GRACE MISSION COLLEGE

Catiningan, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro

e-Mail: [email protected]

Fear of the Lord is the foundation of true knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and discipline.

-Proverbs 1:7

Module 2 in MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOL

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After completing this module, the students must be able to:

a. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions used in mathematics.
b. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
c. Evaluate mathematical expressions correctly.
d. Recognize that mathematics is a useful language.

CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION
Have you read about one of the story in the bible known as “The Tower of Babel?” This story is
about constructing a tower in able to reach its top to heaven; the Kingdom of God. At first, the construction
of a tower is smoothly being done since all of the workers have only one and only one language. But God
disrupted the work of the people by making their language different from each other. There were a language
barrier and the people were confused what the other people are talking about resulting the tower was never
finished and the people were spread in all over and different places of the earth.
Based on the story, what was the most important thing that people should have in order to
accomplish a certain task? Yes, a “language”. Language is one of the most important thing among the
people because it has an important role in communication. But the question is, what is language? Why is it
so important? In this module, we will be discussing about mathematical relative on what you have learned
in your English subject.

DISCUSSION
For sure you may be asked what the real meaning of a language is. Perhaps you could say that
language is the one we use in able to communicate with each other or this is one of your lessons in English
or in your Filipino subject. According to Cambridge English Dictionary, a language is a system of
communication consisting of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of communication used by people
in a particular country or type of work.
Did you know that mathematics is a language in itself? Since it is a language also, mathematics is
very essential in communicating important ideas. But most mathematical language is in a form of symbols.
When we say that “Five added by three is eight”, we could translate this in symbol as “5 + 3 = 8.” Here, the
first statement is in a form of group of words while the translation is in a form of symbol which has the same
meaning and if your will be reading this, for sure all of you have a common understanding with this. But let
us take a look at this mathematical symbols:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
 → |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < , 𝑥𝜖𝑅

Did you understand what these symbols are? This mathematical sentence is a complex idea; yet, it is
contained and tamed into a concise statement. It may sound or look Greek to some because without any
knowledge of the language in which the ideas are expressed, the privilege to understand and appreciate its
grandeur can never be attained. Mathematics, being a language in itself, may appear complex and difficult to
understand simply because it uses a different kind of alphabet and grammar structure. It uses a kind of
language that has been historically proven effective in communicating and transmitting mathematical
realities. The language of mathematics, like any other languages, can be learned; once learned, it allows us
to see fascinating things and provides us an advantage to comprehend and exploit the beauty of beneath and
beyond. Hence, in able to understand better different topics in mathematics, it is very important that you
must learn first on how to read and understand different symbols in mathematics which used in
mathematical language.

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians like
to express.
It is:
1. precise (able to make very fine distinction)
2. concise (able to say things briefly); and
3. powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative cases).

B. Vocabulary vs. Sentences

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these words into complete
thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first step in discussing the mathematical
language, we will make a very broad classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name
mathematical objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete mathematical
thoughts)’
Importance of Mathematical Language

• Major contributor to overall comprehension

• Vital for the development of Mathematics proficiency
• Enables both the teacher and the students to communicate mathematical knowledge with precision

C. Comparison of Natural Language into Mathematical Language

The table below is an illustration on the comparison of a natural language (expression or

sentence) to a mathematical language.

English Mathematics
Expressions
 Name given to an Noun such as person, 2
object of interest. place and things and
pronouns 3–2

Example: 3x
a) Ernesto
b) Batangas City 3x + 2
c) Book
d) He
ax + by + c
Sentence
It has a complete thought Group of words that
express a statement, 3+2=5
question or command.
a+b=c
Example:
a) Ernesto is a boy. ax + by + c = 0
b) He lives in Batangas City.
c) Allan loves to read book.
d) Run!
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
e) Do you love me?

