AP Physics C

Electricity & Magnetism

Unit 8: Potential & Capacitance

Section 8.1 – Electric Potential………………………………….………………….………..…22

Section 8.2 – Capacitance…………………………………….………………….………….….27

Section 8.1 – Dielectrics……………………………………….…………………….…………32

21
AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 8 – Electric Potential & Capacitance
8.1 Electric Potential (Chapter 25)
Focus Question: How is electric potential different from electric field strength?
 The change in electric potential is the change in electric potential energy when a charge, q, moves from
one point to another. The change in electric potential is also equal to the amount of work the electric
field would have to do to move the charge.
 Charges tend to move away from like charges and towards opposite charges. When charges move in a
field, there is a change in electrical potential energy.
*The change in electric potential energy is also equal to the amount of
work the electric field would have to do to move the charge.
𝑈 − 𝑈 =Work=Fr= 𝑟=

𝑈 − 𝑈 =Eqr
*Units of electric potential energy: Joules (J)

Electric potential from point charges.

Example A: A particle of mass 6.3𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 and charge 9.0𝑥10 C floats between two horizontal plates that
are 25 cm apart. What is the potential difference between the plates?
Since the charge floats, the electrostatic force cancels out the force of gravity.

𝐹 = 0 → 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑉 𝑉𝑞 𝑚𝑔𝑑
→ 𝐹 = 𝐸𝑞 = 𝑞→ = 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑉 =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑞

(6.3𝑥10 𝑘𝑔) 10 . 25 𝑚
→𝑉= = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖 𝑽
9.4𝑥10 𝐶

22
Example B: Two charges are located 6 m from each other as shown. Point P is located 6 m from each of the
two charges. 𝑞 = −4 𝜇𝐶, 𝑞 = 1 𝜇𝐶
*the superposition principle still applies for potential*
a) Calculate the electric potential at point P.
b) Calculate the work required to bring a charge of magnitude of
20 𝑛𝐶 from infinity to point P.
𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑵𝒎𝟐
( )( 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝑪) ( )(𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝑪
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟐
a) 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 = + = + =
−4500 𝑉

b) 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞 = (−4500 𝑉)(20𝑥10 𝐶) = −9𝑥10 𝐽

*the work in this case is negative. The potential at the point is negative so a positive charge would be attracted,
but it takes negative work to bring it here, similar to the way negative work is done when an object is lowered in
a gravitational field.

Equipotential lines.

 Equipotential lines – Lines that indicate equal potential (every point on a given
equipotential line has the same electric potential as every other point on the line.

*No work is required to move from point to point along an equipotential line.

 Equipotential lines are drawn perpendicular to the electric field at any point.

Example C: Draw electric field lines and equipotential lines for the following two oppositely charge point
charges:

The Electron Volt,

 An electron volt is a common unit of energy.

 The joule is a large unit for measuring energies of many charge
particles. Thus, the electron volt is used.
 An electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron as a result of
moving through a potential difference of 1 V.

1 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞 = (1 𝑉)(1.6𝑥10 𝐶) = 1.6𝑥10 𝐽
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6𝑥10 𝐽

23
Example D: What is the speed of an electron that has been accelerated through a potential difference of 4 V?
Calculate its final kinetic energy in eV. (an electron has a mass of 9.11x10 -31 kg and a charge of 1.6x10-19 C).
1 1 2𝑉𝑞
𝑊 = ∆𝐾 → 𝑉𝑞 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣 → 𝑣 =
2 2 𝑚
( )( . )
→𝑣 = = 1.2𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠
.
1 1 𝑚 1 𝑒𝑉
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 = (9.11𝑥10 𝑘𝑔) 1.2𝑥10 = 6.4𝑥10 𝐽𝑥 = 4 𝑒𝑉, 𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
2 2 𝑠 1.6𝑥10 𝐽

Electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution.

 Consider a continuous charge distribution to be made of up an infinite number of

point charges with charge 𝑑𝑞. Superposition can be used to add up all the 𝑑𝑉
from each contributor, 𝑑𝑞.

