General Science

Student
Textbook

Grade 8
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

General Science
Grade

8
Student
Textbook
Authors:
Yonas Nibret (BSc., MA)
Sefiw Melesse (Msc.)
Abebe Habte (Msc)

Editors and Evaluators:

Getahun Getachew (BEd.)
Muluneh T/Birhan (BEd.)
Ali Kemal (MEd.)

Coordinator
Getachew Talema (MA.)

layout design & Art:

Entoto poly technic college (T.M.S)

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Take Good Care of

This Textbook

This textbook is the property of your school

take good care not to damage or lose it.
Here are 10 ideas to help take care of the book

1. Cover the book with protective materials, such as plastic , old

newspapers or magazine.
2. Always keep the book in a clean dry place.
3. Be sure your hands are clear when you use the book
4. Do not write on the cover or inside pages.
5. Use a piece of paper or cardboard as a bookmark.
6. Never tear or cut out any pictures or pages.
7. Repair any torn page with paste or tape.
8. Pack the book carefully when you place it in your school bag.
9. Handle the book with care when passing it to another person.
10. When using a new book for the first time, lay it on its back,
open a few page at a time. Press lightly along the bound edge
as you turn the pages. This will keep the cover in good
condition.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

c 2021 by Addis Ababa Education Bureau

While every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright, the authors and publishers apologies for any accidental
infringment where copyright has proved untraceable.

Acknowledgement  
Above all, Ato Zelalem Mulatu, AAEB Head, should receive the most ac-
knowledgements for his outstanding leadership from the outset to the end of
the Textbook and Teacher’s guide preparation. Just to mention his chief roles
but a few: he generated valuable ideas, shared his vast experience during
most panels, initiated and convinced his conviction to all stakeholders that the
Addis Ababa City Government School teachers have to take the lion’s share
in the Textbook and Teacher Guide development. His unabated inspiration
and urge to the team for diligence, deep sense of patriotism, synergy and true
professional ethics has been energy to all actors partaking in the task.
The next bottom-heart gratitude has to be extended to the following management
members of the bureau: Ato Admasu Dechasa, Deputy Head of the Curriculum
Division, Ato Dagnew Gebru, Deputy Head of the Education Technology, Ato
Samson Melese, deputy Head of Teacher Development Division, W/ro Abebech
Negash, Bureau Head Advisor, Ato Desta Mersha, Bureau Technical Advisor and
Ato Sisay Endale, Head of Education Bureau Office. Members of the AAEB
management, have to be commended for their painstaking efforts in addressing
instantly each issue of challenge, reviewing all drafts and providing immediate
feedbacks. Without their unreserved devotion, the timely and successful realiza-
tion of this huge work would not have been possible.
The Last deepest acknowledgement needs to go to the school principals for
allowing the textbook writers to be free of their regular job of teaching and to
focus on the material preparation. Moreover, their earnest and consistent moral
support deserves special words of praise.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Table of Contents
UNIT ONE
Basics of Scientific Investigation.....................................................1
1.1 Scientific Measurements.............................................................2
1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation...................................................16
Review Exercise...............................................................................23
UNIT TWO
Composition of Matter.....................................................................25
2.1 Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter......................26
2.2 Inside of an Atom.......................................................................27
2.3 Molecules...................................................................................31
Review Exercise...............................................................................35
UNIT THREE
Classification Of Compounds..........................................................38
3.1 Introduction...............................................................................39
3. 2 Organic Compounds.................................................................40
3.3 Inorganic Compounds................................................................45
3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts..............................................64
Review Exercise...............................................................................71
UNIT FOUR
Human Body Systems and Health..................................................74
4.1 Integumentary Systems.............................................................75
4.2 Muscular System.......................................................................85
4.3. Skeletal System........................................................................89
4.4. Digestive System......................................................................98
4.5 Respiratory System...................................................................106
4.6 Circulatory System...................................................................109
4.7 Reproductive System..............................................................114
Review Exercise.............................................................................125

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT FIVE
Ecosystem and Conservation of Natural Resources......................127
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions....................................................129
5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources........................................142
Review Exercise............................................................................162
UNIT SIX
The Solar System...........................................................................164
6.1 Family of the Solar System......................................................165
6.2 Formation of the Solar System.................................................177
6.3 Earth in Comparison with Solar System..................................180
6.4 Our Planet’s Suitability for Life (uniqueness)..........................183
Review Exercises...........................................................................185
UNIT SEVEN
Physical Phenomena in the Surrounding........................................187
7.1 Phenomena of Light (source & properties)..............................188
7.2 Vision and Imaging..................................................................194
7.3 Sound.......................................................................................199
7.4 Heat..........................................................................................207
7.5. Simple Circuit.........................................................................212
7.6 Magnetism...............................................................................216
Review Exercises...........................................................................223

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT ONE
BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, You will be able to:

• identify the basic and derived units of measurements;

• explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
• describe the components of a scientific investigation;
• demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others in performing fair testing.

Main contents
1.1 Scientific Measurments
1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Introduction
This unit contains two sub units: scientific measurement and do-
ing scientific investigation. Under scientific measurement the in-
digenous and modern methods of measurement, the classification
of physical quantities into fundamental and derived quantity and
the difference between accuracy and precision will be discussed.
Under doing scientific investigation, the importance, procedures
and ethical issues of a scientific investigation will be discussed.
Finally using locally available materials, a simple investigation will be
conducted.
1.1 Scientific Measurements

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• explain the concept of measuring physical quantities;
• describe the various indigenous methods of measurement;
• distinguish between the basic and derived physical quantities;
• categorize the basic and derived units of measurements (length,
mass, time, temperature, volume, area, density, force);
• identify prefixes and perform conversions among units of
measurements;
• distinguish between accuracy and precision in measurements.

Introduction
Making observation is common experience in science. Similarly, it is
usual asking the basic questions like how big an object is? How tall
are you? To answer these questions, measurements have to be made.
Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity
relative to an agreed standard.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

In this section both the indigenous and modern methods of

measurement will be discussed. The indigenous method of
measurement refers to a measurement practiced locally while the
modern method refers to a measurement applied by the scientific
community.

Indigenous Methods of Measurements

An indigenous method of measurement refers to measurement
methods that are practiced locally for a long period of time and are
passed from generations to generation. In this section, we will pay
attention to the measurement of length, mass, and time.
A. Length
Length is a measure of the distance between two points. In Ethiopia we
use different indigenous units of length measurement. The commonly
used ones are:
1. Hand-span: The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your little
finger to the tip of your thumb when your hand is stretched out,
Fig 1.1 (a).
2.Digit: A digit is the width of an adult human male fingertip,
Fig 1.1 (b).
3.Cubit: A measure of distance from the tip of one’s elbow to
the tip of the middle finger when your arm is extended, Fig 1.1 (c).
4.Foot: A measure of distance from the back of the heel
to the tip of the big toe, Fig 1.1 (d).
5.Pace: A linear distance measure of a person’s extended
walk. A pace is a unit of length consisting either of one normal
walking step. The pace is the distance measured from the
heel of one foot to the heel of the same foot when it next touched
the ground, Fig 1.1 (e).
6. Arm span: Arm span also known as fathom is the distance from
the middle fingertip of the left hand to that of the right hand when
you stretch your arms out as far as they can reach, Fig 1.1 (f).

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.1 Indigenous Length measurements

Figure 1.1 Indigenous Measurement Length
Activity 1.1: Make a group containing 5 students. Using your hand
Activity 1.1: Make a group containing 5 students. Using your hand
span,
span,cubit
cubit and digit
digit measure
measurethe
thewidth
widthof of a table
a table or aor a desk
desk in your
in your
classroom.Record
classroom. Recordyour
yourmeasurement
measurement in
in the
the table
table below.
below.
No Name of the student Measurement result
making measurement
1
2
3
4
Question: Did each of you obtain the same measure for that bench?
Question: Did each of you obtain the same measure for that table or
Justify
desk? the difference
Justify of students‘
the difference measurement.
of students’ measurement.
11 hand-span, digit, cubit, foot, pace
Exercise 1.1: Compare the size of your
and arm-span and write them in order of increasing value.
B. Mass
The amount of matter present in a substance is called mass. Like
length, there is also an indigenous method of measuring mass. The
following are some examples of the indigenous unit of mass
measurement used in Ethiopia.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

1. Weqet- Weqet is a mass measuring unit usually used to measure

the mass of powder of gold in local markets.
2. Quntal – Quntal (may be taken from the English word quintal)
is a bag used to measure the mass of grains. It is equal to a
hundred kilogram.
3. Feresula:- is used to measure the mass of pepper and coffee. It
is equal to 17 kilogram.

Figure 1.2 Indigenous mass measurements

Exercise 1.2:
Discuss about the reliability of the above three indigenous mass
measuring methods.
C. Time
Time is the measure of the duration for an interval.There is also an
indigenous method of measuring time. Our elders were used the
shadow of a tree to measure time. As the position of the Sun changes
from morning to evening the length of the shadow of a tree varies. In
the morning and late in the afternoon, the length of the shadow is high.
At noon when the Sun is overhead no shadow will be seen.
Using this fact they could tell the approximate time of the day by just
looking at the position of the shadow of a tree found at or near their
home.
Activity 1.2:
Using a long tree found in your school, mark the time at different
height of the shadow of the tree. Use this shadow clock for some
time. Discuss your observation.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project 1.1: In ancient time three commonly known time measuring

devices were used: They are known as sundial, sand clock and water
clock. Using internet and other sources explore how these devices
were used to measure time and report your finding to the class.
D. Volume
Volume is the measure of the space occupied by an object. In the local
markets of Addis Ababa the following tools are used for different
size volume measurements.
1. Jog: A plastic cup used for measuring the volume of liquids.
2. Tassa: A can used to measure cereals, pulses ,liquids and solids.
3. Sini: A small ceramic cup often used for measuring coffee, pulses
and spices.
4. Birchiko: A glass often for measuring pulses and liquids.
5. Kubaya: A mug, often used for measuring cereals, pulses and
liquids.

Figure 1.3 Some examples of Indigenous volume measurements

Exercise 1.3:
1. Discuss about the problems there could be in using the above
indigenous volume measuring devices.
2. Discuss in group about the pros and cons of indigenous
measurements used in your locality

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project 1.2: With the help of your teacher go to the local market found
near to your school. Gather information about the indigenous measuring
devices used for different measurements in the market. You can also
ask your elder family members and present a report to your classmates.
Physical Quantities and Scientific Methods of Measurement
In our day to day life, we measure many things such as the mass of
vegetables, the volume of liquids, the speed of a car, the temperature
of the day etc. Such quantities which could be measured are called
physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of an object that
can be measured or calculated from other physical quantity. Examples
of physical quantities are: length, mass, time, temperature, area,
volume, density, force etc.
Generally, physical quantities are classified into two types, namely:
fundamental quantities and derived quantities
1.Fundamental Physical quantities and their units
Fundamental quantities, also known as base quantities, are quantities
which cannot be expressed in terms of any other quantity. They are
the bases for other quantities. There are seven fundamental (basic)
physical quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
luminous intensity and amount of a substance.
In this section we will discuss only about the first four commonly
measured fundamental quantities: length, mass, time and temperature.
The names and symbols of the units of the fundamental quantities
in the International System of units (SI) are shown in table 1.1.The
International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French
Système international (d’unités)) is a system of measurement based on
base units. An International System of units (SI) is currently used all
over the world.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some
known quantity. This known fixed quantity is called a unit. Thus,
the result of a measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is
a number and the other part is the unit of the measurement. For
example, if a student has a mass of 32 kg:

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
is mass, the value of the measurement is 32 and the unit of measure is
kilograms (kg).
the quantity being measured is mass, the value of the measurement is
32 This tells us that any measurement consists of two parts. The first is the
and the unit of measure is kilograms (kg).
number
This which
tells us that indicates the magnitude
any measurement of theofquantity
consists andThe
two parts. the second
first is
theindicates
number the which indicates of
unit (standard) thethat
magnitude
quantity. of the quantity and the
second indicates the unit (standard) of that quantity.
Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived
Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived
units.
units. TheThe units
units usedused to tomeasure
measurefundamental
fundamental quantities
quantities are
are called
called
fundamental
fundamental units.
units.ItItdoes
doesnotnotdepend
depend onon any
anyother
otherunit.
unit.
Table 1. 1 Fundamental quantities and their SI units
Quantity Name of Unit Symbol of the unit
Length Meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Derived Physical
2.Derived Physical Quantities
Quantitiesand andtheir Units
their Units
Physical quantities
Physical which
quantities depend
which on oneon
depend or more
one fundamental quantities
or more fundamental
for quantities
their measurements derived
are called are
for their measurements called quantities. Speed,Speed,
derived quantities. area,
volume, density and force are examples of derived quantities. The
area, volume, density and force are examples of derived quantities. The
units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. It
units used
depends to measure units
on fundamental derived
forquantities are called SI
their measurement. derived units.
derived It
units
aredepends
described
on by mathematically
fundamental combining
units for (dividing,SI
their measurement. multiplying or
derived units
powering) the base units. Some of the derived quantities and their
are described by mathematically combining (dividing, multiplying or
units are given in table 1.2.
powering)
Tablethe1.base units. Some
2 Derived of the derived
quantities quantities
and their and their units
SI units
are given in table 1.2.
No. Derived quantity Symbol Unit
1 Table
Area1. 2 Derived quantities
A and their
mSI units
xm = m2
2 Volume V m x m x m = m3
3 Speed V
16 m/s
4 Density ῤ Kg/m3

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Example 1.1: Show how the unit of (a) area and (b) speed is derived
from the fundamental units.
Solution:
(a) The equation for the area of rectangular surface is
Area = length x width.
Both length and width are length measurements. Hence
they are measured in meter.
Unit of area = unit of length x unit of width
Unit of area = m x m = m2
(b) The equation for speed is
Speed = distance/time
Thus the unit of speed is the unit of distance (m) over the
unit of time (s) = m/s

Activity 1.3: Discuss in group about the importance of scientific

measurement to the study of science. Let the representative of your
group present what you have agreed to your classmate.

Exercise 1.4: Show how the units of the following derived quantities
are derived from the unit of base quantities. (a) volume, (b) density
and (c) force.

Prefixes and Conversion of Base Units

Prefix
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and
very small. A short hand form of writing very large and very small
numbers is known as a prefix. A few of the prefixes used in the SI
system of units are shown in Table 1.3.

9
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and very
small. A short hand form of writing very large and very small numbers
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
is known as a prefix. A few of the prefixes used in the SI system of
units are shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3. SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol Name Decimal representation
Mega M million 1 000 000
Kilo k thousand 1 000
Centi c hundredth 0.01
milli m thousandth 0.001
Conversion
micro of base
µ units millionth 0.000001
It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. For
Conversion of base units
example,
It is oftena necessary
mass measured in grams
to convert may beunits
between required to convert intoFor
of measurement.
example,
kilogram. a mass measured in grams may be required to convert into
kilogram.
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
you can
you can convert
convert within
withinthe theSISIsystem
systemrelatively
relativelyeasily by by
easily simply
simply
multiplying
multiplying orordividing
dividing thethe number
number by value
by the the value
of theofprefix.
the prefix.
Example 1.2: Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g).
Example 1.2: Convert 6.5 kilogram (kg) to gram (g).
Solution: Since killo (k) is a prefix representing 1000, so:
Solution:
6.5 Since
kg = 6.5 k is a prefix
× (1000) representing
g = 6500 g 1000, so:
Example
6.5 kg = 6.51.3: Convert
× (1000) g = 200
6500meters
g to kilometers.
We know1.3:
Example thatConvert
1 km 200= 1000m. Then
meters to we will ask if 1000m is 1km
kilometers.
then what will be 200m in km?
18
Solution: 1 km = 1000 m 200 m
=
1 km × 200 m 200 km
= = 0.2 km
? = 200m 1000 m 1000
Exercise 1.5
1. Convert the following:
a) 0.6 km to cm b) 500 g to kg c) 30 min to hour
d) 50 m to mm e) 0.25 kg to g f) 0.5 hour to second
2. Write the following quantities in units with the appropriate
prefixes:
a) 3500 m b) 0.0012 sec c) 0.01 g

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Measuring Physical Quantities

The measurement of a physical quantity is done by using measuring
instruments. In this section we will discuss how to measure mass,
length, time, and temperature using their appropriate devices.
Measuring the mass of objects
Instruments which are used to measure mass are known as balances.
Theused to measure
balance mass. Itthe
compares workmass
basedofonan
the object
principlewith
that the amount mass.
a known of
extension (or
Different compression)
types of a springare
of balances is proportional
there, to seethe mass
Fig of1.4.
the object attached to it.

Figure 1.4: Instruments Used to Measure Mass

Note that, before taking measurement check that the balance is on a level
surface, and reads zero when no load is placed on it.
Note that, before taking measurement check that the balance is on a
Thesurface,
level SI or base
andunit of Mass
reads zero is kilogram
when (kg).isFor
no load smallon
placed mass
it. we use
gram (g). To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use
Themilligram.
SI unit of
To mass
measure kilogram
is the (kg).
mass of big For we
objects small mass we
use quintal anduse
tone.gram
(g). To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use
1 kg = 1000 g.
milligram. To measure the mass of big objects we use quintal
1 gtone.
and = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of Length.

1 kg = 1000 g.
1 g = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg
1 tone = 1000 kg
Example 1.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram?

1
Solution: 1200 g =
1200 × kg =
1.2 kg
1000

Exercise 1.6: Convert the following measurement:

(a) 2.5 kg to gram, (b) 200 gram to milligram.
Measuring Length
Length is a measure of how long an object is. Depending on the size of
the length of the object, we are going to use different types of length
measuring instrument, see Fig 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Instruments used to Measure Length

The SI unit of length is meter (m). When we want to measure

larger lengths, we can use kilometers. If we want to measure
small lengths, we can use centimeters or millimeters.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of Length.

1km = 1000 m
1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10mm
Note that when we are measuring length using these device do not
forget to place the zero mark exactly at one end of the thing you are
measuring and read the scale at the other end.

Example 1.5: How many millimeters are there in a meter?

Solution: 1m = 100 cm = 100 x 10 mm = 1000 mm
Exercise 1.7: Convert the following into the required measures:
(a) 8 meters to millimeter. (b) 5500 meters to kilometer.
Measuring time
Time is used to quantify the duration of events. Time is measured
with a stop watch or clock.

Figure 1.6 Time measuring Instruments

The SI unit of time is second (s). For longer intervals of time we use:
day, month , year, decades, century and millennium.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The relationship between different units of time

1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 year = 365 or 366 days
Example 1.6: Convert one hour into seconds.
Solution: 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 second = 3600 seconds.

Exercise 1.8:
How many (a) minutes, and (b) seconds are there in one day?

Measuring Temperature
Thermometer is the device used to measure the temperature of an
object or place. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. Degree Celsius
(°C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F) are other units of temperature
Thermometers could be analogue or digital, see Figure 1.7

Figure 1.7 Temperature Measuring Devices

Activity 1.4:Measuring body temperature.

• measure the body temperature of two students by using
thermometer.
• Compare the two temperatures with the standard temperature of
a body which is 37°C
• Discuss about your observations.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

In using thermometer, hold the thermometer at the top, do not hold

the bulb of a thermometer and do not let the bulb touch the glass.

Activity 1.5: Measuring the temperature of water.
• Using a laboratory thermometer, measure the temperature of a
warm water.
• Record your observations
Safety!! Never put a laboratory thermometer into your mouth.
Accuracy and Precision in Measurement
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its accepted or
known value.

Example 1.7: If in a laboratory you obtain a mass measurement of

8.2 kg for a given substance, but the actual or known mass is 10 kg,
is your measurement accurate?
Answer: This measurement is not accurate, because your measurement
(8.2 kg) is not close to the known value (10kg).
Precision refers to how close two or more measurements are to each
other, regardless of whether those measurements are accurate or not.

Example 1.8: In the above example 1.4, if you measure the mass of
the given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg, 3.1 kg, 3.25 kg, 3.3 kg
and 3.2 kg. Is your measurement precise?
Answer: This measurement is precise, because the values are close
to each other but not accurate because it is far from the known value
(10 kg). This shows that precision is independent of accuracy. You
can be very precise but inaccurate. You can also be accurate but not
precise.

Exercise 1.9: The figure below shows 3 results of a student playing

a dart game. In the space provided below each figure, write whether
the result is
(a) accurate but not precise (c) precise but not accurate
(b) accurate and precise (d) neither precise noraccurate

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.8 Dart game

Exercise 1.10:
1. Define the following terms: physical quantity, fundamental quantity,
derived quantity.
2. State the various indigenous methods of measurement used in
Addis Ababa.
3. What are prefixes?
4. What is the difference between accuracy and precision in
measurements?

1.2 Doing Scientific Investigation

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• describe the components of a scientific investigation;
• demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with
others in performing fair testing;
• practice scientific investigation procedures using appropriate
contents to their age levels.
Introduction to Scientific Investigation
Science is a process of learning about the world through observation,
inquiry, formulating and testing hypotheses, gathering and
analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings.This process
is referred as the scientific investigation or scientific method.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

1.2 Scientific Method

Activity 1.6
What are the applications of scientific method?
All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what
is called the scientific method. Scientific method is the process by
which scientists approach their work.
The Steps of the Scientific Method
Based on the type of question being asked, the type of science being
applied and the laws that apply to that particular branch of science, you
may need to modify the method and alter or remove one or several of
the steps.
1. Ask Questions
A scientific investigation typically begins with observations.
Observations often lead to questions. This question will include one
of the key starters, which are, how, what, when, why, where, who or
which. The question you ask should also be measurable and answerable
through experimentation. It is often something that can be measured
with a numerical result, although behavioral results are part of the
scientific method as well.
2. Perform Background Research
With your question formulated, conduct preliminary background
research to prepare yourself for the experiment. You can find
information through online searches or in your local library, depending
on the question you are asking and the nature of the background data.
You may also find previous studies and experiments that can help
with your process and conclusions.
3. Establish your Hypothesis
Based on the data that were gathered, the researcher formulated a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of
observations. Your hypothes should also include your predictions that
you can measure through experimentation and research.A hypothesis
must be based on scientific knowledge, and it must be logical.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

4. Test your Hypothesis

Next, test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment. Your
experiment is a way to quantifiably test your predictions and
should be able to be repeated by another scientist. Assess your
scientific process and make sure that the conditions remain the same
throughout all testing measures. If you change any factors in your
experiment, keep all others the same to maintain fairness. After you
complete the experiment, repeat it a few more times to make sure the
results are accurate.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw a Conclusion
You can now take your experiment findings and analyze them to
determine if they support your hypothesis or not. Drawing a conclusion
means determining whether what you believed would happen actually
happened. If it did not happen, you can create a new hypothesis and
return to step three, then conduct a new experiment to prove your new
theory. If what you hypothesized happened during the experimentation
phase, the final step is putting together your findings and presenting
them to others.
6. Communicating Results
The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you
have learned with others. This is a very important step because it allows
others to verify your methods and results. If other researchers get the
same results as yours, the hypothesis becomes stronger. However,
if they get different results, they may not support the hypothesis.
When scientists share their results, they should describe their
methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation.
Finally, communicating results can be done in a variety of ways
including scientific papers, blogs, news, articles, conferences, etc.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.9 Steps in Scientific Method

Example1.9: Simple experiment with candle that shows the necessary
of air for burning. Consider how the scientific method applies in this
simple experiment with air necessary for burning under two different
conditions.
1. Ask Question: Is air necessary for burning?
2. Do back ground Research: From different literatures ‘‘air is
necessary for burning.’’
3. Formulate Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is that there wil be
no air needs for burning. The alternative hypothesis is that there
will be air needs for burning.
4. Test Hypothesis by Experiment and Collect Data:Take a candle
and fix it on a table. Light the candle. The candle will continue
to burn due to continuously available fresh air providing the
required oxygen for combustion.Now cover the burning candle
by putting an inverted gas jar over it. After a short time, the
candle stops burning and gets extinguished.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw Conclusion:
When the burning candle is covered with gas jar, then the
candle takes away the oxygen necessary for burning from

19
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

the air enclosed in the gas jar. After some time, when all the oxygen
of air inside the gas jar is used up, then the burning candle gets
extinguished. This proves that air is necessary for combustion or
burning of substances.

Figure 1.10 a) Burning of candle b) Candle stops burning

6. Communicate Results: Report your findings in the form of a

written report as an oral presentation. Air is necessary for burning.

Activity 1.7
Form groups and conduct investigations on activities listed below.
After investigation present your findings to the class.
a. What is the effect of sunlight on the growth of bean plant?
b. Does a coiled nail act like a magnet?
c. How do plants store their food in their leaf?

Exercise 1.13

Describe the components of a scientific investigation.

Project 1.3
Conduct some investigations (for example, making injera) using local
materials and methods (procedures) in groups by reading different
reference books or asking a person who is knowledgeable and
experienced in the area.

20
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 1.11Injera Figure 1.12 Injera being cooked on a griddle

Key Terms: -Fundamental quantity,

-Derived quantity,
-Fundamental unit,
-Derived unit,
-Prefix, Accuracy
-Precision, and
-Scientific method.

21
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Summary
• Measurement is the process of obtaining the magnitude of a quantity
relative to an agreed standard.
• Indigenous units of measurement for length: cubit, span, digit, foot
and pace, for mass weqet and quntal, for time length of a shadow
are used.
• Fundamental quantities are a set of physical quantities which cannot
be expressed in terms of any other quantities. Their corresponding
units are called “Fundamental units”.
• The physical quantities which can be obtained by mathematically
combining (i.e., multiplying and dividing) the fundamental quantities
are known as “Derived quantities”. Their corresponding units are
called “Derived units”.
• Prefixes are a short hand form of writing very large or very small
numbers.
• Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the accepted
value while precision refers to how close measurements are to each
other.
• Scientific method is the process by which scientists approach their
work.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Review Exercise
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternative
1. Which of the following quantities is a fundamental quantity?
a) Area b) volume
c) temperature d) force
2. The difference between fundamental and derived unit is
a) Fundamental units are big in value but derived units are
small in value.
b) Fundamental units are derived from derived units.
c) Derived units are derived from fundamental units.
d) There is no difference between them.
3. Which of the following is a derived quantity?
a) mass b) area
c) time d) length
4. The SI unit of density is
a) kg/m2 b) kg/m3
c) kg/m d) g/m3
1
5. The prefix that represents is__________.
1000
a) kilo b) mega
c) centi d) milli
II. Fill in the blank spaces with an appropriate word.
1. Length, mass, time and temperature are ________quantities.
2. Area, volume, density and force are ___________ quantities
3. One million centimeter is equal to _____________ meter.
4. The prefix for a number 0.01 is _______________.
5. The SI unit of volume is ____________________.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

III. Match the quantities in column-I to their units in column-II:

Column I Column II
1 Area (a) K
2 Temperature (b)m3
3 Density (c ) m2
4 Volume (d)kg
5 Mass ( e) kg/m3

IV. Give short answer

1. Write four fundamental quantities with their units.
2. Write four derived quantities with their units.
3. Write the measurement 0.005 m using prefix.
4. Convert 1000 cm to kilometer.
5. The value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
Earth is known to be 9.81 m/s2. In an experiment students have
found the following results. 12.2 m/s2, 12.3 m/s2, 12.1 m/s2
and 12.08 m/s2. Is this measurement accurate or precise?
6. List the steps used in scientific method.

24
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
 Narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of
substances;
UNIT TWO
 Appreciate that atoms are the building blocks which make up all
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
substances;

Learning Outcomes:
 Demonstrate understanding of the idea that the identity of a
 Narrate the historical development of the atomic nature of
substance is determined by its atomic structure;
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
substances;
 Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of
•  narrate the historical
Appreciate that atomsdevelopment of blocks
are the building the atomic
whichnature of all
make up
compounds;
substances;
substances;
• appreciate that atoms
Demonstrate are the
scientific building
inquiry blocks
skills whichthis
along makeunit:
up
allDemonstrate
substances; understanding of the idea that the identity of a
communicating, asking questions, drawing conclusions,
• demonstrate
substance is understanding
determined by itsofatomic
the idea that the identity
structure;
applying concepts.
of a substance is determined by its atomic structure;
Differentiate molecules of elements from molecules of
 contents
Main
• differentiate molecules of elements from molecules
ofcompounds;
2.1 Early compounds;
thinking about the composition of matter
2.2• Inside
demonstrate
Demonstrate scientific
of an atom inquiry
scientific skills skills
inquiry along this unit:this unit:
along
communicating, asking questions, drawing conclusions,
 communicating, asking and
Parts of an atom (nucleus questions, drawing conclusions,
electron Shells)
applying concepts.
 applying concepts.
The Subatomic Particles of the atom
Main
 contents
Relative mass, the charge and location of sub-atomic particles
2.1 Early thinking
 Atomic aboutand
number themass
composition
number of matter
2.2 Inside of an atom of the electrons, protons and neutrons
 Determination
2.3  Parts of an atom (nucleus and electron Shells)
Molecules
 The Subatomic
Molecules Particles of the atom
of elements
 Relative
Moleculesmass, the charge and location of sub-atomic particles
of Compounds
 Atomic number and mass number
 Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons
38
2.3 Molecules
 Molecules of elements
 Molecules of Compounds

25
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

2.1 Early Thinking about the Composition of Matter

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Give a short history of the concept of the atom;
• Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness
(discontinuity) theory of matter;
• Compare earlier conceptions of the structure of matter
with their conceptions.

Activity 2.1
Form groups and discuss the following and present your opinion to
the class.
1. What is matter?
2. What do you think matters made up of?

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter

comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day.
Some of them argued that matter is continuous i.e., it could be divided
endlessly into smaller pieces. Others believed that matter is discrete;
i.e., it cannot be infinitely divided.
Democritus (460 - 370 B.C) expressed the belief that all matter
consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he named atomos
(meaning uncuttable or indivisible). He thought of atoms as moving
particles that differed in shape and size which could join together.
According to Democritus matter is discrete.
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) argued that matter is divided into smaller
and smaller parts, the division continuous forever without any limit.
He did not believe in microscopic building particles of matter.
Therefore, according to Aristotle, matter is continuous and he believed
that matter consisted of the combinations of fire, earth, air, and water.

26
 consistedofofthe
consisted thecombinations
combinationsofoffire,
fire,earth,
earth,air,
air,and
andwater.
water.

