CAPACITANCE

Learning Goals
Looking forward at …
• the nature of capacitors, and how to calculate a
quantity that measures their ability to store charge.
• how to analyse capacitors connected in a network.
• how to calculate the amount of energy stored in a
capacitor.
• what dielectrics are, and how they make capacitors
more effective.
• how to use Gauss’s laws when dielectrics are
present.

2
Introduction
• In flash photography, the energy used to make
the flash is stored in a capacitor, which consists
of two closely spaced conductors that carry
opposite charges.
• The energy of a capacitor is actually stored in
the electric field.

Capacitors
• Any two conductors separated by an insulator (or a
vacuum) form a capacitor.

• When the capacitor is charged, it means the two

conductors have charges with equal magnitude and
opposite sign, and the net charge on the capacitor as
a whole is zero.
4
Capacitors and capacitance
• One common way to charge a capacitor is to connect
the two conductors to opposite terminals of a battery.
• This gives a potential difference Vab between the
conductors that is equal to the voltage of the battery.
• If we change the magnitude of charge on each
conductor, the potential difference between
conductors changes; however, the ratio of charge to
potential difference does not change.
• This ratio is called the capacitance C of the capacitor:

Parallel-plate capacitor
• A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two parallel
conducting plates separated by a distance that is
small compared to their dimensions.

6
 Parallel-plate capacitor
• The field between the plates of a parallel-plate
capacitor is essentially uniform, and the charges on the
plates are uniformly distributed over their opposing
surfaces.
ߪ ܳ
‫= =ܧ‬
߳଴ ߳଴ ‫ܣ‬
• The potential difference is given by
1 ܳ݀
ܸ௔௕ = ‫= ݀ܧ‬
߳଴ ‫ܣ‬
• When the region between the plates is empty, the
ொ ஺
capacitance is: ‫= ܥ‬ = ߳଴
௏ೌ್ ௗ
• The capacitance depends on only the geometry of the
capacitor. The quantities A and d are constants for a
given capacitor, and ߳଴ is a universal constant. 7

Condenser microphones
• Inside a condenser microphone
is a capacitor with one rigid
plate and one flexible plate.
• The two plates are kept at a
constant potential difference.
• Sound waves cause the flexible
plate to move back and forth,
varying the capacitance C and causing charge to
flow to and from the capacitor.
• Thus a sound wave is converted to a charge flow
that can be amplified and recorded digitally.

8
 Units of capacitance
• The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, F.
1 F = 1 C/V = 1 C2/N · m = 1 C2/J
• One farad is a very large capacitance.
• For the commercial capacitors shown in the
photograph, C is measured in microfarads Ɋ

Example

10
Exercise 1
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 3.50 mm
apart, and each carries a charge of magnitude 85.0 nC.
The plates are in vacuum. The electric field between
the plates has a magnitude of 5.00 × 106 V/m.
(a) What is the potential difference between the
plates?
(b) What is the area of each plate?
(c) What is the capacitance?

11

Spherical Capacitor
• Two concentric spherical conducting shells are
separated by vacuum. The inner shell has total
charge +Q and outer radius ‫ݎ‬௔ , and the outer shell
has charge -Q and inner radius ‫ݎ‬௕ . Find the
capacitance of this spherical capacitor.
௥ೌ ௥್
• Show that ‫ = ܥ‬Ͷߨ߳଴
௥ ି௥
್ ೌ

12
Isolated Sphere
ோ௥
•‫ = ܥ‬Ͷߨ߳଴
௥ିோ
• As ‫ ݎ‬՜ λ ‫ = ܥ‬Ͷߨ߳଴ ܴ
• In this case, the second
conductor is a “virtual” plate
at infinity.
• ‫ܥ‬௘௔௥௧௛ ؆ 0.0007 Farad

13

Cylindrical Capacitor
• Show that:
ଶగఢబ ௅
‫=ܥ‬ ೝ್
୪୬
ೝೌ
• Capacitance per unit length

‫ܥ‬ ʹߨ߳଴
=
‫ ܮ‬ln ‫ݎ‬௕
‫ݎ‬௔

14
Capacitors in series: Slide 1 of 3
• Capacitors are in series if they are connected one after
the other, as illustrated.
• The equivalent single capacitor is shown on the next
slide.

