CCNA 1 – Chapter 7

Data Link Layer

Introduction:
For Network layer packets to be transported from source host to destination
host, they must traverse different physical networks. These physical networks
can consist of different types of physical media such as copper wires,
microwaves, optical fibers, and satellite links. Network layer packets do not
have a way to directly access these different media.

It is the role of the OSI Data Link layer to prepare Network layer packets for
transmission and to control access to the physical media.

This chapter introduces the general functions of the Data Link layer and
the protocols associated with it. Learning Objectives

Explain the role of Data Link layer protocols in data transmission.

Describe how the Data Link layer prepares data for transmission on network media.
Describe the different types of media access control methods.
Identify several common logical network topologies and describe how the logical
topology determines the media access control method for that network.
Explain the purpose of encapsulating packets into frames to facilitate media access.
Describe the Layer 2 frame structure and identify generic fields.
Explain the role of key frame header and trailer fields, including addressing, QoS,
type of protocol, and Frame Check Sequence.

2
Introduction:
7.1.1 Supporting and connecting to Upper Layer
Services
The Data Link layer provides a means for exchanging data over a common
local media.

The Data Link layer performs two basic services:

Allows the upper layers to access the media using techniques such as framing
Controls how data is placed onto the media and is received from the media using
techniques such as media access control and error detection

As with each of the OSI layers, there are terms specific to this layer:

Frame - The Data Link layer PDU

Node - The Layer 2 notation for network devices connected to a common medium

Media/medium (physical)* - The physical means for the transfer of information

between two nodes

Network (physical)** - Two or more nodes connected to a common medium

7.1.1 Supporting and connecting to Upper Layer
Services
The Data Link layer is responsible for the exchange of frames between nodes
over the media of a physical network.

* It is important to understand the meaning of the words

medium and media within the context of this chapter. Here,
these words refer to the material that actually carries the
signals representing the transmitted data. Media is the
physical copper cable, optical fiber, or atmosphere through
which the signals travel. In this chapter media does not refer
to content programming such as audio, animation,
television, and video as used when referring to digital
content and multimedia.

** A physical network is different from a logical network.

Logical networks are defined at the Network layer by the
arrangement of the hierarchical addressing scheme. Physical
networks represent the interconnection of devices on a
7.1.1 Supporting and connecting to Upper Layer
Services
common media. Sometimes, a physical network is also
referred to as a network segment.
Upper Layer Access to Media

As we have discussed, a network model allows each layer to function with

minimal concern for the roles of the other layers. The Data Link layer
relieves the upper layers from the responsibility of putting data on the
network and receiving data from the network. This layer provides services to
support the communication processes for each medium over which data is to
be transmitted.

In any given exchange of Network layer packets, there may be numerous

Data Link layer and media transitions. At each hop along the path, an
intermediary device - usually a router - accepts frames from a medium,
decapsulates the frame, and then forwards the packet in a new frame
appropriate to the medium of that segment of the physical network.

Imagine a data conversation between two distant hosts, such as a PC in Paris

with an Internet server in Japan. Although the two hosts may be
communicating with their peer Network layer protocols (IP for example), it is
7.1.1 Supporting and connecting to Upper Layer
Services
likely that numerous Data Link layer protocols are being used to transport
the IP packets over various types of LANs and WANs. This packet exchange
between two hosts requires a diversity of protocols that must exist at the
Data Link layer. Each transition at a router could require a different Data Link
layer protocol for transport on a new medium.

The Data Link layer effectively insulates the communication processes at the
higher layers from the media transitions that may occur end-to-end. A
packet is received from and directed to an upper layer protocol, in this case
IPv4 or IPv6, that does not need to be aware of which media the
communication will use.