General Science GRADE 2.2 8

Activity2.2
Activity Student TextBook
Formtwo
Form twogroups
groupsand
anddebate
debateononone
oneofofthe
thefollowing
followingideas
ideasassigned
assignedtotoyour
your
group.After
Afterdiscussion
group.
Activity 2.2 discussionpresent
presentyour
yourreasons
reasonstotothe
theclass.
class.

Form1.1.IfIfmatter
two matter
groups isisdivided
divided
and andon
and
debate subdivided
subdivided
one of the again
again andagain,
and
following again, what
what
ideas would
would
assigned
to yourultimately
group. After
ultimately discussion present your reasons to the class.
bebeobtained?
obtained?
1. Ifa.a.
matter
Groupis
Group 1:1:divided and
According
According subdivided
totoAristotle‘s again and again, what would
believe
Aristotle‘sbelieve
ultimately
Group2:be
b.b.Group
obtained?
2:According
According totoDemocritus‘s
Democritus‘sbelieve
believe
a. Group 1: According to Aristotle’s believe
b. Group 2: According to Democritus’s believe

Table2.1Comparison
Table 2.1Comparisonbetween
betweenthe
thediscrete
discreteand
andcontinuous
continuoustheory
theory
ofofmatter
matter
DiscretenessTheory
Discreteness Theory ContinuousTheory
Continuous Theory
ProposedbybyDemocritus
Proposed Democritus ProposedbybyAristotle
Proposed Aristotle
Thereisisa alimit
There limittotowhich
whichmatter
matterisisbroken
broken Matterisisinfinitely
Matter infinitelydivisible
divisible
Believedininthe
Believed theexistence
existenceofofatoms
atoms Rejectedthe
Rejected theidea
ideaofofatoms
atoms

Exercise
4040
2.1
1. Compare and contrast the continuity and discreteness theory of
matter.

2.2 Inside of an Atom

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• describe the structure of an atom as a nucleus containing
protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells
(energy levels);
• state the relative charge and approximate relative mass of a
proton, a neutron and an electron;
• draw hydrogen atoms, including the location of the protons
and electrons, with respect to the nucleus;
• differentiate between mass number and atomic number;
• determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

What are the two parts of atom?

An atom consists of a tiny dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. The
nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, so
it is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged. Protons
and neutrons have approximately the same mass and are about 1800
times more massive than an electron. This means that most of the mass
of an atom is in its nucleus. However, most of the volume of an atom is
occupied by its electrons.

Figure 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of the atom

The subatomic particles

Activity 2.3
Draw a simple sketch of hydrogen atom model on your exercise
book by using coloured pen following the instructions listed below.
i. Draw a small circle labeled ‘‘nucleus’’.
ii. Add a smaller circle labeled ‘‘proton’’ inside the nucleus.
iii. Add another circle around the nucleus and add a symbol
such as a dot for the electron

Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even
smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. A subatomic
particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms.

28
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

An atom contains three fundamental sub atomic particles: proton,

electron and neutron. An atom has a definite number of protons,
electrons and neutrons. The structure of the atom describes how these
particles
The relativeare arranged
charge to ismake
of a proton +1. Theanelectron
atom.is assigned a charge
The
of −1.relative
The neutron charge of azero
is assigned proton
charge.isSince
+1.anTheatom electron
has equal is assigned a
charge of −1. The neutron is assigned zero charge. Since an atom
number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral.
has equal number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral.
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24 g, and –24 a neutron has a mass of
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10 g, and a neutron has a mass of
–24
1.675 ××1010–24
1.675 g. Thus, a proton
g. Thus, and a neutron
a proton and ahave almost the
neutron havesamealmost the same
–28
mass. Since
mass. Since the the
massmass of an iselectron
of an electron very small,is9.109
very× 10small,g, its9.109 × 10–28 g,
its mass
mass is assumed
is assumed to beornegligible
to be negligible approximatelyorzeroapproximately
because it is zero because
it2000
is times
≈ 2000 times
less heavy thanless heavier
both the than
proton and both the proton and neutron.
neutron.
Table 2.2Nature and location of sub-atomic particles

Particle‘ Location Actual Mass Relative Actual Charge Relative
Relative
charge
Name (g) Mass (amu) (C) Charge
( C)
Proton Nucleus 1.673 10-24 1.00728 1 +1.60218 10-19 +1
+1
Electron Outside nucleus 9.109 10-28 0.00055 0 -1.60218 10-19 -1
-1
(shell)
Neutron Nucleus 1.675 10-24 1.00866 1 0 0

Project
Project Work 2.1
Work
Prepare
Prepare hydrogen
hydrogen model bymodel by using
using locally locally
available available
materials in groups materials in
groups
and present and present
your model your
to the rest ofmodel
class.. to the rest of class.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Activity 2.4
Activity 2.4
Form groups and discuss the following. Share your opinion with
Form groups and discuss the following activity. Share your opinion
your group members and present your group opinion‘s to the class.
with your group members and present your group opinion’s to the class.
Determine atomic numbers and mass numbers of common elements
Determine atomic numbers and mass numbers of common elements
by using periodic table.
by using periodic table. 43

29
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons

they contain. The atomic number (Z) of an atom equals the number
of protons in its nucleus. The atomic number is also the number of
electrons that surround the nucleus of a neutral atom.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons= number of electrons
Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.Except for the most
common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons,
all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons.
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified
using the notation:
Mass number
Atomic number
A
Z x Symbol of element

12
Example: 6 C , mass number = 12, atomic number = 6, and C is the
symbol of carbon.
Determination of the electrons, protons and neutrons
Activity 2.5
Form groups and discuss the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
1. Use a periodic table to tell the atomic number, mass number,
proton numbers, neutron numbers and electron numbers of
the first 10 elements.
Proton is equal to the atomic number of atoms.
Number of protons = atomic number (Z)
Electron: The atom is neutral therefore the number of electrons is
equal to the number of protons.
Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference
between the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.

30
 equal to the number of protons.

General Science GRADE 8

Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
Student TextBook
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between
the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons
Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons
Exercise 2.2 Exercise 2.2
Give Give
the appropriate
the appropriateanswers
answers for thefollowing
for the following questions.
questions.
1. C1.
omplete thethe
Complete following
following table.
table.
Particle Location Actual Mass (g) Relative Relative
Mass (amu) Charge
Proton
Electron
Neutron
2. A nucleus consists of 9 protons and 10 neutrons. Determine:
2. A nucleus consists of 9 protons and 10 neutrons. Determine:
i. i. TheThe element by referring periodic table
element by referring periodic table
ii. Mass number
ii. Mass number
3.3.How
Howmany neutrons,protons
many neutrons, protons
andand electrons
electrons are inthere
are there in an
an atom
of theofelement 14 14
atom 7 N?
the element 7N ?

2.3 Molecules
45

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• define molecules;
• give examples of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic
molecules;
• use models or particles model diagram to represent molecules
of elements and compounds.

Activity 2.6
Form groups and discuss the following activiy. Share your opinion
with your group members. After discussion present your findings to
the class.
1. What is molecule?
2. Mention some examples of monoatomic, diatomic and
poly atomic molecules.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Molecules of Elements
A molecule of an element consists of only one type of an atom.
Molecules of elements can be classified as monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic.
1. Monoatomic molecules are molecules that contain one atom
of the element. Examples: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are
monoatomic molecules
2. Diatomic molecules are molecules that contain two atoms of
the element. Examples: O2, H2, F2, Cl2, I2 are diatomic
molecules.

Figure 2.2 Diagrammatical representations of Ne and H2.

3. Polyatomic molecules are molecules that contain more than
three atoms of the element. Examples: O3, P4, S8 are polyatomic
molecules.
Molecules of compounds
A molecule of a compound always contains two or more atoms of
different elements combined chemically. Water (H2O), ammonia
(NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. are some examples of molecules of
compounds.
Exercise 2.3
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What is a molecule?
2. Classify the following molecules as monoatomic, diatomic or
polyatomic?
a. Ar d. O3
b. N2 e. He
c. S8 f. Br2

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

3. Draw the diagram representation of ozone (O3) molecule.

4. Which of the following molecules are molecules of elements?
Which of them are molecules of compounds?

a. Ne d. Br2
b. H2O e. NH3
c. HCl f. P4

Key Terms

• Atom • Electron shell

• Atomic nucleus • Mass number
• Atomic number • Molecule
• Continuous theory • Monoatomic molecule
• Diatomic molecule • Neutron
• Discreteness theory • Polyatomic molecule
• Electron • Proton

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Summary
• Democritus (460-370 BC) introduced the idea that matter consists
of very small indivisible particles called “atoms”.
• The three fundamental subatomic particles are protons, neutrons
and electrons.
• Protons are positively charged.
• Neutrons are chargeless.
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• A proton and a neutron have approximately the same mass; but the
mass of an electron is negligible.
• The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom of the element.
• An atom is electrically neutral because the amount of positive
charge on a proton equals the amount of negative charge on an
electron.
• The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
• The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between
the mass number and the atomic number or proton number.
• An atom is represented by the notation, AZ x in which X is the
symbol of an element Z is the atomic number, and A is the mass
number.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a compound
that can exist freely in nature.
• Molecules of elements consist of only one type of atoms and can
be classified as monoatomic, diatomic or polyatomic.
• Molecules of compounds consist of two or more different type of
atoms.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Review Exercise
I. Write ‘‘True’’ if the statement is correct and write ‘‘False’’ if the
statement is incorrect.
1. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
2. Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
3. Molecules of elements consist of two or more different type
of atoms.
4. Proton and electron have approximately the same mass.
5. Different elements have the same number of protons.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
6. The idea that matter is ‘continuous’ was proposed by
A. Democritus
B. Aristotle
C. Dalton
D. None
7. The idea of ‘atoms’ first proposed by the Greek philosopher----
A. Aristotle
B. Plato
C. Dalton
D. Democritus
8. Which of the following particles located in the nucleus of an
atom?
A. Proton and electron C. Electron and neutron
B. Neutron and proton D. Proton, electron and neutron
9. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is
known as
A. Atomic number
B. Atomic mass
C. Mass number
D. Number of electron

35
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

24
10. The number of neutrons in 12Mg are
A. 12 B. 11
C. 24 D. 13
11.Which of the following statements concerning the
nucleus of an atom is correct?
A. Contains only neutrons
B. Contains all protons and all electrons
C. Is always positively charged
D. Accounts for most of the total volume of an atom
12. Which of the following molecule is diatomic molecule?
A. O2
B. O3
C. P4
D. S8
13. Which of the following statement is false?
A. Molecules of elements consist of only one type of
atoms.
B. Nucleus is positively charged.
C. Molecules of compounds consist of only one type
of atoms.
D. Neutrons have no charge.
14. Which of the following molecule is molecule of
elements?
A. H2O
B. NH3
C. H2
D. HCl

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

III. Give short answers for the following questions.

15. What are the two main parts of an atom?
16. What are the fundamental sub-atomic particles?
17. Determine the atomic number, number of protons, number of
16
neutrons, number of electrons and mass number for 8 O .

37
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT THREE
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you will able to:

• explain the classification of compounds into organic and

inorganic;
• write the formulas and names the first ten alkanes,
alkenes alkynes and list the uses some important
common organic compounds;
• classify oxides into different groups and give examples of
each group;
• develop skills in identifying acidic, basic and neutral
solutions;
• define, and apply the concept of neutralization;
• explain the safety precautions while working with
acids and bases;
• demonstrate scientific inquiry skills along this unit:
observing, classifying, comparing and contrasting,
communicating, asking questions, designing experiment,
drawing conclusion, applying concepts and problem
solving.

Main contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Organic compounds
3.3 Inorganic compounds
3.4 Neutralization reaction and salts

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

3.1 Introduction
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• define organic compounds as carbon containing compounds
and give examples;
After completing this section, you will be able to:
• define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other
Define
 than organic compounds as carbon containing compounds and give examples
carbon.
 Define inorganic compounds as compounds of elements other than carbon.
Activity 3.1
Activity 3.1
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
Form groups
cussion, choose and discuss representative
a group the following. After the group
to present thediscussion, choose a group
group’s opin-
ionrepresentative
to the class.to present the group’s opinion to the class.
1. 1.
StateState
earlier definitions
earlier definitionsofoforganic
organicand
and inorganic compounds.
inorganic compounds.
2. Do you agree with the notion that says: “organic compounds can be
2. Do you agree with the notion that says: “organic compounds can be
synthesized only from animals and plants”?
3. synthesized
State modern onlydefinitions
from animals ofand plants”?
organic and inorganic compounds.
3. State modern definitions of organic and inorganic compounds.During the
During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century, chemists
of the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize compounds
began to categorize compounds into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds
into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds obtained from
living organisms
obtained wereorganisms
from living called organic
were called compounds, and compounds
organic compounds, and compounds
obtained
obtainedfrom
from mineral
mineral constituents
constituents ofofthethe earth
earth were
were called
called inorganic
inorganic compounds.
compounds. During
During this early thischemists
period, early period,
believedchemists believed
that a special that a special
―vital force
“vital force” supplied by a living organism was necessary for the
‖ supplied by a living organism was necessary for the formation of an organic
formation of an organic compound. This concept was disproved in
compound.
1828 by theThis concept chemist
German was provedFriedrich
incorrect inWöhler.
1828 by the Germanprepared
Wohler chemist Friedrich
urea, an organic
Wöhler. compound,
Wöhler heated from
an aqueous the ofreaction
solution between
two inorganic solutions
compounds, ammonium
of chloride
inorganic compounds
and silver ammonium
cyanate, and obtained ureachloride andofsilver
(a component urine). cyanate.
NH4Cl (aq) + AgCNO (aq) NH4CNO (aq) + AgCl (s)
Ammonium chloride Silver cyanate Ammonium cyanate Silver chloride
O
NH4CNO (aq) Heat (NH2)2CO (s) Or
Urea H2N C NH2
Soon
Soonother
otherchemists
chemists had successfully
had successfully synthesized
synthesized organic
organic compounds
compounds from inorganic
from inorganic starting materials. As a result, the vital-force theory
starting materials. As a result, the vital-force theory was completely abandoned.
was completely abandoned.

54
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The terms organic and inorganic continue to be used in classifying

compounds, but the definitions of these terms no longer reflect their
historical origins.
All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, along with
other possible elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens
and phosphorus except the oxides of carbon, carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, cyanides and cyanates.
Inorganic compounds are the compounds consisting of mineral
constituents of the earth or generally found in non-living things. The
term inorganic compound refers to all compounds that do not contain
carbon. Although, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonates and
hydrogen carbonates are carbon-containing compounds, which are
classified as inorganic compounds.

Exercise 3.1
Classify each of the following compounds as organic or inorganic.

a. C12H22O11 d. C2H5OH
b. NaCl e. CH3Cl
c. CaO f. C2H4

3. 2 Organic Compounds

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define hydrocarbons and mention at least one source of
hydrocarbons;
• Write the general formula of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Write the specific chemical formulas of the first ten members
of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Describe a homologous series and its general characteristics;
• Name the first eight members of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes;
• Identify some common uses of organic compounds.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Hydrocarbons
Activity 3.2
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
1.What is hydrocarbon?
2. List the sources of hydrocarbons and indicate their location
in Ethiopia.
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and
hydrogenatoms.Hydrocarbons divided into three large classes:alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes.
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 1, 2, 3…..
For example, the molecular formulas of the first four alkanes are
C1H2×1+2 = CH4, C2H2×2 + 2 = C2H6, C3H2×3 + 2 = C3H8, and C4H2×4 + 2 =
C4H10, respectively.
When we compare the formulas of CH4 and C2H6 or C2H6 and C3H8,
they differ by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms or – CH2 – group
called the methylene group. A family of compounds in which each
member differs from the next by one methylene (-CH2-) groupis called
homologous series (homo is Greek for “the same as). The members
of a homologous series are called homologues.

Exercise 3.2
1. Write the formulas of alkanes that contain 5, 7 and 9 carbon atoms.

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 2, 3….. For
example, the molecular formulas of the first three alkenes are
C2H2×2 = C2H4, C3H2×3 = C3H6, and C4H2×4 = C4H8, respectively.
Exercise 3.3
1. Write the formulas of the alkenes that contain 6, 8 and 10 carbon
atoms.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Alkynes
Alkynes Writeare
1.1. Write the hydrocarbons
theformulas
formulasofofthe thatthat
thealkenes
alkenes have
that the6,6,general
contain
contain 88and
and10 formula
10carbon
carbon CnH2n-2,
atoms.
atoms.
where
Alkynesn = 2, 3, 4, etc. For example, the formulas of the first three
Alkynes
alkynes
Alkynesare
Alkynes are
are C2H2×2-2 =that
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons Chave
that H2, the
2have
C Hgeneral
the3general =formula
C3H4C,Cnand
2×3-2 formula nH
H ,C
2n-2
2n-2
H nn===2,2,C
,where
where
4 2×4-2 3,3,4H ,etc.
4,4,6etc.
respectively.
Forexample,
For example,the
theformulas
formulasofofthe
thefirst
firstthree
threealkynes
alkynesare 2H
areCC2H 2×2-2==CC
2×2-2 2H2H
2,2,CC
3H3H2×3-2==CC
2×3-2 3H3H
4,4,

and 4H
andCC4H 2×4-2==CC
2×4-2 4H
4H6,6,respectively.
respectively.
Exercise 3.4
1.Exercise
Write3.4
Exercise the
3.4 formulas of the alkynes that contain five-eight carbon
atoms.
1. Write
1. Writethe
theformulas
formulasofofthe
thealkynes
alkynesthat
thatcontain
containfive-eight
five-eightcarbon
carbonatoms.
atoms.
Nomenclature(Naming)
Nomenclature (Naming)ofofHydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons
Activity3.3
Activity
Activity 3.33.3
Form
Formaaagroup
Form group
group and
and
and perform
perform
perform the the following
thefollowing
following activity.
activity.Share
activity. ShareyourShare
your your
opinion
opinion withopinion
with yourgroup
your group
with your
members.
members. group members.
1.1. 1. How
How
How do
dowe
do we
wegive give specific
givespecific
specific nametotoname
name to a hydrocarbon?
aahydrocarbon?
hydrocarbon?
2. Are hydrocarbons named based on certain rules or randomly?
2.2. Arehydrocarbons
Are hydrocarbonsnamed
namedbased
basedon
oncertain
certainrules
rulesororrandomly?
randomly?

The name of hydrocarbons is derived from the number of carbon

atoms
The present
Thename
name (prefix)isis
ofofhydrocarbons
hydrocarbons and the from
derived
derived ending
fromthe itnumber
contains
thenumber (suffix).The
ofofcarbon
carbon names
atomspresent
atoms present (prefix)
(prefix)
of
andalkanes,
and the endingalkenes
theending and
ititcontains
contains alkynesnames
(suffix).The
(suffix).The end of
names with the alkenes
ofalkanes,
alkanes, suffixes
alkenesand‘-ane’,
and alkynes‘-ene’
alkynes endwith
end with
and
the ‘-yne’,
thesuffixes
suffixes respectively.
‗-ane‘,
‗-ane‘, ‗-ene‘and
‗-ene‘ and‗-yne‘,
‗-yne‘,respectively.
respectively.
i. a prefix- indicating the number of carbon atoms (listed in Table
Table3.1)
3.1)and
i.i. aaprefix-
prefix-indicating
indicatingthe
thenumber
numberofofcarbon
carbonatoms
atoms(listed
(listedininTable and
3.1) and
ii.ii. aa-suffix
ii. a-suffix
suffix indicatingthe
indicating thetype
indicating typeofofthe
the typethefunctional
functionalgroup
grouppresent
of the functionalpresentininthe
group themolecule
moleculeororthe
present in the
type
theofofmolecule
type hydrocarbon.
hydrocarbon.or the type of hydrocarbon.
Table3.1Prefixes
Table 3.1Prefixescommonly
commonlyused
usedtotoindicate
indicateone
onetototen
tencarbon
carbonatoms.
atoms.
Numberofof
Number Prefix
Prefix Numberofofcarbon
Number carbon Prefix
Prefix
carbonatoms
carbon atoms atoms
atoms
11 Meth-
Meth- 66 Hex-
Hex-
22 Eth-
Eth- 77 Hept-
Hept-
33 Prop-
Prop- 88 Oct-
Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
57
57
5 Pent- 10 Dec-

Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.

Solution:
42
 CH4 contains one carbon atom. So, we use the prefix ‗meth-‘ and adding the suffix
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Example 1: Write the names of alkanes; CH4 and C3H8.

Solution:
• CH4 contains one carbon atom. So, we use the prefix ‘meth-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-ane’ i.e. meth + ane. Thus the name of CH4
• becomes methane.
• C3H8 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘prop-
’and adding the suffix ‘-ane’ i.e. prop + ane. Thus the name of
C3H8 becomes propane.
Example 2: Write the names of alkenes; C2H4 and C4H.
Solution:
• C2H4 contains two carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘eth-’
and adding the suffix ‘-ene’ i.e. eth + ene. Thus the name of C2H4
becomes ethene.
• C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘but-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-ene’ i.e. but + ene. Thus the name of C4H8
becomes butene.
Example 3: Write the names of alkynes; C3H4 and C4H6.
Solution:
• C3H4 contains three carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘prop-
’and adding the suffix ‘-yne’ i.e. prop + yne. Thus the name of
C3H4 becomes propyne.
• C4H8 contains four carbon atoms. So, we use the prefix ‘but-’ and
adding the suffix ‘-yne’ i.e. but + yne. Thus the name of C4H6 be-
comes butyne.
Exercise 3.5
1. Write the formulas and names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
containing five to ten carbon atoms.

Uses of Common Organic Compounds

Many organic compounds are very useful in our daily life. Some
important organic compounds and their uses are described in the
following section.
Methane, CH4
Methane is used primarily as fuel for cooking, heating and generating
electricity. Methane is the main constituents of biogas that is used as
a domestic fuel.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Propane (C3H6) and Butane (C4H10)

The mixture of propane and butane is compressed at a moderate
pressure and stored in steel cylinders. It is marked as bottled gas and
commonly known as “butagas”. It is mainly used for cooking and
heating.
Ethyne (C2H2)
One of the main uses of ethyne is to
produce oxyacetylene flame, which is used
in the cutting and welding of steel and iron.

Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)

Ethanol is used in the intoxication
ingredient of many alcoholic Figure 3.1 Oxyacetylene torch
beverages such as beer, wine, tella,
ouzo, teji, etc. Nowadays ethanol mixed with petrol is used as a fuel.
It is also used in the production of acetic acid, and in hospitals and
clinics for cleaning wounds.

Ethanoic Acid (Acetic acid)

Activity 3.4
Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
Why we add ‘acheto’ or ‘vinegar’ when we eat uncooked vegetables
such as salad?

Table vinegar contains 4% to 8%

acetic acid. Vinegar is used as food
flavoring agent. It is also used as a
disinfectant. For use in preserving
vegetables (pickling) it typically
ranges up to 18%.
Formalin Figure 3.2Adding vinegar
When formaldehyde is dissolved in water it is called formalin.
Formalin contains 40%, by volume, of formaldehyde. Formalin is
used for the preservation of biological specimens, because it makes
proteins hard and insoluble.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Exercise 3.6
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Classify each of the following hydrocarbons as alkane, alkene or
alkyne.
a. C5H10
b. C10H22
c. C8H14
d. C8H18
e. C10H18
f. C9H18
2. Write the uses of methane, ethyne, formalin, acetic acid and ethanol.

3.3 Inorganic Compounds

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• state that inorganic compounds are classified into oxides, acids,
base and salts;
• classify oxides into metallic and nonmetallic;
• describe the properties of acidic oxides and basic oxides;
• predict the nature of common oxides;
• prepare sulphur dioxide in the laboratory by burning sulphur in
air and use moist blue litmus paper to test its acidic nature;
• prepare magnesium oxide in the laboratory by burning magnesium
ribbon in air and use red litmus paper to test its basicity in water
solution;
• define acid and base;
• describe properties a of acids and bases;
• relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions and
basic properties to the presence of hydroxide ions.
• name and write formulas for some common acids (HCl, HNO3,
H2SO4) and bases (NaOH, KOH, NH4OH), using the periodic
table, a list of ions, and rules for naming acids;
• describe how indicators can be used to classify solutions as acidic
or basic;
• investigate properties of bases/alkalis experimentally;

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

• in group, with guidance, prepare their own indicator by extracting

the colour from a vegetable, such as beetroot, or flowers and
evaluate the indicator;
• investigate household chemicals using locally prepared indicators;
• explain the safety precautions while working with acids and bases;
• create a safety booklet dealing with the handling of acids and
alkali.

Inorganic compounds can be classified into four groups according to

their composition and their properties. These include oxides, acids,
bases and salts.
Oxides
Activity 3.5
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group
discussion,choose a group representative to present the group’s
opinion to the class.
1. Define oxides and give some examples that are not listed below.
2. Are all compounds containing oxygen oxides? Why?
Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other
element.
Element + Oxygen → Oxide
Some common examples of oxides are water (hydrogen oxide, H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), lime (calcium oxide, CaO), rust (iron (III)
oxide), etc.
Exercise 3.7
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define oxides.
2. Which of the following compounds are oxides?
a. CaCO3 d. rust g. SO3
b. KOH e. H2CO3 h. CO2
c. H2O f. CaO

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Types of Oxides
Most oxides are classified as metallic oxides and non-metallic oxides.
i. Metallic oxides are binary compounds containing only metals
and oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic Oxide
Examples: CaO, Na2O, Al2O3, MgO, etc.
ii. Non-Metallic Oxides are binary compounds containing only
non-metals and oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic Oxide
NO2, H2O, CO2, SO2, SO3, etc are common example of non-metallic
oxides.
Oxides are also classified as acidic and basic oxides depending on
their properties or behaviours.
Acidic oxides are oxides that react with water to form acids or acidic
solutions. They are mostly non-metallic oxides. Some examples of
acidic oxides are SO2, P4O6, CO2, etc.
Basic oxides are oxides that react with water to form bases or basic
solutions. They are mostly metallic oxides. Some examples of basic
oxides are Na2O, Li2O, CaO, MgO, etc.

Exercise 3.8
Give appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Predict whether or not the oxide formed from each of the following
elements is a basic oxide and an acidic oxide.
a. Calcium d. Magnesium
b. Carbon e. Sulphur
c. Sodium f. Phosphorus
2. Classify the following oxides as metallic or non-metallic oxides.
a. CO2 d. CaO
b. MgO e. NO2
c. SO3 f. K2O

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Properties of Oxides
Properties of Acidic Oxides
Activity 3.6
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion, choose a group representative to present the group’s opinion
to the class.Predict the nature of the oxides formed by some non-met-
als such as arbon and phosphorus.
An acidic oxide or acid anhydride dissolves in water, to form acidic
solution or an acid.
Acidic oxide + Water → Acid
Examples:
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Acidic oxides react with bases to form salts and water.
Acidic oxide + Base → Salt + Water
Examples:
SO3 + Ca(OH)2→ CaSO4 + H2O
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
Acidic oxides react with basic or metallic oxides to form salt.
Acidic oxide + Basic oxide → Salt
Examples:
CO2 + Na2O → Na2CO3 SO3 + CaO→ CaSO4
Properties of Basic Oxides

Activity 3.7
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion, choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
ion to the class. Predict the nature of the oxides formed by somemet-
als such as sodium, potassium and calcium.
A basic oxide or basic anhydride reacts with water to produce a
base or alkali.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Basic oxide + Water → Base (alkali)

Examples:
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 K2O + H2O → 2KOH
Basic oxides react with acidic oxides to form salts.
Basic oxide + acidic oxide → salt
Examples:
CaO + CO2→ CaCO3 Na2O + SO3→ Na2SO4
Basic oxides react with acids to form a salt and water.
Basic oxide + Acid → salt + water
Examples:
CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O Na2O + H2SO4→ Na2SO4 + H2O
Exercise 3.9
1. What are the missing products ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ in the following
equations?
a. CO2 + H2O → X
b. CaO + H2O → Y
c. CaO + CO2→ Z

Laboratory Preparation of Sulphur dioxide and Magnesium Oxide

Sulphur dioxide and magnesium oxide can be prepared in the
laboratory by using direct synthesis method.
Direct synthesis involves the combination of oxygen with active metals
and non-metals.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
Example: S + O2 → SO2
Metal + Oxygen → Metallic oxide
Example: 2Mg + O2→ 2MgO

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.1
Title: Preparation of Sulphur Dioxide
Objective: To prepare sulphur dioxide and test whether it is an acidic
oxide or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Sulphur, litmus paper (blue and red), gas jar,Bunsen
burner, deflagrating spoon.
Procedure:
1.Place a small amount of powdered
sulphur in a deflagrating spoon
and heat it as shown in Figure 3.3.
2. When it starts burning, put it into
a gas jar.
3. When the burning stops, add 5 mL
of water to the gas jar and shake it. Figure 3.3 Burning of sulphur in air
4. Put blue and red litmus paper, one after the other, in the jar.
5. Record your observations
Observation and Analysis:
a. What is the color of the flame when sulphur burns in air?
b. What happens to the color of blue and red litmus papers in step 4?
c. Write the chemical equation for this combustion reaction.
d. Classify the oxide formed by the combustion of sulphur as acidic
or basic.

Experiment 3.2
Title: Preparation of Magnesium Oxide
Objective: To prepare magnesium oxide and test whether it is an acidic
oxide or a basic oxide.
Materials required: Magnesium ribbon, red and blue litmus papers,
Bunsen burner, tongs, crucible, sand paper, and goggle.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Procedure:
1. Cut about 2-4 cm of magnesium ribbon.
2. Clean the surface of it properly with sand
paper.
3. Hold the magnesium ribbon with the help
of a pair of tong and burn it over a flame
from the Bunsen burner as shown in Figure 3.4 Burning of magnesium
in air
Figure 3.4. The moment it starts burning, put the burning metal
into a crucible and collect the product.
4. Add a small amount of water to the resulting powder in the crucible
and shake it.
5. Take red and blue litmus paper and bring them turn by turn in
contact with the solution.
6. Record your observations.
Observation and Analysis:
a. Why you were cleaned the magnesium ribbon with sand paper?
b. What is the color of the flame produced when magnesium burns
in air?
c. Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
d. What happens to the color of the red and blue litmus papers?
e. Is the resulting solution basic or acidic?

