NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Fig 2.4: Engineering Neurons

Eye as a Camera System:

The human eye is a wonderful instrument, relying on refraction and lenses to form images. There are
many similarities between the human eye and a camera, including:
A diaphragm to control the amount of light that gets through to the lens. This is the shutter in a
camera, and the pupil, at the center of the iris, in the human eye. A lens to focus the light and create an
image. The image is real and inverted. A method of sensing the image. In a camera, film is used to
record the image; in the eye, the image is focused on the retina, and a system of rods and cones is the
front end of an image-processing system that converts the image to electrical impulses and sends the
information along the optic nerve to the brain.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 24

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

There are two photoreceptors: Rods and Cones

Fig 2.5: Structure of an eye

Fig 2.6: Layers of retina shows rods and cones

Architecture of Rods and Cones:

Photoreceptor cells fall into two categories: rods and cones. Both cell types possess the same basic
structure, with rod cells displaying a more elongated shape than cone cells. These cells have several
distinct regions. The central region contains the cell body that houses the nucleus. Extending from one

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 25

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

of the poles of the cell body are the inner and outer segments. The inner segment is packed with
mitochondria, responsible for generating the energy needed to support the intense metabolic activity that
takes place in the outer segment.

The outer region of the cell consists of stacks of membranes. Embedded in the membrane stacks are a
large number of copies of the protein called opsin. Associated with opsin is a co-enzyme called retinal.
Together opsin and retinal form a complex called rhodopsin in rod cells and conopsin in cone cells.
Rhodopsin and conopsin absorb photons of light, triggering a biochemical cascade that prevents the
release of a neurotransmitter at the synaptic body, which extends from the opposite pole of the cell
body.

Fig 2.7: Structure of Rod cell and Cone cell

Optical Corrections:
A slight modification of geometrically correct lines (as of a building) for the purpose of making
them appear correct to the eye.
The ability to see images or objects with clear, sharp vision results from light entering the eye. Light
rays bend or refract when they hit the retina, sending nerve signals to the optic nerve, which then
sends these signals to the brain. The brain processes them into images, allowing you to understand
what you see. When these light rays bend incorrectly, it results in a refractive error and typically
causes blurry or cloudy vision.
Since the primary cause of vision problems is caused by light bending incorrectly as it enters the eye,

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 26

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

virtually any method of treatment that changes this can be categorized as a form of vision correction.
Eyeglasses and contact lenses – the most common types of corrective measures – are almost always
recommended as the first course of treatment for vision problems. While they are considered a very
basic method of vision correction, they are unable to control the refractive error from progressing.
Patients whose vision worsens over time need new glasses or contacts. In these cases, longer-term
solutions are needed.

Cataract:
A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye. At first, the cloudiness in your vision
caused by a cataract may affect only a small part of the eye's lens and you may be unaware of any
vision loss. As the cataract grows larger, it clouds more of your lens and distorts the light passing
through the lens. This may lead to more-noticeable symptoms. A cataract is a cloudy lens. The lens
is positioned behind the colored part of your eye (iris). The lens focuses light that passes into your
eye, producing clear, sharp images on the retina — the light-sensitive membrane in the eye that
functions like the film in a camera.
As the cataract continues to develop, the clouding becomes denser. A cataract scatters and blocks the
light as it passes through the lens, preventing a sharply defined image from reaching your retina. As
a result, your vision becomes blurred. Cataracts generally develop in both eyes, but not always at the
same rate. The cataract in one eye may be more advanced than the other, causing a difference in
vision between eyes.
Nuclear sclerosis is the most common type of cataract, and involves the central or 'nuclear' part ofthe
lens. This eventually becomes hard, or 'sclerotic', due to condensation on the lens nucleus and the
deposition of brown pigment within the lens. In its advanced stages, it is called a brunescent
cataract. In early stages, an increase in sclerosis may cause an increase in refractive index of the
lens. This causes a myopic shift (lenticular shift) that decreases hyperopia and enables presbyopic
patients to see at near without reading glasses. This is only temporary and is called second sight.
Cortical cataracts are due to the lens cortex (outer layer) becoming opaque. They occur when
changes in the fluid contained in the periphery of the lens causes fissuring. When these cataracts are
viewed through an ophthalmoscope, or other magnification system, the appearance is similar to
white spokes of a wheel. Symptoms often include problems with glare and light scatter at night.
Posterior subcapsular cataracts are cloudy at the back of the lens adjacent to the capsule (or bag) in
which the lens sits. Because light becomes more focused toward the back of the lens, they can cause

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 27

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

disproportionate symptoms for their size.

