Eastern Orthodoxy

Quick Facts

Formed c. 1st - 5th centuries C.E.

The Eastern Orthodox Church, a branch of Christianity also known as Eastern Orthodoxy,
Orthodox Christianity, or the Orthodox Church, identifies its roots in the early Church,
particularly as it developed within the Greek-speaking eastern branch of the Roman Empire. The
Eastern Orthodox Church accepts the first seven Ecumenical Councils (which were held between
325 and 787 C.E.), and regards itself as the True Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church is
organized with an episcopal structure including the Four Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch,
Constantinople, and Jerusalem (the Patriarch of Constantinople is the first of equals) and
consecrated bishops (whose lineage is believed to be traced back to Jesus' apostles). Their
worship is highly liturgical and extremely iconographic, both of which are central to the Church's
life, history, and practice. Their icons, which include depictions of Jesus, the Virgin Mary,
biblical scenes, or saints, are believed to create a sense of the presence of God. Eastern
Orthodoxy is strongly doctrinal and places great authority in the Bible, the Creeds (Apostles' and
Nicene), and the seven ecumenical councils. Like all other Christians, Orthodoxy is Trinitarian,
believing that God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).

Quick Fact Details:

 Formed: The exact date of the beginning of the Eastern Orthodox Church is
indeterminable. While the belief system recognized as Christianity is in place by the first
century, institutional structures developed over time. Nor is it possible to distinguish
Orthodoxy as a separate tradition until it can be differentiated from other Christian
traditions (most notably, Roman Catholicism and Protestantism). Scholars recognize a
 variety of significant institutional, theological, and cultural markers in the development
of Orthodoxy:
o 325—Council of Nicea. The first post-apostolic ecumenical council of the
Christian community at which Church leaders formed a creedal statement of
belief recognized universally.
o 380—Edict of Thessalonica. The Emperor Theodosius I mandates "catholic"
(universal, in contrast to the heresies of the time) Christianity to be the legal
religion of the Empire.
o 381—First Council of Constantinople. This council amended and ratified the
Nicene Creed, resulting in the version used by Christian churches around the
world. 
o 451—The Council of Chalcedon. The first division within Christianity triggered
by the split between those who adhered to the conclusions of the Council and
those who did not (referred to as Oriental Orthodox).
o 787—The Second Council of Nicea, often called "The Triumph of Orthodoxy."
After many decades of iconoclasm (the rejection and destruction of icons), this
council ratified the veneration and use of icons in worship and in private devotion
—a uniquely Orthodox practice.
o 1054—The Great Schism. Though the Eastern and Western branches of the
Church had long been divided over theological, cultural, linguistic, and
ecclesiological disputes, the separation was formalized in 1054, thus creating the
first large-scale division within Christendom.
 Sacred Texts: Eastern Orthodoxy uses the Septuagint version of the Old Testament,
which includes the deuterocanonical books that Protestants rejected. Their New
Testaments are identical to those of all Christians.
 Headquarters: The nature of the Eastern Orthodox Church is conciliar rather than
monarchical. That is, the patriarchs all hold equal authority in the Church and there is no
centralized headquarters from which jurisdiction is maintained. Because the Ecumenical
Patriarch—believed to be the first in honor among Orthodox patriarchs—is the Patriarch
of Constantinople, Istanbul may be considered the spiritual center of the Orthodox
communities.

Quick Fact Sources include www.adherents.com, www.bbc.co.uk/religion, The Oxford

Christianity is rooted in the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. The story of Jesus and the
beginning of Christianity is shared by all Christian groups. Christians were originally united in
one church, and participated together in all of the sacraments of the faith, especially the
Eucharist, or Lord's Supper. In the first 1000 years or so of Christianity, Christians experienced
disagreements and divisions. The unity of the church fractured. Christians, now organized into
denominations, no longer practice the sacraments in a common community. This is a cause of
grief for many Christians, and there are ongoing efforts to heal the rifts.

Eastern Orthodoxy is a tradition that resulted from these early schisms. It began to emerge in the
5th and 6th centuries of the Common Era, when doctrinal disagreements and geopolitics
combined to divide the Byzantine church both from churches in Rome and the West, and from
churches in Africa, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, and India. Many of these latter churches,
although also Orthodox in faith and practice, are not currently in fellowship with the Eastern
Orthodox churches (although this is slowly changing). They are the subject of the articles on
Oriental Orthodoxy.

In a slowly-developing rift that unfolded during the 5th to 13th centuries, the principal sees of
Rome and Constantinople suffered ongoing disputes that ultimately resulted in a parting of ways,
and a loss of fellowship in the sacraments. These disputes are still being addressed in slow and
careful dialogue. Historians call the rupture between Rome and Constantinople the "Great
Schism," and through it, Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism acquired their distinctive
identities.

The rift between the two traditions grew so slowly that its exact beginning is difficult to pinpoint.
Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome, relocated the capital of the empire from Rome
to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 C.E. The size and reach of the Roman Empire
had persuaded its leaders to experiment with governing from Rome in the west and
Constantinople in the east. This move established the prominence of the church in
Constantinople, and created the conditions for a rivalry between Constantinople and Rome. A
few more centuries passed before that rivalry manifested with any seriousness.

