reading about child development
feeling deeply hurt. Why? Emotions occur as the result of a
in Chapter 3, you may recall similar physical stimulation paired with some social or personal
experiences you had in your own child- event. If an emotional event occurs, but you do not have a
hood. Chapter 16, on disturbance and physical reaction—such as a pounding heart or a tense
breakdown, may help you understand stomach—you will not feel that emotion in the usual sense.
difficult periods in your own life and in Yet consider the following situation: You just drank two
the lives of those around you. cans of caffeinated soda. Your heart is beating hard, and
your stomach is tense. Then your friend makes a critical
comment. When you hear the comment, you get angry—
OVERVIEW OF but you get angrier than usual because your body is already
PSYCHOLOGY stimulated. If you are very tired, you may react mildly or
not at all to an emotional event.
Psychology is the scientific study
of behavior and mental processes. Such
study can involve both animal and human behaviors. When applied to
humans, psychology covers everything that people think, feel, and do.
Psychologists differ in how much importance they place on specific types
of behavior. For example, some psychologists believe that you should
study only behavior that you can see, observe, or measure directly. Steve’s
behavior of logging on and remaining on the Internet for hours at a time
is an observable behavior. Some psychologists believe that our thoughts,
feelings, and fantasies are also important, even though these processes are psychology: the scientific
not directly observable. Steve may log on because he feels intimidated by study of behavior that is tested
others or by schoolwork, but psychologists cannot directly observe that through scientific research
these are the reasons that Steve is engaging in this behavior.
While psychologists may differ on which types of behavior are
important, they do agree that the study of behavior must be systematic.
The use of a systematic method of asking and answering questions about
why people think, act, and feel as they do reduces the chances of coming
to false conclusions. Consider the story of the blind men and the ele-
phant. A long time ago, three very wise, but blind, men were out on a
journey when they came across a sleeping elephant. Because they could
not see the elephant, they did not know what was blocking their way, so
they set about to discover what they could about the obstacle.
As it happened, each man put his hands on a different section of the
elephant, examining it in great detail and with much thought. The first
man, having felt the elephant’s trunk, described a creature that was long,
wormlike, and quite flexible. “No, no! You must be mistaken,” said the
second man, who was seated astride the elephant. “This creature is wide,
very round, and does not move very much.” The man who was hold-
ing one of the elephant’s tusks added his description of a small, hard,
pointed creature.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 9

 Figure 1.2 Test Your Intuitions
Test your intuitions about behavior by answering true or false to the statements below.
Turn to page 12 to check your answers.

1. The behavior of most lower animals—insects, 10. The largest drug problem in the United States,
reptiles and amphibians, most rodents, and in terms of the number of people affected, is
birds—is instinctive and unaffected by learning. marijuana.
2. For the first week of life, a baby sees nothing 11. Psychiatry is a subdivision of psychology.
but shades of gray-blue regardless of where he
or she looks. 12. Most developmentally handicapped people also
have psychological disorders.
3. A child learns to talk more quickly if the adults
around the child habitually repeat the word he or 13. A third or more of the people suffering from
she is trying to say, using proper pronunciation. severe psychological disorders are potentially
dangerous.
4. The best way to get a chronically noisy child to
settle down and pay attention is to punish him 14. Electroshock therapy is an outmoded technique
or her. rarely used in today’s mental hospitals.

5. Slow learners remember more of what they learn 15. The more severe the disorder, the more intensive
than fast learners. the therapy required to cure it; for example,
schizophrenics usually respond best to
6. Highly intelligent people, geniuses, tend to be psychoanalysis.
physically frail and socially isolated.
16. Nearly all the psychological characteristics of
7. On the average, you cannot predict from a per- men and women appear to be inborn; in all cul-
son’s grades at school and college whether he or tures, for example, women are more emotional
she will do well in a career. and sexually less aggressive than men.
8. Most stereotypes are completely true. 17. No reputable psychologist takes seriously such
irrational phenomena as ESP, hypnosis, or the
9. In small amounts, alcohol is a stimulant. bizarre mental and physical achievements of
Eastern yogis.

Each of these men was correct in his description of what he felt, but
in order to understand the elephant fully, they needed to combine their
accumulated knowledge. The study of human behavior is similar. We
cannot rely on simplistic explanations. In order to understand our observa-
tions, we usually have to combine all of our thoughts.
We each like to think we understand people. We spend time observ-
ing others (and ourselves) and form conclusions about people from our
daily interactions. Sometimes the conclusions we draw, however, are not
accurate because we are not systematic in our efforts.

The Goals of Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY As psychologists go about their systematic and scientific study of
humans and animals, they have several goals. Overall, psychologists seek
Student Web Activity to do four things—describe, explain, predict, and influence behavior.
Visit the Understanding
Psychology Web site at
psychology.glencoe.com Description The first goal for any scientist or psychologist is to describe
and click on Chapter 1— or gather information about the behavior being studied and to present
Student Web Activities for what is known. For example, we described Steve’s behavior at college.
an activity about the study
of psychology. Explanation Psychologists are not content simply to state the facts.
Rather, they also seek to explain why people (or animals) behave as they

10 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

do. Such explanations can be called psychological principles—generally valid hypothesis: an assumption
ideas about behavior. Psychologists propose these explanations as hypothe- or prediction about behavior
that is tested through scientific
ses. A hypothesis is an educated guess about some phenomenon. It is a research
researcher’s prediction about what the results of a study are expected to be.
As research studies designed to test each hypothesis are completed, more theory: a set of assumptions
complex explanations called theories are constructed. A theory is usually used to explain phenomena
and offered for scientific study
a complex explanation based on findings from a large number of experi-
mental studies. Theories change as new data improves our understanding, basic science: the pursuit
and a good theory becomes the source of additional ideas for experiments. of knowledge about natural
A number of theories taken together may validate or cause us to alter the phenomena for its own sake
principles that help explain and predict observed behavior.
applied science: discover-
ing ways to use scientific find-
Prediction The third goal of psychologists is to predict, as a result of ings to accomplish practical
accumulated knowledge, what organisms will do and, in the case of goals
humans, what they will think or feel in var-
ious situations. By studying descriptive and
theoretical accounts of past behaviors, psy-
Figure 1.3 Gaining Perspective
chologists can predict future behaviors. Psychology involves gaining new perspectives on
your own and others’ behavior. Upon examination,
Influence Finally, some psychologists René Magritte’s painting The Human Condition
seek to influence behavior in helpful ways. becomes more and more complex. How does your
These psychologists are conducting studies perspective of this painting change upon closer
with a long-term goal of finding out more examination of it?
about human or animal behavior. They are
doing basic science, or research. Other
psychologists are more interested in discov-
ering ways to use what we already know
about people to benefit others. They view
psychology as an applied science and are
using psychological principles to solve
more immediate problems.
Psychologists who study the ability of
infants to perceive visual patterns are doing
basic research. They may not be concerned
with the implication their findings might
have on the design of a crib. Psychologists
studying rapid eye movement in sleep
research are also involved in basic science.
If they discover that one individual has a
sleep disturbance, they will try to under-
stand and explain the situation, but
they may not try to correct it. That is a
job for applied scientists, such as clinical
psychologists, industrial/organizational
psychologists, counseling psychologists, or
engineering psychologists.
An example of a psychologist involved
in applying psychological principles rather
than discovering them is a consultant to a

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 11

 Figure 1.4 The Scientific Method
Scientists investigate a question they have by using the scientific
method. What may occur after a psychologist reaches a conclusion?