Without the Data Link layer, a Network layer protocol, such as IP, would
have to make provisions for connecting to every type of media that could
exist along a delivery path. Moreover, IP would have to adapt every time a
new network technology or medium was developed. This process would
hamper protocol and network media innovation and development. This is a
key reason for using a layered approach to networking.
7.1.1 Supporting and connecting to Upper Layer
Services
The range of Data Link layer services has to include all of the currently used
types of media and the methods for accessing them. Because of the number
of communication services provided by the Data Link layer, it is difficult to
generalize their role and provide examples of a generic set of services. For
that reason, please note that any given protocol may or may not support all
these Data Link layer services.
 7.1.2 Controlling transfer across local media

Layer 2 protocols specify the encapsulation of a packet into a frame and the techniques for
getting the encapsulated packet on and off each medium. The technique used for getting the
frame on and off media is called the media access control method. For the data to be transferred
across a number of different media, different media access control methods may be required
during the course of a single communication.

Each network environment that packets encounter as they travel from a local host to a remote
host can have different characteristics. For example, one network environment may consist of
many hosts contending to access the network medium on an ad hoc basis. Another environment
may consist of a direct connection between only two devices over which data flows sequentially
as bits in an orderly way.
 7.1.3 Creating a frame
7.1.2 Controlling transfer across local media

The media access control methods described by the Data Link layer protocols define the processes by which
network devices can access the network media and transmit frames in diverse network environments.

A node that is an end device uses an adapter to make the connection to the network. For example, to connect to a
LAN, the device would use the appropriate Network Interface Card (NIC) to connect to the LAN media. The adapter
manages the framing and media access control.

At intermediary devices such as a router, where the media type could change for each connected network, different
physical interfaces on the router are used to encapsulate the packet into the appropriate frame, and a suitable
media access control method is used to access each link. The router in the figure has an Ethernet interface to
connect to the LAN and a serial interface to connect to the WAN. As the router processes frames, it will use Data
Link layer services to receive the frame from one medium, decapsulate it to the Layer 3 PDU, re-encapsulate the
PDU into a new frame, and place the frame on the medium of the next link of the network .
The description of a frame is a key element of each Data Link layer protocol. Data Link layer protocols
require control information to enable the protocols to function. Control information may tell:
Which nodes are in communication with each other?
When communication between individual nodes begins and when it ends
Which errors occurred while the nodes communicated?
Which nodes will communicate next?

The Data Link layer prepares a packet for transport across the local media by encapsulating it with a
header and a trailer to create a frame.

Unlike the other PDUs that have been discussed in this course, the Data Link layer frame includes:
Data - The packet from the Network layer
Header - Contains control information, such as addressing, and is located at the beginning of the
PDU
Trailer - Contains control information added to the end of the PDU
 7.1.3 Creating a frame

Formatting Data for Transmission

When data travels on the media, it is converted into a stream of bits, or 1s and 0s. If a node is
receiving long streams of bits, how does it determine where a frame starts and stops or which
bits represent the address?
 7.1.4 Connecting Upper Layer Services to the media
Framing breaks the stream into decipherable groupings, with control information inserted in the
header and trailer as values in different fields. This format gives the physical signals a structure
that can be received by nodes and decoded into packets at the destination.

Typical field types include:

Start and stop indicator fields - The beginning and end limits of the frame
Naming or addressing fields
Type field - The type of PDU contained in the frame
 7.1.3 Creating a frame
Control - Flow control services
A data field -The frame payload (Network layer packet)

Fields at the end of the frame form the trailer. These fields are used for error detection and mark the end of the frame.

Not all protocols include all of these fields. The standards for a specific Data Link protocol define the actual frame format.

The Data Link layer exists as a connecting layer between the software processes of the layers
above it and the Physical layer below it. As such, it prepares the Network layer packets for
transmission across some form of media, be it copper, fiber, or the atmosphere.
 7.1.4 Connecting Upper Layer Services to the media

In many cases, the Data Link layer is embodied as a physical entity, such as an Ethernet network
interface card (NIC), which inserts into the system bus of a computer and makes the connection
between running software processes on the computer and physical media. The NIC is not solely a
physical entity, however. Software associated with the NIC enables the NIC to perform its
intermediary functions of preparing data for transmission and encoding the data as signals to be
sent on the associated media.
 7.1.4 Connecting Upper Layer Services to the media

Data Link Sublayers

To support a wide variety of network functions, the Data Link layer is often divided into two
sublayers: an upper sublayer and a lower sublayer.