Exercise 3.10
1. Describe how you could prepare each of the following oxides.
a. MgO b. SO2

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Acids and Bases

Acids
Activity 3.8
Form a group and perform the following activities.
Imagine a taste experiment using orange and lemon. After tasting,
present your feeling to the class.
1. What do you feel during tasting lemon?
2. What do you feel during tasting orange?
3. Are they having the same taste?
4. Are they acidic in nature? Why?

Acids are a group of substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when
they are in aqueous solution. Acids have sour taste.
Examples: lemon juice, vinegar, sour tella and milk are some acidic sub-
stances in our daily life.HCl, H2 SO4 and HNO3 are common laboratory
acids. They are also called mineral acids.
Bases
A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal which neutralizes acid to
form salt and water. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.
An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ion (OH–) when dis-
solved in water. Bases have bitter taste.
Examples:NaOH, Ca(OH)2

Naming and Writing Formula of Acids and Bases

Activity 3.9
Form groups and discuss the following activities. After the group
discussion,choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
ion to the rest of the class.
1. Write the formulas of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and
nitric acid.

52
 General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

2. Write the formulas of sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide,

potassium
When naming an acid,hydroxide and ammonium
you can consider hydroxide.
the acid to consist of an anion combined with as
many hydrogen ions are needed to make the molecule electrically neutral. Therefore, the
When naming an acid, you can consider the acid to consist of an
chemical formulas of acids are in the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic or
anion combined with as many hydrogen ions are needed to make
polyatomic anion electrically
the molecule and n is a subscript
neutral.indicating
Therefore, thethe
number of hydrogen
chemical formulasions that are
of acids
combined the general form HnX, where X is a monoatomic
aretheinanion.
with
Theorrules
polyatomic
that used to anion
namedand
annacid
is awith
subscript indicating
the general formula the
HnX.number of
hydrogen ions that are combined with the anion.
1. When the name of the anion (X) ends in –ide, the acid name begins with the
The rules that used to named an acid with the general formula HnX.
prefix hydro-.
1. When The stem
the name of theofanion
anion (X)
has ends
the suffix –ic and
in –ide, is followed
the acid name by the word
acid.
begins with the prefix hydro-. The stem of anion has the suffix
2. When–ic and is followed
the anion by the
name ends wordthe
in –ite, acid.
acid name is the stem of the anion with
2. When the anion name ends in –ite, the acid name is the stem
the suffix –ous, followed by the word acid.
of the anion with the suffix –ous, followed by the word acid.
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem of the anion with
3. When the anion name ends in –ate, the acid name is the stem
of the–ic
the suffix followed
anion withbythethesuffix acid.followed by the word acid.
word –ic
Table 3.2 Naming of common acids
Anion Example Acid name Example
ending
-ide Chloride, Cl- Hydro-(stem)-ic acid HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
-ite Sulfite, SO32- (Stem)-ous acid H2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
-ate Nitrate, NO3- (stem)-ic acid HNO3 (Nitric acid)
Sulphate, SO42- (stem)-ic acid H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
Bases are are
Bases named in the
named same
in the wayway
same as other ionicionic
as other compounds: the name
compounds: of the cation is
the name
of thebycation
followed is followed
the name byi.e.
of the anion name of the anion i.e. hydroxide.
thehydroxide.
Examples:
Examples:
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide), NH4OH
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide), NH4OH (ammonium
(ammonium hydroxide)
hydroxide)
Exercise 3.11
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions. 53
68
 General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Exercise 3.11
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define the following terms and give some examples for each.
1. Define the following terms and give some examples for each.
a. Acid b. Base
a. Acid b. Base
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?
2. Which ion is a characteristic of all acids in water solution?
3. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise book.
3. Copy and complete the following table in your exercise book.

Name Formula Name Formula

Hydrochloric acid Calcium hydroxide
HNO3 KOH
Sulfuric acid NaOH

Acid – Base Indicators

Acid – Base Indicators
Acid-base indicatorsare dyes extracted from plants that show the presence of an acid or
Acid-base indicators are dyes extracted from plants that show the
a base by undergoing specific color changes when placed in a solution. Litmus, methyl
presence of an acid or a base by undergoing specific color changes
orange and phenolphthalein are common indicators.
when placed in a solution. Litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein
Properties of acids and bases
are common indicators.
Properties of Acids Properties of acids and bases
Acids generally of
Properties have the following properties:
Acids
Acids generally
1.Acids have a sour have
taste the following properties:
2. Acids change have
1. Acids the colour of indicators
a sour taste
Experiment 3.3
2. Acids change the colour of indicators
Title: Effect of acids on acid-base indicators
Objective:
ExperimentTo investigate
3.3 the effect of dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid on the
Title:
colors of litmus
Effectpaper, phenolphthalein
of acids and methyl
on acid-base orange.
indicators
Objective:
Materials required:
To investigate
Blue and red the effect
litmus of phenolphthalein,
papers, dilute hydrochloric
methyl acid
orange,and
test
sulphuric
tubes, test tube acid on the
rack, dilute colors
solutions of litmus acid
of hydrochloric paper,
and phenolphthalein
sulphuric acid. and
methyl orange.
Procedure:
Materials required:
1. Label three Blue and red litmus papers, phenolphtha-
clean test tubes.
lein, methyl
2. Pour about 5orange, testH2tubes,
mL of dilute SO4 into test
three tube rack, dilute solutions of
test tubes.
hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid. 69

54
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Procedure:
1. Label three clean test tubes.
2. Pour about 5 mL of dilute H2SO4 into three test tubes.
3. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red
litmus papers turn by turn into it and see if there is any colour
change.
3. Hold the first test tube in inclined position and put blue and red litmus papers turn
4. by
Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops
turn into it and see if there is any colour change.
of methyl orange in the third and observe if there is colour
4. Add few drops of phenolphthalein in the second and few drops of methyl orange
change.
in the third and observe if there is colour change.
5. Repeat the above procedure using dilute HCl and HNO3
5. Repeat the above procedure using dilute HCl and HNO3 solution.
solution.
Observation and analysis:
Observation and analysis:
Record your findings in the following table.
Record your findings in the following table.
Acid Color of the indicator in the acid solution
Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Dilute H2SO4
Dilute HCl
Diluted HNO3
Write a laboratory report in groups and submit it to your teacher.

3. Reaction of Acids with metals

3. Reaction of Acids with metals
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and
Dilute acids react with active metals like zinc, magnesium, iron and aluminum to form
aluminum to form salts and liberate hydrogen gas.
salts and liberate hydrogen gas.
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Active Metal + Dilute Acid →Salt + Hydrogen
Example
Example
Ca + 2HCl →CaCl2 + H2
Ca + 2HCl →CaCl2 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2
Experiment 3.4
Title: Reaction of an acid with a
metal
Objective: To investigate the reaction
of zinc metal with hydrochloric acid. 55
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.4

Title: Reaction of an acid with a metal

Objective: To investigate the reaction of zinc metal with hydrochloric
acid.
Materials required: Test tube, narrow jet test tube, candle, cork, zinc
metal, dilute HCl, lighter or match, steel wool, and stand and clamp.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.5.
2. Pour about 5 mL of dilute HCl into a test tube.
3. Clean a piece of zinc with the steel wool until it is shiny.
4. Add zinc to the test tube containing dilute HCl, close the test
tube with a cork, deep narrow jet tube through cork and record
your observations.
5. Light a candle using lighter or match and bring near the lighted
candle in to the mouth of the narrow jet tube.
6. Repeat the above procedure using dilute sulphuric acid solution.

Figure 3.5 Reaction of Zn with HCl

Observation and analysis:
a. Why was the piece of zinc cleaned with steel wool?
b. What happens when you drop zinc metal into the test tube
containing dilute HCl?
c. How do you know that a gas is produced in the reaction?

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

d. What is the colour of the gas?

e. What happens when the lighted candle is brought near the
mouth of the narrow jet tube?
f. Write the chemical equation for the reaction between:
i. Zinc and hydrochloric acid.
ii. Zinc and sulphuric acid.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present to the rest of the class.
4. Reaction of Acids with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates
Acids react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salts,
water and carbon dioxide gas.
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Example
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) →CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Example
Acid + Hydrogen carbonate →Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
H2SO4 (aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) →CaSO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2CO2 (g)
Experiment 3.5
Title:Reactions of acids with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Objective: To investigate the reactions of carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Materials required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid,
calcium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, test tubes, test tube
rack, lime water (calcium hydroxide solution), spatula, and rubber
stopper.
Procedure:
1. Using a spatula, add calcium carbonate powder or a lump of
calcium carbonate into the first test tube and 5 mL of lime water
into the second test tube.
2. Add 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid into a test tube containing
calcium carbonate cover its mouth with rubber stopper
immediately and hold it in inclined position.
3. Bring the mouth of the test tube containing lime water with
your other hand holding it in an inclined position closer to that
of the test tube which you covered with rubber stopper.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

4. Remove the stopper so that the gas produced can escape into
the test tube containing lime water. Shake the test tube and see
if there is any colour change.
5. Repeat the above procedure using sodium hydrogen carbonate
and dilute sulphuric acid.
Observation and analysis:
a. Is there formation of bubbles in step 2?
b. If yes, what does the formation of bubbles indicate?
c. What happens to the lime water used in step 4? Why is that so?
d. Write the equation for the reaction:
1.between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate.
2.between sodium hydrogen carbonate and sulphuric acid.
3.that occurs in step 4.
5.Acids neutralize bases.
Acids react with bases and basic oxides to form salts and water.
Acid + Base →Salt + Water.
Examples:
2HCl + Ca(OH)2→CaCl2 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
The reaction of an acid with a base is called neutralization reaction.

Experiment 3.6
Title: Neutralizing effect of an acid on a base.
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of sulphuric acid on
sodium hydroxide.
Materials required: Dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide
solution, conical flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp,
measuring cylinder, blue and red litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 3.6
2. Fill the burette with dilute hydrochloric acid.
3. Measure 20 mL of sodium hydroxide solution, pour it into a
conical flask and add about five drops of phenolphthalein.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

4. Open the stop cock of the burette; add hydrochloric acid to the
sodium hydroxide solution with your one hand, while shaking
the conical flask with your other hand.
5. When the colour begins to disappear, add the acid drop by drop
shaking the flask continuously.
6. When the colour disappears, completely, close the stop cock
of the burette immediately and check the solution in the conical
flask using blue and red litmus papers

Burette

Stand

Clamp
Stop cock
Conical flask

Figure 3.6 Neutralization reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide

Observation and analysis

a. What colour appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the
solution in the conical flask in step 3.
b. Why does the colour disappear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the colour of either
blue or red litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that takes
place in this experiment.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the
rest of the class.

Properties of Bases
1. Bases have bitter taste.
2. Effect on acid-base indicators
Alkalis change the colour of indicators.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook
Title: The effect of a base on indicators
Experiment
Objective: 3.7the effect of a base on indicators
To study
Title: The
Materials effect of
required: Reda base on indicators
and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein solution, methyl
Objective:
orange, dilutedTo studyhydroxide
sodium the effect of a base
(NaOH) on indicators
solution, test tubes, test tube holder and test
Materials required: Red and blue litmus papers; phenolphthalein
tube rack.
solution, methyl orange, diluted sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution,
Procedure:
test tubes, test tube holder and test tube rack.
1. Take four clean test tubes.
Procedure:
2.1.
Add Take
aboutfour clean
5 mL NaOH testsolution
tubes.in each of the
2. testAdd
tubesabout 5 mL
and label NaOH
the test tubessolution
as 1, 2, 3, in
and 4
aseach
shownofinthe test3.7.
Figure tubes and label the test
3. Puttubes as 1,paper,
red litmus 2, 3, and 4 as shown
blue litmus paper, 2indrops
Figure 3.7. Figure 3.7 Testing
of phenolphthalein solution and 2 drops of methyl
3. Put red litmus paper, blue litmus paper, the effect of a base on
orange solution in test tubes 1, 2, 3 and Figure 4, 3.7 Testing the effect of a base
2 drops of phenolphthalein solution on indicators
and 2 drops of methyl orange solution in indicators
respectively. test tubes 1, 2, 3 and
4, respectively.
4. Observe the colour change and record your
4.observation.
Observe the colour change and record your observation.
5.5. Repeat
Repeat the above
the above procedure
procedure usingsolution.
using ammonia ammonia solution.
Observation
Observation and and analysis:
analysis:
a. Record your findings in the following table.
a. Record your findings in the following table.
Base Color of the indicator in the base solution
Red litmus Blue litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange
Dilute NaOH
NH4OH solution
b. What do you conclude from this experiment?
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the rest of the class.
3. Bases neutralize acids.
3. Bases neutralize acids.
Bases react with acids (acidic oxides) to form salt and water.
Bases react with acids (acidic oxides) to form salt and water.
Base + Acid →Salt + Water 75

Example
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4→CaSO4 + 2H2O

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Experiment 3.8
Title: Neutralizing effect of a base on an acid
Objective: To investigate the neutralizing effect of sodium hydroxide
on hydrochloric acid.
Materials required: Sodium hydroxide solution, hydrochloric acid,
conical flask, phenolphthalein, burette, stand, clamp, measuring
cylinder, blue and red litmus papers.
Procedure:
1. Set-up the apparatus as shown Burette
in Figure 3.8.
2. Fill the burette with sodium
hydroxide. Stand
3. Measure 20 mL of hydrochloric
Clamp
acid solution, pour into a Stop cock
conical flask and add five drops Conical flask
of phenolphthalein.
4. Open the stop cock of the Figure 3.8 Neutralization reactions of
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
burette; add sodium hydroxide
to the acid solution with your one hand, and shaking the conical
flask with the other hand.
5. When the colour begins to appear, add the base drop by drop
and shaking the flask continuously.
6.When the colour becomes intense, close the stop cock of the
burette immediately and check the solution in the conical flask using
blue and red litmus papers.
Observation and analysis:
a. What colour appeared when phenolphthalein is added to the
solution in the conical flask in step 3?
b. Why does the colour appear in step 6?
c. Does the solution obtained in step 6 affect the colour of blue or
red litmus paper?
d. Write the balanced equation for the reaction that take place in
this experiment.
Write a laboratory report in groups and present your findings to the
rest of the class.
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Project work
Preparation of natural indicator from beetroot
How do you prepare your own indicator using beetroot at home? Ex-
plain.
Hint:-
Materials you will need:
Beetroot 2-3, knife, water, spoon, boiler, lemon juice (citric acid)
Procedure:
1. Take some beetroots, wash them and peel them with the help of
a knife.
2. Chop or cut the beetroot into pieces.
3. Put these pieces into a boiler and boil it 30-60 minutes.
4. Filter and collect only juice.
5. Add 5 to 6 drops of beetroot juice to lemon juice and mix it.
Observation and analysis
1. What colour is appear in step 5?
2. Why the colour of orange juice changed after the addition of
beetroot juice?
3. Is your indicator effective?
4. What do you conclude from this project work?discuss the
characteristics of a good indicator.
Write your report in groups and present your findings to the rest of
the class.
Precautions while Working with Acids and Bases
Safety Precautions while Working with Acids
Acids can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe eye injury or
blindness if splashed in your eyes. If taken by mouth, they will cause
severe internal irritation and damage. Especially hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid are dangerous, poisonous and corrosive.
Therefore, they must be handled with great care.
The following measures are immediately taken if a concentrated acid
is spilled on your skin, enter your eyes or accidentally drink.
• If a concentrated acid is spilled or splashed on your skin, wash
thoroughly the affected part with water, and then wash it with 10%

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Na2CO3 solution.
• If an acid enters your eye, wash thoroughly with water for a long
time and then seek medical treatment.
• If you accidentally drink corrosive acids, take a base such as
Mg(OH)2 which is available in the pharmacy to neutralize the
acid.
Safety Precautions while Working with Bases
Just like acids, bases can cause severe burns to exposed skin or severe
eye injury or blindness if enters in your eyes. For example, NaOH and
KOH are corrosive and poisonous. Therefore, they must be handled
with great care and you have to avoid contact with your skin and
other parts of your body while working with bases.
The following measures are useful if a concentrated base is spilled on
your skin or enters your eyes.
• If a base is spilled on your skin, wash the affected area with plenty
of water and then treat the affected part with a weak acid such as
dilute acetic acid to neutralize the base.
• If a base comes into contact with your eyes, wash the eyes with
plenty of cold water and advice medical doctor.
• If you drink a base by accident, neutralize it by drinking 1 – 2%
dilute solution of acetic acid or lemon juice and then seek medical
treatment.
• If a base is spilled on your working table wipe the spillage
immediately.
• Whenever bases are splashed on your cloth wash the affected part
with running tap water.
Activity 3.10
In this activity you are expected to perform the following task
in groups by reading different chemistry reference books. After
the discussion, present the group’s opinion to the class.
Write laboratory safety rules dealing with the handling of
acids and alkalis.

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Exercise 3.12
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. Define acid-base indicator.
2. Write the colour of each of the following indicators in acidic
and basic solution.
a. Litmus paper b. Methyl orange c. Phenolphthalein
3. Complete and balance the following reactions:
a. 2HNO3 + Na2CO3 →
b. 2NaOH + H2SO4 →
c. 2HCl + Zn →
4. What measures should you take if:
a. a base enters your eyes?
b. you accidentally drink an acid?

3.4 Neutralization Reaction and Salts

After completing this section, you will be able to:
• identify some everyday uses of neutralization;
• define and give examples of salts;
• name and write formulas for some common salts using the
periodic table, a list of ions, and rules for naming salts.
The reaction of acids with basic oxides or bases to form salt and water
is called neutralization reaction.
Applications of Neutralization in Daily Life
Activity 3.11
Form a group and perform the following activity. After the discussion,
present the group’s opinion to the class.
1. What are the important uses of neutralization in daily life?
2. Why our hairs get rough after applying shampoo and again
turn shiny after we add conditioner?

In our everyday life we come across many situations which involve

neutralization reactions. The following examples will illustrate
common neutralization reactions that occur around us.
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Neutralization at Home
• Toothpaste contains bases that neutralize the acid produced by
bacteria in our mouth.
• Baking powder is usually used to help the cake rise.
• Conditioner is used with shampoo to prevent small scales on hair
which make your hair unmanageable.
Neutralization in Health
• Antiacids contains bases such as aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3
and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2 to neutralize the excess
acid in the stomach.
• Vinegar is acidic in nature which is used to cure wasp stings that
are alkaline in nature.
• Baking powder is alkaline which is used to cure bee stings and ant
bites that are acidic in nature.
Neutralization in Agriculture
• Acidic soil is treated with powdered lime, CaO, limestone, CaCO3
or ashes of burnt wood.
• The acidic gas from the decomposition of compost neutralizes the
alkalis in basic soil.

Project Work
Collect different soil samples from different locations and measure
their PH values. Which soil sample is more acidic and how to prepare
the soil to produce good yields of crops? Write your report in groups
and present your findings to the rest of the class.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Salts
What are salts?
The term ‘salt’ does not refer only to the table salt which we use to
make our food. Salts are group of chemicals that are obtained by the
reactions of acids and bases. These reactions are called neutralization
reactions.
Salt is defined as a compound consisting of the positive ion of a base
and the negative ion of an acid. The positive ion in the salt can be that
ofSalt
a metal ionasora ammonium
is defined ion. Sodium
compound consisting chloride
of the positive ion (NaCl),
of a base calcium
and the negative
carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium bicarbonate
ion of an acid. The positive ion in the salt can be that of a metal ion or ammonium ion.
(NaHCO3), diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) are examples of
Sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium
salts.
bicarbonate (NaHCO3), diammonium phosphate ((NH4)2HPO4) are examples of salts.
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts
Naming and Writing Formula of Salts
Activity 3.12
Activity 3.12
Form groups and discuss the following activity. After the group dis-
cussion,Form groups and discuss the following. After the group discussion,
choose a group representative to present the group’s opin-
rest aofgroup
choose
ion to the representative
class.Write names to present the group‘s
and formulas of opinion to the rest
some common
salts. of class.
Write names and formulas of some common salts.
The
The group namesofofsalts
group names salts
areare related
related to names
to the the names
of the of thefrom
acids acidswhich
fromthey are
which
derived.they are derived.
Table 3.5 Names of some acids and group names of their salts
Name of the acid Group name of salt Example of salt
Carbonic acid, H2CO3 Carbonates, CO32- Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
-
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Chlorides, Cl Sodium chloride, NaCl
Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 Sulphates, SO42- Calcium sulphate, CaSO4
Nitric acid, HNO3 Nitrates, NO3- Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

The
The name
name ofofa a salt
salt is derived
is derived from from the of
the names names of two
two parts. The parts. The
first part firstfrom the
comes
part comes from the base. The second part comes from the acid. You
base. The second part comes from the acid. You can always work out the name of the
can always work out the name of the salt by looking at the reactants.
salt by looking at the reactants. As illustrative examples, see the following chemical
As illustrative examples, see the following chemical equations:
equations:
66 + Water
Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium chloride (salt)
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word ‗sodium‘ from the
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Sodium hydroxide (base) + Hydrochloric acid (acid) → Sodium

chloride (salt) + Water
The name of the salt sodium chloride is obtained by taking the word
‘sodium’ from the name of the base and ‘chloride’ from the name of
the acid by dropping the word ‘hydro’ and changing the ending ‘-ic
acid’ to ‘-ide’.
Follow the following simple rules to write the formula of salts.
1. Break the name of the salt up into the name of the cation (positive
ion) which is derived from base and the name of anion (negative ion)
which is derived from acid.
2. Use the cation’s name to determine the formula for the cation and
anion’s name determine the formula for anion.
3. Now criss cross the charges and put the numbers below the formulas.
Example:
a. Write the formula of Calcium carbonate.
1. Name of cation is calcium and name of anion is carbonate.
2. Formula or symbol of cation is Ca2+ and anion is CO32-
Ca2+Ca CO 2-
2- 3
3. Ca2+ Co32- = Ca2(CO3)2 , Simplify and write the simplest
2+
CO
3

formula of the salt.Thus, the formula of calcium carbonate is CaCO3

Exercise 3.13
Give the appropriate answers for the following questions.
1. What are the applications of neutralization in everyday life?
2. Write the formula of the following salts.
A. Sodium chloride B. Potassium nitrate
C. Calcium carbonate

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 1. What are the applications of neutralization in everyday life?
2. Write
General Science GRADE 8
the formula of the following salts. Student TextBook
a. Sodium chloride b. Potassium nitrate c. Calcium carbonate
Uses of Some Salts
Uses of Some Salts
Activity 3.13 Activity 3.13
In
In this activityyou
this activity youareare expected
expected to perform
to perform the following
the following tasks intasks in by
groups
groups
reading by reading
different different
chemistry chemistry
reference reference books.
books.
1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required
1. Prepare a table as shown below and fill in with required information.
information. Prepare five minutes presentation on the uses of the
Prepare five minutes presentation on the uses of the salts listed below.
salts listed below.
Name of the salt Formula of the salt Uses
Sodium chloride
Sodium bicarbonate 83

Potassium nitrate

Key Terms

• Acid • Base • Neutralization

• Acidic oxide • Basic oxide • Non-metallic oxide
• Alkali • Hydrocarbon • Organic compound
• Alkane • Indicator • Oxide
• Alkene • Inorganic compound • Salt
• Alkyne • Metallic oxide

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

SUMMARY
• Chemical compounds can be broadly divided into two groups
called organic and inorganic compounds.
• Organic compounds contain primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms,
plus nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and atoms of other elements except
the oxides of carbon, carbonates, and hydrogen carbonates.
• Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only.
• Hydrocarbons are classified as alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
• Alkanes (paraffins) have the general formula CnH2n+2 where n = 1,
2,3,…
• Alkenes (olefins) have the general formula CnH2n where n = 2, 3,
4, ….
• Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2 where n = 2, 3, 4, ….
• Inorganic compounds are non-carbon containing compounds
except the oxides of carbon, carbonates, and hydrogen carbonates.
• Inorganic compounds are classified as oxides, acids, bases, and
salts.
• Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen and any other
element such as metal, non-metal or metalloid.
• Oxides are classified as acidic and basic oxides depending on their
properties.
• Acidic oxides are non-metallic oxide that reacts with water to form
acidic solution.
• Basic oxides are metallic oxide that reacts with water to form basic
solution.
• Acids are compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when
dissolved in water.
• Alkalis are substances that release hydroxide (OH–) ions in aqueous
solution.
• Bases are compounds that neutralize acids to form salt and water.

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• An alkali is a substance that releases hydroxide ions in aqueous

solution.
• Acids and bases are dangerous and corrosive. Therefore, they
must be handled with great care and you have to avoid contact
with your skin and other parts of your body while working with
bases and acids.
• Indicator is a substance that indicates whether a solution is acidic
or basic by undergoing specific color changes when placed in a
solution.
• Neutralization is the reaction of acids with bases to form salt and
water.
• Neutralization is very important in our daily life. For example, at
home, in health and in agriculture.
• Salts are compounds that contain positive ions derived from bases
and negative ions derived from acids.
• The names of inorganic compounds can be deduced from a set of
simple rules. The formulas can be written from the names of the
compounds.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

REVIEW EXERCISE
I. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives for each
of the following questions.
1. Which of the following is the first organic compound synthesized
from inorganic compounds?
A. NH4CNO B. (NH2)2CO
C. AgCNO D. NH4Cl
2. All of the following compounds are hydrocarbons except:
A. ethane B. ethene
C. ethyne D. alcohol
3. The general formula of alkene is:
A. CnH2n B. CnH2n+2
C. CnH2n-2 D. CnH2n+1
4. Which one of the following formula represents an alkene containing
eight carbon atoms?
A. C8H8 B. C8H16
C. C8H18 D. C8H14
5. Which of the following formula represents an alkane containing
six carbon atoms?
A. C6H12 B. C6H14
C. C6H10 D. C6H13
6. The general formula of alkyne is:
A. CnH2n B. CnH2n+2
C. CnH2n-2 D. CnH2n+1
7. Which of the following compound is found in all alcoholic
beverages?
A. Ethanol B. Formalin
C. Butanol D. Propanol
8. Which of the following compounds can be used for oxyacetylene
torch?
A. Propane B. Ethene
C. Ethyne D. Acetic acid

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9. The characteristic property of a base is due to the presence of:

A. hydride ions B. hydroxide ions
C. hydrogen ions D. all
10.Which of the following is an example of acidic oxide?
A. Sulphur dioxide B. Calcium oxide
C. Barium oxide D. Sodium oxide
11. Which of the following is an example of basic oxide?
A. SO3 B. N2O5
C. P4O6 D. Na2O
12. Which of the following oxides reacts with water to form an acidic
solution?
A. CaO B. Na2O
C. CO2 D. NO
13. Which one of the following statements is true about oxides?
A. Oxides are binary compounds containing oxygen.
B. All non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides.
C. All metallic oxides are basic oxides.
D. all
14. What is the missing product ‘X’ and ‘Y’ in the following equation?
NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) →X + Y
A. Na2SO4, H2O
B. Na2SO4, H2
C. NaCl, H2O
D. Na2SO4
15. Which of the following salts is used as making gun powder?
A. NaCl B. NaHCO3
C. CaCO3 D. KNO3
16. Which one of the following cannot be used for neutralizes the
acidic soil?
A. CaO B. CaCl2
C. CaCO3 D. Ca(OH)2

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17. Nitrates are salts of:

A. Hydrochloric acid B. Sulphuric acid
C. Phosphoric acid D. Nitric acid
II. Give short answers for each of the following questions.
18. Give the name of:
a. an alkyne containing 10 hydrogen atoms.
b. an alkene containing 10 carbon atoms.
c. an alkane containing 8 carbon atoms.
19. Write the molecular formula of:
a. Nonane b. Heptene c. Decyne
20. Define the following words:
a. Organic compound
b. Hydrocarbon
c. Inorganic compound
d. Acid
e. Base
f. Salt
21. Write the formulas of the following compounds.
a. Nitric acid b. Sodium sulphate c. Potassium hydroxide
22. Write the names of the following compounds.
a. H2SO4
b. Ca(OH)2
c. KNO3

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

UNIT FOUR
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS AND HEALTH

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• list down the major organs that constitute the human body
systems;
• explain the main functions of the major human body systems.
• list down the main diseases or disorders associated with the
major human body systems;
• discuss the effects of diseases of the major human body
systems;

Main contents

4.1 Integumentary System

4.2 Muscular System
4.3 Skeletal System
4.4 Digestive System
4.5 Respiratory System
4.6 Circulatory System
4.7 Reproductive System

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Introduction
Human body parts must be keeping healthy by take care with
different methods. In human there are different types of body systems
with specific types of functions like that of integumentary systems,
muscular systems, skeletal systems and so on. In this unit you will
learn about the components, function and disease or disorders of
some types of human body systems.
4.1 Integumentary Systems

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• distinguish the major structural components of human
integumentary system;
• describe the main functions of human integumentary sytem;
• explain, by giving examples, how structure and function are
related;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated
with human integumentary system.

Key term:-
Wax:- substance produce in ear and prevent entrance of dust and
pathogens in to ear.

Did you know?

Skin is body’s largest and heaviest organ covers 1.5 to 2m2; composes
15% of body weight.

Activity 4.1:-
Identify and discuss on the parts of integumentary systems
- The teacher show for you the charts of integumentary systems.
- Then, present your observation results for the class mate

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

What are integumentary systems?

The integumentary systems are the organ of the body that forms a
physical barrier between the external environment and the internal
body part that it serves to protect and maintain. The integumentary
system includes the skin, associated glands, hair, and nails.
4.1.1 Components of integumentary system
The integumentary systems are the human body systems that
used to perform different types of functions such as protection
and excretions. These systems have some components like skin,
hair, nail, and glands.

Table 4.1: parts of integumentary systems and their functions

Parts Functions
Skin covers the internal parts of the body
Hair keeps your skull warm,beauty in women
Nail Protect inner part of finger and toe
Glands Secret important substances

Key term:
Thermoregulation:- The process of temperature regulations in body.

Activity 4.2
Discuses on the layers of human skin
In groups discuss on skin layer and their functions
-and then present for the class mate.

1. Skin: -
The skin is the outer layer of the body that covers the internal parts of
the body. Human skin has three major layers. These are:-

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

A. Upper layer
This layer is the outer most layer of the skin and called epidermis which
is made up of dead cells. These used to reduce excess water loss, protect
from light ray (UV light) and entry of disease causing microorganisms.
B. Middle layer
This layer is the dermis which containing blood vessel (which are
responsible for thermoregulation), lymph vessel, sweat gland, sensory
receptors and hair follicles.
C. Lower layer
This layer of skin also called hypodermis, which contains fatty
tissue that used to store energy and act as an insulation layer that
means protecting you from loss of excess heat.