Question

Hypothesis

Experiment

Additional Reject and

hypotheses Results revise hypothesis

Conclusions
Other
Theory psychologists replicate
and test their theories

toy manufacturer. A toy manufacturer tries to develop toys that appeal to

Answers to Figure 1.2 children. The manufacturer may apply, or use, psychological principles
All of the statements in when designing those toys. Since the transfer of findings from basic to
Figure 1.2 are false. As you
applied science can be tricky, the distinction between basic and applied
read the different chapters in
Understanding Psychology, science is important. The following example illustrates this.
you will learn more about the Psychologists doing basic research have found that babies raised in
correct answers to these institutions such as orphanages become seriously delayed in their physi-
statements and the research cal, intellectual, and emotional development. Wayne Dennis (1960),
that psychologists have con-
ducted to demonstrate why
among others, traces this to the fact that these babies have nothing to
these statements are false. look at but a blank, white ceiling and white crib cushions, and are han-
dled only when they need to be fed or changed. However, we have to be
very careful not to apply this finding too broadly. Even though children
who lack stimulation tend to develop poorly, it does not follow that
providing infants with maximum stimulation will cause them to grow up
emotionally sound and intellectually superior. Quite the contrary, most
babies do best with a medium level of stimulation (White, 1969). Even
more significantly, social interaction seems much more important than
Reading Check visual stimulation. Normal development is more likely to result from
Define the concepts long-term interactions with a responsive caregiver (Rice, Cunningham, &
of principle and theory, and Young, 1997). Basic science provides specific findings—what happens in
differentiate between the two. one study conducted at one time and in one place.

scientific method: a
THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF PSYCHOLOGY
general approach to gathering
information and answering To ensure that data are collected accurately, psychologists rely on the
questions so that errors and scientific method (see Figure 1.4). In psychology, facts are based on data.
biases are minimized The data are obtained from methods such as experiments, surveys, and

12 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

case studies. This means that psychologists reach their conclusions by
identifying a specific problem or question, formulating a hypothesis, col-
lecting data through observation and experimentation, and analyzing the
data.
The scientific basis of psychology goes back
many years. Today people are very sophisticat-
ed about scientific procedures, but that has not
always been true. Wilhelm Wundt is credited
with setting up the first psychology laboratory
in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. He proposed
that psychological experience is composed of
compounds, much like the compounds found
in chemistry. Psychology, he claimed, has
two kinds of elements—sensations and feel-
ings. Wundt tried to test his statements by
collecting scientific data. Although Wundt’s
methods proved cumbersome and unreliable,
the importance of Wundt’s work is the procedure
he followed, not the results he obtained. He called the pro-
Preserved brain
cedure “introspection,” and in psychology it led to what we now call the
scientific method. Whereas in Wundt’s introspection an individual
observes, analyzes, and reports his or her own mental experiences, the
scientific method developed as an objective method of observation and
analysis.
Although psychologists use the scientific method to demonstrate and Reading Check
support many theories, many questions about behavior remain unan- What is the scientific
method?
swered. Psychological theories are continually reviewed and revised. New
theories and technological developments are constantly generating new
questions and new psychological studies.

Assessment
1. Review the Vocabulary What is the 3. Recall Information Why do psycholo-
difference between a hypothesis and a gists use the scientific method?
theory?
4. Think Critically How might a
2. Visualize the Main Idea In a graphic psychologist doing basic science and a
organizer similar to the one below, list psychologist practicing applied science
and describe the goals of psychology. differ in their approach to the issue of
Internet addiction?
Goals of Psychology

5. Application Activity Use the four goals of

psychology to outline how a psychologist might
approach the following question: Why are you
sitting here in psychology class when there are
other things you could be doing?

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 13

 A Brief History
of Psychology
Reader’s Guide
■ Main Idea Exploring Psychology
Psychology involves sets of questions,
theories, methods, and possible answers The “Science” of Skull Bumps
that have been passed on and changed S.S. . . . was sent to the State Prison for
from generation to generation. five years for assault and battery, with
■ Vocabulary intent to kill, . . . Before his mind became
• structuralist deranged, he exhibited great energy of
• introspection passion and purpose, but they were all of
• functionalist a low character, their sole bearing being
• psychoanalyst to prove his own superiority as an animal.
• behaviorist . . . The drawing shows a broad, low head,
• humanist corresponding with such a character. The
• cognitivist moral organs are exceedingly deficient, . . .
• psychobiologist If the higher capacities and endowments
of humanity were ever found coupled
■ Objectives
with such a head as this, it would be a
• Explain important trends in the his-
tory of psychology. phenomenon as inexplicable as that of
• Identify various approaches to the seeing without the eye, or hearing without
study of psychology. the ear.
—from “Mathew B. Brady and the Rationale
of Crime: A Study in Daguerreotypes,”
Library of Congress Quarterly Journal,
Madeleine B. Stern

n the 1800s Marmaduke B. Sampson wrote the account above to

I explain why crime occurs. According to Sampson, the behavior of S.S.

was the direct result of the shape of his head. Phrenology—the prac-
tice of examining bumps on a person’s skull to determine that person’s
intellect and character traits—became an important practice in the
United States in the mid-1800s. Although this pseudoscience may appear
ridiculous to us, modern scientists credit phrenology for encouraging
study into the role of the brain in human behavior. Phrenology may have
inspired scientists to consider the brain, instead of the heart, as respon-
sible for human behavior.

14 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY Figure
1.5 Phrenology
Psychology has come a long way since the days of studying bumps
on skulls. In the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., the Greeks began to study This 1893 advertisement
human behavior and decided that people’s lives were dominated not so endorsed the “science”
much by the gods as by their own minds: people were rational. of phrenology. How did
These early philosophers attempted to interpret the world they phrenology contribute
observed around them in terms of human perceptions—objects were hot to psychology?
or cold, wet or dry, hard or soft—and these qualities influenced people’s
experience of them. Although the Greek philosophers did not rely on sys-
tematic study, they did set the stage for the development of the sciences,
including psychology, through their reliance on observation as a means
of knowing their world.
In the mid-1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) published the idea
that Earth was not the center of the universe, as was previously thought, but
revolved around the sun. Later, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) used a telescope
to confirm predictions about star position and movement based on
Copernicus’s work. The individuals of the Renaissance were beginning to
refine the modern concept of experimentation through observation.
Seventeenth-century philosophers popularized the idea of dualism, the
concept that the mind and body are separate and distinct. The French
philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) disagreed, however, proposing
that a link existed between mind and body. He reasoned that the mind
controlled the body’s movements, sensations, and perceptions. His
approach to understanding human behavior was based on the assumption
that the mind and body influence each other to create a person’s experi-
ences. Exactly how this interaction takes place is still being studied today.
As one psychologist has expressed it, “Modern science began to
emerge by combining philosophers’ reflections, logic, and mathematics
with the observations and inventiveness of practical people” (Hilgard,
1987). By the nineteenth century, biologists had announced the discovery
of cells as the building blocks of life. Later, chemists developed the
periodic table of elements, and physicists made great progress in further-
ing our understanding of atomic forces. Many natural scientists were
studying complex phenomena by reducing them to simpler parts. It was
in this environment that the science of psychology was formed.