The upper sublayer defines the software processes that provide services to the Network layer protocols. The
lower sublayer defines the media access processes performed by the hardware.

Separating the Data Link layer into sublayers allows for one type of frame defined by the upper
layer to access different types of media defined by the lower layer. Such is the case in many LAN
technologies, including Ethernet.
 7.1.4 Connecting Upper Layer Services to the media

The two common LAN sublayers are:

Logical Link Control

Logical Link Control (LLC) places information in the frame that identifies which Network layer protocol is being used for the
frame. This information allows multiple Layer 3 protocols, such as IP and IPX, to utilize the same network interface and media.

Media Access Control

Media Access Control (MAC) provides Data Link layer addressing and delimiting of data according to the physical signaling
requirements of the medium and the type of Data Link layer protocol in use.
 7.1.5 Standards

Unlike the protocols of the upper layers of the TCP/IP suite, Data Link layer protocols are generally not defined by Request for
Comments (RFCs). Although the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) maintains the functional protocols and services for
the TCP/IP protocol suite in the upper layers, the IETF does not define the functions and operation of that model's Network
access layer. The TCP/IP Network Access layer is the equivalent of the OSI Data Link and Physical layers. These two layer will
be discussed in separate chapters for closer examination.

The functional protocols and services at the Data Link layer are described by engineering organizations (such as IEEE, ANSI,
and ITU) and communications companies. Engineering organizations set public and open standards and protocols.
Communications companies may set and use proprietary protocols to take advantage of new advances in technology or
market opportunities.

Data Link layer services and specifications are defined by multiple standards based on a variety of technologies and media to
which the protocols are applied. Some of these standards integrate both Layer 2 and Layer 1 services.
7.1.5 Standards
Engineering organizations that define open standards and protocols
that apply to the Data Link layer include:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Unlike the upper layer protocols, which are implemented mostly in

software such as the host operating system or specific applications,
Data Link layer processes occur both in software and hardware. The
protocols at this layer are implemented within the electronics of the
network adapters with which the device connects to the physical
network.

For example, a device implementing the Data Link layer on a

computer would be the network interface card (NIC). For a laptop, a
wireless PCMCIA adapter is commonly used. Each of these adapters
 is the hardware that complies with the Layer 2 standards and
protocols.

7.2.1 Placing data on the media

Regulating the placement of data frames onto the media is known as media access
control. Among the different implementations of the Data Link layer protocols, there
are different methods of controlling access to the media. These media access control
techniques define if and how the nodes share the media.

7.2.1 Placing data on the media

Media access control is the equivalent of traffic rules that regulate the
entrance of motor vehicles onto a roadway. The absence of any media
access control would be the equivalent of vehicles ignoring all other traffic
and entering the road without regard to the other vehicles.

However, not all roads and entrances are the same. Traffic can enter the
road by merging, by waiting for its turn at a stop sign, or by obeying signal
lights. A driver follows a different set of rules for each type of entrance.

In the same way, there are different ways to regulate the placing of frames
onto the media. The protocols at the Data Link layer define the rules for
access to different media. Some media access control methods use
highlycontrolled processes to ensure that frames are safely placed on the
media. These methods are defined by sophisticated protocols, which require
mechanisms that introduce overhead onto the network.

The method of media access control used depends on:

Media sharing - If and how the nodes share the media
Topology - How the connection between the nodes appears to the Data Link layer
 7.2.2 Media Access Control for Shared Media

Some network topologies share a common medium with multiple nodes.

At any one time, there may be a number of devices attempting to send
and receive data using the network media. There are rules that govern
how these devices share the media.