Example E: Find an integral for the potential at point A due to the uniform line of
charge as shown The charge density is 𝜆 C/m.

*x is coordinate of A and is constant. y is a variable that gives the location of a typical

element of charge 𝑑𝑞.

𝑘𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑉 =
𝑟
𝑄
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜆𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
2𝑎

𝑘 𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝑄 𝑑𝑦
𝑉= =
𝑥 +𝑦 2𝑎 𝑥 +𝑦

𝑘𝑄 𝑎 𝑘𝑄
𝑉= ln |𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑥 | →𝑉= (ln 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑥 − ln | − 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑥 |
2𝑎 −𝑎 2𝑎

𝑘𝑄 𝑎 + √𝑎 + 𝑥
→ ln | |
2𝑎 √𝑎 + 𝑥 − 𝑎
24
Example F: A conducting shell has a total charge of Q and radius R.

a) Find the electric potential outside the shell

b) Find the electric potential inside the shell.

In cases where Gauss’s Law can be readily used, the potential can be found by first
founding the field using Gauss’s Law, and then finding potential by 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 from
infinity to the point where potential is being calculated.

a) Step 1: Find the field -

𝑄 𝑄
∅= 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = → 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 ) =
𝜀 𝜀
𝑄 𝑘𝑄
→𝐸= =
4𝜋𝑟 𝜀 𝑟
Step 2: Find potential by integrating from infinity to r:

𝑘𝑄 𝐾𝑄 𝑟 𝑘𝑄
𝑉=− 𝑑𝑟 = − − | = −0
𝑟 𝑟 ∞ 𝑟

𝒌𝑸
→𝑽=
𝒓

b) Step 1: Find the field with Gauss’s Law-

𝑄
∅= 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = →𝑄 =0
𝜀
→𝐸=0

Step 2: Find potential by integrating from infinity to r:

Coming from infinity, there are two regions that need to be consider, infinity to the surface of the sphere, and
then going in the surface of the sphere to r. The two regions have different fields to integrate:

𝑘𝑄
𝑉=− 𝑑𝑟 − 0 𝑑𝑟
𝑟

𝐾𝑄 𝑅 𝐾𝑄
→𝑉=− − | =
𝑟 ∞ 𝑅

The potential inside the conducting shell is always . The potential inside of a conductor is constant since the
field inside a conductor is zero.

25
Example G: Find the electric potential inside a uniformly charged insulating sphere of
radius R and total charge Q.

Field Inside:
𝑄 4 3
4 3 3𝜋𝑟
𝜋𝑅
∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = → 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟2 ) = 3
𝜀0
𝑄𝑟
→𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑅

Field Outside:
𝑄 𝑄
∅= 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = → 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 ) =
𝜀 𝜀
𝑄
→𝐸=
4𝜋𝑟 𝜀

Potential:
𝑘𝑄 𝑄𝑟
𝑉=− 𝑑𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
𝐾𝑄 𝑅 𝑄𝑟 𝑟 𝐾𝑄 𝑄
→𝑉=− − − = − (𝑟 − 𝑅 )
𝑟 ∞ 8𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3 𝑅 𝑅 8𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
𝑘𝑄 𝑄𝑅 − 𝑄𝑟
→𝑉= +
𝑅 8𝜋 𝜀0 𝑅3

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26
AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 8 – Electric Potential & Capacitance
8.2 Capacitors (Chapter 26)
Focus Question: How does a capacitor store electric potential energy?
 A capactior is formed by two conductors seperated by an insulator. When a capacitor is connected to a
battery, it quickly becomes charged, with the two plates taking on opposite
charges. The net charge on a capacitor is zero since the plates have equal but
opposite charges.