In the 5th century, when the pressures of war and invasion caused the collapse of the Western
Roman Empire, the Church in Rome was in many ways the only institutional authority left in
western Europe. While western Europe entered a long era of splintered political authority and
cultural upheaval, often called the "Dark Ages," the Eastern Roman Empire continued in relative
stability for another 1000 years. Because Constantine chose the Greek port town of Byzantium
on the Bosporus Strait as the location for the new city of Constantinople, the Eastern Roman
Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire. It survived into the 15th century, when it was
replaced by the Ottoman Empire. The Roman and Byzantine churches were forged in entirely
different historical conditions, meeting entirely different political needs and demands. The Great
Schism, which arose from a great variety of reasons—some theological, but many cultural,
linguistic, and political—really happened because the two churches grew apart.

Beginnings
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

The Church in Constantinople enjoyed the protection of an emperor and a military, and
flourished in an educated and wealthy city. The Church in Rome responded to the challenges of
the "Dark Age" creatively, establishing networks of communication and welfare, and sometimes
providing the only source of security and law in western Europe. It responded to the pressures on
its survival by building a monarchical form of leadership that invested ultimate authority in the
pope. While the Byzantine Church had no objection to this, problems developed between Rome
and the eastern Christians when popes began to claim supremacy and jurisdiction over the entire
Christian world. The eastern Christians would have none of it because they rejected the idea that
decisions affecting all Christians can be made by only one man. In the view of Orthodoxy, only
councils attended by bishops from all the churches have authority for all Christians.

Disputes broke out in the 9th century over the Spanish church's addition of the filioque to the
Nicene Creed, and again in the 11th century when the Normans began applying military pressure
to Byzantine Italy while the pope attempted to enforce Roman jurisdiction over the Byzantine
churches. In 1054, the pope sent three delegates to the patriarch of Constantinople in an effort to
resolve differences, but neither the delegates nor the patriarch were diplomats in temperament,
and they wound up excommunicating each other!

Friendly relations were restored however, and rivalries again receded. In 1071, when the
Byzantine Army was defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, Byzantium turned
to its European allies for help. Pope Urban II raised an army, and the Crusades began. The
Crusaders successfully returned much of conquered Byzantine territory to Constantinople, but
also established kingdoms of their own in Syria and Palestine. This brought the disputes between
Rome and Constantinople to the grassroots, as the Crusaders imposed Latin practices in these
traditionally Greek churches. Arguments over who had the right to appoint bishops led in some
places to rival bishops, Greek and Latin, claiming the same throne.

The Crusades eventually led to the cataclysmic invasion and pillage of Constantinople by a
Crusader army in 1204. The three-day merciless plunder of this famous Christian city by soldiers
with crosses on their shoulders left the Byzantines deeply embittered, if not hateful. Since this
time, the two churches have been alienated from each other, each claiming to be the true Church.
The sides have recently taken fresh steps, in hopes that in time a reunion could be accomplished,
in careful and deliberative ways.

Study Questions:
1.     How was Christianity united with a common origin? When did Eastern Orthodoxy begin to
originate?
2.     What was the Great Schism? How was Christianity divided?
3.     How did the two churches respond to the Dark Ages?
4.     What developments in doctrine or practice contributed to the separation of Orthodox from
Catholics?

Influences
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka
The Latin and Greek cultures of the Roman Empire had a decisive influence on the early
formation of Christianity, as did the Jewish culture and religion in which Christianity is rooted.
Eastern Orthodox Christianity is firmly rooted in the ancient Christian communities of the
Roman Empire, which were founded by the energetic evangelism of the companions of Jesus,
called apostles. Jesus taught matters of faith and practice to the apostles, who in turn handed
them on to their disciples and the churches they founded. The faith and practices of the apostolic
churches have been preserved and passed on from generation to generation, and Orthodox
Christianity is determinedly faithful to these ancient traditions. The word "Orthodox" means
"correct belief" and "correct practice," the two meanings inseparable. In Orthodox Christianity,
tradition is holy.

Holy tradition is preserved in a variety of sources: the Bible, the Nicene Creed, the decisions of
the seven ecumenical councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, the canons (laws) of the
church, the books of liturgy, and the icons. Of these sources, the highest value is placed on the
Bible, the Creed, and the councils. Orthodox Christians are strict about these, believing firmly
that they should not be altered, and nothing should be added or taken away from them.
Orthodoxy's steadfast loyalty to preserving holy tradition gives the religion a feeling of antiquity,
as though it were suspended in time. But this apparent changelessness disguises the inner
dynamic of holy tradition, which lives and breathes in the believer's engagement with it.
Tradition guides and sustains Orthodox Christians through time and historical change, leading to
new interpretations of ancient ideas. This is in part due to the speculative nature of Orthodox
belief and practice, which itself is due in no small part to the influence of the Greek speculative
tradition. Speculative philosophy tends to be open-ended and flexible. It is concerned with
ultimate questions that resist clear answers, such as the true nature of God, the meaning of the
Trinity, the nature of our experience of time, or the meaning of death.