Figure 4.1 Layers of human skin

2.Hair: -
Hair come from follicles, which are simple organs made up of cell called
epithelial cells. Hair is made up of different structures and layers. The
outer layer of hair is shaft that made up of dead cell that turned in to
keratin and binding materials.The hair shaft is formed from three layers.
A. Medulla: deepest layer of hair shaft, only seen in large and thick
hairs.
B. Cortex: middle layer of hair shaft which provide strength, color
and texture of hair fibre.
C. Cuticle: outer layer of hair shaft is thin and colorless. It serves
as protection of the cortex. These hairs are used to help protect the
skin, regulate body temperature, and lend itself to the evaporation and
perspiration process.

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Figure 4.2 layers of hair shaft

3. Nail: It is the hard covering at the end of the finger or toe. Like
other body parts, it consists of several parts including:
• The nail plate: The part of the nail that is visible.
• The nail bed: The skin that lies beneath the nail plate.
• The cuticle: The thin line of tissue that is located at the base of the
nail and overlaps the nail plate.
• The nail folds: The folds of the skin located on the sides of
the nail plate.
• The lunula: The white-colored half-moon-shaped area.
• The matrix: Part of the nail that is not visible, located underneath
the cuticle, this is the area responsible for the growth of the fingernail.

Figure 4.3 structures of human nail

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4. Gland: is an organ that make one or more sustances such as hormone

digestive juice, sweat, tear, saliva or milk. Integumentary systems have
four types of exocrine glands, that secrete some type of substances out-
side the cell and body. These includes
• Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands that are hollow, cylindrical under
skin, that excrete sweat through small opening at the skin surface.
• Sebaceous glands: very small tubular shaped glands in dermis which
used to release oil in to the hair follicle to help lubricate and protect
the hair shaft, keeping it from becoming hard and brittle.
• Ceruminous glands: located in ear canal and it produce ear wax
(medically coined cerumen) for protections.
• Mammary glands: In female, the gland functions to produce breast
• milk after giving birth.
Key term:-
Exocrine gland:-a gland that release their secretion through ducts or
openings.

Exercise 4.1
Part I:choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is not parts of integumentary
A/ hair B/ skin C/ glands D/ nail E/ kidney
2. The outer layer of the human body is _______
A/ gland B/ skin C/ nail D/ all
3. The middle layer of the skin is ________
A/ dermis B/ hypodermis C/ epidermis D/ endodermis
4. Layers of skin that made from dead cell are called ________
A/ upper layer B/ lower layer C/ meddle layer D/ all
5. The outer layers of the hair is ________
A/ medulla B/ cuticle C/ cortex D/ none
Part II: describe briefly
1. Briefly describe the structural components of the integumentary
systems with their functions.
2. List the functions of the sweat glands.

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4.1.2. Functions of Integumentary Systems

The skin is remarkably complex organ which carries out a number
of important functions in your body. Some of these functions are,
include serving as an enclosing barrier and providing environmental
protection, regulating temperature, producing pigment and vitamin
D, sensory perception and homeostasis. Besides the skin also contain
many numbers of sense organ which are sense of touch, temperature,
pressure and pain.
The primary function of human hair is to insulate the human body.
It does this in two ways. First it serves as a physical barrier between
external cold air and the skin, and in the second it also traps warm air
in between the skin and the hair, keeping the body warmer. The nail
used to protecting the upper end of each finger and toe of humans
and most other organisms from injury and also used for sensation
with sense of touch.Glands in the body are used to secret different
chemicals. Some types of glands are used to excrete wastes, cooling
down the body, release oil in to the hair follicle, produce ear wax for
protections, and also used to produce breast milk for feeding the baby.
Activity 4.3
Brainstorming on the disease of the skin
Procedure:-
• make a groups and list skin diseases from you personal
knowledge
• and then list them for the class mate students.

4.1.3. Major Skin Diseases and Disorders

Skin diseases are a broad range of conditions affecting the skin, and include
diseases caused by bacterial infections, viral infections, fungal infections,
allergic reactions, skin cancers, and parasites.
Skin disorders vary greatly in symptoms and severity. They can be
temporary or permanent, and may be painless or painful. While most skin
disorders are minor, others can indicate a more serious issue. There are
many different types of skin disorders. Here is some list:

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• Acne:
Commonly located on faces, neck, shoulders, chest, and upper back.
May leave scars or darken the skin if untreated. Its symptoms are tips,
large, solid, painful,lump under the skin. Caused by when the pores
of your skin become blocked with oil, dead skin or bacteria

Figure 4.4 Acne

• Rosacea:
The skin condition rosacea is most commonly associated with
redness. However, there are four sub types that cause other
symptoms as well.

Figure 4.5 rosacea

• Eczema:
These are the range of persistent skin conditions. These includes
dryness and recurring skin rashes that characterized by red ness, skin
swelling, itching and dryness, crusting, cracking or bleeding etc.

Figure 4.6 Eczema

• Hives:
Hives are itchy welts that are raised up from the normal layer of the skin.
It is frequently caused by allergic reactions in the body but it also
caused by outside factors such as stress, illnesses, or tight clothes.

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Figure 4.7 Hives

• Warts:
It typically occurred on humans’ hands or feet but often in other
locations. It caused by viral infections especially by human
papilloma virus (HPV). They often go away on their own, though
unsightly warts can be treated with liquid nitrogen or medicated creams.

Figure 4.8 Warts

• Cold sore:
A cold sore is a red, fluid-filled blister usually found near the mouth.
The sore itself is painful or delicate. Other symptoms include itching
or burning sensations on the site before the sore is visible. Cold sores
are caused by the herpes simplex virus, and there is no known cure
for the virus.

Figure 4.9 Cold sore

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• Carbuncle:
When Staphylococcus aureus bacteria make their way into the hair
follicles and cause an infection, a carbuncle is produced. This is a
red, irritated lump underneath the skin. Carbuncles can be nearly any
size, and the lump quickly fills with pus and becomes swollen. Other
symptoms include tiredness, itching on the site of the lump, and fever.
Carbuncles are treated with antibiotics and antibacterial washes.

Figure 4.10 Carbuncle

• Blister:
A blister is a bubble of fluid under the skin. The clear, watery liquid
inside a blister is called serum. If the blister remains unopened,serum
can provide natural protection for the skin beneath it. Blisters exactly
heal by
1. Wash hand and blister by soap warm water
2. Swap blister by iodine
3. Sterilize clean, sharp needle with rubbing alcohol etc.

Figure 4.11 Blister

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• Actinic keratosis:
An actinic keratosis is a rough, scaly patch on the skin that develops
from years of sun exposure. It’s often found on the face, lips, ears,
forearms, scalp, neck or back of the hands.

Figure 4.12 Actinic keratosis

• Latex allergy:
Latex allergy is a reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber
latex, a product made from the rubber tree. Latex allergy may cause
itchy skin and hives or even anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening
condition that can cause throat swelling and severe difficulty breathing.

Figure 4.13 Latex allergy

• Chickenpox:
Chickenpox consists of an itchy, red rash that breaks out on the face, scalp,
chest, back and, to a lesser extent, arms and legs. The spots quickly fill
with a clear fluid, rupture and then turn crusty. Chickenpox is an infection
caused by the varicella-zoster virus.

Figure 4.14:- Chickenpox

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Exercise 4.2
Part: I: choose the best answer from the given alternative
1. Which of the following is outer layer of skin?
A. lower B. hypodermis C. epidermis D. dermis
2. The outer layer of the body is called ______
A. lung B. hair C. skin D. gland
3. Which one of the following is not used to prevent skin diseases?
A. washing B. keep skin moist C. avoid smoking
D. good sanitations E. none
4.___is a skin disease and characterized by bubble of fluid under
the skin
A. hives B. rosacea C. cold sore D. blister

Activity 4.4:
1. Compare and contrast in your groups on the severity of different
skin diseases.
2. What do you do, if your skin color is changed to redness?
3. How you take care about your skin?

4.2 Muscular System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• distinguish the major structural components of human muscular
system;
• describe the main functions of human muscular system;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated
with human muscular system.

What are muscular systems?

Muscles are tissues that composed of cells that are called muscle fibers.
Muscles can be used to perform different types of body movements like
pumping blood, stability, posture, digestions, circulations, breathing
air in and out etc. Muscular systems are the collection of systems.

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Figure 4.15 Muscular structures of human

4.2.1. Components of Muscular System

There are three distinct components of muscular systems these are
skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated)
muscles
Skeletal muscle
What are skeletal muscles?
Skeletal muscles are the only muscles that can be consciously or
voluntarily controlled. They are contracting the muscles causes’
movement of those bones. E.g chewing, talking, facial expressions,
drinking. They found attached to the end bone.
Smooth muscle
What are muscular muscles?
Smooth muscle lines the inside of vital organ blood vessels, eye, air-
way and organs such as the stomach, digestive, reproductive, urinary
tracts, and others. Smooth muscle acts involuntarily and cannot be
consciously controlled.

Key term:
Auto rhythmic:- capable of contracting spontaneously without
hormonal control.

Cardiac muscle
What are cardiac muscle?
Located only in the heart, cardiac muscle pumps blood around the
body by involuntary action. They are auto rhythmic. Cardiac muscle
stimulates its own contractions that form our heartbeat.

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Did you know?

The muscles account for around
40 percent of a person’s weight
with the largest muscle in the
body being the gluteus Maximus
in the buttocks.

Figure 4.16 human muscle

Activity 4.5:
Discuss on the properties of muscle cell
Procedure: discuss in groups about the property of muscle cell
- Then present your results for the class

Exercise 4.3
Part I: describe briefly the following questions
1. Brainstorming and list on the structure and functions of muscle
cell from previous class.
2. List some types and functions of your muscle from your previous
class.
3. Identify special properties of muscle cell that allow movements.
4. Discuss and mention in your groups about muscle disease from
your experiences.

4.2.2 Function of Muscular Systems

The muscular system consists of various types of muscle that each
plays a crucial role in the function of the body. Muscles allow a person
to move, speak, and chew. They control heartbeat, breathing, and
digestion. All muscles cells can share the different types of properties
for functions and used commonly by each muscles. Some of these
properties are:-

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• Contractility: is the ability of muscle cells to forcefully shorten.

In order to contract or flex the angle of your joint is decrease then
your elbow contract or shorten. Then your muscle can only pull
but never push.
• Extensibility: is the power of the muscle to be stretched. In human
body the extensibility of muscle is very high at the age of adults.
But when the age goes up extensibility reduced and it is called
spasticity.
• Excitability: is ability of muscle to give response to stimuli which
come from motor neuron and hormone.
• Elasticity: it is the quality or state of being elastic and capability
of strained body to recover its size and shape after deformations.

Activity 4.6:-
1. Discuses on the disorders of the muscle
2. What happen on the muscle when the age of human is increased?
Procedures: discuss in groups and present for class mate students.
• Explain briefly in your groups and present in class

4.2.3. Major Muscle Disease and Disorders

Muscle Disorders are the diseases that affect the human muscle system
and their main manifestation is skeletal muscle weakness. They can
be caused by different types of factors and make the muscle weak and
reduction of its strengths. There are many disorders but some of these are:-
• Muscular dystrophy
A group of inherited diseases characterized by weakness and wasting away
of muscle tissue, with or without the breakdown of nerve tissue. Its different
types involving an eventual loss of strength, increasing disability, and
possible deformity.
• Muscle strains
A muscle strain is an injury to a muscle or a tendon the fibrous tissue that
connects muscles to bones. Sometimes called pulled muscles, strains
commonly occur in the lower back and in the muscles at the back of the
thigh (hamstrings).

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Exercise 4.4:-
Part I: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Muscle are tissue that composed of cells are called ______.
A. long B. muscle fibers C. muscle fatigue D. all
2. One of the following is not common for all muscles.
A. contractility B. excitability C. extensibility D. none
Part II: fill in the blank space
1. The quality of muscle being elastic is called ______
2. __________ is a type of muscle located on the hearts
3. The disease that infected muscle systems is called ________.

4.3. Skeletal System

AT the end of this section, you will be able to:
• distinguish the major structural components of human skeletal
system;
• describe the main functions of human skeletal system;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with
human skeletal system;
The skeletal system interacts with other systems by holding up your
body and giving it support. The muscular system is what connects
bones to bones, and the nervous system controls our movements.

4.3.1. Structural Components of Skeletal System

The skeletal system consists of components of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called
the musculoskeletal system.
A. Bone: It is mineralized connective tissue that contains collagen
and other minerals like calcium phosphate and mineral crystal.
Because of calcium phosphate the bones are firmness, compact or
spongy, provide and protection of body’s organ. They are made up of
living cells and so called living organs. An adult human skeleton
contains 206 bones.

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Figure 4.17 human bone

Types of bone
Bones are a major component of the skeletal system. Based on their
shape bones can be divided in to four major groups:-
1. Long bones: it is hard and compact, tubular filled with yellow
bone marrow. E.g. Upper and lower limb, arm, leg, finger, and
thigh bones.
Long bone

Spongy
bone
Medullary
caviy
Compact
bone

Epiphyseal
Figure 4.18 long bone
2. Short bone: are compact bones with chambers or partitions but
without marrow. E.g wrist, finger, toes and ankle bone.

Figure 4.19 short bone

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3.Flat bones: are thin, flat, compact and typically curved. They have
no cavity or hollow.E.g ribs, sternum, cranial bone and scapula.

Figure 4.20 flat bone

4. Irregular bones: they are typically thin membranes which have

nerves and blood vessels that nourish the bone. On their surface there
are small holes for entry and exit of materials in to and out of bone.E.g
hip bones, facial bones and vertebrae

Figure 4.21 irregular bone

Additionally bones are also divided into two major groups by based
on their positions.
1.Axial skeleton: That divides the body into equal right and left
regions. They include skull, hyoid, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage.
• Skull: include bone of cranium, face, and ears (auditory ossicles).

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Frontal bone Nasal bone

Parital bone Coronal suture

Ethmoid bone Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone Lacrimal bone

Maxila Zygomaticnbone

Mandible Vomer
Figure 4.22 human skull

• Hyoid: U-shaped bone in neck between larynx and chin.

Figure 4.23 hyoid bone

• Vertebral column: Include spinal vertebrae.

Figure 4.24 Vertebral column

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• Thoracic cage: includes ribs and sternum (breast bone).

Costal cartilage

Sternum

Ribs

Figure 4.25 Thoracic cage

2. Appendicular Skeleton: It supports the limbs and connects them to
the axial skeleton. It composed of bones of the upper and lower limbs,
pectoral girdles, and the pelvic girdle. The main functions of this
skeleton are body movements, protections of digestive, execratory
and reproductive organ systems.

Shoulder gridle

Arm

Hand Pelvic gridle

Leg

Foot

Figure 4.26 Appendicular skeleton

Major components of appendicular skeletons are:
• Shoulder bones: The shoulder bones are composed of clavicle and
scapula. The clavicle or collar bone is connected to the sternum in
front while the scapula bone is at the back. E.g pectoral girdle.

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Scapula Clavicle
Spine of
scpula
Scapula

Figure 4.27 Pectoral girdle

• Limbs or appendage: The fore limbs are the front limbs that refer
to the arms, the forearms and the hands. It consists of various
types of bones such as Humerus (upper arms), Radius (inner lower
arms), Ulna (outer lower arms), Carpals (wrists), and Metacarpals
(hands) and Phalanges (fingers).

Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Carpals
Meatacarpals
Phalanges
Figure 4.28 Limbs or appendage

• Hip bones: This bone also called hip girdle and composed of two
hip bones. E.g pelvic girdle

Figure 4.29 Pelvic girdle

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• Hind limbs: The hind limbs are the back limbs or appendages and
consist of different bones. These bones include: Femur (upper leg
or thigh), Tibia and Fibula (lower legs or shin), Patella (kneecap)
Tarsals (ankles), Metatarsals (feet), and Phalanges (toes).
E.g lower limbs.

Femur

Patella

Tibia
Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsats
Phalanges
Figure 4.30 lower limb
B. Cartilage: Cartilage provides flexible and elasticity structures
support for certain structures in adult humans, including the nose,
trachea, and ears.
C.Tendon: It is a fibrous band of connective tissue that is bonded to
bone and connects muscle to bone.
D.Ligament: It is stretchy and flexible band of tissue which held
together at the joints or in between the bones of a joint and it is a
firm rubbery tissue.
E. Joints: It is a site where two or more bones or other skeletal
components are joined together. It has two main jobs, which are
keep bone far apart and to hold bone in place as they move or rotate.
Types of joints
There are two different types of joints, namely immovable and
movable joints.
1. Immovable joints: are fixed in place and do not move at all. E.g
skull.
2. Moving joints: permits to move up and down or twist and bend
in some directions. It grouped in to two. E.g hinge joint, ball and
socket joints.

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- A hinge joint: it looks like a hinge on a door which permit the

movements front and back in a single direction. The joints that
located on elbow, knee, fingers, and toes are the best examples.
- A ball and socket joint: it made from the round end of one
bone that fitting into a cup shaped socket in another. These types
of joints can permit movements in every directions. E.g.
shoulder and hips joints

Skull
Starnum Clavicle Scapula
Humerus
Ribs
Vertebral column
Pelvic Radius Illum
girdle Ulna Ischium
Carpals Pubis
Meatacarpals
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
phalanges Metatarsals

Figure:-4.31 human skeletal systems

4.3.2 Functions of Skeletal System

Human skeleton are extends throughout the body like other vertebrates
which have spine for supporting the body, skull protecting the brain,
and ribs protecting the organ of heart and lung. Some functions
of skeleton systems for organisms are:-
Movements
The skeleton supports your body weight to help you stand and move.
Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make your
body parts mobile and transport from one place to the other places.
Produces blood cells
One of the components of skeleton, the bone contains bone marrow.
They are site of blood cell formation (WBC and RBC) and occur in
normal adult.
Protection and supports
The skeletal systems mainly protect and support the body of an
organism. They also give the form and structure of the body.

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Storage substance
It stores different types of minerals, like mineral salt, calcium, fats in
bone marrow and calcium phosphate that is needed for blood clotting,
nerve function, and muscle activity.

Activity 4.7:- briefly identify and explain the following questions

• Explain the role of the human skeletal system
• Labelle and identify bone of body parts from the chart when your
teacher show for you.

4.3.3 Major Diseases of Skeletal System

There are a numbers of diseases which can affect the skeletal systems
of human. Some of these are:-
• Leukemia: Leukemia is cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues,
including the bone marrow and the lymphatic system.
• Osteopenia, osteitis, deformans and osteomalacia : similar to
osteoporosis, these are other types of bones loss.
• Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis literally means ‘porous bone’. It is a
condition where bones become thin and lose their strength, as they
become less dense and their quality is reduced.
• Osteoarthritis: is involving degradation of joints. Its symptom is
joint pain, tenderness, stiffness, locking and sometimes an effusion.
• Fracture: is in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone.
It may be a partial or complete break in the bone.
Exercise 4.5
Part I: choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. How many numbers of bones are found in adult human?
A. 126 B. 80 C. 206 D. 106
2. Which of the following is not examples of axial skeleton
A. skull B. hyoid C. thoracic D. none
3. _______ is a joint that fix in place and do not move.
A. movable joint B. immovable joint C. ligaments D. all

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Part II:Match descriptions in column B with the items in col-

umn A.
‘‘A’’ ‘‘ B’’
1. Irregular bone A. filled with yellow bone marrow
2. Flat bone B. finger, toes, wrist
3. Long bone C. have blood vessel and nerve
4. Short bone D. cranium, scapula, ribs
Part III: fill in the blank space
1. Shoulder bone composed of _________and _______
2. ______ run through your body from front to back and divide the
body into equal right and left regions.
Part VI: briefly describe
1. During which stage of development that we tend to have less
total number of bones? Why?

Activities 4.8:- briefly identifies and explain the following questions

1.What are the differences between axial and appendicular skeletons?
2. Discuss and report on some roles of bone of lower extremities.
3. Reason out, why joints are important at articulations of two or more
bones?
4. List and discuss many skeletal system diseases.

4.4. Digestive System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• distinguish the major structural components of human digestive
system;
• describe the main functions of human digestive system;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with
human digestive system.

What does it mean digestions?

Digestion is the process in which the larger, complex, hard and
insoluble food substances are changed into smaller, simpler, easier
and soluble by the action of the digestive organs.

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Such types of food molecules are can be easily usable by the body
cells. In the activity of digestion there are the involvements of different
digestive enzymes and digestive organs.

4.4.1. Structural Components of Digestive System

The digestive system is an organ system which is made up of the
alimentary canal or several organs including the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestines, and anus. It also has associated
organs such as salivary glands, liver and pancreas. The two types of
digestion are physical and chemical digestions. Physical digestion
includes cutting and gridding food molecules in mouth by teeth.

Figure:-4.32 Human digestive systems

4.4.2. Functions of Digestive System

The major function of digestive system is the breakdown of food
molecules in to smaller and usable forms. The muscular contraction and
relaxation of wall of alimentary canal produce movements of digested
food along in one direction.

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Key words:
Alimentary canal:-the
whole passage along
which food passes
through the body
from mouth to anus
during digestion.

Figure 4.33 human digestive organs

Mouth
It is the first anterior opening parts of the gut which contains teeth.
In mouth both types of digestion physical (mechanical) and chemical
digestion occurs.
Teeth
Teeth of humans and other animals are hard structures that grow
from jaw bone. They are used to bite and chew food. Each tooth
consists of crown, neck and root.
The true human teeth are made up of three layers these are
1. Enamel: the outer layers, white and hardest substances in the body.
2. Dentine: isthe living layer under the tooth enamel.
3. Pulp cavity: it is the central parts of the teeth. It contains the
living tissue with blood vessels and nerves which supply the
living tooth with nutrients

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Figure 4.34 human teeth structure

Mammals have two sets of teeth in their life. In human the first set
has 20 teeth is called milk teeth. These milk teeth are appear first
but loose and fall out when a child is about 6 years old and replaced
by the second or permanent teeth which is not replaced when once
decay or loose. The permanent teeth set have 28 teeth. When person
is around 20 – 25 years old, four additional back teeth grow called
wisdom teeth. This development and arrangement of teeth is known as
dentition.
Types of teeth
Human have four types of teeth. These are:
1. Incisors (I): chisel shaped and frontal teeth with sharp edge.
They are four on each jaw and used for biting, cutting and
grinding food.
2. Canines (C): is long, sharp, pointed edge and located beside
incisors. They are two on each jaw. Used to tear, piercing food
and it is prominent in predator organisms like lion.
3. Premolars (P): located behindcanines with relatively flat edge.
They are four in each jaw. Used for chewing, crushing, or
grinding food.
4. Molars (M): with wider and stronger ridges having depressions.
There are six in each jaw. Their function is similar to premolars.

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Figure 4.35 types of human teeth

Dental formula is the representing of the number, type and arrangement
of teeth. It shows the number and type of teeth in one half of the upper
and lower jaws. Because of these the teeth on the upper jaw are listed
above the lower jaw. They listed as:- incisors (I), canines (C), premolar
(P) and molar (M). Therefore the dental formula of adult human is:
I= 2/2, C= 1/1, P= 2/2, M= 3/3
Therefore, the total number of teeth in a given mammal can be
calculated. First add the number of teeth in upper and lower jaws,
and then multiply each jaw by two. Finally, sum up the product.
Stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag that produces enzymes like pepsin for
protein digestion. It also produces another solution which is called
hydrochloric acid.
Small intestine
The first section of small intestine which is called duodenum is used
to join the food with two liquids: bile and pancreatic enzymes.

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Bile is made by the liver cells and stored in gall bladder until it is
needed. This bile has two important jobs.
1. Neutralize the acid from stomach and make the semi digested food
alkaline.
2. Emulsifies the fats in the food, which means breakdown of fat in
to smaller droplets.
The small intestine has much finger like projection which called
villi for absorption of digested food in to blood vessels.
Where is the digestion end products go next?
Digestion end product of protein is amino acids and butter (fat) is fatty
acids and glycerol entering in to small intestine to store for short times
and absorptions in to blood.
Large intestine
It is parts of alimentary canal between small intestine and anus.
Its main function is absorption of water and formation of faeces.
Undigested food substances are unusable by cells and removed out
through anus which is the last part of gut. This type of process is

Key term:
Defecation:- removal of wastes from body parts (egestion).

Exercise 4.6:- Answer the following questions

1. In your groups record and Labelle the various parts of alimentary
canal from the chart when your teacher show you.
2. Brainstorming on how food move through alimentary canal
and discuss in groups.
3. Students look their friend’s teeth and determine their function,
types and numbers.
4. Briefly discuss on parts of alimentary canal.
5. Students observe on associated glands of alimentary canal and
their functions from the charts.

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4.4.3. Major Diseases of Digestive System

The organs of digestive systems are can be affected by disease causing
pathogens. There are a numbers of disease and some of them are:-
Constipations
If the faeces in the large intestine stay too long, too much water
absorption will take place and it cause constipations. The most
common causes are lack of fiber food (roughage) and not drinking of
enough water.
Prevention
• Eating food which has more roughage gives the gut muscle work
on.
• Drinking sufficient amount of water.

Key term:-
Roughage:-fibrous indigestible material in vegetable foodstuffs
which aids the passage of food and waste products through the gut

Diarrhea
It is also called watery faeces. It caused by an infectious of the gut
and then the gut more contracts strongly and hardly than the usual. It
can cause dehydration.
Prevention
• Treat patients by giving enough water salt to replace the loss fluid.
• Stool examination and early treatment by the proper medicines.
Hemorrhoids
Are swollen veins in your lower rectum.Internal hemorrhoids are
usually painless, but tend to bleed. External hemorrhoids may cause
pain. Hemorrhoids also called piles are swollen veins in your anus
and lower rectum.
Prevention
• To prevent hemorrhoids and reduce symptoms of hemorrhoids,eat
high-fiber foods. Eat more fruits, vegetables and whole grains, drink
plenty of fluids and do regular exercise.
Gastritis
Is an inflammation, irritation, or erosion of the lining of the stomach.
It can occur suddenly (acute) or gradually (chronic).

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Prevention
Gastritis can be prevented by avoiding known trigger foods,quitting
smoking, managing and reducing stress, avoiding alcohol, maintaining
a healthy weight, avoiding abuse of over-the-counter pain
medications.

Key term:
Chronic:-happening or existing frequently or most of the time.
Acute:-very serious, strong, sensitive or dangerous.

Peptic ulcer disease

Peptic ulcer disease is a condition in which painful sores or ulcers
develop in the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small
intestine. Normally, a thick layer of mucus protects the stomach lining
from the effect of its digestive juices.
Prevention
In order to prevent peptic ulcer it is recommendable to avoid tobacco
products and alcohol. Don’t ignore your ulcer symptoms. Protect
yourself from infections by washing hands regularly and consuming
foods that have been cooked thoroughly.
Exercise 4.7:
Part I:-Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. One organism have I=3/3 C=2/2 P=3/3 M=2/2. Then what is the
total number of teeth? A. 34 B. 38 C. 40 D. 30
2. Which one is a chemical produced in stomach?
A. bile B. HCl C. HS2O D. amylase
3. Removing of acid from stomach is called _______
A/ emulsification B/ acidification C/ neutralization D/ all
Part II:- Explain briefly the following questions
1. Where does digestion start in human?
2. What will be undigested food molecules?
3. What types of digestion take place in stomach? Why?
4. List and discuss on digestive system diseases in your groups from
your personal experiences.
1. Give assignments to draw diagrams of human alimentary canal
and label each part.

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4.5 Respiratory System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• distinguish the major structural components of human respiratory
system;
• describe the main functions of human respiratory system;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with
human respiratory system.

What are respirations?

In single cell and small living organisms like amoeba and paramecium,
oxygen diffuse from the air or water in to the cell. In other ways
carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cell. But in larger organisms like
human, diffusion of oxygen from air is enough. Breathing is a
process of bring oxygen into organism’s body (inhalation) and
removal of the waste carbon dianoxide (exhalation)from the body to
the environments.
Key term:
Inhalation:- taking oxygen into the body.
Exhalation:-removal of carbon dioxide out of body.

4.5.1. Structural Components of Respiratory System

The human respiratory systems have well developed and adapted structures
for breathing of air. They have nose with large surface area, good blood
supply, lots of hair and mucus. Each structures of nose have specific
functions like:-
The hair: filter out dust particles and pathogens from inhaled air.
The large surface area: used to moist the air and increases the humidity
of the air.
The mucus: filter inhaled air and collects bacteria and dust particles.
Good blood supply: helps to warm the air that we inhale into the body.
Organs of breathing includes: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli, lung etc. The trachea which is one part of the
respiratory organs has series of incomplete rings of cartilage (which are C
shaped) that used to support it and hold it open. They are incomplete so that
you can swallow your food

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Key term:
Cellular respiration:- combination of food and oxygen inside the
body

Figure 4.36 human respiratory systems

4.5.2. Functions of Respiratory System
Respiration is the process by which a body gets and uses oxygen and
releases carbon dioxide and water. Respiration is divided into two
parts. The first part is breathing which involves inhaling and exhaling.
The second part is cellular respiration, which involves chemical
reactions or burning of food by oxygen that release energy from food.
Pharynx- is the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth,
connecting them to the esophagus.
Larynx- the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the
lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals.
Trachea- a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage,
extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes.
Bronchus- any of the major air passages of the lungs that diverge
from the windpipe or trachea.
Bronchioles: are smaller tubes branching from each bronchus in the
lung.
Alveoli- are any of the many tiny air sacs in the lungs where the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
Lung- is to provide a place where oxygen can reach the blood and
carbon dioxide be removed. The shape of the lung can be controlled
by the relaxation and contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal
muscle.