There are two basic media access control methods for shared media:

Controlled - Each node has its own time to use the medium
Contention-based - All nodes compete for the use of the medium
 7.2.2 Media Access Control for Shared Media

Controlled Access for Shared Media

When using the controlled access method, network devices take turns, in sequence, to access the
medium. This method is also known as scheduled access or deterministic. If a device does not
need to access the medium, the opportunity to use the medium passes to the next device in line.
When one device places a frame on the media, no other device can do so until the frame has
arrived at the destination and has been processed by the destination.
 7.2.2 Media Access Control for Shared Media
Although controlled access is well-ordered and provides predictable throughput, deterministic
methods can be inefficient because a device has to wait for its turn before it can use the medium

Contention-based Access for Shared Media

Also referred to as non-deterministic, contention-based methods allow any device to try to access the medium whenever it has
data to send. To prevent complete chaos on the media, these methods use a Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) process to
first detect if the media is carrying a signal. If a carrier signal on the media from another node is detected, it means that
another device is transmitting. When the device attempting to transmit sees that the media is busy, it will wait and try again
after a short time period. If no carrier signal is detected, the device transmits its data. Ethernet and wireless networks use
contention-based media access control.
 7.2.2 Media Access Control for Shared Media
It is possible that the CSMA process will fail and two devices will transmit at the same time. This is called a data collision. If
this occurs, the data sent by both devices will be corrupted and will need to be resent.

Contention-based media access control methods do not have the overhead of controlled access
methods. A mechanism for tracking whose turn it is to access the media is not required.
However, the contention-based systems do not scale well under heavy media use. As use and
the number of nodes increases, the probability of successful media access without a collision
decreases. Additionally, The recovery mechanisms required to correct errors due to these
collisions further diminishes the throughput.

CSMA is usually implemented in conjunction with a method for resolving the media contention.
The two commonly used methods are:

CSMA/Collision Detection

In CSMA/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), the device monitors the media for the presence of a
data signal. If a data signal is absent, indicating that the media is free, the device transmits the
data. If signals are then detected that show another device was transmitting at the same time,
all devices stop sending and try again later. Traditional forms of Ethernet use this method.

CSMA/Collision Avoidance

In CSMA/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA), the device examines the media for the presence of a
data signal. If the media is free, the device sends a notification across the media of its intent to
use it. The device then sends the data. This method is used by 802.11 wireless networking
technologies.
7.2.2 Media Access Control for Shared Media
Note: CSMA/CD will be covered in more detail in Chapter 9.
 7.2.3 Media Access Control for non-Shared Media

Media access control protocols for non-shared media require little or no

control before placing frames onto the media. These protocols have
simpler rules and procedures for media access control. Such is the case
for point-to-point topologies.

In point-to-point topologies, the media interconnects just two nodes. In

this arrangement, the nodes do not have to share the media with other
hosts or determine if a frame is destined for that node. Therefore, Data
 7.2.3 Media Access Control for non-Shared Media
Link layer protocols have little to do for controlling non-shared media
access.

Half Duplex
Full Duplex and Half Duplex

In point-to-point connections, the Data Link layer has to consider whether the communication is
half-duplex or full-duplex.
 7.2.3 Media Access Control for non-Shared Media
Half-duplex communication means that the devices can both transmit and receive on the media
but cannot do so simultaneously. Ethernet has established arbitration rules for resolving conflicts
arising from instances when more than one station attempts to transmit at the same time.

Full Duplex
In full-duplex communication, both devices can transmit and receive on the media at
the same time. The Data Link layer assumes that the media is available for
transmission for both nodes at any time. Therefore, there is no media arbitration
necessary in the Data Link layer.
 7.2.3 Media Access Control for non-Shared Media
The details of a specific media access control technique can only be examined by
studying a specific protocol. Within this course, we will study traditional Ethernet,
which uses CSMA/CD. Other techniques will be covered in later courses.
 7.2.4 Logical Topologies vs Physical Topologies

The topology of a network is the arrangement or relationship of the network devices and the
interconnections between them. Network topologies can be viewed at the physical level and the logical
level.

The physical topology is an arrangement of the nodes and the physical connections between them. The
representation of how the media is used to interconnect the devices is the physical topology. These will
be covered in later chapters of this course.