The language and culture of Greece dominated the outlook and practices of the churches in the
eastern part of the Roman Empire, where Greek became the predominant language after the
disintegration of the Western Empire in the 5th century. Around that time, the eastern and
western churches began developing their own unique personalities, in part because of the use of
different languages. Eastern Orthodoxy, developing in Greek Constantinople, attracted scholars
and intellectuals who were practiced in the Greek philosophical styles of speculative thought and
mysticism. The special flavor of Eastern Orthodox theology and practice is shaped by mysticism,
with a strong focus on the inner meaning of holy tradition.

The profoundly mystical nature of Orthodox theology is evident in many concepts central to
Orthodox thought and practice, for example the doctrines of icons, the Trinity, and the
Incarnation. A truly distinctive development in Orthodox thought is its insistence that God is not
merely known or apprehended through the intellect. In a careful denial of the mind-body dualism
that typifies many modern Christian theological traditions, Eastern Orthodoxy suggests that God
can be experienced in practice and embodied. The body is as instrumental in faith and practice as
is the mind. Christians can become "partakers of the Holy Spirit," (Hebrews 6:4), deified through
its presence.

Influences
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

This is especially apparent in the writings of the 10th-century theologian and poet, St. Symeon
the New Theologian. Symeon wrote extensively on the mystery of God, unreachable and
unknowable, yet discovered in intimate and loving nearness. Symeon taught that it is possible for
all Christians to have a direct experience of the Holy Spirit, and that the Holy Spirit leads us to a
transformative encounter with Christ. Inspired by the account of the Transfiguration (Jesus' glory
revealed) found in all three synoptic Gospels, Symeon writes that this encounter with Christ is
experienced in a vision of a divine and uncreated light. The believer can experience the light of
God's grace. In his poetry, Symeon writes movingly of many such visions of his own. Symeon's
ideas were later defended by St. Gregory Palamas, a 14th-century hesychast who defended
Symeon's ideas by developing a thesis that distinguished between God's essence and energies.
The essence of God is transcendent, wrote Palamas, while God's energies are immanent, or
everywhere and in everything. It is said that Palamas only said one prayer for thirty years,
continually repeating, "Enlighten my darkness. Enlighten my darkness."

Due to Orthodox Christianity's avid embrace of Greek philosophical and speculative traditions,
many works of Greek philosophy were preserved in the Byzantine Empire, even while they were
lost to western Europe during the dark ages. Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians translated
volumes of Greek philosophy into Arabic for Muslim scholars and collectors, helping to build a
philosophical tradition in Islam. The Muslims in turn brought the classical Greek philosophies
and methods to western Europe.

Study Questions:
1.     What is apostolic succession? Why is it important to the integrity of the tradition?
2.     How is tradition preserved within the Eastern Orthodox Church?
3.     Describe the relationship between language and identity formation within the Eastern
Orthodox Church.
4.     In what ways is Eastern Orthodoxy a mystical tradition?

Founders
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

Eastern Orthodoxy traces its founding to the Pentecost, which is described in the Acts of the
Apostles. According to the account, a dramatic and mysterious event occurred seven weeks after
the death of Jesus. Jesus' followers were gathered in Jerusalem for the feast of Shavuot when
"suddenly from heaven there came a sound like the rush of a violent wind, and it filled the entire
house where they were sitting. Divided tongues, as of fire, appeared among them, and a tongue
rested on each of them" (Acts 2:2-3). The apostle Peter preached the first sermon that day and
many new believers were baptized. The apostles began evangelizing in order to spread the
Gospel. Thirty years later, Christian communities could be found in most towns of the eastern
Mediterranean, largely due to the missionary efforts of the apostle Paul.
The apostles and their followers are credited with founding Christian communities in several
cities that became key centers of Eastern Orthodoxy. Jesus' apostles founded the first community
at Jerusalem, with James, said to be the brother of Jesus, as its first bishop. The apostle Paul is
credited with founding Christian communities in several cities of the Eastern Mediterranean, in
particular Antioch in Syria. Tradition also holds that another important center of Orthodoxy,
Alexandria in Egypt, was founded by the evangelist Mark, said to have written the Gospel
According to St. Mark. The Orthodox Church is strongly dedicated to preserving the traditions of
its founders, which it views as holy.

The Eastern Orthodox Church also calls itself the "Church of the Seven Councils," highlighting
the importance to Orthodoxy of the seven ecumenical councils that convened between the 4th
and 8th centuries. The councils were called ecumenical, or universal, because bishops from all
over the Christian world attended to discuss questions of faith and practice that were challenging
the young church. At these councils, the assembled bishops defined the common life of the
church, and agreed upon the definitions of two of the fundamental doctrines of Christian faith,
the Incarnation and the Trinity. Eastern Orthodoxy still practices this decentralized approach to
decision-making and dispute resolution, believing that when a council or synod is assembled, the
conditions at Pentecost are recreated and the decisions of the assembly are made under the
guidance of the Holy Spirit. An eighth ecumenical council, one formed of representatives from
the whole Christian world and able to speak for all churches, has yet to assemble.