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Activity 4.9:
1. Observe and record various labeled parts of respiratory tract.
2. Discuss on parts of respiratory systems and present for class
mate students.
3. Discuss on roles of hair, cartilaginous rings of trachea and alveoli.
4. List and discuss on respiratory disease from your personal
experiences in groups.
5. Give students an assignment to draw a diagram of human
respiratory tract, label with the major parts, and submit it individually.
4.5.3 Major Diseases of Respiratory System
Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the
common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases
such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute
asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such
as COVID-19.
Asthma- it is the chronic lung disease or disorders that are marked
by recurring episodes of airway obstruction manifested by labored
breathing. It accompanied especially by wheezing and coughing and
by a sense of constriction in the chest and that is triggered by hyper
reactivity to various stimuli.
Sinusitis- it is a pain full swelling of the tissues inside the sinus or
nose. It can be due to infections, allergies, or autoimmune problems.
It is also an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the Para
nasal sinuses.
Influenza- Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory
system your nose, throat and lungs. Influenza is commonly called the
flu, but it’s not the same as stomach “flu” viruses that cause diarrhea
and vomiting.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD:- refers to a
group of diseases that cause airflow blockage and breathing-related
problems. It includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Mainly it
can be caused by smoking cigarette.
Bronchitis- Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your
bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from your lungs.
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Exercise 4.8
Part I: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is used to filter inhaled air
A. mucus B. blood C. hair D. A& C
2. Breathing through nose is better than breathing
through_______
A. lung B. trachea C. mouth D. esophagus
3. One of the following is parts of respiratory organs
A. large intestine B. stomach C. bronchi D.liver
4. Large membrane tube reinforced by ring of cartilage is _____
A. larynx B. trachea C. pharynx D. alveoli
5. Millions of air sacs in lung are called ________
A. alveoli B. bronchus C. blood vessel D. all
Part II:- Explain briefly the following questions
1. What are the functions of alveoli in respiration?
2. Discus in your groups on how the human lung gets oxygen and
carbon dioxide and present for other groups.
3. List the respiratory disease and their causes.
4. Discuss in detail about the transmission of COVID 19 and
present the results for the class mate.

4.6 Circulatory System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• distinguish the major structural components of human circulatory
system;
• describe the main functions of human circulatory system;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with
human circulatory system.
What is a circulatory system?
Circulatory system is the systems of transports substances in the
body of an organism. Mainly these systems are used to transport air,
food, mineral, vitamin,

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and other liquid materials and solutions between cells in the body.
They also used to transport the waste materials in order to remove in
to the outside.
4.6.1. Components of Circulatory System
The blood can flow from the organ heart to the other body parts by
blood vessel. The contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle can
pump blood from heart to different body part. In human being there are
two different types of blood circulation systems which are so called
double circulations. These are:-
1. Systematic circulations: blood flows between hearts and other
body parts.
2. Pulmonary circulations: the blood flows between only heart and
lungs.

Figure 4.37 double circulatory systems

4.6.2. Functions of Circulatory System
Blood circulation systems consist of the three elements that are: heart,
blood vessel and blood. In circulation systems the left side of the heart is
always pump oxygenated blood while the right side of the heart receives
the deoxygenated blood.
A/ Heart
It is the muscular blood pumping organ which made from involuntary
muscles which is called cardiac muscle. Heart has four chambers.

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1. Right atrium: upper parts of the heart and carry deoxygenated blood
to lung. It has thin wall.
2. Left atrium:it is also the upper parts of the heart. It used to receive
oxygenated blood from lung and pump to left ventricle.
3. Right ventricle: lower chamber and pumps deoxygenated blood in
to the lung.
4. Left ventricles: it pumps the blood at long distance of the body
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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

2. Vein: used to return the blood back to the heart. Most of them
carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein and umbilical
vein.
3. Capillaries: used to connect artery and vein and carry blood
to the tissues and cells. They are narrow and thin wall blood
vessel.
C/ Blood
The blood is one of the three elements of circulations. It is a fluid tissue
that used to carry nutrients, respiratory gases, metabolic wastes and
other substances. Blood made from 45% solid and 55% liquid which
is called plasma. The liquid parts of the blood plasma are composed
of 90% water and the remaining 10% is dissolved substances such
as amino acid and glucose. The solid part of the blood is made
from the three types of blood cell.
1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes): are disc shape, non-nucleated,
and used to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in human
body. They are smaller and 6.2-8.2 µm in diameters. Have
red pigmented substances called hemoglobin which carry
oxygen in the blood.
2. White blood cells (leucocytes): are colorless, irregular
shaped and nucleated. These cells are 12-17 µm in diameters
larger than RBC. They used to prevent the body from disease
causing pathogens.
3. Platelets (thrombocytes): are colorless and non-nucleated.
They have 2-3µm in diameter and have biconvex shape. They
are important for inciating the blood clotting when blood vessel
is cut or damage.

4.6.3 Major Diseases of Circulatory System

There are different types of disease or disorders which affect the human
circulation systems. Some of the diseases are:
1. Hypertensions: it is also called high blood pressures. It caused by
age, obesity, high salt consumption, drug addiction, stress, kidney
problem, diabetes, etc.

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But it can treat by: less consumption of salt and fat, regular
exercise, avoiding the use of drugs, regularly checkup in nearest
clinic etc.
2. Heart attack:- occurs when blood stops flowing to a part of the
heart and the heart muscle is injured because of not receiving
enough oxygen.
3. Strokes:- A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of your
brain is interrupted or reduced, preventing brain tissue from
getting oxygen.
4. Heart failure:- is a chronic, progressive condition in which the
heart muscle is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body’s
needs for blood and oxygen.
Exercise 4.9:
Part I:- choose the correct one among the given four alternatives
for the following quastion
1. Which chamber of heart pump blood to the body
A. left atrium B. left ventricle C. right atrium D. right ventricle
2. In pulmonary circulation blood flow from ______ to _______
A. body to heart B. lung to heart C. lung to kidney
D. heart to lung E. B&D
3. Which blood vessels carry oxygenated blood from heart to body
A. platelets B. vein C. artery D. all
4. The only vein that carry oxygenated blood is called ________
A. umbilical vein B. large vein C. pulmonary vein D. A&C
Part II: describe briefly
1. What are the functions of blood circulations?
2. List elements of blood circulation, with their functions.
3. describe parts of circulatory systems
4. Explain types of blood cell, heart chamber and
reason of partitions.
5. Discuss the role of heart, blood vessel, blood and
blood cells.
6. Eexplain the circulatory diseases.

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4.7 Reproductive System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• distinguish the major structural components of human reproductive
system;
• distinguish between the primary and secondary sexual characteristics;
• describe the main functions of human reproductive system;
• identify secondary sexual characteristics of males and females;
• explain the concept of menstruation and menstrual cycle;
• identify and discuss the main diseases or disorders associated with
human reproductive system;
What is reproduction?
The unicellular organisms have no reproductive organs as they are
made up of one cell. They are smaller in size than the smallest animal
and plant cell. However, most types of multicellular organisms
that reproduce sexually have distinct male and female reproductive
organs. In this topic you will learn about human reproductive systems
and its function.
4.7.1. Male and Female Reproductive Organs
The reproductive cells of human produced by male and female gonads,
respectively, are sperm cells and egg cells. When these sperm cells
and egg cells unite together during sexual intercourse they produce
offspring.

Figure 4.39 male and female reproductive organ

A. Male reproductive organ
The human male reproductive system consists of the testes and other
sex organs like penis, scrotum, vas deferens, urethra, prostate glands,
and Cowper’s glands.
Key term:-
Graafian follicle:-are ovarian follicles rounded enclosures for the developing
ova in the cortex near the surface of the ovary.

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4.7.2 Functions of Male Reproductive Structures

• Testes: are two male reproductive glands. In addition to sperm cells,
testes produce the sex hormone, testosterone.
• Penis: is an erectile cylindrical organ for sexual intercourse during
which it ejaculates semen (sperm cells and fluid).
• Scrotum: a sac-like structure on the lower end of the penis.
• Epididymis It stores sperm cells for maturation.
• Vas deferens or (sperm ducts): is a long tube extending from each
epididymis to the urethra for transportation of sperm cells and fluid.
• Sperm: is a mass of male reproductive cells produced by the testis.

Figure 4.40 Male reproductive organ

B. Female reproductive organ

It consists of ovary and other structures such as vagina, uterus, fallopian
tube, cervix, clitoris, and vulva.

Figure 4.41 Female reproductive organ

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4.7.3 Function of Female Reproductive Structures

• Ovaries: are two female reproductive glands made up of follicle cells,
called graafian follicle to produce ova or egg cells and sex hormones.
• Vagina: used for sexual intercourse and serves as birth canal.
• Fallopian tube (oviduct): is a narrow tube from the ovary to uterus
for movement of an egg and fertilization. It is a site for fertilization.
• Uterus (womb): is wide muscular tube for implantation of the fertilized
egg and development of an embryo. It is a site for pregnancy.
• Cervix: is a ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus. It opens
at the time of menstruation and child birth.
• Clitoris: an erectile and sensitive tissue like a penis.
• Vulva: is the external genital of the female reproductive system.
Key term:-
Ejaculates:- release of sperm from male during sex.

Activity 4.10:-
Discuss on the importance of reproduction in human and other
organisms.
Procedures:- make a groups in your class and discuss briefly and
present your results in the class

The Primary and Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Primary and secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that
make males and females look and behave differently from each other
in certain species, including humans. Primary sexual characteristics
are those that are present at birth. Primary sexual characteristics are
being of maleness and femaleness. Secondary sexual characteristics
appear during puberty.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
When the boy and girl are reach at puberty age the follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland stimulates the testis and
ovary to produce male sex hormone testosterone and female sex
hormone estrogen. These two hormones can promote the development
of secondary sexual characteristics of male and female.

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Secondary sexual characteristics of male

Puberty in boys usually begins somewhere between the age of 9 and
15 years old because it control by chemical change in body. The pi-
tuitary glands in human brain start to produce increasing amount of
FSH. In turn it stimulate the male gonad or testis to begin develop-
ing and producing the male sex hormone testosterone. The rising of
this hormone trigger many changes that affect body during puberty,
and cause the development of secondary sexual characteristics.Some
of these secondary sexual
• Whole body undergoes the adolescence growth spurt and become
tall.
• Growth of pubic hair, body hair, and facial hair.
• Larynx enlarges and cause voice deepens.
• Shoulder and chest broaden.
• Penis enlarges & its skin of penis and scrotum becomes darken.
• Testis begins to produce sperm cell.
• Developed more muscles.
• Adolescents become more questioning and independents.
• Look beyond their family.
• Feel young and insecure, confused and angry.

Key term:
Testosterone: male sex hormone produces during puberty.

Secondary sexual characteristics of female

Female also have gonad which is called ovary. Ovaries are the two
female gonads located in the abdomen. It is associated with fallopian
tube (oviduct) and uterus but not directly attached to them.
The girls go in to puberty stage in between the age of 8-14. FSH from
pituitary stimulates ovaries to become active and producing female
sex hormone which is called oestrogen. When oestrogen level rise
in female body, all kind of change take place and female secondary
sexual characteristics develop. Some of these characteristics are:-

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• Developments in height and whole body structure.

• Hair grow around pubic and armpits.
• Breast developments.
• Widening of hips.
• Voice becomes thinner.
• Egg matured and start of menstruations.
• Feeling of independent and questioning.
Key term:
Estrogen and Progesterone:-female sex hormone produced during
puberty.

Activity 4.11:
1. Briefly explain the difference between primary and secondary sexual
characteristics with example.
2. Observe and label parts of reproductive systems of both sexs from
the charts when your teachers show you and create a table then list
this organ with their functions and present for class mate students.
3. Students Discuss on bodily changes then compare and contrast in
male and female.

4.7.4 Menstruation
What does it means menstruation?
The menstrual cycle is a sequence of events which takes place
approximately every four weeks throughout the fertile life of women,
which is from the age of puberty to around 50 years of age. At puberty
stage of female the FSH hormone from pituitary gland in brain start
the ova to develop. FSH also make ovary to produce female hormone
oestrogen. In turn it stimulates the uterus to build up thick, spongy
lining with enough of blood vessel ready to support a pregnancy.
About 14 days before the ova start ripening, one of them burst out of
its follicle. This process is called ovulation.
After ovulation the hormone level begin to reduce. The remaining of
follicle forms the corpus luteum (yellow body) which secret hormone
called progesterone. Progesterone keeps the thick,

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spongy wall and makes more blood vessels, ready to receive fertilized
ovum. If pregnancy does not occur about ten days after ovulation,
oestrogen and progesterone level decrease blood vessel which built on
uterus wall close down and discharged through vagina in the form of
blood which is called menstruation. After around the age of 50 years
the women stop ovulation and menstruation cycle. This phenomenon
is called menopause.

Key terms:
Menopause:- stopping of menstruation and ovulation in female.
Ovulation:- movements of egg from ovary to fallopian tubes.

Activity 4.12:
1. Discuss in your groups about the concepts of menstruation and
menstrual cycle.
2. Make a group then list and discuss many reproductive diseases
from your personal experiences and present in the class.

4.7.5 Reproductive Health

What is reproductive health?

Reproductive health is the physical, mental, and social health status
of an individual related to reproductive system at all stages of life.
Due to lack of knowledge, there are a number of reproductive health
problems in our country.
These problems mainly affect the reproductive health of women. The
problems include female genital mutilation, early marriage, rape,
illegal abortion and sexually transmitted infections.

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Activity 4.13
1. Discus on how you prevent STDs.
2. Briefly describe the impacts of HIV on the society and community
Procedures:- list the discussion and then present in class.

Key term:-
Rape:- is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse.
Female genital mutilation:-partial or total removal of female exter-
nal

Sexually transmitted diseases are the disease that can be transmitted

from infectious person to healthy person during sexual contacts.
Some of these diseases are:
HIV/AIDS
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes the disease
AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. So far, for this disease,
caused by HIV and those damages the immune system white blood cell
specially T-cell, there is no cure or vaccine. Basically, the high-risk groups
include homosexual men and women, intravenous drug users, sex workers,
and hemophiliacs; as well as the sexual partners of persons in these groups.
HIV virus mainly transmitted from infected to healthy person by four ways.
These are during breast milk, sharing of contaminated needles, unprotected
sexual intercourse and from infected mother to baby during birth.
Prevention
Biological knowledge is quite important for controlling the spread of
HIV/AIDS. Producing vaccine, creating awareness in the community
about the issues related to responsible sexual behavior. The most
effective method is
abstain from sex befor marriage are the use of ABC rules that are:
A =abstain from sex
B =be faithful to one sexual partner
C =condomise

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Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea are the other types of STDs and caused by bacterium
which called Neisseria gonorrhea. These bacteria are found on mucus
area of body such as vagina, penis, throat and rectum. It transmitted
during unsafe sexual intercourse.
Symptoms
The symptoms are may appear after a week and it is burning sensation
during urination and yellowish discharges from reproductive organ.
If pregnant women are not treated, gonorrhea transmitted to her bay
and cause blindness.
Preventions
At the early stage it can be treated by the use of antibiotics. Remove
sexual intercourse after infected until completely treatment. But the
effective prevention methods are the respect of ABC methods.
Chancroids
It is a disease which caused by Hemophilus ducreyi bacteria. Chancroid
is the most common types of disease for men. It increased risk of
HIV/ AIDS.
Symptoms
Its symptoms are occurs in two stages of first and second stage. These
are ulcer elation on reproductive organs, bleeding and painful of
ulcers, swollen gland filled with pus, and may cause of loss of penis
or groin.
Prevention
In first stage it prevented by the use of antibiotics but in addition
to this it prevented by: good sanitation mechanisms, accepting and
using of ABC rules, appropriate use of drugs which are prescribed
and check up in clinic.
Syphilis
It is one of the most too dangerous STDs. It caused by bacterium
called Treponema palladium. It is common for the adult age of human.
It transmitted by unsafe sexual intercourse. It also transmitted from
mother to her fetus.

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Symptoms
The symptoms of syphilis have different stages. At the first stage, there
is painless sore on penis, vagina, mouth and rectum. At the second
stage, tiredness, fever, sore on throat, headaches, loss of appetite, etc.
Finally change to irreversible problems, like illness of skin, bone,
brain, and other organ.
Preventions
The prevention methods of syphilis are the same as to the other
prevention methods of sexually transmitted disease.

Exercise 4.10:
Part I:- choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. Male sex hormone that produced during puberty stage is known
as _______
A. estrogen B. progesterone C. testosterone D. none
2. Which of the following is female reproductive cell
A. sperm B. egg C. ovary D. penis
3. The male gonad is called _______
A. testes B. ovary C. testosterone D. estrogen
4. The monthly discharge of blood through vagina is called______
A. ovulation B. ejaculation C. excretion D. menstruation
5. One of the following is reproductive diseases, which one
A. syphilis B. gonorrhea C. chancroids D. HIV E.all

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Unit summary
• The integumentary system includes the epidermis, dermis,
hypodermis, associated glands, hair, and nails.
• The skin has three major layers of hypodermis, dermis and epider-
mis is the outer layer of the body that covers the internal parts of body.
• Human Hair come from follicles, which are simple organs made
up of cell called epithelial cells.
• Nail is the hard covering at the end of the finger or toe, a finger or
toe nail and used to protecting the upper end part of humans and
most other organisms.
• Integumentary systems have four types of exocrine glands that
secrete some type of substances outside the cell and body these
gland are -sudoriferous, -Sebaceous, -Ceruminous, -Mammary.
• There are many different types of skin disorders and disease like
-Acne, Rosacea, - Eczema etc.
• Muscles can used to perform different types of body movements
like pumping blood, stability, posture, digestions, circulations etc.
• There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac
or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated) muscles.
• The skeletal system gives the body its shape, allows movement,
makes blood cells, provides protection for organs and stores
minerals.
• Bones are a major component of the skeletal system and grouped
in to four.
- Long bones, - Short bone, - Flat bones, - Irregular bone.
• In addition to these bone also divided in to two major groups of
the axial skeletal bone and appendicular skeletal bones.
• There are two different types of joints, namely immovable and
movable joints.
• Osteoporosis is a disease in which the bones become fragile and
prone to fracture and leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cells.
• Digestion is the process in which the larger, complex, hard and
insoluble food substances are changed into smaller, simpler, easier
and soluble by the action of the digestive organs.

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• Human have four types of teeth these are Incisors, Canines,

Premolars and Molars.
• Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and
anus are components of gut.
• Respiration is the exchange of gas between organisms and their
environments.
• Humane respiratory organ are nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and lung.
• Respiration is divided into two parts namely breathing and cellular
respiration.
• The shape of the lung can be controlled by the relaxation and
contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscle.
• Circulatory systems are used to transport different materials such
as air, food, mineral, vitamin, and other liquid materials and solu-
tions between cells in the body.
• In human being there are two different types of blood circulation
systems: Systematic circulation and pulmonary circulations.
• Blood circulation systems consist of the three elements that are
blood, blood vessel and heart.
• There are different types of disease or disorders which affect the
human circulation systems such as hypertension.
• The human reproductive organs produce reproductive cells within
gonads.
• The human male reproductive system consists of the testes which
two glands are made up of mass of tubules called seminiferous
tubules.
• Female reproductive system consists of ovary and other structures
such as vagina, uterus, fallopian tube, cervix, clitoris, and vulva.
• The primary and secondary sexual characteristics are used to de-
termine the puberty stages of male and female.
• Secondary sexual characteristics appear during puberty.
• Menstruation is discharged of blood through vagina.
• Menopause is the stop of ovulations when the age is above 50.

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• There are a numbers of sexual transmitted diseases like HIV and

syphilis.
• STDs are very dangerous disease because it affect other organ and
in all age of peoples.
• HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea, Chancroids, Syphilis and others are
examples of STDs.
Review exercise
Part I: Choose the best answers for the following questions
1. Which of the following is larger organ of the body?
A . ligament B. skin C. bone D. joints
2. Which layer of skin is external?
A. hypodermis B. dermis C. epidermis D. all
3. The parts of the skin that store energy is ________
A. epidermis B. dermis C. upper layers D. hypodermis
4. One of the following is not layers of hair?
A. Medulla B. Cortex C. matrix D. cuticle
5.______ is the gland which secret oil in to hair follicles
A. sebaceous B. Ceruminous C. thyroids D. all
6. Which of the following are skin disease?
A. Rosacea B. Hives C. Warts D. all
7. Which of the following are self -care for skin disease?
A. Washing with cool water
B. Applying cool compresses
C. Limiting contact with common allergies
D. Applying calamine lotion
E. all
8.________ is the weakest type of muscle
A. skeletal muscle B. smooth muscle C. heart muscle D. all
9. Which of the following is called musculoskeletal systems?
A. circulatory B. respiratory C. digestive D. skeletal
10.______ is hard and compact with yellow bone marrow
A. long bone B. short bone C. flat bone D. none

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11. The following one is parts of one of axial skeleton

A. skull B. hyoid C. thoracic cage D. all
12. ______ bone is composed of scapula and clavicle
A. hip bone B. limb bone C. shoulder D. appendage
13. The place where two bone meet together are called _______
A. ligament B. scapula C. joints D. tendon
Part II: Fill the blank space
14. The mouth has the cavity called_____
15. The major function of alimentary canal is_______
16._____ is parts of teeth which are found above the gum.
17._______ is the living layer under the tooth enamel.
18. The two important functions of bile are _______and ________
19. Breathing through the nose is better because ____________
________________ ____________ ___________
20. A millions of tiny air sacs that used to for exchange of gas in the lung
is called _________
21. The two types of blood circuits are _________ and __________
22. Blood vessel that carry oxygenated blood is called ________
23._______ is male sex organ that produces sperm cells.
24. The flow of blood from vagina approximately every four weeks are
called _____
Parts III:-write short answer
25. How can you prevents yourself from different types of STDs?

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UNIT FIVE
ECOSYSTEM AND CONSERVATION OF NAT-
URAL RESOURCES

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• define ecosystem and components of ecosystem;
• identify and describe the types of biological interactions of
organisms in an ecosystem;
• construct simple food chain and explain its components;
• differentiate between food chain and food web ;
• distinguish between the different components of food chain;
• describe the role of nutrient recycling in nature;
• explain how energy flows from producers to consumers;
• explain why nutrients are said to recycle while energy flows
(does not recycle);
• summarize the characteristics of soil;
• describe the various types of soils;
• explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being;
• engage in the Environment Club of School and participate in
awareness creation campaigns;
• explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being;
• list down and describe the various water conservation strategies;

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• describe the various components of atmospheric air;

• identify and discuss the various human activities that cause air
pollution;
• discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples;
• explain the various uses of air in nature and to human being;
• explain the cause and impacts of global warming;
• list down and describe the various actions that can be taken to
reduce the emission of carbon dioxide to atmosphere;
• define forest and give examples of natural forests in Ethiopia
• explain the various uses of forest in nature and to human being
• identify and discuss the various human activities that cause
deforestation
• discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples
• devise and coordinate various forest conservation actions
• organize groups that would campaign to teach the community on
environmental protection
• organize plantation campaigns in their school compound and its
environs
• list and describe the values of biodiversity
• list down and describe the various in-situ and ex-situ conservation
strategies in biodiversity conservation
• give examples of the various indigenous knowledge and practices
that are used in the conservation of various natural resources such
as soil, forest, etc.

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Introduction
Environments are a place where organisms are found. In this unit you
will learn about ecosystems and their components and also for types
of interaction in that ecosystem. So ecosystems are the place which
contains both biotic and abiotic components. In ecosystems there
are interaction between organisms and their environments.
5.1. Ecosystem and Interactions
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• define ecosystem and components of ecosystem;
• identify and describe the types of biological interactions of organisms
in an ecosystem;
• construct simple food chain and explain its components;
• differentiate between food chain and food web;
• distinguish between the different components of food chain;
• describe the role of nutrient recycling in nature;
• explain how energy flows from producers to consumers;
• explain why nutrients are said to recycle while energy flows
(does not recycle).
What is an ecosystem?
Different types of living organisms can be interacts one another
and with non-living things in their habitats for the purpose of
survive. The interactions are studied by science called ecology.
Ecosystems involve all organisms in the given habitat and
their interactions between their physical environments. The
main physical components that are vital for all form of living
organisms are water, sunlight, air, temperatures, and others.

Key term:
Ecology:- branch of biology that study about the interaction between
organisms and their habitat.

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5.1.1. Definition and Components of Ecosystem

Environment is the sum of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic)
components in a given habitat. Ecosystems can be affected by living
(biotic) and nonliving things or physical components (abiotic) of an
environment. Therefore an ecosystem has two major components are
biotic and abiotic.
1. Biotic components
These components include all living organisms living in particular
ecosystems like plant, animal, bacteria, algae etc.
1.1 Types of biological interactions
Each organism is the parts of other organism’s environments thus
they interact in various ways. These interactions of organism can be
intra specific or inter specific.
1. Intra-specific interaction
These type of interaction occur between the same species. These may
be for competition for food, territory, and for finding mate. E.g lion
and lion, birds with birds for food.

Figure 5.1 intra-specific interaction

2. Inter-specific interaction
These are the interaction between one group of species with the other
group of species for various numbers of purpose. e.g. hyena and lion.

Figure 5.2 nter-specific interaction

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• Predators: predator animals like hyena feed on others animals

prey like cow.
• Symbiosis: any type of biological association between two
organisms that interact. The association could be beneficial to
both, beneficial to one without benefiting or harming the other or
beneficial to one and harmful to the other.
There are different types of symbiosis or biological interactions.
These includes
A. Mutualism: the relationships in which both organisms are get
benefitted and it is an obligatory relationship. E.g. fungi and
algae, cow and some birds. Fungus digests dead body to release
chemicals and algae do photosynthesis.

Key term:-
Epiphytes:- are plants
that drive its moisture
and nutrients from the
air and rain and grow
usually on other plants

Figure 5.3 mutualism

B. Commensalism:- in this relationship one organism is get benefit while
the other is neither benefited nor harmed. E.g. big tree and epiphytes.

Figure 5.4 commensalism

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C. Parasitism:- the relations in which one organism is benefited

(the parasite) and the other is harmed (host). E.g. relation
between human and tape worms.

Figure 5.5 parasitism

D. Protocooperations:-the relation in which both organisms
are benefitted but it is not obligatory relationships. E.g.
between teeth cleaning birds and crocodile.

Figure 5.6 Protocooperations

E. Competition:-two populations compete for resources
indirectly by efficient exploitation or directly by physical
forces. In this both populations are harmed. E.g sport man

Figure 5.7 Competition

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Activity 5.1
• Discuss on ecosystems and biological interaction.
• Categories the components of ecosystems.
In groups discuss on the following points
- How do you understand ecosystem
- Explain your summary about biological interactions.
- Then present outcome of your discussion in the class

2. Abiotic components
What is abiotic?
They are the physical or nonliving things that can affect the living
condition of a given ecosystems. Some of these components are
water, sunlight, air, soil, temperature, land topography and others.

A. Water:- is most important components of an ecosystems. It

serves as a habitat, sources of drinking water and for irrigation
in farming activities.
B. Sunlight:- is primary source of energy for all life on earth during
the process of photosynthesis by green plants.
C. Air:- is the combination of different components of gases like
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
D. Soil:- which mainly control the growth of vegetation by its
fertility, pH level and other. It determines the distribution of life
in the ecosystems.
E. Temperatures:- it may be higher for some organisms and lower
for other organism so greatly affect organisms’ distributions.
F. Land topography:-which may be the arrangements of land.

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Exercise 5.1
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. ______ is used to sources of food for plant
A. soil B. temperature C. topography D. all
2. Which is not abiotic?
A. temperature B. water C. plant D. all
3. The students compare with other students in question and answers in
order to get awards. Then this is what types of interactions?
A. mutualism B. competition C. parasitism D. all
4. All types of animal can grouped in to _______
A. heterotrophs B. autotrophs C. decomposers D. none
5. The interaction between cat and rat is called ______
A. parasitism B. mutualism C. commensalism D. predators
Part II: explain briefly the following questions.
1. Briefly explain the importance of biotic and abiotic factor for
ecosystems.
2. Discus how ecosystems are affected by nonliving things.
3. Compare the advantage and disadvantage of biological interaction
4. Going to the school compounds and observe types of components.

5.1.2Trophic (Feeding) Relationships

Based on the mode of nutrition living organisms can be grouped in
to two major groups namely autotrophs and heterotrophs organisms.
1. Autotrophs: are organisms which can synthesize their own
energy from the raw materials in their surrounding environments.
They also classified as
A /photo autotrophs:- use sunlight for primary sources of energy
to synthesize organic food materials. Also called producers
because they are source of food for other. E.g green plants,
algae and photosynthetic bacteria.
B /chemoautotrophs:-these type of organisms release energy
from simple chemical reactions. E.g nitrifying bacteria.
2. Heterotrophs: cannot make foods & feed on other organisms
so called consumers. They are herbivores, carnivores, decomposer
or omnivores.

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Key term:
Consumer:-organism which does not make their own food.

5.1.3. Food Chain and Food Web

Food chains
What is food chain?
A food chain is the direct and simple feeding systems that involve
the transfer of nutrient and energy. In food chain the energy flows
from one organism to the other organisms in one direction autotrophs
(producer) to heterotrophs (consumers). In the food chain each
organisms occupies specific trophic level.
1. Producer (first trophic level):- all organisms directly or indirectly
depend on first trophic level. Sun is the main source of energy
for all food chain.
2. Primary consumers (second trophic level): it contains herbivores
and omnivores. They feed on producers.
3. Secondary consumers (third trophic level): they are carnivores
that mainly eat herbivores and omnivores.
4. Tertiary consumers (fourth trophic level):- they are carnivores
and mostly feed on other carnivores.
Examples;- The wheat(producer) produce food by photosynthesis is
eaten by goat. Then the goat eaten by tigers. The tiger also eaten by
lion.

Wheat goat tiger lion

1sttrophic level 2ndtrophic level 3rdtrophic level 4thtrophic level

Producer primary secondary tertiary

Consumer consumers consumers

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Producer Scienceprimary
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secondary 8 tertiary Student TextBook
Consumer consumers consumers Key words:-
Trophic level:-a
Food web
Food web position in a food
What is food web? chain occupied by
What is food web? a group of
ItIt isistootoo
complex feeding interrelation
complex feeding among the organisms
interrelation which the organisms
among organisms with
which
consistsconsists of chains.
of many food manyItfood chains.
is differ It chains
from food is differ from similar
because food chains
feedingmode.
because
in food chainin the
food chain
energy the
flows in onlyenergy flowsButinin food
one direction. only one direction.
But
webs in
therefood webs
are more than there
one foodare more
chains. E.g:- than one food chains. E.g:-
Birds

Snails snakes

Photosynthetic plants hawks

Insects lizard

Figure 5.9:- food web Figure 5.9 food web

lion wolf
157
Eagle Wild cat Goat

Rabit
Owl

Snake Mouse Green plant

Figure 5.10 food web

Exercise 5.2
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following are consumers?
A. flower B. grass C. sheep D. plants
2. Autotrophs can be ________
A. primary consumer B. secondary consume
C. producers D. all
3. The organisms that feed on dead body parts are _______
A. producer B. consumer C. decomposer D. B &C

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4. The following one is found at the end of food chain, which one?
A. flower B. fungus C. grass D. all
Part II: explain the following questions
1. Compare and contrast food web and food chain.
2. Define the function of decomposers in the environment.