D. Expressions versus Sentences

Ideas regarding sentences:

Ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences have verbs, so do mathematical sentences.
In the mathematical sentence;
3+4=7
the verb is =. If you read the sentence as ‘three plus four is equal to seven, then it’s easy to hear the verb.
Indeed, the equal sign = is one of the most popular mathematical verb.

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
4. 5+3=9

Connectives
A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence example 1 + 2 = 3 is that;
If = is the verb, then what is + ?

The answer is the symbol + is what we called a connective which is used to connect objects of a
given type to get a ‘compound’ object of the same type. Here, the numbers 1 and 2 are connected to give
the new number 1 + 2.
In English, this is the connector “and”. Cat is a noun, dog is a noun, cat and dog is a ‘compound’
noun.

Mathematical Sentence
 Mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense to as about the TRUTH of a sentence:
Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/sometimes false?
Example:
1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.
2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5 + 3 = 8
4. 5 + 3 = 9

Truth of Sentences

Sentences can be true or false. The notion of “truth” (i.e., the property of being true or false) is a
fundamental importance in the mathematical language; this will become apparent as you read the book.

Conventions in Languages
Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize name (like
Israel and Manila). This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a common noun (carol
means Christmas song) and proper noun (Carol i.e. name of a person). Mathematics also has its convention,
which help readers distinguish between different types of mathematical expression.

Expression
An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest.
An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not make sense to ask if an
expression is true or false.

E. Conventions in mathematics, some commonly used symbols, its meaning and an example

a) Sets and Logic

SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE

 Union Union of set A and set B AB
 Intersection Intersection of set A and AB
set B
 Element x is an element of A xA
 Not an element of x is not an element of x A
set A
{ } A set of.. A set of an element {a, b, c}
 Subset A is a subset of B AB
 Not a subset of A is not a subset of B AB
… Ellipses There are still other a, b, c, …
items to follow
a + b + c + ….
 Conjunction A and B AB
 Disjunction A or B A B
 Negation Not A A
→ Implies (If-then statement) If A, then B A→B
 If and only if A if and only if B A B
 For all For all x x
  There exist There exist an x 
 Therefore Therefore C C
| Such that x such that y x|y
■ End of proof
Congruence / equivalent A is equivalent to B AB

a is congruent to b a  b mod n
modulo n
a, b, c, …, z Variables
*First part of English Alphabet uses
as fixed variable*
(lower case)
*Middle part of English alphabet
use as subscript and superscript (axo)p (5x2)6
variable*
*Last part of an English alphabet
uses as unknown variable*

b) Basic Operations and Relational Symbols

SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE

+ Addition; Plus sign a plus b

a added by b a 3+2
increased by b
Subtraction; minus sign a subtracted by b
a minus b
- a diminished by 3-2
b
• Multiplication sign a multiply by b a 4•3
() times b (4)(3)
*we do not use x as a symbol for
multiplication in our discussion
since its use as a variable*
 or | Division sign; divides a b 10  5
b|a 5 | 10
 Composition of function f of g of x f  g(x)

= Equal sign a=aa+b= 5=5

b+a
3+2=2+3
 Not equal to ab 34

 Greater than ab 10  5

  Less than b  a 5  10

 Greater than or equal to ab 10  5

 Less than or equal to ba 5  10

 Binary operation ab a * b = a + 17b

c) Set of Numbers
SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE
natural numbers / whole
ℕ0 0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0 0
numbers set (with zero)
natural numbers / whole
ℕ1 numbers set (without 1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6 1
zero)
ℤ integer numbers set = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} -6
ℚ rational numbers set
= {x | x=a/b, a,b∈ and b≠0} 2/6
ℝ real numbers set = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434
ℂ complex numbers set = {z | z=a+bi, -∞<a<∞, -∞<b<∞} 6+2i

F. Translating words into symbol

 Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form. The job of the problem solver is to
translate the problem from phrases and statements into mathematical expressions and equations,
and then to solve the equations.
 As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to translate verbal phrases to
mathematical expressions and if we follow step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can use the Mathematics Dictionary.
Examples:
Let x be a number. Translate each phrase or sentence into a mathematical expression or equation.