Founders
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

The monasteries of Orthodoxy have contributed significantly to the development and continuity
of Eastern Orthodox tradition. Many of the most revered Church Fathers emerged from the
monasteries, including Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-395), Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329-391), and
Basil of Caesarea (c. 329-379). Orthodox monks took the gospel to the Slavs, and the Slavic
influence gave Eastern Orthodoxy much of its more contemporary personality. The great
spiritual traditions of the church have been preserved and given full expression in the
monasteries, and they have played a vital role in the preservation and dissemination of the
liturgies of the church. Many of the monasteries of the Eastern Orthodox Church are world-
famous for their remote locations and their beauty, especially the monasteries of Mt. Athos in
Greece and the monastery of Saint Catherine at Mt. Sinai. Mt. Athos, a peninsula in the Aegean
Sea, is entirely devoted to monasteries. With twenty monasteries, a number of small houses, and
hermits' caves, Mt. Athos has been at the heart of Orthodox monasticism since the 10th century.
Many patriarchs and bishops have been elected from Mt. Athos, and many teachers and spiritual
guides have emerged from its various communities.

Study Questions:
1.     Why could Pentecost be seen as the first missionary effort of Christianity? Why is this
tradition important to Eastern Orthodoxy?
2.     What are the Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Eastern Orthodox Church? Why are they
called this?
3.     How have monasteries helped to develop the Eastern Orthodox tradition?

Sacred Texts
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

Eastern Orthodoxy, along with other Christians, treasures the ancient collection of Jewish
scriptures, which they call the Old Testament, and the Christian scriptures, called the New
Testament. For its Old Testament, Eastern Orthodoxy, like the Roman Catholic Church, uses the
Septuagint, which contains ten books not found in the Jewish scriptures. Called the Deutero-
Canonical Books, Orthodox Christians tend to view those ten as slightly lower in status than the
rest of the Old Testament.

For Orthodox Christians, the Bible is one of the most treasured sources of holy tradition.
However, it is not sufficient by itself as the source of the Christian's faith. The sources of holy
tradition work in concert, mutually illuminating each other and revealing their meaning in the
context of the church. This article outlines the relationship between the Bible and the church in
Orthodox belief.

Orthodoxy is a profoundly scriptural tradition. The Bible is God's revelation to humanity, the
paramount expression of all that is essential to life and salvation. However, the Orthodox
tradition does not encourage approaching the Bible outside of the church and its traditions. A
single believer, no matter how sincere, cannot properly come to terms with the full meaning of
the Bible on his or her own. In one sense this is because the meaning of the Bible is not always
self-evident. In addition, the Bible itself discourages solitary interpretation (Acts 8:26-31; 2 Pet.
1:20).

The Church teaches that it precedes the Bible and therefore has authority over it. In the first
several centuries of Christian history, there was no Bible. Numerous documents circulated in and
between Christian communities, including a host of Gospel accounts and related stories about
Jesus, numerous epistles and books of revelation, and some two dozen books chronicling the
activities of the apostles. Many of them were read out loud when Christians gathered to worship.
These documents were written by members of the Church in response to the growing experience
of the Church. It was the Church that ultimately determined which of these books contained
authentic revelation, thereby creating the Christian New Testament. In an Eastern Orthodox
perspective, the Bible was not the foundation of the Church; the New Testament emerged from
within the life of the Church.

The Bible was also not the reason for the spread of the new faith. Men and women were already
giving their lives as martyrs even before St. Paul wrote his first letter. They were converted to a
new faith in Jesus because they heard about it in sermons. It was through preaching, and precious
traditions handed from one generation to another, that people, and eventually even the Roman
Empire, were converted. Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the sermons and the traditions were
inspired, preserved, and guided by the Holy Spirit, and that the Church was guided by the Holy
Spirit to know which gospel accounts, letters, and other documents were truly apostolic in origin.
To read the Bible outside of this context is to dispense with the sources of meaning that are
essential to true understanding. To underline this point, new converts vow to "accept and
understand Holy Scripture in accordance with the interpretation which was and is held by the
Holy Orthodox Catholic Church of the East, our Mother."

While biblical interpretation has recently been a dynamic field of study in the West, sometimes
generating great controversy, Eastern Orthodoxy has not been focused on this avenue of
scholarship. While in principle Eastern Orthodoxy is not opposed to critical and historical
methods of biblical interpretation, Orthodox scholars have yet to make a substantial contribution
to the field.

Study Questions:
1.     What scriptures do Eastern Orthodox followers utilize? How do these scriptures perpetuate
tradition across community?
2.     How do Eastern Orthodox followers understand the Bible? How does this differ from many
other Christian traditions?
3.     What is the role of the Holy Spirit within Orthodox biblical interpretation?