Fig 2.8: Comparison between Normal Eye and Cataract Eye

Lens Materials:

Corrective spherocylindrical lenses are commonly used to treat refractive errors such as myopia,
hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism. Both lenses and prisms are also frequently used to improve
eye alignment and treat diplopia in strabismus. Eyeglasses also serve an important role in protecting
the eyes from physical trauma and harmful radiation. Lenses can be produced using a variety of
materials and designed with several optical profiles to optimize use in specific applications. Critical
lens properties include refractive index, Abbe number (chromatic dispersion), specific gravity, and
ultraviolet absorption.
The most common lens material is, of course, optical glass, but crystals and plastics are frequently
used, while mirrors can be made of essentially anything that is capable of being polished.
There are 5 main types of lens materials for eyeglasses and sunglasses. Each type of lens material can
help correct refractive errors such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism, or presbyopia.

Types of lens materials:

CR-39: The most used plastic lens material for years was CR-39. It was first developed as a
replacement for glass lenses during World War II. It still has 55% of world market at age 60. The
patent was awarded to Muskat and Strain of Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company (now named PPG) in

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 28

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

1946. CR-39 is available in all lens styles and from multiple manufacturers. The basic monomer
comes from PPG, and then each company adds their own materials to create their lenses. Advantages
include light weight, good optical properties, and tinting well. Disadvantages of CR-39 are that it is
the thickest material and scratches easily.

Crown Glass is the most commonly used clear glass for ophthalmic lenses. In general, glass is the
most durable material used for lenses. Crown glass is used mainly for single vision lenses and the
distance carrier for most glass bifocals and trifocals. It has an index of refraction of 1.523, and an
Abbe value of 59. It is approximately 4% thinner than CR-39 resin lenses and is 40% heavier than
polycarbonate lenses and is slightly lighter than high index glass. It blocks out about 10% of UV
light.

Flint Glass uses lead oxides in its chemical make up to increase its index of refraction to
approximately 1.58 to 1.69. Its Abbe value ranges from 30 to 40. This material is relatively soft,
displays a brilliant luster and has chromatic aberration. Although it was used in the past as a single
vision alternative for higher Rx lenses, its use today is often limited to segments for some fused
bifocals.
The advantages of glass lenses include optical clarity, resistance to scratches, and it is the least
susceptible to chemicals. The disadvantages include that it is the heaviest material and it is less
impact resistant than other materials.

Polycarbonate Lenses: Polycarbonate lenses were first developed by a company named Gentex.
Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic which means it is moldable under sufficient heat. In the 1950's it
was marketed under the name Lexan and due to its extraordinary resistance to impact was originally
manufactured for safety devices.

Bionic Eyes:
Bionic eye, electrical prosthesis surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the
transduction of light (the change of light from the environment into impulses the brain can process) in
people who have sustained severe damage to the retina.
The bionic eye comprises an external camera and transmitter and an internal microchip. The camera
is mounted on a pair of eyeglasses, where it serves to organize the visual stimuli of the environment

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 29

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

before emitting high-frequency radio waves. The stimulator microchip consists of an electrode array
that is surgically implanted into the retina. That functions as an electrical relay in place of
degenerated retinal cells. The radio waves that are emitted by the external camera and transmitter are
received by the stimulator, which then fires electrical impulses. The impulses are relayed by the few
remaining retinal cells and are transduced as normal to the optic nerve pathway,resulting in vision.

The bionic vision system consists of a camera, attached to a pair of glasses, which transmits high-
frequency radio signals to a microchip implanted in the retina. Electrodes on the implanted chip
convert these signals into electrical impulses to stimulate cells in the retina that connect to the optic
nerve.

It is an expensive treatment and not everyone can afford it. b. Since research is still going on results are
yet not 100% successful.

It‘s an artificial eye which provides visual sensations to the brain. It consist of electronic systems
having image sensors, microprocessors, receivers, radio transmitters and retinal chips. Technology
provided by this help the blind people to get vision again.