1.Twelve more than a number. 5. Two ninths of a number is eleven.

Ans.: 12+x Ans.: 2/9x=11

2.Eight minus a number. 6. Three more than seven times a number is nine
Ans.: 8−x more than five times the number.
Ans.: 3+7x=9+5x
3.An unknown quantity less fourteen.
Ans.: x−14 7. Twice a number less eight is equal to one
more than three times the number.
4.Six times a number is fifty-four. Ans.: 2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x
Ans.: 6x=54

TASK 1: Direction: Translate each of the following mathematical phrase into a mathematical expression if
possible. Let x and y be the numbers.
1. A number increased by five
2. Twice the square of a number
 3. The square of the sum of two numbers
4. The sum of the squares of two numbers
5. A number less by three
6. Twice of a number added by four
7. The cube of a number less than five
8. The area of a rectangle whose length is seven more than its width
9. The difference of a square of two numbers
10. The quotient of the sum of two numbers by another number

Truth of Sentences

Mathematical sentences may either be true or false but not both.

Example 1
Write as English sentences and say whether they are true or false.
1. ∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0
2. ∀x, y ∈ R, (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
3. ∃m, n ∈ Z|m − n ≥ m + n
4. ∀a, b ∈ Q, ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 ∨ b = 0

Solution
For any real number x, its square is greater than or equal to 0. TRUE
For any real numbers x and y, the square of their sum is equal to the sum of their squares plus twice
their product. TRUE
There exist integers m and n such that m minus n is less than or equal to m plus n. TRUE
For any rational numbers a and b, if their product is zero then either a equals zero or b equals zero.
TRUE

Example 2
Write as mathematical sentences. Discuss how the word ”is” is used.
Solution
Ten is the square root of 100.
1. = 10
Ten is greater than 9.
2. 10 > 9
Ten
3. 10is{2n,
an even
n N}number.
4.
Ten10
is a{5n, n N}of 5.
multiple

If you notice, the word ”is” could mean equality, inequality, or membership in a set. In the
first example, ”is” is used for equality, in the second for inequality, and in the third, and
fourth, it is used to say that the number 10 belongs to the set of multiples of 2 and the set
of multiples of 5.

Numbers can be cardinal, ordinal and nominal. Cardinal numbers are used for counting and answer
the question ”how many?” Ordinal numbers tell the position of a thing in terms of first, second, third, etc.
Nominal numbers are used only as a name, or to identify something (not as an actual value or position).
Examples of nominal numbers are:

1. The number at the back of Michael Jordan is ”23.”

2. The postal zip code of Lingayen is 2401.
3. The name of the shop is ”578.”

Moreover, mathematical objects may be represented in many ways such as sets and functions.

Unary and Binary Operations

Not all operations in mathematics involve two operands or numbers such as in the expression 2 + 3 =
5. The plus sign between 2 and 3 signifies the operation of addition. The plus symbol here involves a binary
operation. As you may guess, a unary operation accepts only one value or operand.

The plus and minus signs may not mean addition or subtraction when they are attached before a
single number. Instead, they are read as positive and negative signs. When written this way they are called
unary operations. They accept only one value when they do arithmetic.

The positive sign is very much like the addition operation but has a different meaning when attached
to only one number. For example, consider this expression: +4 (read as ’positive four’). It does not really
mean ’add four’. The value of four represented by the number 4 is considered as a single operand by the
unary operator, ’+’, and that operation produces a value of positive four. Obviously, ’+4’ and ’4’ each
represent the same value. So, one can say that an ’invisible’ positive sign exists before any number.