Historical Perspectives
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

The history of Christianity is often traced along a trajectory that begins with Jesus, and then
flows through Rome to the Protestant Reformation and beyond. Somewhere beyond the
boundaries of the West lies Orthodoxy. This situation exists despite a wealth of scholarly
resources that enable researchers to describe a rich and complex history. As scholar and bishop
Timothy (Kallistos) Ware has noted, Eastern Orthodoxy is not a kind of "Roman Catholicism
without the pope." It is a tradition that is deeply resonant and familiar to western Christians, yet
quite unlike anything in western Christianity. It is ripe for fresh research, and there are many
stories waiting to be told.

One subject that has held particular interest for scholars is the dispute between Constantinople
and Rome. Several scholars working on the history of this dispute have discovered a story filled
with nuance and peopled by powerful personalities, in the process overturning oft-repeated and
conventionally accepted assumptions about the events of the Great Schism. One early example is
The Photian Schism: History and Legend (Cambridge 1948), Francis Dvornik's study of a 9th-
century argument between Rome and Constantinople. Through careful research, Dr. Dvornik
refuted the assumption that a schism had existed between the two sees during the second reign of
Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, proving instead that east and west were in full communion
during this time.

Other equally careful and detailed studies shed new light on earlier assumptions concerning the
11th century, and most significantly, the events of 1054. While it is still possible to find histories
that name 1054 as the date of the Great Schism, a careful reconstruction of events has shown that
Rome and Constantinople remained in full communion at this time. The main actors in the events
of that date, Patriarch Michael Cerularius and papal legate Cardinal Humbert, were difficult and
stubborn men, unwilling to make the kinds of gestures necessary to make diplomacy possible.
They fed each other's hostility until they wound up excommunicating each other. However, these
declarations of excommunication were ultimately only applicable to Cerularius and Humbert, not
to the eastern and western churches as a whole. Historians of Christianity have benefitted
considerably from these and other studies, learning to see the schism between Constantinople
and Rome as a centuries-long and complex process, subject far more to history and geography
than to doctrinal disagreements.

Despite these fresh takes on old wounds, a chasm still exists between the eastern and western
perspectives. The so-called Photian schism provides an excellent illustration. While the West
tends to refer to this 9th-century dispute as the "Photian Schism" after Photius, the Patriarch of
Constantinople, it is more commonly called the "Nicholas heresy" in the east, after Pope
Nicholas I of Rome. While scholars and others on both sides note the need for humble self-
examination by all parties, the process is slow.

Historical Perspectives
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

Meanwhile, new research potential surfaced in the wake of the collapse of the USSR and the
liberation of a number of national Orthodox churches from state intervention and control. Fresh
research into the Orthodox churches of Russia and eastern Europe has begun to replace
commonly-held assumptions here as well. One key example lies in post-Communist studies on
the state of the Russian Orthodox Church just prior to the 1917 Russian Revolution. For the
greater part of the 20th century, the assumption was that the church was stagnating just prior to
the revolution. With welcome new access to government and church archives and other
materials, researchers have begun uncovering a much different story. Far from stagnating, the
Russian Orthodox Church was actually engaged in a process of reform that was effectively ended
by the revolution. Marked by an almost militant atheism, the new Communist government
squashed the reform movement, thrusting the church into an era of defensiveness. The story of
the Orthodox Church under Communism is also receiving fresh consideration, with exciting new
work being done on the lives and faith of ordinary Russians during the Communist Era.

Research into the Orthodox churches of Russia and eastern Europe is brimming with exciting
challenges and is likely to return substantial results in the coming years. Yet while careful
research has helped to correct misconceptions surrounding the major contributing events to the
Great Schism, we are still missing a series of truly global histories of Christianity, histories that
eschew a western perspective and integrate the churches of east and west into a single story.

For readers interested in a thoughtful and accessible introduction to Eastern Orthodoxy, Timothy
(Kallistos) Ware's The Orthodox Church (Penguin 1993) is short, beautifully written, and
inexpensive. Father Ware was born in England and joined the Orthodox Church in his mid-20s.
A noted scholar, Father Ware is also a bishop in the Orthodox Church. He is a talented
interpreter of the Orthodox tradition for a western audience. He has also made a significant
contribution to our understanding of Christian spirituality by participating in the translation of
the Philokalia, a collection of classical Orthodox texts by spiritual masters from the 4th to the
15th centuries.

Study Questions:
1.     Why is it inappropriate to categorize Eastern Orthodoxy with Roman Catholicism, despite
their common history?
2.     Does excommunication play a role in the Great Schism? Explain.
3.     How can scholars help to facilitate dialogue between the eastern and western perspectives?
4.     Why is it important to consider the effects of communism when examining the Eastern
Orthodox Church?

Early Developments
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

The earliest years of Christian historical development are shared by all the Christian traditions.
The 3rd to 5th centuries witnessed the lively engagement of scholarly Christians with the new
faith, and the growth and spread of monasticism. Both of these trends had significant influence
on the beliefs and practices of Christianity. This article introduces the personalities that had the
greatest impact on Eastern Orthodoxy, and outlines the influence of the monasteries on the
eastern churches.