 Function of a capacitor – Stores electrical energy in the electric field between

two plates.
 An electric field exists between the two conductors in a capacitor. The field and electric potential
difference are proportional to the charge on the conductors.
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽
Q – charge on each plate
V – potential difference units: Farads (F)
*A capactior always have zero net charge as the plates have equal but opposite charges. The charge in
the equation for capacitance is the charge of each plate.
 Capacitor symbol:

Parallel Plate Capacitors

 Gauss’s Law can be used to find the electric field between the plates of the capacitor:
𝑄 𝜎𝐴
∅ = 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = → 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖 𝜀
𝝈
→𝑬=
𝜺𝟎

Relating E to other variabes: 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 → = 𝐸𝑑 → 𝐶 =

𝑄 𝑄𝜺𝟎 𝑨
→𝐶= →𝐶= → 𝑪 = 𝜺𝟎
𝑑 𝑑 𝒅
𝜺𝟎

Example A: The area of each plate in an air gap capacitor is A m2. The capacitance of the capacitor is C F and
the electric field between the plates is E V/m.

a) What is the potential difference across the plates?

b) How much charge is stored on each plate?
𝑨 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝑬𝜺𝟎 𝑨
a) 𝑪 = 𝜺𝟎 → 𝑑 = → 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝐸 →𝑽=
𝒅 𝑪
𝑬𝜺𝟎 𝑨
b) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 → 𝐶 → 𝑸 = 𝑬𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪

27
Energy of a Charged Capacitor

 A charged capacitor is used to store electric energy. The amount of energy stored is equal to the work
done to charge the capacitor.
 When charging a capacitor, charge is removed from one plate and added to the other. Work is required
to transfer the charge:
A capacitor is charged by moving charge to a plate, which requires work. As a plate is charge to
potential difference of V, the charge on the plate goes from 0 to some charge Q.
𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 → 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
𝑞 1𝑄
𝑊= 𝑑𝑞 =
𝐶 2 𝐶
The work done to charge the plate is equal to the energy stored on the plate”
1𝑄
𝑈=
2 𝐶
Using Q=CV, the above equation can also be used to derive the more common form: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉
 Energy per unit volume:
𝑨
𝜺𝟎 (𝑬𝒅)𝟐
Energy density = = = 𝒅
= 𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐

Example B: A capacitor is constructed of two large, identical parallel metal plates seperated by a small
distance 𝑑. A battery fully charges the capacitor and is then disconnected.

a) While the battery is still connected, plate seperation is doubled. Describe the changes, if any, of the
voltage across the capactior, the electric field between the plates, and the energy stored in the
capactior.
Voltage – Since the battery is still connected, the voltage will not change.
𝑨
Electric Field – The field will decrease. The capacitance is given by: 𝑪 = 𝜺𝟎 , so when the plates
𝒅
get further apart, the capacitance decreases, which decreases the charge on the plates. Since the
charge on the plate decreases, the electric field decreases.
Energy stored – By 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 , the energy stored on the plate decreases. Though the voltage stays
the same, capacitance decreases. Less charge stored leads to less stored energy.

b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery, and the plate seperation is doubled. Describe the
changes, if any, of the voltage across the capactior, the electric field between the plates, and the
energy stored in the capactior.
Voltage – The voltage will increase. The charge on each plate will stay the same, and the capacitor
will decrease, so the voltage to increase since V=Q/C.
Electric Field – The charge on each plate will stay the same. Since field is only based on charge
density on the plates, the field stays the same.
Energy stored – By 𝑈 = , the energy increases in this case. The work done to separate the plates
is transferred to the energy stored in the plates.

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Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Capacitors in Parallel

The capacitors are in parallel, so they have the same voltages, 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝑉.

The charges add, 𝑄 = 𝑄 + 𝑄 .

𝐶 𝑉 =𝑄 𝑉+𝑄 𝑉

Capacitors in parallel act like a single capacitor whose capacitance is the sum of the capacitances.

𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶

Capacitors in Series

In series, a negative charge flows to C1 and a positive charge flows to C2. The region
between the capacitors will remain neutral. In series, each capacitor stores the same amount
of charge.

The voltages add: 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 → = +

Finding the equivalent capacitance of capacitors in series works the same as finding the equivalent resistance of
resistors in parallel.