HISTORICAL APPROACHES
The history of psychology is a history of alternative perspectives. As
the field of psychology evolved, various schools of thought arose to com-
pete and offer new approaches to the science of behavior.

Structuralism
In 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) started
his Laboratory of Psychology. Because of his efforts to pursue the study
of human behavior in a systematic and scientific manner, Wundt is gen-
erally acknowledged as establishing modern psychology as a separate,

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 15

 formal field of study. Although he was trained in physiology—the study
of how the body works—Wundt’s real interest was in the study of the
structuralist: a psychologist human mind. Wundt was a structuralist, which means that he was inter-
who studied the basic elements ested in the basic elements of human experience. In his laboratory,
that make up conscious mental
Wundt modeled his research on the mind after research in other natural
experiences
sciences he had studied. He developed a method of self-observation
introspection: a method of called introspection to collect information about the mind. In carefully
self-observation in which partic- controlled situations, trained participants reported their thoughts, and
ipants report their thoughts and Wundt tried to map out the basic structure of thought processes. Wundt’s
feelings
experiments were very important historically because he used a system-
atic procedure to study human behavior. This approach attracted many
students who carried on the tradition of systematic research.

Functionalism
William James (1842–1910) taught the first class in psychology
at Harvard University in 1875. James is often called the “father of psychol-
ogy” in the United States. It took him 12 years to write the first
textbook of psychology, The Principles of Psychology
(1890). James speculated that thinking, feeling, learn-
Did You Know? ing, and remembering—all activities of the mind—

?
serve one major function: to help us survive as a
Studying Scientists Some researchers species. Rather than focusing on the structure of the
study how scientists do science. Their find-
mind as Wundt did, James focused on the functions or
ings point out misconceptions:
• Scientists are not always objective. They
actions of the conscious mind and the goals or pur-
sometimes ignore data that does not poses of behaviors. Functionalists study how animals
support their theories rather than impar- and people adapt to their environments. Although
tially examining all available evidence. James was not particularly interested in experimenta-
• Some scientists are not all that open- tion, his writings and theories are still influential. In
minded. Critics accused Isaac Newton, Chapter 12 you will learn more about James’s ideas on
Charles Darwin, and Albert Einstein of motivation and emotion.
intolerance.
• The best scientists are not always the Inheritable Traits
brightest. Studies demonstrate that no
strong relationship exists between scien- Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), a nineteenth-
tists’ IQs and their contributions. century English mathematician and scientist, wanted to
understand how heredity influences a person’s abilities,
character, and behavior. (Heredity includes all the traits
and properties that are passed along biologically from parent to child.) Galton
functionalist: a psychol- traced the ancestry of various eminent people and found that greatness runs
ogist who studied the function in families. He therefore concluded that genius or eminence is a hereditary
(rather than the structure) of trait. This conclusion was like the blind men’s ideas about the elephant.
consciousness Galton did not consider the possibility that the tendency of genius to run in
distinguished families might be a result of the exceptional environments and
socioeconomic advantages that also tend to surround such families. He also
raised the question: Wouldn’t the world be a better place if we could get
rid of the less desirable people? Galton encouraged “good” marriages to
supply the world with talented offspring. Later, scientists all over the
world recognized the flaws in Galton’s theory. A person’s heredity and
environment interact to influence intelligence.

16 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

 Figure 1.6 Sir Francis Galton
Galton declared that the “most fit”
humans were those with high intelligence.
He assumed that the wealthiest people
were also the most intelligent. What fac-
tors did Galton fail to take into account
in his studies?

The data Galton used were based on his

study of biographies. Not content to limit his
inquiry to indirect accounts, however, he went on
to invent procedures for directly testing the abilities
and characteristics of a wide range of people. These
tests were the primitive ancestors of the modern personality tests and intel-
ligence tests.
Although Galton began his work shortly before psychology emerged as
an independent discipline, his theories and techniques quickly became cen-
tral aspects of the new science. In 1883 he published a book, Inquiries into
Human Faculty, that is regarded as the first study of individual differences.
Galton’s writings raised the issue of whether behavior is determined by
heredity or environment—a subject that remains a focus of controversy
today.

Gestalt Psychology
A group of German psychologists, including Max
Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967),
and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), disagreed with the princi-
ples of structuralism and behaviorism. They argued that
perception is more than the sum of its parts—it involves
a “whole pattern” or, in German, a Gestalt. For example,
when people look at a chair, they recognize the chair as
a whole rather than noticing its legs, its seat, and its
other components. Another example includes the per-
ception of apparent motion. When you see fixed lights
flashing in sequence as on traffic lights and neon signs,
you perceive motion rather than individual lights flashing
on and off (see Figure 1.8). Gestalt psychologists studied
how sensations are assembled into perceptual experiences.
This approach became the forerunner for cog-
nitive approaches to the study of psychology. Figure 1.7 Dream Analysis
Freud believed that dreams can represent past, pres-
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES ent, or future concerns or fears. Most contemporary
psychologists, though, disagree with the symbols
Many ideas taken from the historical Freud found in dreams. How do you think the psy-
approaches to psychology are reflected chologist in the cartoon plans to help his patient?
in contemporary approaches to the study

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 17

 Figure 1.8 Gestalt Psychology
Artist Giuseppe Arcimboldo (c.1530–1593) An electric sign in which the bulbs go on and off in
played with perceptual images in his paint- turn, with the appropriate timing, gives the impression
ing Autumn. of motion. How do these two images represent the
ideas of Gestalt psychology?

of psychology. The most important approaches to the study of psychol-

ogy today are the psychoanalytic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, bio-
logical, and sociocultural approaches.

Psychoanalytic Psychology
While the first psychologists were interested in understanding the
conscious mind, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a physician who practiced
in Vienna until 1938, was more interested in the unconscious mind. He
believed that our conscious experiences are only the tip of the iceberg,
that beneath the surface are primitive biological urges that are in conflict
with the requirements of society and morality. According to Freud, these
unconscious motivations and conflicts are responsible for most human
behavior. He thought that they were responsible for many medically
unexplainable physical symptoms that troubled his patients.
Freud used a new method for indirectly studying unconscious
processes. In this technique, known as free association, a patient said
everything that came to mind—no matter how absurd or irrelevant it
seemed—without attempting to produce logical or meaningful state-
ments. The person was instructed not to edit or censor the thoughts.