5.1.4. Trophic Pyramids

Pyramid is the diagram that used to express the amounts of organisms
presents in each trophic level. It can be used to express the number
of biomass, amount of energy and number of organisms in the
trophic level.
A/ pyramid of numbers:-The pyramid made based on the number
of organisms at each trophic level. A pyramid of numbers shows the
total number of individual organisms at each level in the food chain of
an ecosystem.
Lion

Deer

Plant

Figure 5.11 pyramid of number

B/ pyramid of biomass:- It provides more accurate representation of

the energy contents at each trophic level.It shows the mass of producers
that are needed to support primary consumers, the mass of primary
consumers required to support secondary consumers, and so on.

Figure 5.12 pyramid of biomass

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C. pyramid of energy:- An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic

or ecological pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy
found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The energy can be
flow not recycled because its main sources are the sun and then energy
cannot be returned to the sun.

Figure 5.13 pyramid of energy

Activity 5.2
1. Identify and explain the components of food chain and food web with
their roles.
2. Brain storming on function of plant during photosynthesis.
3. Discuss and reason out why the number of organisms in each group
(level) decreases from bottom to top.
5.1.5. Nutrient Cycles and Energy Flow
Living organisms require different kinds of chemical elements like
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen etc for their metabolic and
biological processes. The cyclic of elements from environment to
organism and back to environment are called nutrient cycle.
Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which
nitrogen moves through both living and non-living things: the
atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals and bacteria. This atmospheric
nitrogen must convert to ammonia and nitrates by chemical synthesis
especially by decomposers. Producers use soil nitrates to synthesis
protein for the consumers.

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Nitrogen
in the air
Protein

Nitrate Nitrogen
salts separating
bacteria

Bacteria
Figure 5.14 Nitrogen Cycle
The process of nitrogen cycle
Many of the process are carried out by microbes either to produce
energy or to accumulate nitrogen in the form needed for growth.
Nitrogen fixation:-Decomposers can break down prote in which is
found in wastes and in dead body of plant and animals in to ammonium
compounds. Then it oxidized in to nitrates which return in to soil by
nitrifying bacteria.
Ammonification:- when plant and animal die or from their waste,
the organic nitrogen is convert to ammonium by decomposers. The
processes are called ammonification or mineralization.
Nitrification:- conversion of ammonia to nitrates by soil living
bacteria. These are the oxidation of ammonia by nitrosomonas bacteria
in to nitrites (NO2). Then also there is oxidation of nitrite in to nitrates
(NO3) by nitrobacter bacteria. The nitrate is usable forms of nitrogen
by plants.
Denitrification:-is reduction of nitrate back to inert nitrogen gas
(N2) completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed
by pseudomonas and clostridium bacterial species in anaerobic
conditions.
Oxygen cycle
Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the
atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants and animals) and the lithosphere
(the earth’s crust). The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free oxygen
is made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used.
The main driving factors of the oxygen cycle are the process of
photosynthesis which has responsible for life.

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Figure 5.15 oxygen cycles

Carbon cycle
Carbon is released back into the atmosphere when organisms die,
volcanoes erupt, fires blaze, fossil fuels are burned, and through a
variety of other mechanisms. It is one of the most important cycles of
the earth and allow for the most abundant elements to be recycled and
reused throughout the biosphere and all of its organisms. In carbon
cycles, carbon move from atmosphere to plants, from plant to animal,
from plant and animal to soil, from living thing to atmosphere and
from atmosphere to ocean.

Figure 5.16 carbon cycles

Hydrogen cycle
The hydrogen cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the
surface of the ocean. The hydrogen cycle consists of hydrogen
exchanges between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) sources
and sinks of hydrogen-containing compounds.

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Figure 5.18 water cycle

Water cycle
Water cycle is the continuous movements of water on above and below
the surface of the earth. Water can change its states among liquid(water),
vapor (gas), and solid (ice) at various places in the water cycle. The
water evaporates and turns to clouds. It falls down in the form of rain,
snow or ice. The water that flow into river and streams eventually
flows back in to the oceans. From the ocean it evaporates back in
to clouds and starts the whole cycle over again and becomes rain.

Figure 5.19 water cycle

Exercise 5.3
Part I:- choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. The following one is not cyclic in nature
A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. carbon D. none
2. The organisms that play great role in all nutrient cycle is called
A. producer B. plant C. decomposer D. herbivores
3. The main driving factor in oxygen cycle is _______
A. photosynthesis B. chemosynthesis C. heterotrophs D. all

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4. The convert of carbon from air to earth and back to air is called__
A. element cycle B. nitrogen cycle
C. oxygen cycle D. carbon cycle
5. Which types of element are more needed by plants
A. phosphorous B. sulfur C. oxygen D. nitrogen
Part II:- discuss and explain briefly
1. Briefly discuss on the role of decomposers in nutrient cycle.
2. Explain how energy flows in trophic relationship in ecosystems.
3. Explain and discuss why energy said to flow but not cycle?

5.2. Conservation of Natural Resources

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• summarize the characteristics of soil
• describe the various types of soils
• explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being
• list down and describe the various soil conservation strategies
• engage in the Environment Club of School and participate in
awareness creation campaigns.
• explain the various uses of soil in nature and to human being
• list down and describe the various water conservation strategies
• describe the various components of atmospheric air
• identify and discuss the various human activities that cause air
pollution
• discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples
• explain the various uses of air in nature and to human being
• explain the cause and impacts of global warming
• list down and describe the various actions that can be taken to reduce
the emission of carbon dioxide to atmosphere
• define forest and give examples of natural forests in Ethiopia
• explain the various uses of forest in nature and to human being
• identify and discuss the various human activities that cause
deforestation
• discuss the impacts of air pollution with examples

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• list down and describe the various actions that can be taken to
conserve forests
• list and describe the values of biodiversity
• list down and describe the various in-situ and ex situ conservation
strategies in biodiversity conservation
• give examples of the various indigenous knowledge and practices
that are used in the conservation of various natural resources such
as soil, forest, etc.
What is natural resource?
Any natural substance that humans use can be considered a natural
resource e.g oil, coal, natural gas, metals, stone and sand. It grouped
in to two namely renewable and non-renewable. Renewable natural
resources are capable of being produced, reused and replaced e.g.
vegetation, animal. Nonrenewable resources are cannot be easily
made or produced if they are used once. e.g. petroleum, coal.
What is conservation of natural resources?
Conservation is the care and protection of natural resources so that
they can persist for future generations. If the natural resources is not
conserved and not managed their number reduces and finally become
extinct.

Key term:
Humus:-is dark, soft, and rich in nutrients decaying organic matters
of plant and animals.

5.2.1. Soil
Soil Soil
is the
is theloose surfacematerial
loose surface material that covers
that covers most land.most land.ofItinorganic
It consists consistsparticles
of inorganic
and organicparticles and
matter. Soil is aorganic
mixture ofmatter. Soil and
broken rocks is aminerals,
mixtureliving
of broken
organisms, air,
rockswater
and minerals,
and decaying living organisms,
organic air, water
matters which calledand decaying
humus. Soils organic
are home to
matters which
myriad called humus.
micro-organisms Soils
that fix are home
nitrogen to myriadorganic
and decompose micro-organisms
matter, and armies of
that microscopic
fix nitrogen and
animals decompose
as well as earthworms organic matter, and armies of
and termites.
Key words:-
microscopic animals as well
Types of soilas earthworms and termites. Myriad:- very
Soil is used in agriculture activities where it serves as the primary large in numbers.

sources of nutrients for plants. The different types of soil that used in agriculture are
varying with respect to the species of plants which are cultivated. It provides
143minerals
and water to plants. There are three common types of soil namely: loam, sandy and clay
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Types of soil
Soil is used in agriculture activities where it serves as the primary
sources of nutrients for plants. The different types of soil that used in
agriculture are varying with respect to the species of plants which are
cultivated. It provides minerals and water to plants. There are three
common types of soil namely: loam, sandy and clay soil.

Figure 5.19 types of soil

Physical and chemical property of soil
Soil horizon
A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical,
chemical and biological characteristics differ from the layers above
and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by obvious physical
features, mainly color, root quantity, pH, structure, size and texture.
Humus is the biochemical substance that makes the upper layer of the
soil become dark.

O-Organic layer
A-Top soil
E-Eluviation Layer
B-Subsoil
C-Parent Rock
R-Bedrock

Figure 5.20soil horizons

Soil texture
It refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles found in a
representative sample of soil. Particles are normally grouped into
three main classes namely: sand, silt and clay. These all mineral
particles have different size. Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam
or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and clay sized particles
that make up the mineral fraction of the soil

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Figure 5.21 soil texture

The soil’s ability to retain water is strongly related to particle size.
So, sandy soils have relatively poor ability to hold water. Soils that
are high in clay content can hold relatively large amounts of water
for extended periods of time. Because clay-rich soils have the largest
pore space, hence the greatest total water holding capacity.Silt is
intermediate in its water holding properties.
Soil fertility
A loam soil contains more nutrients, moisture, humus and has better
drainage of water air, and is easier to till. It is suitable for growing
plants. So it is the most fertile soil. The major causes to soil fertility
decline are a land degradation which is caused through the different
agents such as soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, sedimentation,
continuous farming and pollution.
Soil conservations
Is a set of management strategy for prevention of soil being eroded
from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered. It can do
through the use of various methods. Some are:-
1.Afforestation:- it also called reforestationas tree grow tall, it also
keep rooting deeper in to the soil. When the root spread deep in to soil
layer, they contribute to the prevention of soil erosion.

Figure 5.22 afforestation

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2.Terracing:- it is very good methods of soil conservations and

leveling section of a hilly cultivated area. It gives the landmass a
stepped appearance thus slowing washing down of the soil.

Figure 5.23 terracing

3. Contour ploughing:- it is a method of ploughing across the contour

line of a slop. This method helps in slowing the water runoff, prevents
the soil from being washed away along the slop and in percolation of
water in to the soil.

Figure 5.24 contour plouphing

4. Crop rotation:- continuous cultivation of the same crop leads

imbalance fertility demand of soil. Crop rotation is growing of
dissimilar crops. This method used to help for improvements of soil
structure and fertility

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Figure 5.25 crop rotation

Activity 5.3:-demonstration
1. The students bring some types of soil from their surrounding and
observe the color, size, texture etc. Then discuss in groups about
their observation.
2. Ordered students to take part in soil conservations programs
around their home and schools.
3. Student demonstrates on which types of soil pass water, which is
intermediate and which is hold more water and then discuss on
the results.
Procedure:-make a group and bring soil sample, water from
surrounding
- Observe and clearly understand on characteristics of soil and present
the result
- Present the result in class
- Demonstrate carefully and record the results.

5.2.2. Water
It is the main constituent of living cell and also used as a habitat for
most organisms. Water used as universal solvents so it used for
metabolic reactions. It has cooling effect, temperature regulation,
lubricating body, transport food, hormone, waste product etc. It helps
for hydrolysis reaction, osmoregulation and removal of wastes. Animals
need water for drinking, washing and living and as sources of oxygen.
Water also used for plants to manufacturing of food and rigidity.
Key term:
Pesticides:-chemicals that is used to kill insects that damage plant.
Herbicides:-chemicals used to destroy plants or stop plant growth.

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Water pollution
Increased human activity, agricultural and industrial wastes pollute
water, when they drain in to lakes, rivers, streams and seas. These
wastes contain toxic compounds, salts, solvents are industrial wastes.
Sewage, garbage and pathogens are domestic wastes. Agricultural
wastes also contain pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
Key term:
Fungicides:-substance that kill fungi.

Figure 5.26 water pollutants

Impact of water pollution

Toxic chemicals like mercury and lead, salts like phosphorous com-
pounds etc are not broken down inside living things. They build up in tis-
sues of aquatic organisms. When human eat this organisms lead is stored
in liver, kidney and damage nervous systems. Finally they cause severe
birth abnormality. If agricultural wastes enter into water body, they are
dangerous for living things. Because these accumulate in the fats and
body tissue. Domestic wastes may contain urine, faces, viruses and
bacteria. It transmitted the disease of cholera, typhoid, and others for
living organisms.

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Activity 5.4:
1.Students discuss briefly on the purposes of water for living things and
present for the class.
2. List and discuss on human activity which cause water pollutions and
their conservation methods.
3. How you celebrate water conservation day on 22nd March?
- Present for the other groups and receive the comments.

Water Conservation
Water must be conserved by the use of various methods for the
continuity of life on earth. Some of these methods are:-
1. Cover vegetation:- vegetation used to absorb and hold water.
It reduce the rune off and decrease force of rain drops allowing
the rain fall to reach the ground gently.
2. Contour ploughing:- is ploughing the hill across the slope but
not up and down. It prevents waters from running off.
3. Terracing:- collect water in the channel and prevent erosion and
increase the crop yield.
4. Building artificial mechanical barriers, check dams prevent
running off.
5. Preventing water pollution by educating people and formulating
water policy.
Ground water is water that found under the ground. This water must
be conserved by different methods. Some are by
• Use native plants in your landscape. They look great, and don’t
need much water or fertilizer
• Use fewer chemicals around your home and make sure to dispose
of them properly - don’t dump them on the ground.
• Properly dispose of potentially toxic substances like unused
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, paint, motor oil, and other substances.
• Get involved in water education! Learn more about groundwater
and share your knowledge with others.
• Keeping it safe from contamination
• Using it wisely by not wasting it.

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These and others method of ground water conservation are make the
water sustainably used for long period of time.
Exercise 5.4:
1. Student guess which type of soil is more fertile reason out.
2. Briefly explain on the functions of the three types of soil.
3. Brainstorming on loss of soil fertility and their conservations.
4. Engage and participate in environmental protection club.

5.2.3 Air
Air is made up of 78.09% nitrogen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon
dioxide, and other gases in very small amounts. Air comprises almost
21% oxygen. Water vapor is also a constituent of air in varying
amounts along with dust particles. The required gas for breathing and
respiration are also found in the air.

Figure 5.27 air compositions

Activity 5.5:-
1. List the importance of air for living things.
2. Discus in groups on impact of human to air pollution and way of
preventions.
3. Discuss on impacts of air pollutions.

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Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a trace gas with a concentration of just about 0.04%.
Carbon dioxide is produced through respiration and also through
the decomposition of organic materials. It is also produced through
some natural sources like geysers, volcanoes, burning of fossil fuel,
deforestation, and hot springs. During the combustion of petroleum and
natural gases, carbon dioxide is evolved. CO2 is used in food industry
as an additive in order to regulate acidity. Carbon dioxide is a great
choice for use in soda products as it easily absorbs into a liquid including
soft drinks to forms tiny bubbles. The CO2 also serves as a protective
measure that keeps the soft drink fresh and prevents the growth
of bacteria in the liquid while stored.
Oxygen
Oxygen is the most important chemical element of air. Oxygen is
a highly reactive gas which readily forms bonds known as oxides
with other elements. It is also highly combustible (quick to catch
fire). Oxygen plays a critical role in respiration, the energy-producing
chemistry that drives the metabolisms of most living things. We
humans, along with many other creatures, need oxygen in the air we
breathe to stay alive. Oxygen is generated during photosynthesis by
plants and many types of microbes.
Nitrogen
The most abundant, pure component of air is nitrogen with a
concentration of around 78%. Nitrogen is produced through a
process called nitrogen fixation which is a continuous cycle between
the living organisms and the atmosphere. It is also produced
in industries by fractional distillation of air in its liquid form.
Water Vapor
The water vapor concentration in the atmosphere varies from
about 0.01% to 3% depending upon the temperature. When we re-
spire we also release some amount of water vapor. In many chem-
ical reactions, water vapor is evolved as a by-product. Apart
from carbon dioxide and methane, water vapor also contrib-
utes to the greenhouse effect as it absorbs and emits radiations.

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Water vapor is used as steam which helps in cooking and also in

producing energy.

Key term:-
Greenhouse effect:-a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface

Effects of Air Pollution

The effects of air pollution on the human body vary depending on
the type of pollutant and the length and level of exposure as well as
other factors, including a person’s individual health risks and the
cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors. Air pollution
can cause different forms of effects on living and non-living things.
Some are:-
1. Global warming:-it is the rising of temperatures on the surface
of earth as a result of accumulation of greenhouse gas like carbon
dioxide.These greenhouse gases can trap heat from sun and make
earth’s temperature high.
2. Global dimming:- is worldwide blockage or reduction of
sunlight from reaching the earth’s surface as a result of unborn
hydrocarbon released in to the air.
3. Acid rain:-it caused by release of toxic substance in to the air
like sulphuric and nitrogen oxide from factories and vehicles.
During rain, the falling water combines with the oxides of sulphur
and nitrogen. The acid rain causes killing leaves, soil depletion,
polluted the water body and damage on building materials. The
acid rain also can be the cause of volcanic eruption and lightening.
It is oxidized in the atmosphere to SO2, which can then be
converted to sulfate. H2S is some what soluble in water, resulting
in formation of sulfhydric acid, which is corrosive to metals, and
contributes to acidic deposition to soil and water.
Air pollution greatly affect our health by causing of lung cancer, heart
disease, respiratory inflammations, brain damage, skin cancer etc.

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How prevent air pollutions?

Any persons have responsible for the reduction of air pollution
because it is worldwide problems. By using different methods like:
Avoid use of traditional fuels, using solar wind and hydroelectric
powers, reforestation or planting trees, take care for water pollutions,
educating society and establish law of pollution control etc must
prevent pollutions.
Activity 5.6;-
1. Plantation used to reduce carbon dioxide and global warming from
the atmospheres. Briefly discuss how it reduces?
2. Brainstorming and discuss how photosynthesis is important for air
pollutions?
Procedures: list way of reduction by plants
- Explain in their groups about the role of photosynthesis on air
pollution

5.2.4. Forests
What is forest?
The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that
buffer the earth and support a variety of life forms. Harenna forest
is one example of natural forests in south eastern Ethiopia. The trees
help create a special environment which, in turn, affects the kinds of
animals and plants that can exist in the forest. They clean the air, cool
it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as excellent beauty of
the earth.

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Figure 5.29 forests

Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of raindrops
on the soil, thereby reducing soil erosion. The layer of leaves that fall
around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water to percolate into
the soil. Roots help to hold the soil in place. Dead plants decompose
to form humus, organic matter that holds the water and provides
nutrients to the soil. Birds build their nests on the branches of trees,
animals and birds live in the hollows, insects and other organisms
live in various parts of the plant. They produce large quantities of
oxygen and take in carbon dioxide.Transpiration from the forests
affects the relative humidity and precipitation in a place.
Key term:
Transpiration:- Process of water movements through plants parts to
environments during evaporations.

Activity 5.7:
1. Discuss on the role of forests in nature and present in the class.
2. Brainstorming on way of deforestations and discuss conservation
methods.

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Effects of human on forests

Human can affects the forests at different types of ways for various
reasons. They cut down the trees for different purpose like for farming
activities, furniture, wood, selling, building of home, and for others.
These cut down of plant is called deforestation.

Figure 5.30 deforestation of forests

Reforestation is the process of planting trees in a forest where the
number of trees has been decreasing. It’s helping to bring forest back
to an area where it was destroyed. Because forests are the best and
most cost-efficient method for removing and storing consequential
amounts of climate-warming carbon dioxide (CO2).
5.2.5. Biodiversity
What is biodiversity?
The term bio diversity or biological diversity refers to the collection
of life and habitat in ecosystems. They interact together between dif-
ferent species from ecosystem and ecological process. Biodiversity
represents the most fundamental library in support of the life science.
They are used as a bank of gene and species. Biodiversity is also the
measure of the wealth of species in a given place or habitats. Biodi-
versity includes all types of living organisms ranging from smaller
microorganism to largest organisms.
Importance of biodiversity
Ecological life support biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems
that supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest
control, wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.

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Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons.

• Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for
consumption and production. Provisioning services—the production
of food, fiber and water. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers,
fishers and timber workers, are dependent on biodiversity.
• Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning
ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of
plants, pest control, regulating services—the control of climate and
diseases wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.
• Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique
biodiversity, such as bird watching, hiking, camping and fishing. Our
tourism industry also depends on biodiversity.
• Cultural—cultural services—such as spiritual and recreational
benefits.
• Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic
ecological data that help us to understand the natural world and its
origin
Key terms:
Botanical garden: - institutions holding documented collections of
living plants.
Seed banks:- the principle of conserving local varieties on farm.

Figure 5.31 biodiversity

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Exercise 5.5
Explain and discuss briefly
1. List some example of organisms for each of the five kingdoms.
2. Discuss and explain types of national park and zoos and present
in the class.
3. Ask and collect any indigenous practice from other persons that
used to conserve natural resources.

Biodiversity conservation
The protection and efficient management of wild species and their
environment is the prime objective of conservation. This conservation
is usually carried out in two ways namely in-situ and ex-situ.
What is In situ Conservation?
It means the conservation of biodiversity in their natural habitats itself.
It aims to enable biodiversity to maintain itself within the context of
the ecosystem. Establish a protected area network, with appropriate
management practices, corridors to link fragments restore degraded
habitats within and outside. It helps in the multiplication of the
species through the process of evolution and adaptation. It provides
greater mobility to the animal species because of the large habitat
area. Example- national parks, biosphere reserves, parks, sanctuaries.
What is Ex-situ conservation?
It means the conservation of biological diversity outside their natural
areas. Artificial conditions are created to make their habitat almost
like a natural habitat. It involves the maintenance of genetic variation
(Genetic Conservation) away from its original location. Established
botanical and zoological gardens, conservation stands; banks of
germplasm, pollen, seed, seedling, tissue culture, gene, and DNA, etc. It
identifies and rehabilitates threatened species; launched augmentation,
reintroduction, or introduction programs. This method will enhance
the probability of reproductive success for endangered species. It
provides less mobility to the organism because of the small habitat
area. Example- Zoo, aquarium, seed banks, botanical gardens, etc.

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Hence, we can say that both In situ and Ex-situ are the method of
conservation. The basic difference between in situ and ex-situ lies in
the habitat place where the process is carried out.

Key terms:
Sanctuaries:-an area where animal habitats and their surroundings
are protected from any sort of disturbance.
Germ plasm:-living tissue from which new plants can be grown.

5.2.6. Indigenous knowledge and Conservation of Natural

Resources
Local and indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills
and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of
interaction with their natural surroundings. For rural and indigenous
peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental
aspects of day-to-day life. This knowledge is integral to a cultural
complex that also encompasses language, systems of classification,
resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality. These
unique ways of knowing are important facets of the world’s cultural
diversity, and provide a foundation for locally-appropriate sustainable
development.

Key term:
National park:- an area set aside by a national government for the
preservation of the natural environment.

Indigenous Conservation and Management

The recognition that local and indigenous people have their own
ecological understandings, conservation practices and resource
management goals has important implications. It transforms the
relationship between biodiversity managers and local communities.
While previously they were perceived simply as resource users,
indigenous people are now recognized as essential partners in
environmental management.

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For example, indigenous knowledge conservation of soil are

terracing, contour ploughing, crop rotation, mixed cropping and
fertilization some methods. The lands on which they live and the
natural resources on which they depend are inseparably linked to
their identities, cultures and livelihoods. Therefore, even small
changes in their environment can have dramatic impacts on their
lives. With the increasing pressure of global development, many
countries are conserving these rich forest areas to protect their
nature and biodiversity. These areas are called protected areas.
Creating protected areas can increase biodiversity and benefit the
ecosystem at the national or global level. However, at the local level,
conservation can come at a cost to indigenous peoples’ physical and
spiritual well-being. This is the root cause of many conflicts over
conservation objectives. Several examples across the globe show
that conflicts with indigenous groups challenge the sustainability of
conservation programs. Most recently, tension between large
international conservation groups and local communities has been
growing.
How does indigenous knowledge help in environmental
conservation?
Indigenous knowledge is one of the greatest assets of a community.
In a time when the climate is changing this knowledge can help
them to adapt to these changes and control the environment around
them. Indigenous knowledge means local knowledge that is unique
to a given society and is embedded in their cultural traditions.

Key terms:
Aquarium:- a transparent tank of water in which live fish and other
water creatures and plants are kept.

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Exercise 5.6:
Part I: choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. The interaction between similar species is called _________
A. inter B. intra C. predator D. prey
2. Which of the following is more important in nature cycle
A. algae B. fungus C. cyanobacteria D. all
3. One of the following is not components of food chain
A. producer B. primary consumer
C. secondary consumer D.none
4. Which of the following is renewable resources
A. fossil B. petroleum C. charcoal D. food
Part II: Match descriptions in column B with the items in column
A
A B
1. Renewable resources A/ sandy soil
2. Poor ability to hold water B/ clay soil
3. Hold large water C/ solar energy
4. Nitrogen D/ 21 %
5. Oxygen E/ 78%
Parts III: fill blank space
1. ________ is complex ecosystems containing many trees.
2. Conservation of organism in their habitat is called __________
3. ________ is a knowledge that local person used to perform
different tasks.

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SUMMERY
• Any living organisms cannot be survive or live without the
interaction each other and with their environments.
• Ecosystems can be affected by living (biotic) components
and nonliving things or physical components (abiotic) of an
environment.
• Biological interaction of organism can be intra specific between
the same species or inter specific between members of different
species.
• Decomposers are organisms that can breakdown dead body part
of other organisms to get their nutrients. Because of these they
found at the end of each food chain.
• Food chain is the direct and simple feeding systems that involve
the transfer of nutrient and energy while food web is too complex
feeding interrelation among the organisms which consists of many
food chains.
• Pyramid is the diagram that used to express the amounts of
organisms presents in each trophic level.
• The cyclic of elements such as nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon
from environment to organism and back to environment are called
nutrient cycle.
• Any naturally occurring substance on the earth that humans use
can be considered a natural resource.
• It grouped in to two major groups namely renewable and non-
renewable.
• Conservation is the care and protection of these resources so that
they can persist for future generations.
• Soil consists of inorganic particles and organic matter which
provides the structural support to plants and source of water and
nutrients.
• Water is the main constituent of living cell and also used as a
habitat for most organisms.
• Increased human activity, agricultural and industrial wastes pollute
water, when they drain in to lakes, rivers, streams and seas.
• Carbon dioxide is produced through respiration and also through
the decomposition of organic material.
• The most abundant, pure component of air is nitrogen with a
concentration of around 78%.

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• Air pollution is caused by solid and liquid particles and certain

gases that are suspended in the air.
• Acid rain, global warming, and global dimming are the results of
air pollutions.
• Forests clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night,
and act as excellent sound absorbers.
• Human can cut down the trees for different purpose like for
farming activities, for furniture, wood, selling, building of home,
and for others and it is called deforestation.
• The term bio diversity or biological diversity refers to the collection
of life and habitat in ecosystems and it is also the measure of the
wealth of species in a given place or habitats.
• The maintenance of species and ecosystems is a keystone to
sustainable development. This conservation is usually carried out
in two ways namely in-situ(in their natural habitats) and ex-situ
(outside their natural habitats).
• Local and indigenous people have their own ecological
understandings, conservation practices and resource management
goals have important implications.
Review exercise
Part 1: For the following questions choose the best answer among
the choices given.
1. The collection of living and nonliving things are called ______
A. plant B. animal C. ecology D. ecosystems
2. All living things also called ________
A. physical component B. biotic
C. abiotic D. microorganism
3. The relation between two different species in which one or
both are benefited is called __________
A. competition B. decomposers C. symbiosis D. all
5. One of the following is not biotic component
A. disease B. plant C. food D. water
6.___is used to mainly control the growth of vegetation by its fertility.
A. soil B. water C. air D. all

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7.______ is an organism that release energy from simple chemical

reactions.
A. decomposers B. heterotrophs
C. photoautotrophs D. chemoautotrophs
8. All organisms can directly or indirectly depend on first trophic level.
A. producer B. primary consumer C.decomposer D.carnivours
9._______ is the main sources of energy for all food chain.
A. plant B. animal C. temperature D. sun
10. The food chain that contain more than one food chain is
called_____
A. interaction B. relation C. food web D. food chain
11._______ is reduction of nitrate back to inert nitrogen gas
A. ammonification B. nitrification
C. denitrification D. nitrogen fixation
12. The movement of elements in the atmosphere is called _______
A. carbon cycle B. nature cycle
C. nitrogen cycle D. water cycle
13. The wise use of natural resource is called _______
A. conservation B. management C. protection
D. preservation E. all
14. Conservation is only protection of nonrenewable resources
A. non renewable B. renewable C.water D.all
Part II:- fill in the blank space
1._______ refers to the size distribution of the mineral particles
found in a representative sample of soil.
2.________ is the process of growing trees to prevent soil erosion.
3.The contaminated of water with toxic substances are called______
4. The major components of gas in the atmosphere is called______
5.______ is a chemical that is toxic for other natural resources.
6.The collection of shrubs and large trees are called __________
Part III:- write short answers
1. List and discus briefly about the prevention of water and air pollution.
2. How can be human activity cause pollution of air?
3. List advantages of biodiversity throughout the world.

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UNIT SIX
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, learners will be able to:

• explain family of the solar system;
• name all planets in the solar system;
• show the position of each planet in the solar system;
• develop the model of solar system;
• describe how satellites move around the earth;
• explain the motion of large bodies in the solar system;
• differentiate the motion of satellites and planets
in the solar system;
• compare the distance, size, position and behavior
of each planate from the Sun;
• explain the unique characteristics of the earth;
• describe the suitability of earth for life.

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Introduction
This unit deals about the families and formation of the Solar System.
The solar system includes the Sun, planets, satellites, dwarf planets,
Asteroids, comets and Meteors.
Then, the distance, size, position and behavior of each planet from
the sun will be discussed. Finally, the suitability (uniqueness) of
Earth for life will be discussed.

Main contents of the unit

6.1 Family of the Solar System
6.2 Formation of the Solar system.
6.3 Earth in comparison with solar system
6.4 Our planet’s Suitability for Life.

6.1 Family of the Solar System

At the end of this section you will be able to:

• explain family of the solar system;
• name all planets in the solar system;
• show the position of each planet in the solar system;
• develop the model of the solar system.