The negative (or opposite) sign is a unary operator. Consider this expression: -4. Technically here,
the negative sign operator accepts a value of four as its operand and produces a value of negative four.
Obviously, ’-4’ and ’4’ represent different values. There are no invisible negative signs in math expressions.
In summary, unary operations involve only one value. There are many unary operations on the set of real
numbers. For example, negation is a unary operation. The others are the trigonometric functions,

the single-variable function f (x), the factorial denoted n!, the transpose of a matrix AT , the square root of
100 among others. Additional examples of unary operations are given below:

1. −5
2. sin x
3. cos 45◦
4. tan π
On the other hand, when ”+” and ” ” can act on two operands, then it is called a binary operation.
Among the binary operators, the ’+’ and ” ” require more attention than all other binary operations. To
understand this better, recall the concept of ’double negative’ you learned in high school. The double
negative is taught to be equivalent to the statement ’two negatives make a positive.’ Consider this
expression: 3 ( 2). In this expression, two operations are present using the symbol ’ ’. However, the two ’ ’
should not be interpreted to represent two identical operations. The first symbol (left most), is the binary
subtraction operation. The other (right before the integer 2) is the unary negative sign operator.

So what to you do to this expression? The negative sign operator has precedence over the subtraction
operator, so it accepts operands first. In the number line you go three units to the right of zero to locate
3. To subtract two from three means you go two units to the left of three but to subtract a negative two
means you count the opposite of negative two from three which is counting two units to the right of three.
The result of this is five, represented by the number line 5 units from zero.3. To subtract two from
three means you go two units to the left of three but to subtract a negative two means you count the opposite
of negative two from three which is counting two units to the right of three. The result of this is five,
represented by the number line 5 units from zero.

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

We write: 5 = 3 ( 2). This expression also equals: 5 + 3 = 2. Since both expressions are equal to five,
then the right-hand sides must equal together. Hence,
3 + 2 = 3 − (−2).
Binary operations take two values, and include the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and exponentiation. There are many binary operations on real numbers. An operation is binary if it
takes two real numbers as arguments to produce another real number. If we let multiplication, denoted by
the symbol , be a binary operation, then 4 6 yields the real number 24 on 4 6 = 24.

Additional examples are given below:

1. Addition (e.g., 4 + 5 = 9)
2. Subtraction (e.g., 10 − 8 = 2)

The properties of two binary operations, addition and multiplication, over the set of real numbers are
as follows:

1. Closure of Binary Operations

The product and the sum of any two real numbers is also a real number. In symbols, we write

∀x, y, ∈ R, x + y ∈ R and x · y ∈ R

2. Commutativity of Binary Operations

Addition and multiplication of any two real numbers is commutative as seen in the mathematical
symbols these are written in:

∀x, y ∈ R, x + y = y + x (addition)

∀x, y ∈ R, x · y = y · x (multiplication)
For example:

1 + 2 = 2 + 1 (addition)

2·3=3·2 (multiplication)

3. Associativity of Binary Operations

Given any three real numbers you may take any two and perform addition or multiplication as the
case may be and you will end with the same answer. For addition in symbols we write,

∀x, y, z ∈ R, (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

As an example, consider (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3). On the other hand, for multiplication we write,

∀x, y, z ∈ R, (x · y) · z = x · (y · z).
 This is illustrated by the example (2 3) 4 = 2 (3 4) in which both sides of the equation are equal to
24.

4. Distributivity of Binary Operations

Distributivity applies when multiplication is performed on a group of two numbers added or
subtracted together. Given three real numbers x, y, and z, this property is stated in symbolic notation as,

∀x, y, z ∈ R, z(x ± y) = zx ± zy.

The term z is distributed over the sum (x + y). Note, however, that addition is not distributive over
multiplication.

5. Identity Elements of Binary Operations

An element of the set of real numbers is an identity element for addition if,
∀x ∈ R, x + e = e + x = x.

This means that the identity is the number that you add to any real number and the result will be the
same real number. The only number that satisfies this property is the number zero for addition. This is
evident in the example below,
5 + 0 = 0 + 5 = 5.

Therefore, the identity element e in the above definition is zero or e = 0.

What then is the identity element under multiplication? Obviously, the identity for multiplication is 1
since x · 1 = 1 · x = x for any real number x. For example, 4 · 1 = 4 and 1 · 4 = 4.