18 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

Freud’s role, that of psychoanalyst, was to be objective; he merely sat psychoanalyst: a psycholo-
and listened and then interpreted the associations. Free association, gist who studies how uncon-
scious motives and conflicts
Freud believed, revealed the operation of unconscious processes. Freud determine human behavior
also believed that dreams are expressions of the most primitive uncon-
scious urges. To learn more about these urges, he used dream analysis—
basically an extension of free association—in which he applied the same
technique to a patient’s dreams (Freud, 1940) (see Figure 1.7).
While working out his ideas, Freud took careful, extensive notes on all
his patients and treatment sessions. He used these records, or case studies,
to develop and illustrate a comprehensive theory of personality (Ewen,
1993). Freud’s theory of personality will be discussed in Chapter 14.
In many areas of psychology today, Freud’s view of unconscious
motivation remains a powerful and controversial influence. Modern psy-
chologists may support, alter, or attempt to disprove it, but most
have a strong opinion about it.
The technique of free associa-
tion is still used by psychoan-
alysts, and the method of Profiles In Psychology
intensive case study is still a
major tool for investigating
behavior. (A case study is an Mary Whiton Calkins
analysis of the thoughts, feel-
1863–1930
ings, beliefs, experiences,
behaviors, or problems of an “What we most need to
individual.) know about any man is
surely this: whether he
Behavioral Psychology is good or bad.”
The pioneering work
of Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) ary Whiton Calkins, a female pioneer in psychology, con-
charted another new
course for psychological
M tributed greatly to the field of psychology despite numerous
obstacles. In the 1800s, North American universities barred women
investigation. In a now- from Ph.D. programs. Despite this, Harvard’s William James admit-
famous experiment, Pav- ted Calkins into his graduate seminar. When Calkins joined the
lov rang a tuning fork seminar, all the other students dropped it in protest, so James
each time he gave a dog tutored her alone.
some meat powder. The Calkins taught and studied, petitioning Harvard to admit her
dog would normally sali- as a Ph.D. candidate. Harvard refused and, instead, held an infor-
vate when the powder mal examination for Calkins. Calkins completed the requirements
reached its mouth. After for the doctoral degree and outperformed all her male counterparts
Pavlov repeated the pro- on the examination. When Radcliffe University offered her the
cedure several times, the doctoral degree, she refused to accept the compromise.
dog would salivate when it Calkins served as a full professor of psychology at Wellesley
heard the ring of the tun- College and became the first female president of both the American
ing fork, even if no food Psychological Association (APA) and the American Philosophical
appeared. It had been con- Association.
ditioned to associate the
sound with the food.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 19

 The conditioned reflex was a response (sali-
vation) provoked by a stimulus (the tuning
fork) other than the one that first produced it
Why do you do what you do? (food) (see Chapter 9 for a complete explana-
Throughout the course of a day, you perform many tion). The concept was used by psychologists
activities. Why? as a new tool, as a means of exploring the
development of behavior. Using this tool,
Procedure
1. Observe and keep careful notes of your be- they could begin to account for behavior as
havior on a particular day. the product of prior experience. This
2. You may want to make a chart listing each action, enabled them to explain how certain acts
such as “woke to the alarm clock’s ring,” “ate and certain differences among individuals
breakfast,” and “yelled at little brother.” were the result of learning.
Psychologists who stressed investigating
Analysis observable behavior became known as behav-
1. Beside each behavior you have noted, list
what caused your behavior. For example, “I
iorists. Their position, as formulated by psy-
woke up at 7:00 A.M. because school starts at chologist John B. Watson (1878–1958), was that
8:00 A.M., and I hate being late. I ate breakfast psychology should concern itself only with the
because I was hungry.” observable facts of behavior. Watson further main-
2. Using the behaviorist approach, describe how tained that all behavior, even apparently instinctive
rewards and punishments affected each of behavior, is the result of conditioning and occurs
the behaviors on your list. because the appropriate stimulus is present in the
environment.
See the Skills Although it was Watson who defined and solidified
Handbook, page 622,
the behaviorist position, it was B.F. Skinner (1904–1990)
for an explanation of designing
an experiment. who introduced the concept of reinforcement. (Reinforcement
is a response to a behavior that increases the likelihood the
behavior will be repeated.) Skinner attempted to show how his labo-
ratory techniques might be applied to society as a whole. In his classic
novel Walden Two (1948), he portrayed his idea of Utopia—a small town
in which conditioning, through rewarding those who display behavior
behaviorist: a psychologist that is considered desirable, rules every conceivable facet of life.
who analyzes how organisms
learn or modify their behavior
based on their response to Humanistic Psychology
events in the environment
Humanistic psychology developed as a reaction to behavioral psy-
humanist: a psychologist chology. In the 1960s, humanists such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
who believes that each person and Rollo May described human nature as evolving and self-directed. It
has freedom in directing his or differs from behaviorism and psychoanalysis in that it does not view
her future and achieving per- humans as being controlled by events in the environment or by uncon-
sonal growth
scious forces. Instead, the environment and other outside forces simply
serve as a background to our own internal growth. The humanistic
approach emphasizes how each person is unique and has a self-concept
and potential to develop fully. This potential for personal growth and
development can lead to a more satisfying life.

cognitivist: a psychologist Cognitive Psychology

who studies how we process,
store, retrieve, and use informa- Since 1950, cognitive psychology has benefited from the contributions
tion and how cognitive process- of people such as Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Leon Festinger.
es influence our behavior Cognitivists focus on how we process, store, and use information and how

20 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

this information influences our thinking, language, problem solving, and Reading Check
creativity. They believe that behavior is more than a simple response to a How do cognitive
stimulus. Behavior is influenced by a variety of mental processes, including psychologists differ from
behaviorists?
perceptions, memories, and expectations.

Biological Psychology
This viewpoint emphasizes the impact of biology on our behavior.
Psychobiologists study how the brain, the nervous system, hormones, and
psychobiologist:
genetics influence our behavior. PET scans and CAT scans (explained in a psychologist who studies how
Chapter 6) are the newest tools used by psychobiologists. Psychobiologists physical and chemical changes
have found that genetic factors influence a wide range of human behaviors. in our bodies influence our
Psychobiologists have discovered that 98 percent of the twins of an identical behavior
twin who develops childhood autism will also develop it. Yet fraternal twins
share autism no more frequently than any siblings, suggesting that autism is
heritable and is likely caused by several genes (Folstein & Piven, 1991; Bailey
et al, 1995). In many ways, our behavior is the result of our physiological
makeup.

Sociocultural Psychology
The newest approach to psychology involves studying the influence
of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social
functioning.

Figure 1.9 Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

Modern psychologists use many different approaches to study the same
behavior. Each viewpoint offers additional information to understanding
behavior and reflects a different view of human nature. What other ques-
tions might a cognitivist study?

Approach What influences our behavior? Sample research question

Psychoanalytic Unconscious motivations influence How have negative childhood
Psychology our behavior. experiences affected the way I
handle stressful situations?

Behavioral Psychology Events in the environment (rewards Can good study habits be
and punishments) influence our learned?
behavior.

Humanistic Psychology Individual or self-directed choices Do I believe I can prepare for

influence our behavior. and pass the test?

Cognitive Psychology How we process, store, and retrieve How does caffeine affect
information influences our behavior. memory?

Biological Psychology Biological factors influence our Do genes affect your

behavior. intelligence and personality?

Sociocultural Psychology Ethnicity, gender, culture, and How do people of different

socioeconomic status influence genders and ethnicities
our behavior. interact with one another?

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 21

 For example, a sociocultural psychologist considers how our knowl-
edge and ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving are dependent on the
culture to which we belong. Think about all the perspectives and be-
haviors you share with other people of your culture. Psychologist
Leonard Doob (1990) illustrated the cultural implications of a simple,
reflexive behavior—a sneeze. Doob asks, “Will [the person who senses
the urge to sneeze] try to inhibit this reflex action? What will he say, what
will bystanders say, when he does sneeze? What will they think of him
if he fails to turn away and sneezes in their faces? Do they and he con-
sider sneezing an omen and, if so, is it a good or bad omen?” To answer
such questions, we would have to understand the cultural context in
which the sneeze occurred, as well as the cultural beliefs associated with
the sneeze.
Sociocultural psychologists also study the impact and integration of
the millions of immigrants who come to the United States each year. The
character of the U.S. population is rapidly changing. By the year 2010,
Americans of Hispanic origin will make up almost 15 percent of the pop-
ulation, while those of African American and Asian or Pacific Islander
descent will make up over 18 percent (U.S. Census Bureau, 1998).
Psychologists study the attitudes, values, beliefs, and social norms and
roles of these different ethnic groups. They also study methods to reduce
intolerance and discrimination.
The sociocultural approach is also concerned with issues such as gen-
der and socioeconomic status and is based on the idea that these factors
impact human behavior and mental processes. For instance, how might
you be different if you had been born female instead of male, or male
instead of female? Would you be different if you had been born in poverty,
or into an extremely wealthy family?

