CAPACITORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Module Focus

After working through this module, you should

D have an in-depth understanding of capacitors and how they
work.
D complete an experiment demonstrating a capacitor.
D understand semiconductor theory.
D understand the difference between N-type and P-type
materials.
D learn about P-N Junctions.
D learn about forward and reverse bias.
0 complete an experiment demonstrating a diode.
D learn about transistor construction.
D complete an experiment demonstrating a transistor.
D complete an experiment demonstrating a 7-segment display.
D complete an experiment demonstrating a SCR.
D explore potential careers in electronics.
D complete Project 1.

Introduction to Module 3

One of the basic building blocks of electronic devises is the semiconductor.

Other components, such as diodes, capacitors, and transistors, are used
to construct electronic devices. In this module, you will learn about these
building blocks, and complete your first project.

3
 Power Words

farads forward bias reverse bias

doping valence electrons N-type semiconductor
covalent bonds dielectric holes (virtual particles)
P-type semiconductor semiconductors extrinsic semiconductors
intrinsic semiconductors

4
LESSON 1: CAPACITORS

Introduction to Capacitors

Generally speaking, there are two types of capacitors : electrolytic and

ceramic. A capacitor is like a battery in the sense that capacitors and batteries
both store electrical energ y. In a batter y, a chemical reaction produces
electrons on one terminal and absorbs electrons at the other terminal.
A capacitor is much simpler, and it cannot produce new electrons. It only
stores them.
Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals
and these terminals connect to two metal plates
that are separated by a dielectric. There are
many things that can be used for the dielectric:
air, paper, plastic, or anything that does not
+
conduct electricity and keeps the two plates
from touching. In the electrolytic capacitor in
the picture on the right, you can see how they
have rolled the two pieces of metal (plates) with
the dielectric (paper) in between . This allows us
to get a larger amount of capacitance out of a
component in a smaller sized area.

pl i'c
iA tJlei

5
 How Does It Work?

First of all, capacitors store charge-that is, physically stores electrons on one
of the two plates.
1. One plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the
battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.
2. The other plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the
battery loses electrons to the battery.

Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery (1.5 volts
on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small capacitor, the
capacity is small, but large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge . An
example of nature's capacitor is when you see lightning in the sky. One plate
is the cloud and the other plate is the ground. The lightning is the charge
released between these two plates.

6
 Capacitance Conversion

Microfarads (µF) Nanofarads (nF) Picofarads (pf)

0.0000OlµF 0.001 nF 1 pF

0.000OlµF 0.01 nF lOpF

0.000lµF 0.1 nF lOpF

0.0OlµF 1 nF 1000 pF

0.OlµF lOnF 10,000 pF

0.lµF l00nF 100,000 pF

lµF 1000 nF 1,000,000 pF

lOµF 10,000 nF 10,000,000 pF

lO0µF 100,000 nF 100,000,000 pF

8 7
 larger
plates
Area of Plates

smaller
plates
C1 < C2

2. Distance between the plates

An equal number of electrons on plate A are being held in place by an equal
number of electrons being pulled off plate B. Why? Remember the law of
electrical charges? It states that opposites attract and likes repel.
11 11
Plate A is storing the extra electrons, which have a -charge. Plate B is
actually missing those electrons. They got pulled into the battery. This
makes plate A negative and plate B positive.
11 11
Plate A is negative because of all the extra electrons, which have a -

charge. Plate B's atoms are missing that electron, which means there are
more protons in the nucleus than electrons in the outer shell. This makes
11
that atom +" charged.
11
The extra electrons on plate N' (negative) are being held on the plate by the
11
attraction to plate B" because opposites attract. As long as they don't touch
each other, the attraction will continue.
Spacing between Plates

closer
plates

(1 < (2

9
3. Type of dielectric
For this factor, what we put in between the plates is important. The closer
the plates are together (without touching), the greater the attraction will be
between the two plates. Just like when you have two magnets and you hold
them far apart, then closer and closer. The closer you get them together, the
more effect they have on one another.

ceramic
Type of Dielectric

(1 < (2
 Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

■ The first number is the first digit.
■ The second number is the second digit.
■ The third number is the number of zeros to
give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters. They just indicate tolerance
and voltage rating. For example, 104 means
100,000; pF = 100 nF (not 104 pF!).

On electrolytic capacitors, the numbers and information are printed right on

the side so they are easy to read.

Slwirter l

These capacitors will explode if the rated working voltage or WVDC is

exceeded or if the polarity is reversed, so be careful and watch for the(-)
and(+) markings. The negative can be identified by the shorter lead on the
capacitor; the positive can be identified by the longer lead.
When you use this type of capacitor in one of your projects, the rule of
thumb is to choose one that is twice the supply voltage. For example, if your
supply power were 12 volts, you would choose a 24-volt (25V) type. This
type has improved over the years, and it will remain a very popular type
unless something better comes along to replace it. Polarized electrolytic
capacitors are heavily used in almost every kind of equipment and consumer
electronics.

0
Capacitors
Answer the following questions in your notebook.
1. Generally speaking, what are the two types of capacitors?
2. How are capacitors like batteries?
3. How are a capacitor and a battery different?
4. What does the "dielectric" do in an electrolytic capacitor?
5. Label the parts of the electrolytic capacitor below.

6. What is the name for the unit of measurement for capacitance?

7. List the three factors that determine capacitance and explain how each
one affects the amount of capacitance.
8. When choosing an electrolytic capacitor, what is the general rule of
thumb with regard to its voltage rating?

Check your answers in the Learning Activity Answer Keys found at the
end of this module.