SOME FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC

Why do most people argue over some issue and never get to the bottom of it? Sometimes people in
dispute say that ”they do not see eye to eye.” This expression means that the people involved in an argument
never get to agree on the issues at hand. In many cases, the disagreement lies on not being able to present
sound arguments based on facts, or the failure to convince the contending party using logical arguments. To
avoid such a scenario in mathematics and to uphold certainty in the validity of mathematical statements,
mathematics employs the powerful language of logic in asserting truths of statements. The use of logic
illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness in communicating mathematics.

Propositions

Many times, propositions are made in people’s statements. A proposition is statement which is either
true (T) or false (F). The senior citizens may claim that the best movie they ever saw is Sound of Music, a
movie that was produced in 1965. This statement is a proposition that is either T or F and cannot be both.

Example 1
Each of the following statements is a proposition. Some are true and some are false. Can you tell which are
true, and which are false? If it is false, state why.
1. 9 is a prime number.
2. 5 + 3 = 8
3. x2 + y2 ≥ 0
4. 10 < −3

Solution
False. Prime numbers have no other factors than 1 and itself. 9 can be expressed as 3 · 3.
True.
True.
The Truth Table

A truth table is a table that show the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values
of its simple statements.

Negation

A statement is negation of another if the word is not introduced in the negative statement. Let P be a
proposition. The negation of P is ”not P ” or P .

The following is its truth table:

P -P

T F

F T

Example 2

What is the negation of the following statements?

P : is a rational number.
R : 6 is an odd number.

Solution

√2 is a not rational number or √2 is irrational. In symbols, ¬P .

6 is not an odd number or 6 is an even number. In symbols, ¬R.

Logical Connectives

Let P and Q be propositions. A logical connective is the mathematical equivalent of a conjunction in

English. The most common conjunctions in mathematics are ”and” and ”or”, which are denoted by ∧ and∨,
respectively.

If two statements are joined like P and Q, denoted by P ∧ Q, then P ∧ Q is a statement that is true if
and only if both P and Q are true. Another logical connective is the word ”or.” The statement P ∨ Q is true if
and only if P is true or Q is true, which is taken to include the case when they are both true.
 The following is the truth table.

Implications

Suppose P and Q are propositions. The proposition P Q (read as ”if P , then Q”) is called an implication. P
is called the premise and Q is called the conclusion. In ordinary language statements like ”If it rains, then I
bring my umbrella” is an implication. ”If it rains” is P or the premise while ”I bring my umbrella” is Q or
the conclusion.

Other ways of reading P ⇒ Q are:

P implies Q
Q if P
Q is implied by P
Q only if P

A more complicated form of implication is the double implication or the biconditional denoted by
the symbol ⇔. The statement P ⇔ Q is true if and only if both P and Q are either both true or both false.
The sentence P ⇔ Q is equivalent to the statement
P ⇔ Q ≡ (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P ).

Try to construct the truth table for the logical operator ⇔ and check that indeed it is equivalent to (P
⇔ Q) ∧ (Q ⇔ P ). A biconditional is often stated as,

P if and only if Q
or
P is necessary and sufficient for Q.
Example
3
Write the following in symbolic form using P, Q, and R for statements and the symbols ¬, ∧, ∨, ⇒, ⇔
where
P : Pres. Duterte is a good president.
Q: Government officials are corrupt.
R: People are happy.

If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officials are not corrupt.
If government officials are not corrupt, then the people are happy.
If Pres. Duterte is a good president and people are happy, then government officials are not corrupt.
Pres. Duterte is not a good president if and only if government officials are corrupt and the people
are not happy.
Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

Suppose P and Q are propositions. Given the implication P ⇒ Q. Its converse is Q ⇒ P, its inverse is

¬P ⇒ ¬ Q, and its contrapositive is ¬ Q ⇒ ¬P. That is,

Given: If P then Q.

Inverse: If not P then not Q.