Assessment
1. Review the Vocabulary Using your 3. Recall Information Identify some
own words, describe the structuralist, issues that sociocultural psychologists
functionalist, behaviorist, and humanist might research.
approaches to the study of psychology.
4. Think Critically With which approach
2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a graphic to psychology do you most agree? Why?
organizer similar to the one below to
list the different historical approaches 5. Application Activity Consider the following
to the study of psychology.
question: Why do you sometimes daydream in
your classes? Compare how the various
Historical Approaches
approaches to the study of psychology would
address this question differently. Describe the
differences and similarities.

22 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

The Four Humors
Period of Study: Around A.D. 150 A Personality Wheel
A Personality Wheel

Introduction: Hippocrates (460–375 B.C.), UNSTABLE

Moody Touchy
often referred to as the “father of medicine,”
Anxious Restless
became one of the first people to claim that ill- Rigid Aggressive
ness had natural, not supernatural, causes. Sober Excitable
Hippocrates associated the four elements— Pessimistic Changeable

earth, air, fire, and water—with four humors in Reserved Impulsive

Unsociable MELANCHOLIC CHOLERIC Optimistic
the body. He associated earth with phlegm (Sad) (Irritable)
Quiet Active
(mucus), air with blood, fire with yellow bile, and INTROVERTED
Black Bile Yellow Bile
EXTROVERTED
water with black bile. Humans with balanced Passive PHLEGMATIC SANGUINE Sociable
(Unexcitable) (Confident)
humors were healthy; an imbalance among the Careful
Phlegm Blood
Outgoing
Thoughtful Talkative
humors resulted in sickness. Galen (A.D.
Peaceful Responsive
130–200) extended Hippocrates’ theory to Controlled Easygoing
include characteristics of human personalities. Reliable Lively
Even-tempered Carefree
Hypothesis: Galen identified four personality Calm Leadership

characteristics called melancholic, sanguine, STABLE

choleric, and phlegmatic. Galen associated
these four characteristics with the four humors Humor Principal Source Temperament Characteristic
of the body. Each humor was thought to give off Phlegm
Blood
Brain
Heart
Phlegmatic
Sanguine
Sluggish, unemotional
Cheerful
vapors that rose to the brain. An individual’s per- Yellow bile Liver Choleric Quick-tempered, fiery
sonality could be explained by the state of that Black bile Spleen Melancholic Sad

person’s humors.

Method: If a person had excess phlegm, that did not prove reliable. The relationship between
person was probably dull, pale, and cowardly. your physical makeup and your personality is
Cheerful and generous personalities resulted not yet firmly established. Your mental state can
from the dominance of blood. Laziness and make the symptoms of some diseases more
gloominess were associated with cold and dry- distressing, or factors such as stress can make
ness (black bile). If a person had too much you more liable to getting sick. However, the
choler (yellow bile) in his system, he was proba- dominance of, say, black bile in your system
bly a violent or vengeful person. The perfect per- does not lead to depression. Galen’s notion,
sonality resulted when none of the four humors though, that a healthy personality is a balanced
dominated. one may indeed be sound.
At that time, treatment of a psychological
disorder involved restoring a balance
among the humors. Doctors often
gave patients poisonous herbs to eat. This Analyzing the Case Study
caused vomiting, a sign that the imbal-
anced humor was leaving the patient’s 1. According to Galen’s hypothesis, how are a person’s
body. Balancing the diet could also bal- physical and mental states related?
ance the humors. 2. How did Galen treat psychological disorders?
3. Critical Thinking How can Galen’s original theory be
Results: The theories of Hippocrates used today as a prescription for a healthy personality?
and Galen proved unfounded, and their
prescribed treatments for various disorders

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 23

 Psychology as a Profession

Reader’s Guide
■ Main Idea Exploring Psychology
Psychologists are trained to observe,
analyze, and evaluate behavior patterns, The Thoughts of a Patient
to develop theories of behavior, and to Everything seems to be contradictory.
apply what they have learned to influ- I don’t seem to know what else to tell
ence behavior.
you, but that I am tearful and sad—and no
■ Vocabulary kick out of Christmas. And I used to get
• psychologist such a boot out of it. . . . It’s an awful feel-
• clinical psychologist ing. . . . I don’t get a bit of a kick out of
• counseling psychologist anything. Everything seems to get so sort
• psychiatry of full of despair. . . . I feel so sort of what I
• developmental psychologist call “empty”—nothing in back of you like
• educational psychologist when you’re feeling yourself. . . . You go to
• community psychologist bed and you dread each day when you
• industrial/organizational psychologist feel low like that. . . . And I try to keep
• experimental psychologist saying to myself, like you say, that I
■ Objectives haven’t been that bad that I should have
• Explain the work of a psychologist. to punish myself. Yet my thinking doesn’t
• Summarize the careers and specialized get cheerful. When it doesn’t get cheerful
fields in psychology. it makes you wonder will it all end in sui-
cide sometime. . . .
—from The Encyclopedia of Behavior by Robert
M. Goldenson, 1970

he thoughts above are the reflections of a patient. The patient is

T suffering from depression—an emotional state of dejection and

sadness, ranging from mild discouragement to feelings of utter
hopelessness and despair. Some psychologists conduct research to collect
information and form theories about disorders such as depression. Other
psychologists apply that information in the form of therapy to help peo-
ple cope with depression. What else do people in the field of psychology
do? Let’s start by defining a psychologist.

24 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

WHAT IS A PSYCHOLOGIST?
Psychologists are people who have been trained to observe, analyze psychologist: a scientist who
and evaluate behavior. They usually have a doctorate degree in psy- studies the mind and behavior
chology. There are many different fields of psychology. The principal of humans and animals
ones are described in this section.
People often confuse the terms psychologist and psychiatrist. These
are different professions. Psychiatry is a specialty of medicine. After psychiatry: a branch of
a student completes medical school, he or she continues training in medicine that deals with men-
psychiatric medicine and learns to treat people with disturbed behavior. tal, emotional, or behavioral
disorders
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who can prescribe medication or
operate on patients. Sometimes a psychiatrist works with a psychologist
in testing, evaluating, and treating patients.
As the field of psychology expanded, it divided into a number of clinical psychologist: a
subfields. Clinical and counseling psychology are the most popular. psychologist who diagnoses
Clinical psychologists help people deal with their personal problems. and treats people with
emotional disturbances
They work mainly in private offices, mental hospitals, prisons, and
clinics. Some specialize in giving and interpreting personality tests
designed to determine whether a person needs treatment and, if so, counseling psychologist:
what kind. (About one-half of all psychologists specialize in clinical a psychologist who usually
psychology.) Counseling psychologists usually work in schools or helps people deal with
problems of living
industrial firms, advising and assisting people with the problems of
everyday life. They help people adjust to the challenges of life. In most
states a doctorate is required
to be a clinical or counseling Figure 1.10 Psychologists at Work
psychologist.
School psychologists, edu-
cated in principles of human
development, clinical psy-
chology, and education, help
young people with emotional
or learning problems. A large
number of specialists study
personality, social psychol-
ogy, or developmental psy-
chology. These psychologists
are usually involved in basic
rather than applied science.
Psychologists who study per-
sonality investigate its devel-
opment, study personality
traits, or may create personal-
ity tests. Social psychologists
study groups and how they
influence individual behavior.
Some are particularly inter- All psychologists, no matter what their area of expertise, are
ested in public opinion and interested in theories about behavior and mental processes. Can
devote much of their time to you name the type of psychologist at work in each photo?
conducting polls and surveys.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 25