The first few centuries of the new faith were a very creative period of Christian writing and
theological speculation. After Constantine's Edict of Milan brought to an end the official
persecution of Christians, some of the best intellectual minds of the Roman Empire turned their
talents to writing a dazzling number of volumes on questions of philosophy, theology, and the
social and political implications of the new religion. This was the beginning of the age of the
Church Fathers, also called the Patristic Age. Greek philosophical and theological writings,
typical of the eastern Roman Empire, were distinctively speculative, asking questions about the
nature of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the meaning of the scriptures. Alongside the more
speculative writings on philosophy and theology, the eastern Church Fathers also wrote volumes
of poetry and mysticism.

Of the many Church Fathers, Eastern Christianity especially reveres Athanasius of Alexandria (c.
298-373), Basil of Caesarea (c. 329-379), his friend Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329-391), Basil's
younger brother Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335-c. 395), and John Chrysostom (c. 354-407). These
priests and teachers are all venerated as saints, as are many of the other Church Fathers. John
Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, and Gregory of Nazianzus are honored as the "three great
hierarchs," or three great priests, and Eastern Orthodox Christianity celebrates a feast day for
them on January 30. These Fathers of the Church are venerated for their multiple achievements,
including their outstanding contributions to the development and dissemination of the doctrine of
the Trinity.
Athanasius of Alexandria, also known as St. Athanasius the Great, was the Bishop of Alexandria
(in modern-day Egypt). Along with his role in defining the New Testament canon, Athanasius
was a strong defender of the concept of Christ's full divinity, and played a significant role in a
doctrinal debate that started with Arius (c. 250-336), a priest from Alexandria. Arius maintained
that Jesus was God's first creation, and therefore was not "coeternal" with God the Father, an
idea known as Arianism. Many theologians and church leaders agreed with Arius, but others did
not, and the Arian controversy seriously divided the church. Constantine convened the first
ecumenical council at Nicaea in order to settle the antagonism over Arianism. Athanasius was
the most influential opponent of Arianism, and contributed a critical term in the Nicene Creed,
which professes that Christ is "of one substance" or "one in essence" with God the Father. In
other words, Christ's divinity is in no way separate or distinct from God. In this way, Athanasius
helped establish the essential monotheistic intent of the doctrine of the Trinity.

Early Developments
Written by: Beth Davies-Stofka

Basil of Caesarea, also known as St. Basil the Great, was Bishop of Caesarea, located in a region
then called Cappadocia, in modern-day Turkey. His friend Gregory of Nazianzus, also known as
St. Gregory the Theologian, was an archbishop in Constantinople. Basil the Great's younger
brother, St. Gregory of Nyssa, was Bishop of Nyssa, also in Cappadocia. Together these three
friends are remembered as the Cappadocian Fathers, revered for their development and defense
of the doctrine of the Trinity. Building on the work of Athanasius, the Cappadocian Fathers
articulated and defended the classical thesis about the Trinity, which states that Father, Son, and
Holy Spirit are each members of a single divine union, "three persons in one essence." St. John
Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, was a famously eloquent preacher; chrysostomos means
"golden-mouthed." He interpreted the speculative doctrine of the Trinity in accessible terms and
popularized it with the laity.

Basil the Great is also regarded as the founder of communal monasticism. The earliest monks
were extreme ascetics who practiced what is called eremitic monasticism, or the life of the
hermit. The ascetics displayed a tendency toward acts of extreme self-denial, in an effort to share
in Christ's passion. These monks were venerated, sometimes passionately, by other Christians.

Basil also spent time as a hermit monk, but after a time emerged from isolation and implemented
a new form of monasticism, called cenobitic or communal monasticism. Basil reasoned that a
Christian could effectively discipline the body and reject the world through constant physical and
spiritual labor, rather than isolation and severe self-denial. In his method, communal labor
replaced the extreme asceticism of the hermit monks, and communal monasticism gradually
replaced the life of the hermit. Basil's model became the early pattern for both eastern and
western monasticism.

Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns take vows like their western counterparts. They provide
hospitality and charity, and some have been important missionaries, such as the 9th-century
brothers Cyril and Methodius, credited with creating the Cyrillic alphabet. The main role of
Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns, however, is prayer. The monasteries conduct the cycle of the
Divine Office day by day, without interruption, and are seen as the keepers and guardians of the
Divine Liturgy. This is held to be a deeply significant service, as it keeps the world in God's
presence.

Study Questions:
1.     Why are the early developments of Eastern Orthodoxy shared across all Christian
traditions?
2.     What was the Patristic Age?
3.     How did St. Athanasius the Great shape the scriptures of Christianity?
4.     Who were the Cappadocian Fathers? What was their significant contribution to theology?
5.     How was the Eastern Orthodox monastic order formed?