Converse: If Q then P.

Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.

Referring to the truth table of the implication statement P ⇒ Q given before, we create the truth table

for the inverse, converse, and contrapositive statements.

Solution
1. P ⇒ ¬Q
2. ¬Q ⇒ R
3. P ∧ R ⇒ ¬Q
4. ¬P ⇔ (Q ∧ ¬R)
Example 4
Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications:

If this movie is interesting, then I am watching it.

If p is a prime number, then it is odd.

Solution
Inverse: If this movie is not interesting, then I am not watching it. Converse: If I am watching this
movie, then it is interesting. Contrapositive: If I am not watching this movie, then it is not
interesting.
Inverse: If p is not a prime number, then it is not odd. Converse: If p is and odd number, then it is
prime. Contrapositive: If p is not odd, then it is not a prime number.

Example 5

Identify three simple propositions in the statement below and label them P, Q, and R. Then express
symbolically the statement using the logical operators ∧, ∨,⇒,⇔ or ¬.
Statement: A function f has an inverse if and only if f is one-to-one and onto.

Solution
LetP :A function f has an inverse.
Qf is one-to-one.
R:f is onto.

Then using the mathematical symbols, the statement is equivalent to P ⇔ (Q ∧ R). The statement
can also be written as [P ⇒ (Q ∧ R)] ∧ [(Q ∧ R) ⇒ P].

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are used to describe the variable(s) in a statement.

Types:

1. The universal quantifier is usually written in the English language as ”for all” or ”for every.” It is
denoted by the symbol ∀.

2. The existential quantifier is expressed in words as ”there exists” or ”for some.” This quantifier is
denoted by ∃.

Compound Quantifiers

When one quantity is involved in a statement, it is common to encounter more than one quantifier for
that statement. Special care must be taken in the order in which these quantifiers appear. Order does not
matter if the same quantifier is used. For example, the statement ∀x, ∀y, P (x, y) is the same as ∀y, ∀x, P (x,
y).

Similarly, the quantified sentence ∃x, ∃y, P (x, y) is equivalent to ∃y, ∃x, P (x, y). For mixed
quantifiers, order is definitely important. The statement ∀x, ∃y, P (x, y) is never always equivalent to the
sentence ∃y, ∀x, P (x, y).

Solution
For every real number x, there exists a real number y such that the sum of x and y is equal to 10.
TRUE
For every positive integer x, there exists a real number y such that the square of y is equal to x. TRUE

TASK 2 │Direction: Answer the following.

1. Translate each of the following sentences using mathematical symbols.

(a) 5 is an integer.

(b) Y is a multiple of 10.

(c) The values of y range from −4 to 5.

(d) The square of a number is positive.

(e) 7 is an odd number.

2. Give the inverse for addition of 5, −10, and 3.

3. Give the inverse for multiplication of 7, −8, and 2.

4. Write the statement in if-then form.

(a) The product of two even integers is an even integer.

(b) Every integer that is not odd is divisible by 2.
(c) The square of a number is nonnegative.

5. Label the simple propositions with the capital letters P, Q, or R, then express each compound
sentence using the logical symbols discussed (∧, ∨, ⇒, ⇔, ¬).

(a) If x is an odd number, then x + 1 is even.

(b) m≤n
(c) Triangle ABC is equilateral if and only if a = b = c.
(d) If a = b and b = c, then a = c.

6. Write the following in symbolic form using P, Q, and R for statements and the symbols ¬, ∧, ∨, ⇒,
⇔ where
P : The sun is shining.
Q: It is raining.
R: The ground is wet.
(a) If it is raining, then the sun is not shining.
(b) It is raining and the ground is wet.
(c) The ground is wet if and only if it is raining and the sun is shining.
(d) The sun is shining or it is raining.
(e) The ground is not wet.
(f) The ground is not wet if and only if the sun is shining.
7. Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following implications.

(a) If x is the height of a box then it is a positive number.

(b) If i is a complex number then it is not a real number.