 Figure 1.11 Where Psychologists Work
Schools School psychologists give psychological tests,
supervise programs for students with special needs,
and may help teachers implement classroom strategies.
5% School systems
6% Counseling and 1% Other
guidance centers

Academic
institutions
Clinical settings
Psychologists
Clinical and
36% are employed
counseling
22% to conduct basic
psychologists Academic
Independent research and
work with institutions
practice to teach
clients in
psychology
independent
courses.
practice or in
hospitals, mental 17%
health centers, Hospitals and 12%
clinics, or guidance clinics
Business and
centers.
government

Business and government Businesses and

government agencies hire psychologists
to conduct research, screen candidates for
employment, improve work environments,
Source: American Psychological
Association Research Office or counsel workers.

Most psychologists in the United States are engaged in clinical

psychology. Why do businesses and government agencies hire
developmental psychologists?
psychologist: a psychologist
who studies the emotional,
cognitive, biological, personal,
and social changes that occur
as an individual matures Developmental psychologists study physical, emotional, cognitive,
and social changes that occur throughout life. Specialists in this field
educational psychologist: study children, the elderly, and even the process of dying.
a psychologist who is con-
cerned with helping students Educational psychologists deal with topics related to teaching chil-
learn dren and young adults, such as intelligence, memory, problem solving, and
motivation. Specialists in this field evaluate teaching methods, devise tests,
community psychologist: and develop new instructional devices. A community psychologist may
a psychologist who may work work in a mental health or social welfare agency operated by the state or
in a mental health or social
welfare agency
local government or by a private organization. A community psycholo-
gist may help design, run, or evaluate a mental health clinic.
industrial/organizational Industrial/organizational psychologists are employed by business
psychologist: a psychologist firms and government agencies. Industrial psychologists study and de-
who uses psychological con-
cepts to make the workplace a
velop methods to boost production, improve working conditions, place
more satisfying environment for applicants in jobs for which they are best suited, train people, and reduce
employees and managers accidents. Organizational psychologists study the behavior of people in
organizations such as business firms.

26 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

 Environmental psychologists work in business settings or within the gov-
ernment to study the effects of the environment on people. They may look
at the effects of natural disasters, overcrowding, and pollution on the pop-
ulation in general as well as individuals and families. Psychobiologists study
the effect of drugs or try to explain behavior in terms of biological factors,
such as electrical and chemical activities in the nervous system. Forensic
psychologists work in legal, court, and correctional systems. They assist
police by developing personality profiles of criminal offenders or help law-
enforcement officers understand problems like abuse. Health psychologists
study the interaction between physical and psychological health factors.
They may investigate how stress or depression leads to physical ailments.

Figure 1.12 Divisions of the APA

The divisions of the American Psychological Association (APA) represent
the many areas in which a psychologist may specialize. Under which
divisions might the work of a clinical psychologist fall?

1. Society for General Psychology 21. Applied Experimental and 38. Health Psychology
Engineering Psychology
2. Society for the Teaching of 39. Psychoanalysis
Psychology 22. Rehabilitation Psychology 40. Clinical Neuropsychology
3. Experimental Psychology 23. Society for Consumer 41. American Psychology-Law
Psychology Society
4. There is no Division 4
24. Theoretical and Philosophical 42. Psychologists in Independent
5. Evaluation, Measurement, and
Psychology Practice
Statistics
25. Division of Behavior Analysis 43. Family Psychology
6. Behavioral Neuroscience and
Comparative Psychology 26. History of Psychology 44. Society for the Psychological
Study of Lesbian, Gay, and
7. Developmental Psychology 27. Society for Community
Bisexual Issues
Research and Action: Division
8. Society for Personality and 45. Society for the Psychological
of Community Psychology
Social Psychology Study of Ethnic Minority Issues
28. Psychopharmacology and
9. Society for the Psychological 46. Media Psychology
Substance Abuse
Study of Social Issues - SPSSI
29. Psychotherapy 47. Exercise and Sport Psychology
10. Psychology and the Arts
30. Society of Psychological 48. Society for the Study of Peace,
11. There is no Division 11 Conflict, and Violence: Peace
Hypnosis
Psychology Division
12. Society of Clinical Psychology
31. State Psychological Association
49. Group Psychology and Group
13. Society of Consulting Affairs Psychotherapy
Psychology
32. Humanistic Psychology 50. Addictions
14. Society for Industrial and
33. Mental Retardation and 51. Society for the Psychological
Organizational Psychology
Developmental Disabilities Study of Men and Masculinity
15. Educational Psychology
34. Population and Environmental 52. International Psychology
16. School Psychology Psychology
53. Society of Clinical Child and
17. Counseling Psychology 35. Society for the Psychology of Adolescent Psychology
Women
18. Psychologists in Public Service 54. Society of Pediatric Psychology
36. Psychology of Religion 55. American Society for the
19. Military Psychology
37. Child, Youth, and Family Advancement of
20. Adult Development and Aging Pharmacotherapy
Services
Source: American Psychological Association

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 27

experimental Finally, some psychologists are experimental psychologists. These
psychologist: a psychologist psychologists perform research to understand how humans (and animals)
who studies sensation, percep- operate physically and psychologically. Experimental psychologists do every-
tion, learning, motivation, and
emotion in carefully controlled thing from testing how electrical stimulation of a certain area of a rat’s brain
laboratory conditions affects its behavior, through studying how disturbed people think, to observ-
ing how different socioeconomic groups vote in elections. Experimental psy-
chologists supply information and research used in psychology.
Reading Check The American Psychological Association (APA), founded in 1892, is
How does developmental a scientific and professional society of psychologists and educators. It is
psychology differ from educa- the major psychological association in the United States and is the
tional psychology? world’s largest association of psychologists. The APA is made of 53 divi-
sions, each representing a specific area, type of work or research setting,
or activity (see Figure 1.12). Some divisions are research-oriented, while
others are advocacy groups. Together they are a cross section of the
diverse nature of psychology. The APA works to advance the science and
profession of psychology and to promote human welfare.
What psychologists think about, what experiments they have done, and
what this knowledge means form the subject of Understanding Psychology.
Psychology is dedicated to answering some of the most interesting ques-
tions of everyday life: What happens during sleep? How can bad habits be
broken? Is there a way to measure intelligence? Why do crowds sometimes
turn into mobs? Do dreams mean anything? How does punishment affect a
child? Can memory be improved? What causes psychological breakdowns?
In trying to answer such questions, psychologists tie together what they
have discovered about human behavior, thoughts, and feelings in order to
look at the total human being. The picture is far from complete, but some
of what is known will be found in the chapters that follow.