The Solar System

The Sun and all celestial bodies that revolve around it form the solar
system. Thus, our solar system includes the Sun, eight planets including
their moons, dwarf planets, smaller bodies such as asteroids, comets
and meteors. Figure 6.1 shows a schematic view of the solar system.

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Fig. 6.1 The solar system

The Sun
The Sun is a star closest to our Earth. It is located at the very center of
our solar system. The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen gas (about
71%), helium gas (about 27%) and other gases(2%). The temperature
at the surface of the Sun is very high, around 5500 °C. It is about 15
million °C at its center. The Sun is the largest and most massive ob-
ject in our solar system making up 98% of the total mass of the solar
system.

The Planets
Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun in a well-
defined path. This path is known as the orbit of the planet. In 2006, the
International Astronomical Union (IAU) declared the number planets
to be eight. In addition to this, as of 2014, this union has recognized
five dwarf planets.

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Based on their distance from the Sun, planets in our solar system
classified into two.
1. Terrestrial (inner) planet: mercury, Venus, earth and mars.
2. Jovian (outer) planet: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

1. Mercury
Mercury is the closest planet found at a distance of 57.9 million km
from the Sun. It is the smallest planet of our solar system. Mercury
has no satellite of its own. Mercury has the most extreme tempera-
tures in the solar system, reaching 426 °C during the day and -173 °C
during the night. It takes 88 days for Mercury to make one complete
revolution around the Sun.

Figure 6.3 mercury

2. Venus
Venus is the nearest planet to earh. It is found at a distance of 108.2
million km from the sun. Venus has a thick dense atmosphere mostly
made up of carbon dioxide which is an effective greenhouse gas. That
is why Venus has the highest surface temperature and it is the hottest
planet in the solar system. Venus has mountains, volcanoes and dunes
just like Earth. Venus has no moon. Rotation of Venus on its axis is
some what unusual. It rotates in the opposite direction to all other
planets. It takes 243 days for Venus to make one complete revolution
around the Sun.

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Figure 6.4 Venus

Project 6.1: With the help of your General Science teacher find out
the time when Venus is visible in the sky. You can easily recognize
Venus by its brightness. You must try to observe Venus either 1-3 hours
before sunrise or 1-3 hours after sunset. Prepare a report to your class.

3. The Earth
Our home planet, the Earth is found at a distance of 149.6 million
km from the sun. The Earth is the third nearest planet to the sun.
Having a look from space, it appears blue green due to the reflection
of light from water and landmass on its surface. The Earth has only
one moon. It takes 365.25 days for the Earth to make one complete
revolution around the Sun.

Figure 6.5 Earth

4. Mars
Mars is found at a distance of 227.9 million km from the sun. It is
the fourth planet from the Sun and the second smallest planet in the
solar system. Mars is known as the Red Planet, because of its reddish
color. It has only two moons. Mars has mountains, volcanoes and
valleys just like the Earth.

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It takes 687 days for Mars to make one complete revolution around
the Sun.

Scientists are interested in visiting Mars thinking that there may be

some water in cracks and tiny holes in underground rock. For this
purpose, they send Robots to Mars, see Figure 6.6.
Tip. The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is on
Mars and it is three times taller than Mount Everest. Mars also has
the deepest and longest valley in the solar system, known as Valles
Marineris.
5. Jupiter
Jupiter is found at a distance of 778.3 million km from the sun. It is
the fifth planet from the sun, found next to Venus. Jupiter is the larg-
est planet of the solar system. Jupiter has 79 moons. It also has faint
rings around it. Jupiter appears quite bright in the sky, for this reason
you can easily recognize it. It takes 11.89 years for Jupiter to make
one complete revolution around the Sun.

Figure 6.7 Jupiter

6. Saturn
Saturn is found at a distance of 1432 million km from the Sun.We get
Saturn next to Jupiter. Saturn has the largest number of moons,which
are 82 moons. One interesting thing about Saturn is that it is the least
dense among allthe planets.

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Its density is less than that of water. Saturn is known for its rings.
These rings are not visible with the naked eye. It takes 29.37 years
for Saturn to make one complete revolution around the Sun.

Figure 6.8 Saturn

7. Uranus
Uranus is found at a distance of 2871 million km from the Sun. It is
the seventh planet from the sun. It is blue-green in color. Uranus is
the third-largest planet in our solar system. It has 27 moons. Uranus
was the first planet discovered using a telescope and it can be seen
only with the help of large telescopes. Like Venus, Uranus rotates
from east to west. The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it
has highly tilted rotational axis. It takes 84.099 years for Uranus to
make one complete revolution around the Sun.

Figure 6.9 Uranus

8. Neptune
Neptune is the eighth and farthest planet of the solar system. It is
found at a distance of 4498 million km from the Sun. In the Solar
System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most
massive planet, and the coldest. Neptune has 14 moons. It can be
seen only with the help of large telescopes. It takes 165 years for
Neptune to make one complete revolution around the Sun.

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Table 6.1 Solar system data

Distance from Period of

Name of Number Temperature Period of
the Sun Rotation
Planet of moons (0C) Revolution
(million km)

Mercury 57.9
Mercury 0 167 88 days 59 days

venus
Venus 108.2 0 464 243 days 243 days

23.9345 hours
Earth
Earth 149.6 1 15 365.25 days

Mars
Mars 227.9 2 - 65 687 days 24 hours 37 min

Jupiter 778.3
Jupiter 79 - 110 11.89 years 9 hour 50 min

Saturn 1432
Saturn 82 - 140 29.37 years 10 hours 13 min

Uranus 2871
Uranus 27 - 195 84.099 years 17.2 4hours
196

Neptune 4498 13 - 200 165 years 16.1 hours

Source: Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute

Activity 6.1:
Randomly select six or more students from your class (female and male mixed). Draw
ellipses, of radii 0.4m, 0.72m, 1.0m, 1.5m, and 5.2m etc.,. (in proportion of the distance
of the planets from Sun) all having a common center (Fig. 6.11). Let one of the students
stand in the center and represent the Sun. The other students may represent Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, and Jupiter etc. Let the students to move around the Sun in anti-
clockwise direction in their own orbits. Discuss how this scenario represent the motion
of planets around the Sun. Your teacher will tell you how to draw an ellipse.

ልጆች የፕላኔቶችን ስም በወረቀት ጽፈው ይዘዉ በመሃላቸዉ ጸሃይን አድርገዉ በተሳለዉ ኦርቢት

ይዞራሉ
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Dwarf planets
Dwarf planets are bodies that are too small to be considered full-
fledged planets, but too large to fall into smaller categories. The five
dwarf planets that have got acceptance by IAU are: Pluto, Eris, Ceres,
Haumea, and Makemake.

Figure 6.10 Dwarf planets

Terrestrial (inner) and Jovian (outer) planets

According to their orbits, planets are grouped into two classes: The
inner and outer planets. The inner planets are also called terrestrial
(or rocky)
Terrestrial planets
(inner) and because their surfaces
Jovian (outer) are made of rock. The first
planets
four planets closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), are
According to their
the inner orbits,
planets. Theyplanets
have theare grouped
following into two classes: The inner an
characteristics.
• Low mass: Earth is the heaviest.
planets. The inner planets are also called terrestrial (or rocky) planets becau
• High densities (4000 to 5500 kg/m3).
surfaces are• made• They are made
of rock. The of rock
first andplanets
four have metallic
closestcores.
to the sun (Mercury,
The remaining four planets further from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn,
Earth, and Mars),
Uranus, and are the inner
Neptune) planets.
are called the They have theThey
outer planets. following
are alsocharacteristics.
called
Jovian
 Low planets.
mass: Earth is the heaviest.
 High densities (4000 to 5500 kg/m3).
 Composed primarily of rocky materials with solid Surface.
 They are made of rock and have metallic cores.
The remaining four planets further from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, 172
Uranus, and N
are called the outer planets. They are also called Jovian planets.
 General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

Figure 6.11 (a) Inner planets (b)Outer planets

The outer planets are very different from the four inner planets. They
have the following behaviors:
• Large diameters (4 to 11 times Earth’s size)
• High mass (14 to 318 times Earth’s mass)
• Low average densities (700 to 1700 kg/m3)
• They are mainly made of hydrogen and helium without a solid
surface.
• The outer planets have large number of moons.
Project 6.2: In earlier times, the numbers of planets in the solar
system was nine. But now a days, although Pluto orbits the Sun, it is
no longer a planet of the solar system. Explore the reason why Pluto
is discarded from the list of planets.

Exercise 6.1:
nd outer Choose the word from the list to fill in the blank spaces.
Mercury Pluto Sun Jupiter
use their
, Venus, 1._________ is a star in the solar system.
2._________ is a dwarf planet.
3. The planet closest to the sun is _____________.
4.The largest planet in the solar system is ___________.
Some Other Members of the Solar System
There are some other bodies which revolve around the Sun. They are
also members of the solar system. They are Asteroids, comets and
meteors.

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Asteroids
Asteroids are large number
of small objects that revolve
around the Sun. Most asteroids
are found in the asteroid belt,
which lies between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter (Fig 6.12).
Asteroids closest to the Sun are
mainly metallic objects. Those
further away are rocky objects.
Asteroids can only be seen Figure 6.12 Asteroids
through large telescopes.
Comets
Comets are icy and dusty objects that revolve around the Sun in
highly elliptical orbits. Their period of revolution round the Sun is
usually very long. A comet appears generally as a bright head with a
long tail. The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the sun.
The tail of a comet is always directed away from the sun (Fig. 6.13).

Fig. 6.13: Different position of a Comet

Tip: Edmund Halley and His Comet
The most well known comet in the Solar System is known as
Halley’s Comet. The comet is named after English astronomer Edmond
(or Edmund) Halley, who examined reports of a comet approaching
Earth in 1531, 1607 and 1682. He concluded that these three comets
were actually the same comet returning over and over again. Halley
predicted the comet would come again in 1758. Halley’s Comet ap-
pears after nearly every 76 years. The last time it was seen was in
1986, and the predicted next appearance of Halley in the inner Solar
System will be in 2061

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Meteors and Meteorites

Meteors are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are
not stars. A meteor is usually a small object moving around the sun.
When a meteor occasionally enters the Earth’s atmosphere, it gets
heated up because of friction and evaporates in a very short period of
time. Some meteors are so large that a part of them reaches the sur-
face of the Earth before they evaporate completely. These are called
meteorites.

Figure 6.14 Meteors

Tip: Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Galileo is an Italian astronomer, mathematician, physicist, inventor
and philosopher. In 1609 Galileo built his first telescope, though he is
not the first inventor of the telescope, and began making observations.
His observations of the night sky changes mankind’s view of the
universe, and our place in it. With his telescope Galileo discovered the
four primary moons of Jupiter (now known as the Galilean moons).
He also discovered many new stars, the phases of Venus and Saturn’s
rings.

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Galileo was also known to discover the craters and mountains on the
Moon and Sun-centered solar system, against Earth-centered solar
system. This view of Galileo brought him into serious conflict with the
Church. Because of this Galileo was arrested at home at the end of his
lifetime. Galileo became completely blind by the age of 74, but NOT
because he looked at the Sun through his telescope.
Remember, like Galileo, you should NEVER look directly at the
Sun!

Exercise 6.2:
1. What are the differences between inner and outer planets?
2. Name all planets in the solar system.
3. Locate the position of each planet and other member of the solar
system by writing their name corresponding to the numbers
labeled in the figure 6.15 below

Figure 6.15 Solar system

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

1. _________ 4. _________ 7. _________

2. _________ 5. _________ 8. _________
3. _________ 6. _________ 9. _________
4. Which type of planet (inner or outer) tends to be denser?
Explain why.
5. Which planet has more moons?
6. Which planet tends to have the shortest time taken to
make one complete rotation around Sun? Why is this?
7. Which planet have the least temperature? Why is this?
8. Which planet rotates fastest around its axis of rotation?
6.2 Formation of the Solar System

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• describe how satellites move around the Earth;
• explain the motion of large bodies in the solar system;
• differentiate the motion of satellites and planets in the solar system.

Scientists believe that our solar system is formed approximately 4.6

billion years ago from the cloud of dust and gas, mainly hydrogen
and helium. This cloud of dust and gas was slowly rotating in space.
At that time the cloud was disturbed by the explosion of a star known
as supernova. The energy of this explosion causes the cloud to start
contracting. As the contraction increases, the particles of the cloud
were squeezed into less space. As a result, the cloud’s density becomes
greater and the increased attraction of gravity pulled more gas and
dust towards the center of the cloud. This caused the cloud to rotate
faster and there it causes a solar nebula. A solar nebula is a large cloud
of gas and dust from which the sun, planets and other solar system
(asteroids, meteors and moons) be formed.

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The Birth of the Sun

At the heart of the nebula, the contraction proceeds. As a result, ball
of hydrogen gas whose pressure and temperature become quite huge
become formed. Most of the contracting mass is collected in the
center, forming the Sun. The fact that most of the material was pulled
toward the center, accounts for 99.8% of the mass of the solar system
to be that of Sun. The figure below shows the formation of the solar
system with a diagram.

Figure 6.16 The process of the Formation of Solar

The Birth of the Planets
The planets are formed from the same cloud of gases and dust as the
Sun. Not all the nearby gas and dust were drawn into the core of the
cloud. The infinitely large number of left over gas and dust particles
will also began to stick together by their mutual gravity. This forms
clumps. These clumps smashed into one another, forming larger and
larger objects that led to the birth of Earth, other planets and moons
in our Solar System.

Figure 6.17 Formation of Planets

Close to the Sun, the temperature was hot, and the easily vaporized elements could not
178
condense into solids. This is why inner planets are made of small rocks and have iron
core. The outer planets that are farthest from the Sun are made of mostly of lighter
General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The comets, asteroids, and meteorites are surviving remnants from the
processes that formed the solar system.

Motion of satellites around earth

Planets are celestial bodies that revolve around Sun, whereas a celestial
body that revolves around a planet is called a satellite. Moon is the
natural satellite of the Earth. There are many man-made satellites
revolving round the Earth. These are called artificial satellites.
Artificial satellites are launched from the Earth.
Artificial satellites have many practical applications. They are used
for weather forecasting, and transmitting television and radio sig-
nals. They are also used for telecommunication and remote sensing.
Our country, Ethiopia, has launched two artificial satellites. The
1st Earth Observation satellite of Ethiopia (ETRSS-1) was launched
on the 20th of December 2019 in collaboration with the government
of China.

Figure 6.18 Symbol figure of the Ethiopian Remote sensing Sateallites-1.

ET-SMART-RSS is the second Ethiopian satellite, launched followed

by ETRSS-1. ET-SMART-RSS has a higher resolution than ETRSS-1.
The naming ET-SMART-RSS is ETfor Ethiopia /ESSTI, SMART is
for Beijing Smart Satellite Technology and RSS stands for Remote
Sensing Satellite. It is launched on December 22, 2020.

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

The main mission of the Ethiopian space satellite is for addressing

urgent national challenges in the areas of natural resource management,
climate change and variability, weather forecasting and monitoring,
different forms of natural disasters mitigation (like drought,
landslides, and flood), mapping and exploration of minerals, water
resource availability and supply, transport infrastructure monitoring,
energy and tourism development, agriculture modernization, forestry,
ecosystems as well as border surveillance and national security.
Exercise 6.3
1. Describe what motion does a satellite make around Earth?
2. Discuss the difference between the motion satellites and
planets.
6.3 Earth in Comparison with Solar System
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• Compare the distance, size, position and behavior of each planet
from the Sun
The Earth is the planet we are living in. It is the third planet from the
Sun and the only planet in our Solar System that is known to support
life. The Earth is about 12,750 km in diameter. The Earth is the fifth-
largest planet in our Solar System (after Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune).
Compare the distance of each planet from the sun
The distance of each planet from the Sun varies because all the planets
orbit the Sun on different elliptical paths.
Activity 6.1: Creating a model of distances of planets from the sun.
Make a group that contains 10 students. One student will represent
the Sun and the other 8 will represent the eight planets. The other
team members will put the planet students in the correct order, from
closest to furthest from the Sun, using the data on the table below. If
you do not have enough space to do this model, you can modify this
activity by using a string model in the classroom. Have students tie
beads in place to represent planetary distances. You can also modify
the scale.

180
 into a football field or any playground. If you do not have enough space to do this
model, you can modify this activity by using a string model in the classroom. Have
General Science
students tie GRADE 8 Student
beads in place to represent planetary distances. You can TextBook
also modify the
scale.

Table 6.2 Distance of planets from Sun

Distance from the sun Distance using a scale

Planet 207
(in million km) (1 cm = 2 million km)
Sun 0 0 cm
Mercury 57.9 30 cm
Venus 108.2 50 cm
Earth 149.6 75 cm
Mars 227.9 1.0 m
Jupiter 778.3 3.70 m
Saturn 1432 6.75 m
Uranus 2871 13.7 m
Neptune 4498 22.2 m

Source:Ethiopian Space Science

Source:Ethiopian Spaceand Technology
Science Institute
and Technology Institute
Exercise 6.4:
Answer the 6.4:
Exercise following
Answerquestions using
the following your model
questions of activity
using your model 6.1
of activity 6.6
1. What did you notice about the distance of planets from the sun?
1. What did you notice about the distance of planets from the sun?
2. Compare the position of each planet from the sun.
2. Compare
3. Locate the position
the position of Earthofineach
the planet from the sun.
solar system?
4. Write3. the name
Locate theofposition
all planets, outward
of Earth fromsystem?
in the solar the sun.
4. Write the name of all planets, outward from the sun.
Compare the size of Earth with other planets in the solar system
HowCompare the size of Earth with other planets in the solar system
big is Earth?
Earth
Howis the
big fifth-largest
is Earth? planet in the solar system. It’s smaller than
the four
Earthgas giants:
is the Jupiter,
fifth-largest Saturn,
planet Uranus
in the and Neptune,
solar system. but
It's smaller larger
than the four gas gia
than the three other rocky planets, Mercury, Mars and Venus.
SizeJupiter,
of the Saturn,
PlanetsUranus and Neptune, but larger than the three other rocky planets,
Mercury,
Below are theMars and Venus.
estimated diameter of the eight planets in our solar
system,
Size in order
of the of size. The diameter sizes relative to Earth is also
Planets
given to help you picture them better.
Below are the estimated diameter of the eight planets in our solar system, in order o
size. The diameter sizes relative to Earth is also given to help you picture them bett
Table 6.3: Planets Radius 181
Mercury, Mars and Venus.
Size of theScience
General Planets GRADE 8 Student TextBook
Below are the estimated diameter of the eight planets in our solar system, in order of
size. The diameter sizes relative to Earth is also given to help you picture them better.
Table 6.3: Planets Radius
No. Name of planet Diameter of Size relative to Earth 208

planet
1 Mercury 4 880 km 0.383 x size of Earth
2 Mars 6 794 km 0.533 x size of Earth
3 Venus 12 104 km 0.949 x size of Earth
4 Earth 12 750 km
5 Neptune 49 528 km 3.883 x Earth‘s size
6 Uranus 51 118 km 4.007 x Earth‘s size
7 Saturn 120 536 km 9.449 x Earth‘s size
8 Jupiter 142 984 km 11.209 x Earth‘s size

Source:Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute

Project 6.3: Developing the model of solar system
Project
Form6.3: Developing
a group containingthe model
at least of solarLet
5 students. system
each student make a ball using
Form a group containing at least 5 students. Let each student make a
clay or newspaper. Each ball should have a size in proportion to the size of the
ball using clay or newspaper. Each ball should have a size in proportion
to theSun and
size ofplanets
the Sun(Use
andTable 6.3). (Use
planets You can arrange
Table 6.3).the
Youballs
canonarrange
the floorthe
of your
ballsclassroom.
on the floor
You of
canyour
coverclassroom. Youpaper
these balls with can ofcover these
different ballsExhibit
colors. with your
papermodels
of different colors.
to your class andExhibit yourcommunity.
to the school models to your class and to the
school community.
Exercise 6.5: Answer the following questions based on the above project work.
Exercise 6.5:
1. What do you notice about the size of the planets?
Answer the following questions based on the above project 6.3.
1. 2. Which
What do planet is smallest
you notice in size?
about the size of the planets?
2. 3. Whichplanet
Which planet is
is largest
smallestin size?
in size?
3. 4.
Which
Writeplanet
the nameis of
largest
planetsininsize?
order of increasing their size.
4. 5.
Write the name
Revising throughofwhat
planets in order
we have of increasing
discussed theirthesize.
up to now, write behavior
5. Revising through
(temperature, whatetc.)
density, weofhave
each discussed
planet in theup to system.
solar now, write the
behavior (temperature, density, etc.) of each planet in the solar
system.
209

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General Science GRADE 8 Student TextBook

6.4 Our planet’s Suitability for Life (Uniqueness)

At the end of this section you will be able to:
• explain the unique characteristics of Earth;
• describe the suitability of Earth for life.
What Makes Earth Suitable for life?
Earth is the only planet that has life. There are many factors which
make Earth suitable for life. These are:
• Earth has right amount of liquid water. About 71 percent of the
Earth’s surface is covered with oceans and lakes. This liquid water is
not too much to cover the mountains, and not so little that it’s a dry
desert.
• Earth is found at the right distance from the Sun.The distance of the
Earth from the Sun makes it to receive enough energy to allow water
to exist as a liquid on its surface. If it was too close, the Earth would
be too hot. It would lose all the oceans. If it is too far, then the oceans
would freeze over.
• Earth has the right temperature that allows liquid water to exist, and
also provides a relatively stable environment for organisms. Earth’s
temperature average is 15°C.
• Earth has the right moon. Because of our moon, Earth is titled ,
this results to the formation of seasons.
Without the moon, the rotation of the Earth would result in a day that
averages about 4 hours.
• Earth has the right Sun. Our Sun is the most important source of
energy for life on Earth. It’s also a stable and long-lasting star.
• Earth has the right core. Earth’s solid inner core and liquid outer core
play crucial roles in protecting life from solar radiation. Earth has a
strong magnetic field which deflects most of the solar wind (charged
particles that flow from the Sun). Without it, solar winds would strip
away Earth’s oceans and atmosphere.
• Because of its huge mass, Jupiter attracts most of the asteroids towards
itself and away from Earth. Jupiter shields Earth from constant stellar
bombardment.
• The Earth’s atmosphere is rich in oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide,
and other compounds that are essential for life.

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• Earth has an ozone layer to block harmful rays coming from Sun.
The unique Characteristics of the Earth
The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known
to exist. Some special environmental conditions are responsible for
the existence and continuation of life on the Earth. These include just
the right distance from the Sun, so that it has the right temperature
range, the presence of water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of
ozone. Thus, we must take special care to protect our environment so
that life on Earth is not disturbed.

Exercise 6.6:
Give a brief explanation for the following questions.
1. Discus what makes Earth to be suitable for life?
2. Discuss the unique characteristics of Earth.

Key term: Solar system, Sun, planet, Earth, and satellite

Summary
• The solar system consists of eight planets with their moons, dwarf
planets, asteroids, comets and meteors.
• Mercury is the least and Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar
system.
• Mercury is the nearest and Neptune if the farthest planet in the solar
system.
• A body revolving around another a planet is called a satellite.
• Artificial satellites revolve around the Earth. They are much
closer than the moon.
• Artificial satellites are used for weather forecasting, long distance
communication and remote sensing.
• Earth is a unique place for because of its suitable climatic condition,
land forms and water body which supports life in all forms. Earth
has a moderate temperature, with liquid water on its surface. There is
also abundant oxygen for respiration and plenty of sunlight (energy)
for plants to grow.

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Review Exercise
Part I:Write True for Correct and False for Incorrect statements
1. Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system.
2. Uranus is the farthest planet in the solar system.
3. Moon a natural satellite.
4. The Sun and the celestial bodies form Solar system.
5. The Earth can be said the satellite of the Sun.
Part II: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives:
1. Which of the following is NOT a member of the solar system?
a) An asteroid b) A satellite
c) A constellation d) A comet
2. Which of the following is NOT a planet of the sun?
a) Meteors b) Mercury
c) Saturn d) Earth
3. Everything in the solar system revolves around
a) Earth b) Moon
c) Stars d) Sun
4. Small heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun in highly
elliptical orbits are called ______.
a) comets b) asteroids
c) pole star d) none of the above
5. The third planet from the sun is _________________.
a) Mars c) Venus
b) Earth d) Jupiter
Part III: Match items in column A with one or more items in column B:
‘‘A’’ ‘‘B’’
1. The planet we live in (a) Neptune
2. A planet with no moon (b) Moon
3. Satellite of the Earth (c) Venus
4. Dwarf planet (d) Earth
5. A planet with longest revolution time. (e) Pluto

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Part IV:Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word.

1. The planet which is farthest from the Sun is ____________ .
2. The planet which appears reddish in color is ____________ .
3. A celestial body that revolves around a planet is known as
__________.
4. Asteroids are found between the orbits of _________ and _______.
5. The second largest planet, in the solar system is ______________ .
Part V: Give short answer for the following questions.
1.Define a solar system.
2. Write the families of the solar system.
3. Name all planets in the solar system.
4. Compare the distance of planets from the Sun.
5. Compare the size of all planets.

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UNIT SEVEN
PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN THE SURROUNDING

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• list some sources of light;
• describe reflection and refraction;
• explain dispersion of light;
• show colors formed on the other side of the prism;
• determine the purpose of light;
• classify materials as transparent, translucent and opaque;
• demonstrate how image is formed;
• define sound as a form of energy;
• explain how sound is formed;
• demonstrate the formation of sound;
• identify material medium for sound propagation;
• prioritize sound propagation in solid, liquid and gases;
• explain the cause of sound pollution;
• identify hearing level for different sound;
• list strategies of sound pollution;
• define echo and demonstrate its application;
• define the term heat;
• explain mechanism of heat transfer;
• classify materials as good conductors of heat and poor
conductors of heat (insulators);
• define magnetism;
• do simple experiment and construct magnetic lines of force;
• explain the use of magnet;
• list all material used to construct simple circuit;
• construct simple circuit;

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• explain the use of magnet;

• list all material used to construct simple circuit;
• construct simple circuit.

7.1 Phenomena of Light (Source & Properties)

At the end of this section you will be able to:
• list some sources of light;
• describe reflection and refraction;
• explain dispersion of light;
• show colors formed on the other side of the prism.

Key terms: Light, sources of light, reflection of light, refraction of

light, dispersion of light
Light
Activity 7.1: How do we see objects? Can we see objects in a dark
room? Based on your observation discuss in group what light is.
Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects surrounding
us. We see object when light from a source or from a reflecting body
enters our eyes.
Sources of Light
Object which emits its own light is called a source of light. It is also
known as a luminous object. The main natural source of light is the
sun. Objects which do not emit light are known as non -luminous
objects. At night, we use bulbs, lamps, candles and other artificial
sources to get light because there is no sunlight.
There are two types of sources of light: Natural sources of light and
artificial (man-made). Natural light sources produce light naturally
without any human involvement. Examples of natural sources of
light: Sun, Stars, Lightning etc.
Artificial sources are man – made light sources. Examples of artificial
sources of light are: candle, electric bulb, and burning wood etc., see
Figure 7.1

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Figure 7.1 Sources of light

Project 7.1: There are living organisms that have the ability to produce
light. Using internet and by asking your teacher bring a report to your
class the name of living organisms that produces light.

Exercise 7.1:
1. What is main source of light for Earth?
2. Is the moon a source of light? Discus in pairs and present your
groups opinion to your class.
3. List natural sources of light.
4. List artificial sources of light

Properties of Light
Activity 7.2: What properties of light did you know? Discuss in
group.There are about seven properties of light, but here you will
discuss only three of them: Reflection of light, refraction of light and
dispersion of light.
Reflection of Light
Reflection is the phenomenon in which light travelling in one medium,
falls on the surface of another medium and returns back to the first
medium. Depending on the nature of the reflecting surface, reflection
could be either regular or diffused.

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Regular reflection also known as Specular reflection happens when

light is reflected from smooth and shiny surfaces. Diffuse reflection
happens when light is reflected from a rough, unpolished surface.
Reflection from a mirror forms regular reflection and reflection from a
wall, wood, paper etc. forms diffused reflection. Mirrors are excellent
reflectors of light.

In regular reflection, all the rays are reflected in the same direction.
This explains why regular reflection forms a clear image that can be
seen. In diffused reflection, the rays are reflected in many different
directions. This is why diffused reflection forms, a blurry image or
no image.
Activity 7.3: Discuss in group about real life situation where we use
reflection of light.

We see non-luminous objects when the light from a source of light

falling on the object is reflected into our eyes.

Figure 7.3 Seeing non-luminous objects

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Refraction of light
Activity 7.4: Put a pen or pencil on a glass partially filled with water.
Discuss in group about your observation.

Refraction is a phenomenon in which there is a bending of light rays

as it travels from one medium to another. Figure7.4 shows a pencil
placed in a beaker of water. The pencil looks as if it is broken at the
point where it enters the water. This is because the light bends when
it goes from air to water.

Activity 7.5: The hidden coin

1. Set a coin on a flat surface like a table.
2. Place the base of a clear drinking glass over the coin.
3. Cover the mouth of the glass with a small saucer. Looking in
through the side of the glass, you can still see the coin.
4. Now, tilt the saucer back and fill the glass with water.
5. Once you’ve filled the glass, replace the saucer. Can you still
see the coin through the side of the glass? It’s disappeared!
6. Take the saucer off the mouth of the glass. Look straight to
the bottom of the glass through the water. Now you will see
the coin.

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When the cup is filled with water, the coin disappears. This happens
because of refraction. When light bounces off an object, it reaches our
eyes and we see the object. As light travels through the sides of the
glass and the water, it’s refracted and never reaches our eyes, which
makes the coin seems to disappear.
Dispersion of light
Activity 7.6: Place a prism on a sheet of paper and a few centimeters
in front of a source of light (torch battery). Rotate the prism slightly
until a clear and wide combination of colors is visible. Using coloring
pencil, draw what you observe on the sheet of paper.

Figure 7.5 Dispersion of white light by a prism

Based on your observations of activity 7.6 answer the following
questions.
a) What colors do you see?
b) Draw on the paper the path of the colored beams.
c) Which color is bent the most?
d) Which color is bent the least?

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The splitting of white light into its constituent colors is called

dispersion. Sunlight is white light. We can split white light into its
colors by passing it through the prism. The band of seven colors
obtained is called spectrum of white light. We can see these colors
in a rainbow. These colors in order of appearance are: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Figure 7.6 Dispersion by a prism Figure 7.7 Refraction causes rainbow

Activity 7.7: Creating the colors of the rainbow in the class?