1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

Example C: Ponder the circuit on the right:

a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the network?

b) What is the potential difference across the 3 𝜇F capacitor?
c) How much charge is stored in the 6 𝜇F capacitor?

To find the equivalent capacitance, the equivalent circuit needs to be found:

a) 10 𝜇𝐹
29
b) In step 2 of the finding the equivalent circle, the charge on the 2 𝜇𝐹 is the same
as the charge on both the 3 𝜇𝐹 and 6 𝜇𝐹 capacitors since they are in series.
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (2𝑥10 𝐹)(180 𝑉) = 3.6𝑥10 𝐶
The 3 𝜇𝐹 capacitor thus has a charge of 3.6𝑥10 𝐶 stored:
𝑄 3.6𝑥10 𝐶
𝑉= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝐶 3𝑥10 𝐹

c) Since the 3 𝜇𝐹 capacitor has 120 V across it, the 6 𝜇𝐹 capacitor has 60 V across it since they must add to 180
V.
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = (6𝑥10 𝐹)(60 𝑉) = .011 𝐽
2 2

Example D: Find the capacitance of two concentric conducting cylinders of length

1.0 m. The inner cylinder has radius 1.0 mm and the outer cyilnder has radius 2.0
mm. The capacitors have equal but opposite charges of linear charge density 𝜆.
Cylindrical capatiors are much more common than parallel plate capacitors. To find
the capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor using C=Q/V, the voltage needs to be found based on the field.
Step 1: Found field in the region between the plates using Gauss’s Law.
A cylinder is drawn between the plates to find the field:
𝑄
∅= 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ =
𝜺𝟎
𝜆𝐿
𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝐿) =
𝜺𝟎
𝜆
→𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜺𝟎

Step 2: Find the potential using 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑟. The potential will be found based on going from the inner to
outer plate.

𝜆 𝜆 𝑅 𝜆 𝜆 𝑅
𝑉=− = −( ln|𝑟|)| = − (ln|𝑅 | − ln|𝑅 |) = − ln
2𝜋𝑟𝜺𝟎 2𝜋𝜺𝟎 𝑅 2𝜋𝜺𝟎 2𝜋𝜺𝟎 𝑅

𝜆 𝑅
→𝑉= ln
2𝜋𝜺𝟎 𝑅
Step 3: Find the capacitance using C=Q/C
𝜆𝐿
𝐶=
ln
𝜺𝟎

𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑳
→𝑪= 𝑹𝟏
𝐥𝐧
𝑹𝟐
30
Example E: A spherical capacitor consists of an inner metal sphere of radius r 1 supported by
an insulting stand at the hollow metal sphere of radius r 2 as shown. The inner sphere has
charge +Q and the outer sphere has charge -Q. Derive an expression for the capacitance.

Step 1: Found field in the region between the surfaces using Gauss’s Law.
A Gaussian sphere is used:
𝑄
∅ = 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ =
𝜺𝟎
𝑄 𝑄
→ 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 ) = →𝐸=
𝜀 4𝜋𝑟 𝜀

Step 2: Find the potential using 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑟.

𝑄 𝑄 𝑑𝑟
𝑉=− =−
4𝜋𝑟 𝜀 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑄 1 𝑟 𝑄 1 1 𝑄 1 1
→ 𝑉 == − ( )|𝑟 = − − = −
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟
𝑄 𝑟 −𝑟
→𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟𝑟
Step 3: Find the capacitance using C=Q/C
𝑄 𝑄 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀
𝐶= = =
𝐶 𝑟 −𝑟
𝑟𝑟
→𝐶=
𝑘(𝑟 − 𝑟 )

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AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 8 – Electric Potential & Capacitance
8.3 Dielectrics (Chapter 26)
Focus Question: What effect does adding a dielectric have to a capacitor?
 Most capacitors have a solid, nonconducting material between the plates. This material is called a
dielectric.