Assessment
1. Review the Vocabulary Describe 3. Recall Information How might the
the work of a clinical psychologist, a work of environmental psychologists
counseling psychologist, a develop- differ from that of industrial/organiza-
mental psychologist, and a com- tional psychologists?
munity psychologist. 4. Think Critically If you decided to con-
2. Visualize the Main Idea Use a tinue in the field of psychology, what
graphic organizer similar to the one type of psychologist would you want to
below to name several specialty fields be? Why?
of psychology.
5. Application Activity Create a pamphlet that
answers some basic questions concerned with
Specialty Fields psychology as a profession, for example: What is
of Psychology psychology? What is the difference between psy-
chiatry and clinical psychology? What kinds of
jobs can I get with a psychology degree?

28 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

 Summary and Vocabulary

Psychologists study human behavior to attempt to explain and

predict why people behave and feel as they do. Chapter Vocabulary
physiological (p. 7)
Why Study Psychology? cognitive (p. 7)
Main Idea: Through the ■ Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and psychology (p. 9)
study of psychology, mental processes.
hypothesis (p. 11)
people can discover ■ The goals of psychology are description, explana-
tion, prediction, and influence. theory (p. 11)
psychological principles
that have the potential ■ Psychologists rely on the scientific method when basic science (p. 11)
researching an issue. applied science (p. 11)
to enrich the lives of
■ Psychology can provide insight into behavior and
humans. scientific method (p. 12)
has practical applications in everyday life.
structuralist (p. 16)
A Brief History of Psychology introspection (p. 16)
Main Idea: Psychology ■ Historical approaches to psychology include functionalist (p. 16)
involves sets of ques- structuralism, functionalism, inheritable traits, and psychoanalyst (p. 19)
tions, theories, methods, Gestalt psychology.
behaviorist (p. 20)
and possible answers ■ Psychoanalytic psychology involves interpretation
of unconscious thoughts. humanist (p. 20)
that have been passed
on and changed ■ Behaviorists investigate observable behavior. cognitivist (p. 20)
■ Humanists believe that human behavior is self-
from generation to psychobiologist (p. 21)
directed.
generation. ■ Cognitive psychologists focus on mental processes psychologist (p. 25)
and rationally motivated behavior. clinical psychologist (p. 25)
■ Psychobiologists are interested in the physiologi- counseling psychologist (p. 25)
cal basis of behavior in humans and animals.
■ Sociocultural psychology is a modern influential psychiatry (p. 25)
movement that views human behavior from a developmental psychologist
political and cross-cultural point of view. (p. 26)
educational psychologist
Psychology as a Profession (p. 26)
Main Idea: ■ Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists both treat community psychologist
Psychologists are trained people with psychological disorders. Psychiatrists (p. 26)
to observe, analyze, and are medical doctors, whereas clinical psycholo- industrial/organizational
evaluate behavior pat- gists are trained in psychology. psychologist (p. 26)
terns, to develop theo- ■ There are many specialty fields in psychology,
including clinical, developmental, industrial/ experimental psychologist
ries of behavior, and to (p. 28)
organizational, experimental, and community
apply what they have
psychology.
learned to influence
behavior.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 29

 Assessment
9. A belief or set of beliefs that is used to explain
PSYCHOLOGY observed facts and to predict new facts is called
a(n) _________.
Self-Check Quiz 10. A(n) ____________ charts changes in behavior
Visit the Understanding Psychology Web site at as people grow older, trying to understand the
psychology.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 1— factors that influence those changes.
Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Recalling Facts
1. What is psychology?
Reviewing Vocabulary
2. What are the steps of the scientific method?
Choose the letter of the correct term or concept
below to complete the sentence. 3. What are four goals of psychology?
4. What method of study did Wundt develop to
a. psychobiologist h. developmental
psychologist collect information about the mind?
b. hypothesis
c. structuralist i. experimental 5. Using a graphic organizer similar to the one
d. functionalist psychology below, compare and contrast functionalism and
e. behaviorist j. industrial/ behaviorism.
organizational
f. theory
psychology Functionalism Behaviorism
g. clinical psychologist

Both
1. Psychologists who do research in memory,
perception, and learning are involved in Critical Thinking
___________.
1. Synthesizing Information Write your own def-
2. A(n)_________ wants to learn how various inition of psychology. Is your definition different
mental processes help people adapt to their from one you would have written before reading
environment. the chapter? Put the definition in your
3. A psychologist who focuses on studying objec- Psychology Journal and read it at the end of the
tively verifiable phenomena is known as course to see if you still agree with it.
a(n)_________. 2. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Do you
4. The type of psychologist who usually works in think human behavior is free or determined?
a mental health clinic, mental hospital, or prison Defend your answer using theories from the dif-
is called a(n) _________. ferent approaches to psychology.
5. ____________ is concerned with using psycho- 3. Making Comparisons Consider the issue of fear
logical concepts to make the workplace a more of the dark. How would the work of a psycholo-
satisfying environment for employees. gist involved in basic science and a psychologist
6. A(n) ___________ would study the influence of involved in applied science differ in regard to the
biological factors on behavior and mental study of this issue?
processes. 4. Making Inferences Do you think that human-
7. An educated guess, or ________, predicts what istic psychology presents an optimistic view of
the results of testing will be. the world? Explain.
8. A(n) ___________ would attempt to describe 5. Drawing Conclusions Why do you think it is
the basic elements of human experience. important to study the history of psychology?

30 Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology

 Assessment
Psychology Projects 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Technology Activity
1. Why Study Psychology? Imagine that you are Use the Internet or the computer-
a psychologist and a patient has arrived at your ized card catalog in your local or
office to discuss a problem. (Create a problem— school library to find information on careers in psy-
such as stress or shyness—for the assignment.) chology. Choose one field of psychology and detail
Using the four goals of psychology, outline a the education, experience, and qualities needed for a
possible plan to help the patient. Your plan job in that field. Present your research in an infor-
should meet all the goals. mational pamphlet.
2. A Brief History of Psychology Create a chart
that explains the differences in the study of psy-
chology between Sigmund Freud and B.F. Psychology Journal
Skinner. Your chart should include motivations Review the journal entry that you wrote
of behavior, reward structures, and procedures at the beginning of the chapter on your
for diagnosis and treatment. You may illustrate reasons for studying psychology. Based on what you
your text with cartoons or drawings to clarify have learned from studying the chapter and class-
certain points. room discussions, assess the ideas you presented in
3. Psychology as a Profession Create an advertise- the original entry. Ask yourself:
ment for a psychology clinic. In the ad, describe
• Are any of the ideas based on misconceptions,
the services of the types of psychologists that
false premises, or faulty reasoning?
work at your clinic. You should include at least six
types of psychologists, such as clinical, environ- • What ideas would you revise or delete?
mental, and so on. When creating your ad, keep • What other ideas for studying psychology would
in mind the types of problems that people might you now include?
want to bring to the clinic. You may want to cre- Write a new entry in your journal. Describe the three
ate a magazine, newspaper, or Internet ad. Be sure biggest benefits you feel you can derive from studying
to monitor and evaluate your project for time lines, psychology. Provide reasons to justify your choices.
accuracy, and goal attainment (see page 1).

Building Skills
Identifying Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Review the cartoon and answer the ques-
tions that follow.
1. How might this girl have “learned” to
avoid the intended bad consequences
of pulling the string?
2. Which approach to psychology might
this cartoon illustrate?