15

Capacitors in series: Slide 2 of

3

16
Capacitors in series: Slide 3 of 3
• When several capacitors are connected in series, the
magnitude of charge is the same on all plates of all
the capacitors.
• The potential differences of the individual capacitors
add to give the total potential difference across the
series combination: Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3 + · · ·
• The equivalent capacitance of the series combination
is given by:

17

Capacitors in parallel: Slide 1 of 3

• Capacitors are connected in parallel between a and
b if the potential difference Vab is the same for all
the capacitors.

18
 Capacitors in parallel: Slide 2 of 3
• This is the equivalent capacitor of two capacitors
connected in parallel.

19

Capacitors in parallel: Slide 3 of 3

• When several capacitors are connected in parallel, the
potential differences are the same for all the
capacitors.
• The charges on the individual capacitors add to give
the total charge on the parallel combination:
Qtotal = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + · · ·
• The equivalent capacitance of the parallel
combination is given by:

20
Exercises
For the system of capacitors shown
in Figure, find the equivalent
capacitance (a) between b and c,
and (b) between a and c.

21

Exercise 2
Figure shows a system of four
capacitors, where the potential
difference across ab is 50.0 V.
(a) Find the equivalent
capacitance of this system
between a and b.
(b) How much charge is stored
by this combination of
capacitors?
(c) How much charge is stored
in each of the 10.0-PF and
9.0-PF the capacitors?

22
Exercise 3
For the system of capacitors shown
in Figure, a potential difference of
25 V is maintained across ab.
(a) What is the equivalent
capacitance of this system
between a and b?
(b) How much charge is stored by
this system?
(c) How much charge does the 6.5-
nF capacitor store?
(d) What is the potential difference
across the 7.5-nF capacitor?

23

Energy stored in a capacitor

• The potential energy stored in a capacitor is:

• The capacitor energy is stored in the electric field

between the plates.
• The energy density is:

24
Exercise 1
• A parallel-plate air capacitor has a capacitance of
920 pF. The charge on each plate is 2.55 PC.
(a) What is the potential difference between the
plates?
(b) If the charge is kept constant, what will be the
potential difference between the plates if the
separation is doubled?
(c) How much work is required to double the
separation?

25

Exercise 2
• A 5.80-PF parallel-plate, air capacitor has a plate
separation of 5.00 mm and is charged to a potential
difference of 400 V. Calculate the energy density in
the region between the plates, in units of J/m3.

26
Exercise 3
• You have two identical capacitors and an external
potential source.
(a) Compare the total energy stored in the capacitors
when they are connected to the applied potential
in series and in parallel.
(b) Compare the maximum amount of charge stored
in each case.
(c) Energy storage in a capacitor can be limited by the
maximum electric field between the plates. What
is the ratio of the electric field for the series and
parallel combinations?

27

Exercise 4
Three capacitors having capacitances of 8.4, 8.4, and 4.2
PF are connected in series across a potential difference
of 36 V.
(a) What is the charge on the 4.2 PF capacitor?
(b) What is the total energy stored in all three
capacitors?

28
 Exercise 4 contd
(c) The capacitors are disconnected from the potential difference
without allowing them to discharge. They are then
reconnected in parallel with each other, with the positively
charged plates connected together. (See diagram below)

i. What is the voltage across each capacitor in the parallel combination?

ii. What is the total energy now stored in the capacitors?

29

Energy stored in a capacitor

• A practical application of capacitors is their ability
to store energy and release it quickly.
• An extreme example of the same principle is the
Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories in
New Mexico, which is used in experiments in
controlled nuclear fusion.
• The Z machine uses a large number of capacitors
in parallel to give a tremendous equivalent
capacitance.
• The arcs shown here are
produced when the capacitors
discharge their energy into a
target, which is heated to a
temperature higher than
2 × 109 K.

30
 Dielectrics
• Most capacitors have a nonconducting material, or
dielectric, between their conducting plates.
• A common type of capacitor uses long strips of
metal foil for the plates, separated by strips of
plastic sheet such as Mylar.

31

Dielectrics increase capacitance: Slide 1 of 2

• Consider an electrometer connected across a charged
capacitor, with magnitude of charge Q on each plate
and potential difference V0.