A logical topology is the way a network transfers frames from one node to the next. This arrangement
consists of virtual connections between the nodes of a network independent of their physical layout.
These logical signal paths are defined by Data Link layer protocols. The Data Link layer "sees" the logical
topology of a network when controlling data access to the media. It is the logical topology that influences
the type of network framing and media access control used.
 7.2.5 Point to Point Topology
7.2.4 Logical Topologies vs Physical Topologies

The physical or cabled topology of a network will most likely not be the same as the logical topology.

Logical topology of a network is closely related to the mechanism used to manage network access. Access
methods provide the procedures to manage network access so that all stations have access. When
several entities share the same media, some mechanism must be in place to control access. Access
methods are applied to networks to regulate this media access. Access methods will be discussed in more
detail later.

Logical and physical topologies typically used in networks are: Point-to-

Point
Multi-Access
Ring
A point-to-point topology connects two nodes directly together, as shown in the figure. In data
networks with point-to-point topologies, the media access control protocol can be very simple. All
frames on the media can only travel to or from the two nodes. The frames are placed on the
media by the node at one end and taken off the media by the node at the other end of the
pointto-point circuit.

In point-to-point networks, if data can only flow in one direction at a time, it is operating as a
half-duplex link. If data can successfully flow across the link from each node simultaneously, it is
a full-duplex link.

Data Link layer protocols could provide more sophisticated media access control processes for
logical point-to-point topologies, but this would only add unnecessary protocol overhead.
 7.2.5 Point to Point Topology

Logical Point-to-Point Networks

The end nodes communicating in a point-to-point network can be

physically connected via a number of intermediate devices.
However the use of physical devices in the network does not
affect the logical topology. As shown in the figure, the source and
destination node may be indirectly connected to each other over
 7.2.6 Multi-Access Topology

some geographical distance. In some cases, the logical

connection between nodes forms what is called a virtual circuit.
A virtual circuit is a logical connection created within a network between two
network devices. The two nodes on either end of the virtual circuit exchange the
frames with each other. This occurs even if the frames are directed through
intermediary devices. Virtual circuits are important logical communication
constructs used by some Layer 2 technologies.
 7.2.5 Point to Point Topology

The media access method used by the Data Link protocol is determined by the
logical point-to-point topology, not the physical topology. This means that the
logical point-to-point connection between two nodes may not necessarily be
between two physical nodes at each end of a single physical link.
7.2.6 Multi-Access Topology

1 2

4
3
7.2.6 Multi-Access Topology
5

7 8
 7.2.6 Multi-Access Topology

10
A logical multi-access topology enables a number of nodes to communicate by using the same shared media. Data from only
one node can be placed on the medium at any one time. Every node sees all the frames that are on the medium, but only the
node to which the frame is addressed processes the contents of the frame.

Having many nodes share access to the medium requires a Data Link media access control method to regulate the
transmission of data and thereby reduce collisions between different signals.

The media access control methods used by logical multi-access topologies are typically CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA. However,
token passing methods can also be used.

A number of media access control techniques are available for this type of logical topology. The Data Link layer protocol
specifies the media access control method that will provide the appropriate balance between frame control, frame protection,
and network overhead.
 7.2.7 Ring Topology
1 2

3
4
 7.2.7 Ring Topology
5 6

In a logical ring topology, each node in turn receives a frame. If the frame is not addressed to the
node, the node passes the frame to the next node. This allows a ring to use a controlled media
access control technique called token passing.

Nodes in a logical ring topology remove the frame from the ring, examine the address, and send it
on if it is not addressed for that node. In a ring, all nodes around the ring- between the source
and destination node examine the frame.

There are multiple media access control techniques that could be used with a logical ring,
depending on the level of control required. For example, only one frame at a time is usually
carried by the media. If there is no data being transmitted, a signal (known as a token) may be
placed on the media and a node can only place a data frame on the media when it has the token.
Remember that the Data Link layer "sees" a logical ring topology. The actual physical cabling
topology could be another topology.
7.3.1 Data Link Layer Protocols – The Frame
7.3.1 Data Link Layer Protocols – The Frame
Remember that although there are many different Data Link layer protocols
that describe Data Link layer frames, each frame type has three basic parts:

Header
Data
Trailer

All Data Link layer protocols encapsulate the Layer 3 PDU within the data
field of the frame. However, the structure of the frame and the fields
contained in the header and trailer vary according to the protocol.