Fig 2.9: Bionic vision system

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 30

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

It consists of a computer chip which is kept in the back of effected person eye and linked with a mini
video camera built into glasses that they wear. Then an image captured by the camera is focused to
the chip which converts it into electronic signal that brain can interpret. The images produced by
Bionic eye were not be too much perfect but they could be clear enough to recognize. The implant
bypasses the diseased cells in the retina and goes through the remaining possible cells. The device
consists of 3,500 micro photodiodes which are set at the back part of the retina. The electrical signal
which is sent to brain is obtained from these miniature solar cells array as they convert the normal
light to electrical signal.

Heart as a Pump System:

The heart is a muscular organ that serves to collect deoxygenated blood from all parts of the
body, carries it to the lungs to be oxygenated and release carbon dioxide. Then, it transports the
oxygenated blood from the lungs and distributes it to all the body parts

 The heart pumps around 7,200 litres of blood in a day throughout the body.
 The heart is situated at the centre of the chest and points slightly towards the left .
 On average, the heart beats about 100,000 times a day, i.e., around 3 billion beats in a
lifetime.
 An adult heart beats about 60 to 80 times per minute, and new-born babies heart beats
faster than an adult which is about 70 to 190 beats per minute.

Architecture of the heart : The heart is a conical hollow muscular organ situated in the
middle mediastinum and is enclosed within the pericardium. It is positioned posteriorly to the
body of the sternum with one-third situated on the right and two-thirds on the left of the
midline. The heart measures 12 x 8.5 x 6 cm and weighs ~310 g (males) and ~255 g (females).
It pumps blood to various parts of the body to meet their nutritive requirements. The Greek
name for the heart is cardia from which we have the adjective cardia

Your heart walls have three layers:

 Endocardium: Inner layer.

 Myocardium: Muscular middle layer.
 Epicardium: Protective outer layer.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 31

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Heart chambers

Your heart is divided into four chambers. You have two chambers on the top (atrium, plural atria)
and two on the bottom (ventricles), one on each side of the heart.

 Right atrium: Two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to your right atrium. The superior
vena cava carries blood from your upper body. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the
lower body. Then the right atrium pumps the blood to your right ventricle.
 Right ventricle: The lower right chamber pumps the oxygen-poor blood to
your lungs through the pulmonary artery. The lungs reload blood with oxygen.
 Left atrium: After the lungs fill blood with oxygen, the pulmonary veins carry the blood to
the left atrium. This upper chamber pumps the blood to your left ventricle.
 Left ventricle: The left ventricle is slightly larger than the right. It pumps oxygen-rich blood
to the rest of your body.

Heart valves

Your heart valves are like doors between your heart chambers. They open and close to allow blood to
flow through.

The atrio ventricular (AV) valves open between your upper and lower heart chambers. They include:

 Tricuspid valve: Door between your right atrium and right ventricle.
 Mitral valve: Door between your left atrium and left ventricle.

Semilunar (SL) valves open when blood flows out of your ventricles. They include:

 Aortic valve: Opens when blood flows out of your left ventricle to your aorta (artery that
carries oxygen-rich blood to your body).
 Pulmonary valve: Opens when blood flows from your right ventricle to your pulmonary
arteries (the only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood to your lungs).

Blood vessels

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 32

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Your heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels:

 Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to your body‘s tissues. The exception is
your pulmonary arteries, which go to your lungs.
 Veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to your heart.
 Capillaries are small blood vessels where your body exchanges oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor
blood.

Fig 2.10: Internal View of Heart

The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist
with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline. The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac thatis lined
with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The visceral layer of the serous membrane forms the
epicardium. The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of
oxygen and nutrients to function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive
network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products.

Electrical Signaling:
The sinus node generates an electrical stimulus regularly, 60 to 100 times per minute under normal
conditions. The atria are then activated. The electrical stimulus travels down through the conduction
pathways and causes the heart's ventricles to contract and pump out blood.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 33

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

ECG Monitoring:
Electrocardiography is the process of producing an electrocardiogram, a recording of the heart's
electrical activity through repeated cardiac cycles. It is an electrogram of the heart which is a graph
of voltage versus time of the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the skin. ECG
monitoring systems have been developed and widely used in the healthcare sector for the past few
decades and have significantly evolved over time due to the emergence of smart enabling
technologies. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the simplest and fastest tests used to evaluate
the heart. Electrodes (small, plastic patches that stick to the skin) are placed at certain spots on the
chest, arms, and legs. The electrodes are connected to an ECG machine by lead wires. The electrical
activity of the heart is then measured, interpreted, and printed out. No electricity is sent into the
body. Natural electrical impulses coordinate contractions of the different parts of the heart to keep
blood flowing the way it should. An ECG records these impulses to show how fast the heart is
beating, the rhythm of the heart beats (steady or irregular), and the strength and timing of the
electrical impulses as they move through the different parts of the heart. Changes in an ECG can be a
sign of many heart-related conditions.