Schisms and Sects

The organization and concerns of the Church in Rome were largely determined by the
disintegration of the western half of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, and the so-called Dark
Age that subsequently engulfed Europe. The eastern Roman Empire, based in Constantinople,
survived for another thousand years. The relative stability provided by the central governing
authority, the Emperor, created radically different conditions for the development of Eastern
Christianity, and eventually the Eastern Orthodox and Western Roman Catholic Churches
separated in what has been called the "Great Schism."

Prior to the Great Schism, however, Christianity experienced the impact of two other schisms,
both of which affected churches in the Eastern Roman Empire. Doctrinal disagreements, coupled
with the spread of Islam in the 7th century, conspired to split the ancient patriarchates of
Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem from Constantinople.

The Eastern Orthodox Church also refers to itself as The Church of the Seven Councils. In
Eastern Orthodox belief, the fundamentals of the Christian faith are defined in two sources: the
Christian scriptures and the decrees of the ecumenical councils. In the eyes of Eastern
Orthodoxy, there have only been seven such councils, all of them held in the eastern part of the
Roman Empire before the close of the 8th century. Because these councils drew representative
bishops from all Christian churches, east and west, they are called Ecumenical Councils, and are
therefore recognized as authoritative by both Roman Catholics and Orthodox.

The first of these ecumenical councils was the Council of Nicaea, summoned by Emperor
Constantine in 325. This council agreed on a creed stating the fundamentals of Christian faith,
called the Nicene Creed. Among other things, this Creed defined the doctrine of the Trinity. It
states that Christians believe in one God who is at the same time three: Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit. The Son, Jesus, is equal to the Father, as the Creed says, "true God from true God . . . one
in essence [homoousios] with the Father." The second council, convened in Constantinople in
381, makes the same affirmation about the Holy Spirit, who is "together worshiped and together
glorified" with the Father and the Son. Together these two councils affirmed the full divinity of
all members of the Trinity.

The next four councils convened to debate the doctrine of the Incarnation, or the nature of Jesus
Christ. Through their decrees, these councils defined Christ as simultaneously God and human,
single and undivided. The first of these, the Council of Ephesus, convened in 431. The
participating bishops decreed that Mary, the mother of Jesus, should be accorded the status of
Theotokos, or Mother of God. The second, meeting again in Constantinople, convened in 553,
and affirmed that in the crucifixion, Christ suffered in the flesh. The third, the Council of
Chalcedon, convened in 451. The decrees of the Council of Chalcedon made a significant
contribution to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation, stating that Christ is both completely
divine and entirely human. He was not half God and half human, but totally God and totally
human, existing "in two natures," one divine and the other human, and both complete. The
fourth, meeting for a third time in Constantinople in 680, added that Christ has two energies and
two wills, human and divine.

Schisms and Sects

The decisions of these councils had a lasting impact on eastern Christianity. The members of the
East Syrian, or Nestorian church, rejected the decisions of the Council of Ephesus and the second
Council of Constantinople. These two councils had decreed that God had been born with a
human body from a human body, and when he was crucified, had physically suffered. In the eyes
of the Nestorian church, these teachings confused the divinity and humanity of Christ, and
undermined the belief in a transcendent God. Their rejection of these two councils was an
important element in the separation of the Nestorians from the rest of the church in what became
the first schism suffered in Christianity. The rift was never healed, due to the lack of contact
between the Nestorians, who lived in the Persian Empire, and the rest of the church, still in the
Roman Empire. Today the Nestorian churches include the East Syrian Church, the Chaldean
Church, and the Church of the East.

A number of other eastern Churches rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon, resulting
in the second schism of the Christian churches. The Council of Chalcedon had determined that
Christ is both completely divine and entirely human, "in two natures." In the view of those who
rejected this decision, the affirmation of Christ's divinity and humanity existing "in two natures"
divided the one Christ into two. They prefer to speak of "one incarnate nature of God the Word."
These churches are alternatively called, perhaps unfairly, the Monophysite Churches, the non-
Chalcedonian Churches, or the Oriental Orthodox Churches, and include the Syrian Church of
Antioch, the Syrian Church of India, the Coptic Church of Egypt, the Armenian Church, and the
Ethiopian Church.

The Nestorians and the non-Chalcedonians are also called the "Separated Churches," because
although they separated from the rest of the church over these doctrinal disagreements, history
and politics hardened the separation. The Roman Emperor Justinian fiercely persecuted the
churches in Syria and Egypt with serious consequences. When the Arabs conquered Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt in the middle of the 7th century, the churches welcomed them based on
Muslim guarantees that their religion would be tolerated. The Arab conquest of these three
ancient patriarchates—Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria—left the patriarchate in
Constantinople alone as the only major center of Christianity in the east.

The seventh and last ecumenical council, held at Nicaea in 787, affirmed the veneration of icons
as valuable and consistent with the doctrine of the Incarnation. This did not provoke any
schisms, and played a significant role in affirming several distinguishing features of Eastern
Orthodox belief and practice.