The Data Link layer protocol describes the features required for the transport
of packets across different media. These features of the protocol are
integrated into the encapsulation of the frame. When the frame arrives at its
destination and the Data Link protocol takes the frame off the media, the
framing information is read and discarded.

There is no one frame structure that meets the needs of all data
transportation across all types of media. As shown in the figure, depending
on the environment, the amount of control information needed in the frame
varies to match the media access control requirements of the media and
logical topology.
 7.3.2 Framing – Role of the Header

As shown in the figure, the frame header contains the

control information specified by the Data Link layer
protocol for the specific logical topology and media used.

Frame control information is unique to each type of

protocol. It is used by the Layer 2 protocol to provide
features demanded by the communication environment.
7.3.2 Framing – Role of the Header

Typical frame header fields include:

7.3.2 Framing – Role of the Header
Start Frame field - Indicates the beginning of the frame
Source and Destination address fields - Indicates the source and
destination nodes on the media
Priority/Quality of Service field - Indicates a particular type of
communication service for processing
Type field - Indicates the upper layer service contained in the frame
Logical connection control field - Used to establish a logical connection
between nodes
Physical link control field - Used to establish the media link
Flow control field - Used to start and stop traffic over the media
Congestion control field - Indicates congestion in the media

The field names above are nonspecific fields listed as examples.

Different Data Link layer protocols may use different fields from
those mentioned. Because the purposes and functions of Data Link
layer protocols are related to the specific topologies and media,
each protocol has to be examined to gain a detailed understanding
of its frame structure. As protocols are discussed in this course,
more information about the frame structure will be explained.
 7.3.3 Addressing – Where the frame goes

The data Link layer provides addressing that is used in transporting the frame across
the shared local media. Device addresses at this layer are referred to as physical
addresses. Data Link layer addressing is contained within the frame header and
specifies the frame destination node on the local network. The frame header may
also contain the source address of the frame.

Unlike Layer 3 logical addresses that are hierarchical, physical addresses do not
indicate on what network the device is located. If the device is moved to another
network or subnet, it will still function with the same Layer 2 physical address.
7.3.3 Addressing – Where the frame goes
Because the frame is only used to transport data between nodes across the local
media, the Data Link layer address is only used for local delivery. Addresses at
this layer have no meaning beyond the local network. Compare this to Layer 3,
where addresses in the packet header are carried from source host to destination
host regardless of the number of network hops along the route.

If the packet in the frame must pass onto another network segment, the
intermediate device - a router - will decapsulate the original frame, create a new
frame for the packet, and send it onto the new segment. The new frame will use
source and destination addressing as necessary to transport the packet across the
new media.

Addressing Requirements

The need for Data Link layer addressing at this layer depends on the logical
topology.

Point-to-point topologies, with just two interconnected nodes, do not require

addressing. Once on the medium, the frame has only one place it can go.

Because ring and multi-access topologies can connect many nodes on a common
medium, addressing is required for these typologies. When a frame reaches each
node in the topology, the node examines the destination address in the header to
determine if it is the destination of the frame.
 7.3.4 Framing – Role of the Trailer

Data Link layer protocols add a trailer to the end of each frame. The trailer is used to determine if
the frame arrived without error. This process is called error detection. Note that this is different
from error correction. Error detection is accomplished by placing a logical or mathematical
summary of the bits that comprise the frame in the trailer.

Frame Check Sequence

The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is used to determine if errors occurred in the transmission
and reception of the frame. Error detection is added at the Data Link layer because this is where
data is transferred across the media. The media is a potentially unsafe environment for data. The
signals on the media could be subject to interference, distortion, or loss that would substantially
change the bit values that those signals represent. The error detection mechanism provided by
the use of the FCS field discovers most errors caused on the media.
7.3.4 Framing – Role of the Trailer

To ensure that the content of the received frame at the destination matches that of the
frame that left the source node, a transmitting node creates a logical summary of the
contents of the frame. This is known as the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value. This
value is placed in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field of the frame to represent the
contents of the frame.