Nowadays, ECG monitoring systems are used in hospitals, homes, outpatient ambulatory settings,and
in remote contexts. They also employ a wide range of technologies such as IoT, edge computing,
and mobile computing. In addition, they implement various computational settings in terms of
processing frequencies, as well as monitoring schemes. They have also evolved to serve

purposes and targets other than disease diagnosis and control, including daily activities, sports, and
even mode-related purposes.
.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 34

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Fig 2.11: ECG showing heart beat frequency and duration

Electrocardiography (ECG) is a quick and easily accessible method for diagnosis and screening of
cardiovascular diseases including heart failure (HF). Artificial intelligence (AI) can be used for
semi-automated ECG analysis. The aim of this evaluation was to provide an overview of AI use in
HF detection from ECG signals and to perform a meta-analysis of available studies.

Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels:

Coronary artery disease is a common heart condition. The major blood vessels that supply the heart
(coronary arteries) struggle to send enough blood, oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle.
Cholesterol deposits (plaques) in the heart arteries and inflammation are usually the cause of
coronary artery disease.

Signs and symptoms of coronary artery disease occur when the heart doesn't get enough oxygen-
rich blood. If you have coronary artery disease, reduced blood flow to the heart can cause chest pain
(angina) and shortness of breath. A complete blockage of blood flow can cause a heart attack.
Coronary artery disease starts when fats, cholesterols and other substances collect on the inner walls
of the heart arteries. This condition is called atherosclerosis. The buildup is called plaque. Plaque can
cause the arteries to narrow, blocking blood flow. The plaque can also burst, leading to a blood clot.
Besides high cholesterol, damage to the coronary arteries may be caused by:

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 35

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Diabetes or insulin resistance, High blood pressure, not getting enough exercise (sedentary
lifestyle), Smoking or tobacco use.

Fig 2.12: Development of Atherosclerosis

Design of Stents:
A stent is a tiny tube that can play a big role in treating your heart disease. It helps keep your arteries
-- the blood vessels that carry blood from your heart to other parts of your body, including the heart
muscle itself -- open.
Most stents are made out of wire mesh and are permanent. Some are made out of fabric. These are
called stent grafts and are often used for larger arteries.
Others are made of a material that dissolves and that your body absorbs over time. They're coated in
medicine that slowly releases into your artery to prevent it from being blocked again.

Why Would You Need a Stent?

If a fatty substance called plaque builds up inside an artery, it can reduce blood flow to your heart.
This is called coronary heart disease and it can cause chest pain.
The plaque can also cause a blood clot that blocks blood flowing to your heart, which may lead to a
heart attack.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 36

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

By keeping an artery open, stents lower your risk of chest pain. They can also treat a heart attack
that's in progress.

Fig 2.13: Stent in Coronary artery

Doctor usually inserts a stent using a minimally invasive procedure. They will make a small incision
and use a catheter to guide specialized tools through your blood vessels to reach the area that needs a
stent. This incision is usually in the groin or arm. One of those tools may have a camera on the end
to help your doctor guide the stent. During the procedure, doctor may also use an imaging technique
called an angiogram to help guide the stent through the vessel.
Using the necessary tools, doctor will locate the broken or blocked vessel and install the stent. Then
they will remove the instruments from your body and close the incision.

Design of stent:

Most of these stents are constructed from a nickel titanium alloy. Balloon expandable stents are
susceptible to permanent deformation when they are compressed extrinsically, which is not an issue
in the coronary tree. Self-expanding stents do not have this limitation. Furthermore, self- expanding
stents have less axial stiffness and are thus more flexible and will conform to the shape of the vessel
rather than the vessel conforming to the shape of the stent.