Study Questions:
1.     What events led to the “Great Schism” separation?
2.     Why is the Eastern Orthodox Church often referred to as the Church of Seven Councils?
Describe each of the councils.
3.     What councils had lasting impacts on eastern Christianity? Why?
4.     Describe the divide between the Nestorian church and the Council of Constantinople. What
are the contemporary effects?

Ultimate Reality and Divine Beings

Christian beliefs in divine or supernatural beings and the ultimate nature of reality are shared by
Eastern Orthodox Christians. This article concerns some of the distinguishing characteristics of
Eastern Orthodox belief in God, and in Mary, who is called Theotokos, or Mother of God.

Eastern Orthodoxy affirms the mystery of the Trinity and speaks of it using the language of love.
When Eastern Orthodoxy speaks of God, the subject is not God the Father, but God the Trinity.
According to the doctrine of the Trinity, God is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, three divine
Persons in One God, who exist within each other in a perpetual communion of love. There is a
fundamental paradox in believing that 3=1, which is embraced by the Orthodox traditions as a
path to transformation. Because the nature of God is mysterious, it can't be reduced to logic or
words, and therefore must be experienced through repentance and revelation. It is possible to
experience the mystery of God because God is also personal, a God whom the believer can
approach directly and relationally. Personal experience of the divine mystery changes the
believer in mind, heart, and feeling, opening the path to holiness.

The emphasis Eastern Orthodoxy places on mysticism, or the believer's personal experience of
the mysteries of faith, is unmistakable. It has also led to some of Eastern Orthodoxy's most
distinctive contributions to Christian theology. Orthodox thought fiercely guards the absolute
transcendence of God from any idea that might dilute it. No one can claim to know God, because
God is unknowable. Certain things can be known about God, such as God's goodness, or
wisdom, or justice, but these attributes don't fully describe God's inner nature, which is
transcendent and beyond knowing. Orthodox Christians therefore practice 'apophatic' theology,
or the 'way of negation.' Orthodoxy avoids describing only what God is, focusing ultimately on
what God is not. Any positive affirmation of God is just a way to improve our human, and
therefore limited, understanding of the incomprehensible nature of God. So, for example, if we
were to say, "God is love," the Orthodox would reply, "This is true, but God also surpasses
everything we know about love."

However, God is also immanent, dwelling within all things. How is it possible for God to be both
absolutely transcendent and immanent? Orthodoxy differentiates God's essence and God's
energies. God's essence is unknowable, but God sends divine energies, which are also true God,
to permeate creation and take action in concrete situations. In this way, Orthodoxy is consistent
with its Jewish heritage in worshipping the God of history. Moreover, the believer experiences
God through these divine energies, which are encountered as divine light and deifying grace.

Ultimate Reality and Divine Beings

The emphasis on apophatic theology and the distinction between the essence and energies of God
are special characteristics of Orthodox thought. Orthodox beliefs regarding the Trinity and God's
incarnation as Jesus are the same as the overwhelming majority of Christian traditions. However,
there remains a disagreement between eastern and western churches on the addition of the
Filioque to the Nicene Creed. The Filioque, or the phrase that professes that the Holy Spirit
proceeds from the Father and the Son, was added to the creed in 589 by a council of western
bishops, and never adopted by the eastern churches. The arguments are largely technical in
nature, and there are roughly two schools of thought about it within Eastern Orthodoxy. One
school, taking a harder stance, argues that when the western churches profess belief that the Holy
Spirit "proceeds from the Father and the Son," they are fundamentally distorting the doctrine of
the Trinity by subordinating the Holy Spirit to the Son, thus diluting the equality between the
divine persons. The other school, taking a more conciliatory stance, argues that while the Roman
Church's unilateral insertion of the Filioque into the Nicene Creed is to be lamented, it can still
be interpreted in a manner consistent with Orthodox theology.

Eastern Orthodoxy shows deep affection and devotion for Mary, the mother of Jesus. She is
called the Theotokos, translated as God-bearer, or Mother of God. She received this title at the
Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus in 431. Mary is honored because of the Incarnation, in
which God became human. Orthodox Christians believe that a certain attitude of awe and
reverence is due to the woman who was chosen to be the means of such a great mystery. They
also honor Mary's willing consent to participate in this mystery, as she is believed to have said, "I
am the Lord's servant; may it be to me as you have said" (Lk. 1:38). While Eastern Orthodoxy
does not consider the doctrines of Immaculate Conception and Bodily Assumption to be church
dogma, it teaches that Mary was resurrected after her physical death and her tomb left empty,
and doesn't object if individual believers hold that Mary was conceived without original sin.

Eastern Orthodoxy specifically distinguishes the veneration (Greek, dulia) of Mary from the
worship (Greek, latreia) of God. While Orthodox believers might express reverence for Mary,
worship is given to God alone.
Study Questions:
1.     How do Eastern Orthodox believers understand the Trinity?
2.     What is apophatic theology, and why is this important in Orthodoxy?
3.     What is the Filioque? Why might it be controversial to other Christian traditions?
4.     Who is the Theotokos? Why is she honored?