When the frame arrives at the destination node, the receiving node calculates its own
logical summary, or CRC, of the frame. The receiving node compares the two CRC
values. If the two values are the same, the frame is considered to have arrived as
transmitted. If the CRC value in the FCS differs from the CRC calculated at the receiving
node, the frame is discarded.

There is always the small possibility that a frame with a good CRC result is actually
corrupt. Errors in bits may cancel each other out when the CRC is calculated. Upper layer
protocols would then be required to detect and correct this data loss.
The protocol used in the Data Link layer, will determine if error correction will take place.
The FCS is used to detect the error, but not every protocol will support correcting the
error.
7.3.5 The Frame
In a TCP/IP network, all OSI Layer 2 protocols work with the Internet Protocol at OSI Layer 3. However, the actual Layer 2
protocol used depends on the logical topology of the network and the implementation of the Physical layer. Given the wide range
of physical media used across the range of topologies in networking, there are a correspondingly high number of Layer 2
protocols in use.

Protocols that will be covered in CCNA courses include:

Ethernet
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
Frame Relay
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Each protocol performs media access control for specified Layer 2 logical topologies. This means that a number of different
network devices can act as nodes that operate at the Data Link layer when implementing these protocols. These devices include
the network adapter or network interface cards (NICs) on computers as well as the interfaces on routers and Layer 2 switches.

The Layer 2 protocol used for a particular network topology is determined by the technology used to implement that topology.
The technology is, in turn, determined by the size of the network - in terms of the number of hosts and the geographic scope
and the services to be provided over the network.

LAN Technology

A Local Area Network typically uses a high bandwidth technology that is capable of supporting large numbers of hosts. A LAN's
relatively small geographic area (a single building or a multi-building campus) and its high density of users make this technology
cost effective.

WAN Technology

However, using a high bandwidth technology is usually not cost-effective for Wide Area Networks that cover large geographic
areas (cities or multiple cities, for example). The cost of the long distance physical links and the technology used to carry the
signals over those distances typically results in lower bandwidth capacity.

Difference in bandwidth normally results in the use of different protocols for LANs and WANs.
 7.3.5 The Frame

HDLC

PPP

FrameRelay

Ethernet
802.11
 7.3.5 The Frame

Ethernet Protocol for LANs

Ethernet is a family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and 802.3 standards.
Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1 technologies. Ethernet is the most
widely used LAN technology and supports data bandwidths of 10, 100, 1000, or 10,000 Mbps.
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The basic frame format and the IEEE sublayers of OSI Layers 1 and 2 remain consistent across all forms
of Ethernet. However, the methods for detecting and placing data on the media vary with different
implementations.

Ethernet provides unacknowledged connectionless service over a shared media using CSMA/CD as the media
access methods. Shared media requires that the Ethernet frame header use a Data Link layer address to identify
the source and destination nodes. As with most LAN protocols, this address is referred to as the MAC address of
the node. An Ethernet MAC address is 48 bits and is generally represented in hexadecimal format.
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The Ethernet frame has many fields, as shown in the figure. At the Data Link layer, the frame structure is nearly
identical for all speeds of Ethernet. However, at the Physical layer, different versions of Ethernet place the bits
onto the media differently.

Ethernet II is the Ethernet frame format used in TCP/IP networks.

Ethernet is such an important part of data networking, we have devoted a chapter to it. We also use it in examples
throughout this series of courses.
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Point-to-Point Protocol for WANs

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a protocol used to deliver frames between two nodes. Unlike
many Data Link layer protocols that are defined by electrical engineering organizations, the PPP
standard is defined by RFCs. PPP was developed as a WAN protocol and remains the protocol of
choice to implement many serial WANs. PPP can be used on various physical media, including
twisted pair, fiber optic lines, and satellite transmission, as well as for virtual connections.
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PPP uses a layered architecture. To accommodate the different types of media, PPP establishes logical
connections, called sessions, between two nodes. The PPP session hides the underlying physical media
from the upper PPP protocol. These sessions also provide PPP with a method for encapsulating multiple
protocols over a point-to-point link. Each protocol encapsulated over the link establishes its own PPP
session.