Balloon expandable stents,by virtue of their design, resist expansion by the balloon, but they have less
acute recoil when theyare placed in a poorly compliant lesion. However, after the initial deployment,
the stent is at its maximal diameter and cannot get larger, whereas a self-expanding stent that is
appropriately oversized for the vessel will exhibit a chronic outward force on the lesion and may lead
to a larger lumen over time. For the reasons above, there are some coronary lesions where balloon
expandable stents are not ideal, such as aneurysmal, ectatic vessels, thrombus laden vessels, and
vessels that are tapering with a large size mismatch between distal reference and proximal reference
vessels.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 37

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Pace Makers:
A pacemaker is a small device that's placed (implanted) in the chest to help control the heartbeat. It's
used to prevent the heart from beating too slowly. Implanting a pacemaker in the chest requires a
surgical procedure.

A pacemaker is also called a cardiac pacing device.

Types:
1) Single chamber pacemaker: This type usually carries electrical impulses to the right ventricle
of your heart.

2) Dual chamber pacemaker: This type carries electrical impulses to the right ventricle and the
rightatrium of your heart to help control the timing of contractions between the two chambers.

3) Biventricular pacemaker: Biventricular pacing, also called cardiac resynchronization therapy is

for people who have heart failure and heartbeat problems. This type of pacemaker stimulates both of
the lower heart chambers (the right and left ventricles) to make the heart beat more efficiently.

A pacemaker is implanted to help control your heartbeat. Your doctor may recommend a temporary
pacemaker when you have a slow heartbeat (bradycardia) after a heart attack, surgery or medication
overdose but your heartbeat is otherwise expected to recover. A pacemaker may be implanted
permanently to correct a chronic slow or irregular heartbeat or to help treat heart failure. Pacemakers
work only when needed. If your heartbeat is too slow (bradycardia), the pacemaker sends electrical
signals to your heart to correct the beat. Some newer pacemakers also have sensors that detect body
motion or breathing rate and signal the devices to increase heart rate during exercise, as needed.
A pacemaker has two parts:

1) Pulse generator. This small metal container houses a battery and the electrical circuitry that
controls the rate of electrical pulses sent to the heart.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 38

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

2) Leads (electrodes). One to three flexible, insulated wires are each placed in one or more
chambers of the heart and deliver the electrical pulses to adjust the heart rate. However, some newer
pacemakers don't require leads. These devices, called leadless pacemakers, are implanted directly
into the heart muscle.

Fig 2.14: Pacemakers

Fig 2.15: Artificial cardiac pacemaker

Defibrillators:
Defibrillators are devices that send an electric pulse or shock to the heart to restore a normal
heartbeat. They are used to prevent or correct an arrhythmia, an uneven heartbeat that is too slow or

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 39

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

too fast. If the heart suddenly stops, defibrillators can also help it beat again. Different types of
defibrillators work in different ways. Automated external defibrillators (AEDs), which are now
found in many public spaces, are used to save the lives of people experiencing cardiac arrest. Even
untrained bystanders can use these devices in an emergency.

There are three types of defibrillators: AEDs, ICDs, and WCDs.

An AED is a lightweight, battery-operated, portable device that checks the heart‘s rhythm and sends
a shock to the heart to restore normal rhythm. The device is used to help people having cardiac
arrest.
Sticky pads with sensors, called electrodes, are attached to the chest of someone who is having
cardiac arrest. The electrodes send information about the person's heart rhythm to a computer in the
AED. The computer analyzes the heart rhythm to find out whether an electric shock is needed. If it is
needed, the electrodes deliver the shock.

ICDs are placed through surgery in the chest or stomach area, where the device can check for
arrhythmias. Arrhythmias can interrupt the flow of blood from your heart to the rest of your body or
cause your heart to stop. The ICD sends a shock to restore a normal heart rhythm.

WCDs have sensors that attach to the skin. They are connected by wires to a unit that checks your
heart‘s rhythm and delivers shocks when needed. Like an ICD, the WCD can deliver low- and high-
energy shocks. The device has a belt attached to a vest that is worn under your clothes. Yourprovider
fits the device to your size. It is programmed to detect a specific heart rhythm.

A pacemaker is also called a cardiac pacing device.

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 40

 NEP-I Batch – 2022-23 Biology for Engineers

Fig 2.16: Schematic representation of working of pacemaker

Department of Biotechnology, SIT, Tumakuru 41