See the Skills Handbook, page 624, Practice and assess key social
for an explanation of identifying studies skills with Glencoe Skillbuilder
cause-and-effect relationships. Interactive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2.

Chapter 1 / Introducing Psychology 31

 knowledge—little scientists who are
constantly creating and testing their
own theories of the world. And though
he may not be as famous as Sigmund
Freud or even B.F. Skinner, his contri-
bution to psychology may be longer last-
ing. As computers and the Internet give
children more autonomy to explore ever
larger digital worlds, the ideas he pio-
neered become ever more relevant.
Piaget had developed several new fields Piaget grew up near Lake
CHILD PSYCHOLOGIST of science: developmental psychology, Neuchâtel in a quiet region of French
cognitive theory and what came to be Switzerland. His father was a professor

Jean called genetic epistemology. Although

not an educational reformer, he cham-
pioned a way of thinking about children
that provided the foundation for today’s
education-reform movements. It was a
of medieval studies and his mother a
strict Calvinist. He was a child prodigy
who soon became interested in the sci-
entific study of nature. When, at age 10,
his observations led to questions that

Piaget
He found the secrets
shift comparable to the displacement of
stories of “noble savages” and “canni-
bals” by modern anthropology. One
might say that Piaget was the first to
take children’s thinking seriously.
could be answered only by access to
the university library, Piaget wrote and
published a short note on the sighting
of an albino sparrow in the hope that
this would influence the librarian to
stop treating him like a child. It

CORBIS/ FARRELL GREHAN

worked. Piaget was launched on a path
of human learning hidden that would lead to his doctorate in zool-
behind the seemingly ogy and a lifelong conviction that the
illogical notions of children way to understand anything is to
understand how it evolves.
By SEYMOUR PAPERT After World War I, Piaget became
interested in psychoanalysis. He
ean piaget, the pioneering swiss moved to Zurich and then to Paris to

J philosopher and psychologist,

spent much of his professional
life listening to children, watch-
ing children and poring over reports
of researchers around the world who
study logic and abnormal psychology.
Working with Theodore Simon in
Alfred Binet’s child-psychology lab, he
noticed that Parisian children of the
same age made similar errors on true-
were doing the same. He found, to put false intelligence tests. Fascinated by
it most succinctly, that children don’t their reasoning processes, he began to
think like grownups. After thousands suspect that the key to human knowl-
of interactions with young people edge might be discovered by observ-
often barely old enough to talk, Piaget ing how the child’s mind develops.
began to suspect that behind their JEAN PIAGET: A towering figure of The core of Piaget is his belief that
cute and seemingly illogical utter- 20th-century psychology looking carefully at how knowledge
ances were thought processes that had Others who shared this respect for develops in children will clarify the
their own kind of order and their own children—John Dewey in the U.S., nature of knowledge in general.
special logic. Einstein called it a dis- Maria Montessori in Italy and Paulo Whether this has in fact led to deeper
covery “so simple that only a genius Freire in Brazil—fought harder for understanding remains, like everything
could have thought of it.” immediate change in the schools, but about Piaget, controversial. But for
Piaget’s insight opened a new win- Piaget’s influence on education is deep- those who still see Piaget as the giant in
dow into the inner workings of the er and more pervasive. He has been the field of cognitive theory, the differ-
mind. By the end of a wide-ranging and revered by generations of teachers ence between what the baby brings and
remarkably prolific research career that inspired by the belief that children are what the adult has is so immense that
spanned nearly 75 years—from his first not empty vessels to be filled with the new discoveries do not significantly
scientific publication at age 10 to work knowledge (as traditional pedagogical reduce the gap but only increase the
still in progress when he died at 84— theory had it) but active builders of mystery. π

32 TIME, March 29, 1999

PSYCHOANALYST
POST-FREUDIAN ANALYSIS

Sigmund Freud
He opened a window mysteries lay concealed in the complex
Other psychologists continued
the work that Freud began,
though not always in ways that
he would have approved.

CARL JUNG
operations of the mind. By the early A former disciple of
on the unconscious and 1890s, he was specializing in “neuras- Freud’s, Jung
changed the way we thenics” (mainly severe hysterics); they shared his mentor’s
view ourselves taught him much, including the art of enthusiasm for
patient listening. At the same time he dreams but not his
By PETER GAY was beginning to write down his obsession with the
dreams, increasingly convinced that sex drive. Jung said

FROM TOP TO BOTTOM: STEPHAN BRETSCHER, ARCHIVE PHOTOS, JAMES F. COYNE

ore than any other explo- they might offer clues to the workings humans are endowed with a

M rer of the psyche, Sigmund

Freud has shaped the mind of
the 20th century. The very
fierceness and persistence of his
detractors are a wry tribute to the
of the unconscious, a notion he bor-
rowed from the Romantics. He saw
himself as a scientist taking material
both from his patients and from him-
self, through introspection. By
“collective unconscious” from
which myths, fairy tales and
other archetypes spring.

ALFRED KINSEY A biolo-

staying power of Freud’s ideas. the mid-1890s, he was gist who knew little about
His fundamental idea—that all launched on a full-blown self- sex and less about statis-
humans are endowed with an uncon- analysis, an enterprise for tics, Kinsey nonetheless
scious in which potent sexual and which he had no guidelines led the first large-scale
aggressive drives, and defenses against and no predecessors. empirical study of sexual
them, struggle for supremacy, as it The book that made his behavior. The Kinsey
were, behind a person’s back—has reputation in the profession— reports shocked readers by
struck many as a romantic, scientifical- although it sold poorly—was The documenting high rates of what
ly unprovable notion. His contention Interpretation of Dreams (1900), an some considered atypical sexual
that the catalog of neurotic ailments to indefinable masterpiece—part dream behavior.
which humans are susceptible is near- analysis, part autobiography, part theo-
ly always the work of sexual maladjust- ry of the mind, part history of contem- B.F. SKINNER A strict behavior-
ments, and that erotic desire starts not porary Vienna. The principle that ist who avoided all reference to
in puberty but in infancy, seemed to underlay this work was that mental internal mental states, Skinner
the respectable nothing less than experiences and entities, like physical believed that behavior can best
obscene. His dramatic evocation of a ones, are part of nature. This meant be shaped through
universal Oedipus complex, in which that Freud could admit no mere acci- positive reinforce-
(to put a complicated issue too simply) dents in mental procedures. The most ment. Contrary
the little boy loves his mother and nonsensical notion, the most casual slip to popular mis-
hates his father, seems more like a lit- of the tongue, the most fantastic dream, conception, he
erary conceit than a thesis worthy of a must have a meaning and can be used did not raise his
scientifically minded psychologist. to unriddle the often incomprehensible daughter in the
Freud first used the term psycho- maneuvers we call thinking. π “Skinner box” used
analysis in 1896, when he was already —For the complete text of this article and related to train pigeons.
40. He had been driven by ambition articles from TIME, please visit www.time.com/teach
from his earliest days and encouraged
by his doting parents to think highly of
himself. After an impressive career in
Analyzing the Articles
school, he enrolled in 1873 in the
University of Vienna and drifted from 1. What was Piaget's contribution to psychology?
one philosophical subject to another 2. C R I T I CA L T H I N K I N G How might the ways we think
until he hit on medicine. As he pursued about children and ourselves be different today if Piaget
his medical researches, he came to the and Freud had not proposed their theories?
conclusion that the most intriguing

TIME, March 29, 1999 33