PPP also allows the two nodes to negotiate options within the PPP session. This includes authentication,
compression, and multilink (the use of multiple physical connections).
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Wireless Protocol for LANs

802.11 is an extension of the IEEE 802 standards. It uses the same 802.2 LLC and 48-bit
addressing scheme as other 802 LANs, However there are many differences at the MAC
sublayer and Physical layer. In a wireless environment, the environment requires special
considerations. There is no definable physical connectivity; therefore, external factors may
interfere with data transfer and it is difficult to control access. To meet these challenges,
wireless standards have additional controls.
The Standard IEEE 802.11, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is a
contention-based system using a Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access process.
CSMA/CA specifies a random backoff procedure for all nodes that
are waiting to transmit. The most likely opportunity for medium
contention is just after the medium becomes available. Making the
nodes back off for a random period greatly reduces the likelihood of
a collision.

802.11 networks also use Data Link acknowledgements to confirm

that a frame is received successfully. If the sending station does not
detect the acknowledgement frame, either because the original data
frame or the acknowledgment was not received intact, the frame is
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retransmitted. This explicit acknowledgement overcomes
interference and other radio-related problems.

Other services supported by 802.11 are authentication, association

(connectivity to a wireless device), and privacy (encryption).
 7.3.5 The Frame

Protocol Version field - Version of 802.11 frame in use

Type and Subtype fields - Identifies one of three functions and sub functions of the frame: control, data, and management
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To DS field - Set to 1 in data frames destined for the distribution system (devices in the wireless structure)

From DS field - Set to 1 in data frames exiting the distribution system

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More Fragments field - Set to 1 for frames that have another fragment
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Retry field - Set to 1 if the frame is a retransmission of an earlier frame
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Power Management field - Set to 1 to indicate that a node will be in power-save mode

More Data field - Set to 1 to indicate to a node in power-save mode that more frames are buffered for that node
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Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) field - Set to 1 if the frame contains WEP encrypted information for security

Order field - Set to 1 in a data type frame that uses Strictly Ordered service class (does not need reordering)

Duration/ID field - Depending on the type of frame, represents either the time, in microseconds,
required to transmit the frame or an association identity (AID) for the station that transmitted
the frame

Destination Address (DA) field - MAC address of the final destination node in the network

Source Address (SA) field - MAC address of the node the initiated the frame

Receiver Address (RA) field - MAC address that identifies the wireless device that is the
immediate recipient of the frame

Transmitter Address (TA) field - MAC address that identifies the wireless device that transmitted
the frame

Sequence Number field - Indicates the sequence number assigned to the frame; retransmitted
frames are identified by duplicate sequence numbers

Fragment Number field - Indicates the number for each fragment of a frame

Frame Body field - Contains the information being transported; for data frames, typically an IP
packet

FCS field - Contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) of the frame
 7.4.1 Follow data through an internetwork

The figure on the next page presents a simple data transfer between two hosts across an internetwork. We highlight the
function of each layer during the communication. For this example we will depict an HTTP request between a client and a
server.

To focus on the data transfer process, we are omitting many elements that may occur in a real transaction. In each step we
are only bringing attention to the major elements. Many parts of the headers are ignored, for example.

We are assuming that all routing tables are converged and ARP tables are complete. Additionally, we are assuming that a TCP
session is already established between the client and server. We will also assume that the DNS lookup for the WWW server is
already cached at the client.

In the WAN connection between the two routers, we are assuming that PPP has already established a physical circuit and has
established a PPP session.

On the next page, you can step through this communication. We encourage you to read each explanation carefully and study
the operation of the layers for each device.
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