32
Dielectrics increase capacitance: Slide 2 of 2
• When we insert an uncharged sheet of dielectric, such
as glass, paraffin, or polystyrene, between the plates,
the potential difference decreases to a smaller value V.
• Since Q is unchanged, the capacitance C = Q/V is
increased with the dielectric.

33

Dielectrics
• When a dielectric is
inserted between the plates
of a capacitor, the electric
field decreases.
• This is due to polarization
of the charge within the
dielectric, which results in
induced surface charges, as
shown.
ఙିఙ೔
•‫= ܧ‬
ఢబ

34
 The dielectric constant
• When an insulating material is inserted between the
plates of a capacitor whose original capacitance is C0,
the new capacitance is greater by a factor K, where K is
the dielectric constant of the material.

• The energy density in the capacitor also increases:

35

Table 24.1—Some dielectric constants

Material K
Vacuum 1
Air (1 atm) 1.00059
Teflon 2.1
Mylar 3.1
Glass 5 – 10
Glycerin 42.5
Water 80.4
36
Exercise 1
• A 12.5-PF capacitor is connected to a power supply
that keeps a constant potential difference of 24.0 V
across the plates. A piece of material having a
dielectric constant of 3.75 is placed between the
plates, completely filling the space between them.
(a) How much energy is stored in the capacitor before
and after the dielectric is inserted?
(b) By how much did the energy change during the
insertion? Did it increase or decrease?

37

Exercise 2
• A parallel-plate capacitor with only air between the
plates is charged by connecting it to a battery. The
capacitor is then disconnected from the battery,
without any of the charge leaving the plates.
(a) A voltmeter reads 45.0 V when placed across the
capacitor. When a dielectric is inserted between
the plates, completely filling the space, the
voltmeter reads 11.5 V. What is the dielectric
constant of this material?
(b) What will the voltmeter read if the dielectric is
now pulled partway out so it fills only one third
of the space between the plates?

38
 Exercise 3
A parallel-plate capacitor is made from two plates 12.0 cm on
each side and 4.50 mm apart. Half of the space between these
plates contains only air, but the other half is filled with
Plexiglas® of dielectric constant 3.40 (See Figure below).

An 18.0-V battery isi connected d across the

h plates.
(a) What is the capacitance of this combination? (Hint: you can
think of this capacitor as equivalent to two capacitors in
parallel)
(b) How much energy is stored in the capacitor?
(c) If we remove the Plexiglas® but change nothing else, how
much energy will be stored in the capacitor?
39

Dielectric breakdown
• If the electric field is strong enough, dielectric
breakdown occurs and the dielectric becomes a
conductor.
• The dielectric strength is the maximum electric field
the material can withstand before breakdown occurs.
• For example, Pyrex glass has a dielectric constant of
K = 4.7, and a dielectric strength of Em = 1 × 107 V/m.
• Dry air has a dielectric constant of
K = 1.00059 and a dielectric
strength of Em = 3 × 106 V/m.

40
 Molecular model of induced charge
• Some molecules, such as H2O and N2O, form natural
electric dipoles, and the molecule is called a polar
molecule.
• When no electric field is present in a gas or liquid with
polar molecules, the molecules are oriented randomly
(a).
• In an electric field, however, they tend to orient
themselves as in (b).

41

Molecular model of induced charge

• Even a molecule that is not ordinarily polar (a)
becomes a dipole when it is placed in an electric
field because the field pushes the positive charges in
the molecules in the direction of the field and pushes
the negative charges in the opposite direction (b).
• Such dipoles are called induced dipoles.

42
Molecular model of induced charge
• The polarization of
molecules within a
dielectric leads to the
formation of a layer of
charge on each surface of
the dielectric material.
• These layers have a surface
charge density of
magnitude Ηi.

43

Behavior of a dielectric in four steps

44
Neutral sphere attracted to a charged sphere
• Polarization is the reason
a charged body can exert
a force on an uncharged
nonconducting body
such as a bit of paper or
a pith ball.
• The force is always
attractive.

45

Gauss’s law in dielectrics

• The figure shows a close-up of
the left-hand plate in a
capacitor.
• The Gaussian surface is a
rectangular box that lies half in
the conductor and half in the
dielectric.
• Gauss’s law becomes:

where Qencl-free is the total free

charge (not bound charge)
enclosed by the Gaussian
surface.
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