Take water in a flat vessel and place it under direct sunlight near a
wall. Place obliquely a plane mirror in the water to reflect the sunlight
on the wall. Don’t you see beautiful colors on the wall? What is the
reason for it?
A rainbow is reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water
droplets. A rainbow is evidence that sun light is a combination of
colors.

Activity 7.8: Discuss in group how white light is dispersed by a prism?

Dispersion appears because of refraction. When a beam of white light

enters a prism, all the colors of white light refract at different angles.
This causes the white light to split into its component colors. Red
light bends the least and violet light bends the most. In this way, white
light disperses into its component colors.

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Exercise 7.2
Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements
1. Moon is the source of light.
2. Sun light is an example of a natural sources of light.
3. Mirrors do not produce light but can be seen because they
reflect light into our eyes.
4. The change in direction of light as it moves from one medium
to another is called reflection.
Part II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
1. A source of light is ________________.
A. an object which reflects light.
B. an object which emits its own light.
C. an object which refracts light.
D. none of these
2. What is our main source of light energy?
A. Stars B. Fire C. Sun D. Moon
3. The splitting of white light into its constituent colors is called
A. refraction. C. dispersion.
B. reflection D. transparent.
4. Objects that can make their own light are called _________.
A. Luminous C. non-luminous
B. Transparent D. Translucent
7.2 Vision and Imaging
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• determine the purpose of light;
• classify materials as transparent, translucent and opaque;
• demonstrate how image is formed.

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Activity 7.9: What is the purpose of light? Discuss in group and pres-
ent your group’s opinion to the class.
As discussed in the previous section in order to see our surrounding
we need to have either a source of light or a reflector that reflects light
from the source to our eye. This show that light is essential for vision.
Activity 7.10: What requirements should be fulfilled to have vision?
Even in the presence of light, if we close our eyes we cannot see our
surrounding. So, to have a good vision, not only light but also the eye
is important. Thus, the main factors which are needed for vision are
the source of light and the eye.
Imaging
Imaging is the process of forming images. Images are formed
either by reflection (using mirrors) or by refraction (using lenses).
X-rays, CT scans (Computed Tomography), ultrasound and MRIs
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging) are imaging tools used by doctors to
diagnose injury or illness. They produce images of internal structures
of the body for the purpose of accurate diagnosis.

Figure 7.8 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Image Formed by a Human Eye

The human eye is also an imaging tool. It forms a real picture of
the observed object on the retina by optical system of the eye. When
the image finally reaches the retina, it is inverted, but the brain will
correct this. For the vision to be clear, the image has to be formed
directly on the retina.

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Image formation by Plane Mirror

An image is a visual representation of an object which is placed some
where in front of a mirror or lens. A mirror with a plane surface is called
a plane mirror. It forms an image by reflection.
Activity 7.11: Standing in front of a plane mirror, raise your left hand.
Which hand of your image is raised? Lower the left hand and raise
the right hand. What change occurs to the image?
When our right side appear left and our left side appear right, such a
shift of the lateral side of the images in the opposite direction is called
lateral inversion.
Real image versus virtual image
Real images can be placed on a screen, but virtual images can’t be
placed on a screen. Real images are always inverted but virtual images
are erect.

Activity 7.12: Place a mirror perpendicular to a table. Hold different

objects like pen, pencil etc. in front of the mirror. Observe their
images.
Is the size of the object and the image the same?
Keeping a ruler in front of the mirror, place these objects at different
positions and observe. Does the distance of the image change when the
distance of the object from the mirror changes?
The characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror may be
summarized as follows:
(i) the image is virtual and erect.
(ii) the image is of the same size as that of the object.

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(iii) the image is laterally inverted. Right side appear to be left

and left side appeared to be right.
(iv) the image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front
of it.
Exercise 7.3:
1. What is the purpose
of light?
2. Look at the picture.
What is the reason
for writing AMBULANCE
in that way?.

Transmission of Light through Objects

Different types of materials transmit light differently. Based on the
way they transmit light, materials can be divided into transparent,
translucent, and opaque.
Transparent Material: Materials that allow light to pass through
them completely are known as transparent material. We can see
through these materials very clearly. Example: Glass, clean water,
clear plastic and air are transparent materials.
Translucent Material: Objects that allow light to pass through
partially (transmits some amount of light) are called translucent
materials. An object cannot be seen clearly through a translucent
material. Oiled paper, waxed paper, and frosted glass are examples of
translucent materials.
Opaque Material: Materials that do not allow (completely blocks)
light to pass through them are called opaque materials. We can’t
see through these materials at all. Metal sheet, wood sheet, wall,
thick card board, stone, etc. are examples of opaque objects.
Activity 7.13: Investigating the transmission of light in different
objects.Materials you need: Clean glass, oiled paper, frosted glass,
wooden sheet, metal sheet, waxed paper, a black color paper, tissue
paper, newspaper and the like.

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General Science GRADE 8

Both light and the Light can be seen but Both the light and the
Student TextBook
flame of the candle flame cannot be clearly flame of the candle cannot
can be clearly seen. seen. be seen.
(Transparent (Translucent Material) (Opaque material)
material)

Note that not only through solids light could pass through water and air.
Note
Tip:that not only
On foggy through
conditions solids
air is light could
translucent. pass
So, when through
there is a lot water
of fog, and
it is air.
very
difficult to travel on roads as drivers of a car can‘t see us clearly. For such situation
Tip: On foggy conditions air is translucent. So, when there is a lot of
there is a new type of lamp in modern vehicles known as ―fog light‖. Drivers should use
fog, it is very difficult to travel on roads as drivers of a car can’t see
this light when the atmosphere becomes translucent because of the mist.
us clearly. For such situation there is a new type of lamp in modern
Exercise 7.4:
vehicles known as “fog light”. Drivers should use this light when the
Part I: Choose the correct answer
atmosphere becomes translucent because of the mist.
1. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a plane mirror?
Exercise 7.4
a. virtual, inverted and enlarged
Partb.I:real,
Choose the correct answer
inverted and reduced
1. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a plane
c. virtual, upright and the same size as object
mirror?
d. real, upright and the same size as object
A. virtual, inverted and enlarged
1. Materials which doesn't allow any light to pass through them are called
B. real, inverted and reduced
A. transparentupright
C. virtual, materialsand the same size C. translucent
as objectmaterial

D. real, upright and the same size as object 227

2. Materials which doesn’t allow any light to pass through them are
called________.
A. transparent materials C. translucent material
B. opaque materials D. reflecting materials
3. A clear plastic allow light to pass through it, so it is________.
A. transparent materials C. translucent material
B. opaque materials D. reflecting materials
4. Which one of the following is an example of translucent material?
A. Wall C. Cover of book
B. Brick D. Frozen glass

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Part II: Fill in the blanks with the correct word.

Light is a type of _____________. It travels in a straight line. Light
does not travel through some objects. Such objects are known as
_____________. Objects through which light could pass are called,
_________________ . The other group of objects through which
light passes only partially are called ______________.
Part III: Give a short answer
1. Write the difference between transparent, translucent and opaque
materials.
2. Classify the following materials as transparent, translucent and
opaque. Metal, stone, book, window glass, oiled paper, water, air,
and waxed paper.
7.3 Sound
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• define sound as a form of energy;
• explain how sound is formed;
• demonstrate the formation of sound;
• identify material medium for sound propagation;
• prioritize sound propagation in solid, liquid and gases;
• explain the cause of sound pollution;
• identify hearing level for different sound;
• list strategies of sound pollution;
• define echo and demonstrate its application.

Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing

in our ears. This energy is produced by vibrating objects. Vibration
means a kind of back and forth motion of an object. This back and
forth motion of the body causes the substances around it to vibrate.
How do Objects Produce Sound?
Any of the Ethiopian traditional musical instruments shown in the
figure below have something to vibrate: string, skin or air. When these
things are made to vibrate, sound is produced. When it stops vibrating,
it does not produce any sound.

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Figure 7.10 Musical instruments produce sound by vibration

Activity 7.14: Take a drum. Touch it when not in use. Again touch it when
producing sound. What do your hands feel when drum is beaten
and produce sound? Can you feel the skin of the drum vibrating?

If you place small pieces of papers on the drum and play it, you may
observe that the pieces of paper are moving here and there. That is
because the skin of the drum is vibrates when it is beaten. Therefore,
it is clear that sound is produced by vibrating bodies. The objects that
produce sound are called sources of sound. Animals, various types
of objects, musical instruments are examples for sources of sound.

Observing sound propagation in solids

Activity 7.15: Strike one end of the table and ask your friend to listen
to the sound produced keeping his/her ear touching the table at other
end. Ask him/her to listen to the sound by lifting his/her head slightly
from the table.

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Ask your friend what difference he/she noticed while hearing the
sounds when his/her ears were away from the table and touching the
table.

In this activity you observed that sound travels in solid medium like
wood, metal, thread, etc.
Propagation of sound through liquids
Activity 7.16: Take a glass and fill it with water. Take two stones and
strike them against each other keeping your hands inside the water.
(Take care not to break the glass). Ask your friend to listen to the
sound by keeping his / her ears touching walls of the glass. Ask your
friend about the difference between sounds produced by striking the
stones against each other in water and striking them in air.

From the above activities we can conclude that sound propagates

through matter in all the three states – solid, liquid and gas
Sound des not travel through vacuum

Activity 7.17: To show Sound needs a medium (recommended to do

this activity in a laboratory)
.
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• Take an electric bell and airtight jar.

• The electric bell is suspended insidethe airtight bell jar.
• With air still in jar ring the bell.
• Now take out air by using vacuum pump.
• Ring the bell again. What difference did you observe?

Observation: Sound of bell can be heard when air is inside the jar.
When air is taken out then sound cannot be heard. This shows that
sound can’t travel through vacuum, empty space.
Medium
The above activities gave us an idea about the need of a medium for
propagation of sound. The material or substance through which sound
is transmitted is called a medium. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound
travels more quickly through solids than through liquids and gases
because the molecules of a solid are closer together and, therefore,
can transmit the vibrations (energy) faster. Sound travels most slowly
through gases because the molecules of a gas are farthest apart. Sound
cannot travel through vacuum.

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Hearing
We hear sound through our ears. The
eardrums of our ears sense the vibrations
produced by a vibrating object and send
them to the brain. This process is called a
hearing. The structure of the ear plays an
important role in hearing the sound.
Figure 7.11 The human ear
Exercise: 7.5: When we speak, does any part of our body vibrate?
Mention them.
Noise and music
We hear different types of sounds around us. Some sounds are pleas-
ant to the ear, whereas some are not. Such unpleasant sounds are
called noise. The sounds which are pleasant to hear are called music.
Sound Pollution
The presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is
called sound pollution. Major causes of sound pollution are sounds
of vehicles, explosions, machines, loudspeakers etc. In the home,
Television and radio at high volumes, some kitchen appliances, all
contribute to sound pollution.
Exercise 7.6: After discussing in group, write some more sources of
sound pollution in your surroundings.
Effects of sound pollution
Sound pollution is a serious problem like air or water pollution. It is
harmful to human beings. We express the loudness of the sound coming
from various sources in decibels (dB). The sound produced in our
normal conversation is about 60 dB. If a person is being exposed to
the sound of 80dB continuously it may lead to hearing problems.
A whisper is about 30 dB, normal conversation is about 60 dB, and
a motorcycle engine running is about 95 dB. Loud noise above 120
dB can cause immediate harm to your ears. The table below shows
decibel (dB) levels everyday sources of sound.

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Noise Average decibels (dB)

Soft music, whisper 30

Average home noise 40

Normal conversation 60

Heavy traffic, noisy restaurant

80–89

A very loud radio, stereo, or television 105–110

Standing beside or near sirens 120

Gun shot, jet engine 140

Sound pollution creates some health hazards. Some of them are listed below.
Sound pollution creates some health hazards. Some of them are listed
 Noise may cause irritation, stress, nervousness and headache.
below.
 Long term exposure to noise may disturb the sleeping pattern of a person.
• Noise may cause irritation, stress, nervousness and headache.
 Sustained exposure to noise may affect hearing ability. Sometimes, it leads to
• Long term exposure to noise may disturb the sleeping pattern
loss of hearing.
of a person, hearing ability and may leads to loss of hearing.
• Noise causes lack of concentration
 Sudden exposure to louder noise in one’s
may cause work. .
a heart attack and unconsciousness.
 Noise causes lack of concentration in one‘s work. .
Measures to Control
 Sound Sound
pollution Pollution
affects a person‘s peace of mind. These tensions results in
We cannot stop production of sound
disease like high but weorcan
blood pressure reduce sound
short-tempered pollution
nature.
by some measures. Sound pollution can be significantly reduced by
Measures to control sound pollution
adopting the following steps.
We cannot stop production of sound but we can reduce sound pollution by some
• Strict guidelines should be set for the use of loudspeakers on
measures. Sound pollution can be significantly reduced by adopting the following steps.
social, religious and political occasions.
 Strict guidelines
• All automobiles, should
air craft be set fortransport
engines, the use of loudspeakers on social, religious and
vehicles, industrial
machinespolitical occasions.
and home appliances should have effective silencers
• Use of automobile horns should be minimized.
• All communication systems must be operated in low volumes.
233
• Residential areas should be free from heavy vehicles.
• People working in noisy factories should wear ear plugs.
• Noise producing industries, and heavy vehicles should be set
up away from residential areas.

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• Trees must be planted along the roads and around buildings

to cut down on the sounds reaching the residents.
Project 7.2: Discuss with your friends about some other measures to
limit sound pollution and tabulate them.

Echo
A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves from
a surface is known as echo. A hard and flat surfaces (wall, mountain
and buildings) are a good reflector while soft surfaces such as clothes,
papers, curtains, carpet, furniture, etc. absorb sound.

Some of the real life applications echo are:

• Hearing aid: It is a device used by the people who are hard of
hearing. Here the sound waves, which are received by the hearing
aid are reflected into a narrower area leading to the ear.
• Sound boards: Curved surfaces can reflect sound waves. This
reflection of sound waves is used in auditorium to spread the
waves uniformly throughout the hall.
• The working of a stethoscope: It is based on the reflection of
sound. In a stethoscope, the sound of the patient’s heartbeat
reaches the doctor’s ear by multiple reflections of sound.

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Exercise 7.6
Part I: Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. Sound is produced by_______.
A. Non-Vibrating objects only
B. Vibrating and non- vibrating objects
C. Vibration has no relation to sound
D. Vibrating objects only
2. Sound is a kind of________.
A. work C. energy
B. force D. pressure
3. Sound cannot travel through________.
A. air C. water
B. solids D. vacuum
4. Above _____ dB the sound becomes physically painful
A. 40 B. 80 C. 120 D. 60
Part II: Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate word.
1. Sounds which are unpleasant to the ear are called __________.
2. The speed of sound is maximum in __________.
3. Plantation on the roadside can reduce __________.
4. Sound requires a _______________ to travel.
5. When we touch a source of sound, we can feel the _______.
Part III. For the following questions, give a short answer
1. When does a body produce sound?
2. What are the different mediums through which sound can travel?
3. Name any two practical applications of reflection of sound-echo.

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7.4 Heat
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• define the term heat;
• explain mechanism of heat transfer;
• classify materials as good conductors of heat and poor
conductors of heat (insulators).

Activity 7.18: Take three small containers. Label them as A, B and

C. Put cold water in container A and warm water in container B.
Mix some cold and warm water in container C. Now dip your left
hand in container A and the right hand in container B. After keeping
the hands in the two containers for 2–3 minutes, put both the hands
simultaneously in container C. Do both hands get the same feeling?

Warning! Make sure that the warm water is not too hot that it should
not burns your hands.
Our left hand which was in the cold water feels hotter, while our right
hand which was in the hot water now feels colder. That is, the hotter
object cools down and the colder object warm up. This means the
colder water gains energy, while the hotter water loses energy.

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Based on this observation we can define heat as a form of energy that

flows from a body at a higher to a body at a lower temperature.
Note that, the energy transfer will continue until both objects are at the
same temperature. When the two objects attain the same temperature,
then the flow of heat stops.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
There are three ways through which heat can be transferred from a
hot object to a cold object. These are conduction, convection and
radiation.
1.Conduction
Activity 7.19: Pour some water in a dish and boil it. Then insert a
metal stick into the boiled water. When you put a cold, metal stick
into hot water, the metal stick handle warms up after a while. How
this warmth “moved” from the hot water to the cold metal stick?

Conduction

The water is hot and the metal stick is cold. When you put the metal
stick into the hot water some of the heat energy from the water is
transferred to the metal particles. As a result, the particles of the metal
start to vibrate and collide with their neighboring particles. These
collisions spread the energy through the stick. In this way, energy is
transferred from the end which is in contact to the source to the other
end. This process is called conduction.
Conduction is the mode of transfer of heat from hotter part of a
material to its colder part with successive particle collision. In all
solids, heat is transferred by the process of conduction.

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2.Convection
Activity 7.20: In the above case of a metal stick in a hot water, only
the bottom of the dish touches the source of heat, but all of the water
inside the dish, becomes warmer. Discuss how does the energy transfer
throughout the water in the dish?
When heating begins, the water near the bottom becomes warm and
its density decreases. Meaning it is lighter than the cold water. This
causes the heated liquid to move upwards and the colder liquid moves
downwards. When the warm liquid reaches the top it cools down again
and therefore moves back down. The warm water is rising and being
replaced by cooler water. This transfer of energy is called convection.
You can observe this process by placing potassium permanganate or
food dye in the water, as shown in the Figure below.
Convection is the mode of heat transfer from the hotter part of a fluid
(liquid or gas) to its colder parts by the movement of the liquid (or
gas) itself.

3.Radiation
Activity: 7.21: Discuss in group how heat from the sun reaches to
Earth?
Heat transfer from a body at high temperature to a body at a lower
temperature, without any material medium between them, is called
radiation. Convection and conduction, require the presence of a ma-
terial medium to transfer heat, but radiation occurs without any me-
dium at all. Radiation takes place through a vacuum or transparent
medium which can be either solid or liquid.

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Activity 7.22: Whenever we want to heat our room, we place a

burning charcoal at one corner of the room.
Discuss how heat is transferred to the whole air found in the room.
In the figure below, heat flows through the hands of the dish to the
person’s hand by conduction, though the boiling water by convection
and to the environment by radiation.

Exercise 7.7:
Give examples from daily life for each mechanism of heat transfer.

Conductors and Insulators

Substances that allow heat energy to be transferred through them are
called conductors. Substances that do not allow heat energy to be
transferred through them are called insulators. Poor conductors are
known as insulators.

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Activity 7.23: Pour heat water in a small beaker. Collect some articles
such as a steel spoon, plastic ruler, glass rod and pencil. Dip one end
of each of these articles in hot water. Wait for few minutes. Touch the
other end. Record your observations in the table below.

What conclusions will you draw from your observation? Classify the
materials you tested as conductors and insulators.
Activity 7.24: Discuss in group why, the metallic pan for cooking
pan has a plastic or wooden handle. Why our families wear woolen
clothes like Gabi in winter?

Insulation
Insulation is the way that is used to reduce heat loss or heat gain by
providing a barrier between the inside of your home or body with the
outside found at different temperature.

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Exercise 7.8:
Part I: Choose the correct answer.
1. What is the term that describes the flow of energy from a hot body
to a colder body?
A. Sound C. Conduction
B. Convection D. heat
2. Any material that does not allow heat to pass through it easily is
called .
A. conductor C. heater
B. insulator D. heat
3. The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance
that is touching is referred to as .
A. convection C. conduction
B. radiation D. insulation
4. Which of the following is the transfer of heat by the movement of
a fluid?
A. radiation C. insulation
B. convection D. conduction
Part II: Give a short answer.
1. Define the term heat.
2. Explain the three different mechanisms of heat transfer.
3. Mention three examples of conductors and insulators.
7.5. Simple Circuit
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• list all material used to construct simple circuit;
• construct simple circuit.

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A circuit is the complete path, from one terminal of the electric cell
through the bulb and back to the other terminal of the electric cell.
A circuit could be open or closed. If there is any gap in the path of a
circuit, the bulb does not light up. Such a circuit is called an open circuit.
The bulb lights up only when a bulb and wire form a complete path.
Such a circuit is called a closed circuit.
The following materials are used to have a functioning electric circuit.
Electric cell or battery: A cell is a source of electricity and a battery
is a combination of two or more cells.
Bulb: An electric bulb is a device which glows and emits light, when
electric current is passed through it.
Conductors (wire): Materials that allow electric current to pass
through them.
Resistor: is any device in the circuit that produces light or heat, when
current is flowing through it.
Switch: is a simple device that either breaks the circuit or start the
flow of current.
Electrical Safety
Never play with electrical wires and sockets. Do not connect the two
terminals of a cell directly through a wire or conductor. .

Making a Simple Electric Circuit

Project 7.3: Using the following steps, construct a simple circuit.

1. Take a cell having a positive terminal (+) and a negative terminal (-).
2.Connect the positive terminal of the cell to one end of the switch with
a piece of copper wire and other ends of the switch to one end of a
bulb with another piece of copper wire.
3. Connect the negative terminal of the cell directly to the other end
of the bulb with a wire, as shown in the figure.

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Figure 7.13:Electric symbols and their uses

(a) actual components (b) symbols

Figure 7.14 Simple Circuit diagram

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Exercise 7.9
Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect statements.
1. An electric circuit is a closed loop or pathway that allows electric
charges to flow.
2. A cell is a device that controls current in electric circuits.
3. For current to flow, the circuit should be closed.
Part II: Choose the correct answer.
1. When we turn the switch to the off position the circuit is
__________.
A. closed B. open C. negative D. positive
2. A device for opening or closing the flow in a circuit is
____________.
A. an insulator B. a battery charger C. a switch
3. The path that electricity flows from the battery to the light bulb
and back to the battery is called the ____________________.
A. circuit B. components C. wires D. switch
4. The symbol shown below represents____________________.
A. light bulb B. switch
B. battery D. resistor

5. A conductor is___________.
A. material that current can pass through easily
B. material that current cannot pass through easily
C. magnet
D. electric current

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7.6 Magnetism
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• define magnetism;
• do simple experiment and construct magnetic lines of force;

• explain the use of magnet.

The branch of physics which deals with the property of a magnet is
called magnetism. Magnets are materials which have the property of
attracting metals like iron, cobalt and nickel.
Magnetism was discovered about 4000 years back in ancient Greece.
Materials such as iron and nickel that are attracted by a magnet are
called magnetic materials. Materials that are not attracted by a magnet
called non-magnetic materials.
Classification of Magnets
Magnets are classified into two types: natural magnets and artificial
magnets
Natural Magnets
Magnets found in nature are called natural magnets. They are perma-
nent magnets i.e., they will never lose their magnetic property. Lode-
stone is the first discovered natural magnet.

Figure 7.15 Natural magnet

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Artificial Magnets
Magnets that are made by people in the laboratory or factory are
called artificial or man-made magnets. Artificial magnets can be made
in various shapes and dimensions. Bar magnets, U-shaped magnets,
horseshoe magnets, cylindrical magnets, disc magnets, and ring
magnets are some examples of artificial magnets. Artificial magnets
are usually made up of iron, nickel, cobalt, steel, etc.

Figure 7.16 Artificial magnet

Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet where its influence is felt is called the
magnetic field of the magnet. Any magnetic material placed in the
field will be attracted by the magnet. We cannot see the magnetic
field, but it can be represented by a set of curves around a magnet
called magnet field lines. The shape of a magnetic field can be shown
using iron filings or small compasses.
Activity 7.25: Plotting magnetic field lines using iron filings.Iron
filings are tiny pieces of iron cluster together and line up to show the
pattern of the field.
Procedure:
• Place the magnet on the wooden table or desk.
• Put sheet of white paper over it and scatter iron filings lightly
onto the paper.
• Tap the paper now and again so that the filings move into position.
You can see the field pattern beginning to show. What do you see?

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Figure 7.17 Ploting magnetic field lines using iron filings

Activity 7.26: Magnetic fields can also be mapped using small plotting
compasses. This activity can be carried out in group.
Procedure:
• Place the plotting compass near
the magnet on a piece of paper.
• Mark the direction the compass
needle points.
• Move the plotting compass to
many different positions in the
magnetic field, marking the Figure 7.18 Ploting magnetic field
needle direction each time. lines using compass needles
Properties of magnetic field lines
• The arrow shows the direction of the field.
• Magnetic field lines do not intersect one another.
• The two poles of a magnet always exist in pairs.
• Outside the magnet filed lines point from north to south pole
but inside the magnet they point from south to north pole.
• Where the filed lines are closest together is where the magnetic
field is strongest.
Magnetic force
Like poles of a magnet reple each other. Unlike poles of a magnet
attract with each other.
Uses of Magnets
Today magnets play an important role in our lives. Some of the im-
portant uses of magnets are given below.

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• Magnets are used to hold objects (like stickers, refrigerator

doors, etc.).
• Magnets are used to separate magnetic materials from
non-manetic materials.
• Magnets are used for making compasses.
• Magnets are used to store data in computers.
• Magnets are used in scanning machines called MRI (Magnetic
Resonance Imaging) which doctors use to look inside peoples
body.
• Using magnets, we can do heavy lifting which is not humanly
possible to do.
• Magnets are used inside TVs, loud speakers and radios, electric
motors and generators.
• The debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to
store data just like computers’ hard drives.
• Magnetically levitated trains, known as maglev trains, use
magnets under the cars to float above the magnetic tracks.
• Both magnetic attraction and repulsion are used to move the
train car along the guide way. This days such kinds of trains are
being used in developed countries. Maglevs can move with a
speed of 500 km/h.Magnets are used in telephones, hair driers,
door belts, mixer and grinder, fans, washing machines, television
sets, tape recorders, and in headphones and loudspeakers.

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Figure 7.19 Uses of a magnet

Project 7.5: After discussing in group list some other uses of magnets
from your experience.

Exercise 7.12
Part I. Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect state-
ments
1. Iron and cobalt are magnetic substances.
2. Opposite poles of two magnets attract each other.
3. An isolated magnetic pole (N or S) could exist.
4. Two magnetic field lines could cross each other.
Part II: Choose the correct answer
1. An example of a natural magnet is ___________________.
A.Iron B. Steel C. Lodestone
2. The space around a magnet where its influence is felt is called
as ________________.
A.Electric field C. Magnetic field
B.Magnetic Field lines D. Magnetic pole
3. A freely suspended magnet always points in the –
A. easiest direction. C. east-south direction.
B. north-south direction. D. north-west direction.

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Summary
• Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects surrounding us.
• Object which emits its own light is a source of light. It is also known
as a luminous object. Objects which do not emit light are known as
non -luminous objects.
• The three properties of light are reflection of light, refraction of light
and dispersion of light.
• Reflection of light is the turning back of light back to the original
medium when it faces an obstacle.
• Refraction is a change in direction or bending of light rays as it travels
from one medium to another.
• Dispersion is the splitting of a white light into its constituent colors.
• Light is essential for vision.
• Images a visual representation of something. It is formed either by
reflection (using mirrors) or by refraction (using lenses).
• The natures of the image formed by a plane mirror are: virtual, erect,
laterally inverted and the same size as the object.
• Materials that allow light to pass through completely are known as
transparent material.
• Materials that allow light to pass through partially (transmits some
amount of light) are called translucent material.
• Materials that do not allow (completely blocks) light to pass through,
are called opaque material.
• Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in
our ears.
• Sound is produced by a vibrating body.
• Sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases but can’t travel
through vacuum.
• Sound propagates faster through solids than through liquids and least
through gases.
• The material or substance through which sound is transmitted is
called a medium.
• Sound Pollution can produce ear damage.

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• A repeated sound that is caused by the reflection of sound waves

from a surface is known as echo.
• Heat is a form of energy that flows from a body at a higher to a body
at a lower temperature.
• Heat can transfer through solids by conduction, through liquids and
gases by convection and through vacuum by radiation.
• A complete path through which electricity flows is called an electric
circuit. A simple circuit consists of a source, a conducting wire,
a switch and a lamp.
• Magnets are materials which have the property of attracting metals
like iron, cobalt and nickel. The branch of physics which deals with
the property of a magnet is called magnetism.
• The region around a magnet where its influence is felt is called the
magnetic field.

Key terms:

bulb cell circuit

conduction conductor convection
echo Heat image
insulator magnet magnetic field
Magnetism opaque radiation
sound sound pollution switch
translucent transparent vision
wire

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Review Exercise
Part I: Write TRUE for correct and FALSE for incorrect state-
ments
1. Water and glass are transparent materials.
2. The spectrum of light produced by a prism is due to reflection.
3. Sound is produced by vibrating bodies.
4. Sound travel faster in air, slower in iron.
5. Heat is a form of energy.
6. Aluminum, copper and silver are magnetic substances.
7. A battery is a source of electricity.
8. Magnets are used only for fun, they don’t have practical
applications.
Part II: Choose the correct answer.
1. Which of the following lists is in the order of appearance of the
colors of the visible spectrum?
A. Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet
B. Red, Orange, Yellow, Violet, Green, Blue
C. Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red
D. Violet, Blue, Green, Red, Yellow, Orange.
2. The bouncing off or return of light after striking a surface is called
A. reflection of light C. refraction of light
B. light emitting D. dispersion of light
3. The speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases can be correctly
compared as
A. speed in gas > speed in liquid > speed in solid
B. speed in Liquid > speed in gas > speed in Solid
C. speed in Liquid > speed in solid > speed in gas
D. speed in solid > speed in liquid > speed in gas
4. A pathway for electricity to travel is called______________.
A. current C. electricity
B. circuit D. source of electricity
5. A component which is used to close or break a circuit, is
A. bulb C. switch
B. wire D. electric cell

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Part III: Fill the blank spaces with an appropriate word.

1. Objects which emit their own light _________________.
2. In a normal eye, images are formed on ______________.
3. Sound is a form of ____________________________.
4. A mechanism of heat transfer through an empty space
is ____________________.
5. Electricity can flow through _________________.
6. The regions on a magnet where the attraction power of the
magnet is maximum are called _____________________ of
the magnet.
Part IV: Give a short answer.
1. Define the terms reflection, refraction and dispersion of light.
2. Write the purpose of light.
3. Explain the cause of sound pollution.
4. List the material needed to construct a simple circuit.
5. What is magnetism?

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