 Function of a dielectric:
 Keeps plates close, but not in contact
 Can tolerate greater field without dielectric breakdown
*Air is more suspect to dielectric breakdown, in which the insulator ionizes and charge
can flow between the plates.
 Increases capacitance.

 The potential difference between two charge plates decreases when a dielectric is used, but the charge
on each plate stays the same. Electric field decreases when a dielectric is inserted, due to small induced
charges appearing on the surfaces of the dielectric.
 The dielectric constant, 𝜅:
𝑪
𝜿=
𝑪𝟎
C – Capacitance with dielectric
C0 – Capacitance without dielectric
*𝜅 ≥ 1
Field Decreases: 𝜅 = = =
Permittivity increases: 𝜀 = 𝜅𝜀
Voltage:
/
Case 1: If the battery is no longer connected, voltage decreases 𝜅 = =
/
*in this case, energy decreases due to the work done to insert dielectric.
Case 2: If the capacitor is still connected to the battery, voltage remains constant
*In this case, energy increases since capacitor increases and voltage is constant.

Example A: A 275 F capacitor will be manufactured using a dielectric having a permittivity of 4.000 and
circular plates having a diameter of 2.50 cm. What should the plate separation (and the thickness of the
dielectric) be? Is it likely that this large a capacity could be constructed using parallel plate architecture?
𝜅𝜀 𝐴 𝜅𝜀 𝐴
𝐶= →𝑑=
𝑑 𝐶
.
4(8.85𝑥10 )(𝜋 𝑚 )
𝑑= = 6.3𝑥10 𝑚
275𝑥10 𝐹
It would be extremely difficult to construct a plate separation this small.
32
  Electric field in a dielectric using Gauss’ Law:
*induced charges appear on the surface of the dielectric.
𝜎: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝜎 : 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑄 (𝜎 − 𝜎 )𝐴
∅ = 𝐸⃑ ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃑ = → 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖 𝜀
𝜎−𝜎
→𝐸=
𝜀
*Since the permittivity increases by a factor of 𝜅, E is also 𝐸 =

Relationship between induced dielectric charge and dielectric constant:

𝜎−𝜎 𝜎
=
𝜀 𝜅𝜀
𝝈
→𝜿=
𝝈 − 𝝈𝒊

𝜅=

 Energy density in dielectric

𝑈 𝜅𝐶𝑉 𝜅𝜀 𝐸 𝑑 1
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = = 𝜅𝜀 𝐸
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑑 𝐴𝑑 2

Example B: A parallel plate capacitor of area A and plate separation L is filled with a removable dielectric slab
of dielectric slab constant 𝜅. The capacitor is given a charge Q with the slab removed, is disconnected from the
battery and then the slab is inserted.

a) Find the potential difference with and without the dielectric slab.
b) Find the electric field between the plates with and without the slab.
c) Find the induced charge on the slab.

33
Example C: A capacitor having no dielectric has a capacitance of C. It is charged up to
V by momentarily attaching it to a battery, and then disconnecting it.

a) What is the energy stored in the capacitor at this voltage?

b) What is the charge on the capacitor?
c) A dielectric having a permittivity of 20 is now carefully inserted between the plates of the capacitor.
What is its new capacitance?
d) What is the charge on the new capacitor?
e) What is the energy stored in the new capacitor?
f) Explain the discrepancy between (e) and (a).

a) 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉

b) 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
c) 𝜅 = → 𝐶 = 𝜅𝐶

d) 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉 = 𝜅𝐶𝑉

*Inserting a dielectric increases the charge by a factor of kappa: 𝜅 =

e) 𝑈 = The charge and the capacitance both increase by a factor of the dielectric constant:
( )
𝑈= = 𝜅𝐶𝑉

f) The energy increased by a factor of the dielectric constant even though the circuit was not connected
to power. The work done to insert the dielectric was converted to energy stored in the capacitor.

Rate your understanding: Dielectrics

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Die, electrics. I understand some I can describe I can describe I can explain and teach
aspects of capacitors. capacitance with few capacitance with no capacitance.
errors. errors.

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