It is now time for you to complete Assignment 3.1. This assignment (along
with all other assignments) is worth marks and you will submit it to the
Distance Learning Unit when you have finished Module 3.

1
Assignment 5.1, Part 1

Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors

Inventory List: Place a checkmark in each box once you have identified
the item.

O Solderless circuit board

O 9-volt battery

O 9-volt battery clip

0 Light emitting diode (LED)

3
Assignment 5 .1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

D Capacitors with the value of

100 µF
1000 µF

D Resistors with the value of

220 ohms
1 k ohms

D Potentiometer

D Safety glasses

(continued)

4
Assignment 5 .1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to see the effects of the

charging and discharging of a capacitor on an LED.

Procedure: Build the circuit shown below using your Experiment Kit and
Miscellaneous Resistor Bag and solderless circuit board.

Carefully plug your components into the same vertical rows as shown
below. Be mindful of the direction of the electrolytic capacitor's negative
and positive side.

220 ohm 1 Kohm

□□□□□□□□
...
□□□□□□□□
00000000

DO DO DOD
□0 00
0 00 0 □□ □□□□□ □□□
□□□□□□□□ □□□□□ □□□□
□□□□□□□□ 1"?'1rT7
■ -9-' □□ c a □□□ □□• □
negative leg short lead

(continued)

5
Assignment 5 .1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

SAFETY GLASSES ON!

The first capacitor you will use is the 100 µF capacitor.

Hook up the 9-volt battery to the battery clip. The LED should light up. If
it doesn't, go through the usual checks.

Now, unclip the battery and watch what happens to the LED.

6
Assignment 5.1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

(continued)
What's Happening?
1. When I connected the battery to the circuit, the LED lit up.

D yes D no

2. When I unhooked the battery, the LED faded out slowly.

D yes D no

At this point, take out the 100 µF capacitor and replace it with the
1000 µF capacitor.

Hook up the 9-volt battery to the battery clip once again. The LED should
light up. If it didn't, go through the usual checks.

Now, unclip the battery and watch what happens to the LED.

3. When I connected the battery to the circuit, the LED lit up.

D yes D no

4. When I unhooked the battery, the LED faded out very slowly.

D yes D no

(continued)

7
Assignment 5 .1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

Explanation: In this simple circuit, the electric current will flow from the
negative terminal of the battery to the positive terminal, passing through
the LED and charging up the capacitor. When you disconnect the battery,
the source of electrons from the battery stops, but the electrons stored in
one of the plates in the capacitor drains. It drains through the LED, which
causes it to light but fade as the electron supply is used up. The larger
the capacitor, the more electrons it can store, so the longer it takes to
drain.

220 ohms

1K
□□□ □□
- J, □□ □□□
+ + + ii

□□□□□- -\ '\ □□□□

C2 □ DD □□□□□□ □□ □
□□□□ □□ □□□□ □□□
□□□□□□□□ □□□□ □□□□
O O D D D □□ D ?TTi- A-A-. OD DOD
negativeleg short lead

8
Assignment 5 .1: Experiment 4, Part 1: Capacitors (continued)

(continued)
Reminder
Electronic components must be installed with polarity
in mind. It's a good idea to look very carefully at the parts
or schematics sheet that is included at the beginning of
this module to determine whether a component has a
positive or a negative polarity. Look for a (+) sign for the
positive side and a (-) sign for the negative side. If no
positive or negative symbols are visible, then polarity is
not an issue. Therefore, the part can be installed in either
direction in the circuit.

Note: The colour code for positive is red and the colour code for negative
is black.

Now that you have successfully completed Experiment 4, place the parts
back in the Experiment Kit, and then complete the experiment write-up.

9
1
 (continued)
Assignment 5.1: Experiment 4, Part 2: Report 4: Capacitors (continued)
Results of the Experiment: This is where you write what happened
during the experiment or what you observed as you followed the
procedure to complete the experiment. This usually reflects the purpose
and explanation of the experiment. (2 marks)

Schematic Diagram: Redraw the schematic representation of the circuit

that you just built. The schematic diagram is provided to you in the
experiment itself. (2 marks)

2
 (continued)
Assignment 5.1: Experiment 4, Part 2: Report 4: Capacitors (continued)
Parts Used: Fill in the chart below, and draw the schematic symbols for
the parts used in performing the experiment. Write down the value of any
of the components, and make note that some components will not have a
value (e.g., an LED would not have a value). (6 marks)

Name Value Schematic Picture

of Part (if any) Symbol of Part

LED

Capacitor

Capacitor

Resistor

Resistor

3
LESSON 2: SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductor Theory

There are three basic types of materials that we work with in electronics. We
have talked about two of them, conductors and insulators, but the third is
n.e1th er a good cond uctor nor a good. 1nsu1at or. These are sem1con d uc tors.
Examples of Examples of Examples of
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors

copper rubber silicon

aluminum PVC germanium
silver paper
gold

First, let's take a look at the atomic structure of a semiconductor to understand

its electrical properties. The concepts learned here pertain to the function
of many semiconductor devices, such as transistors, diodes, and integrated
circuits.

Outline of Atomic Theory

An atom can be thought of as a central positively charged nucleus orbited
by negatively charged electrons. The positive charge of the nucleus is due to
the positively charged protons it contains. For an atom in its natural state,
the total negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charges of
protons in the nucleus. When this happens, we say the atom is electrically
neutral.

5
 The orbits of the electrons are arranged in shells. The first shell is closest
to the nucleus and contains a maximum of two electrons. The next outer
shell contains a maximum of eight electrons. The next shell also contains a
maximum of eight electrons.

Element Groups

■ An atom with one electron in its outer shell is called a Group 1 element.
■ An atom with two electrons in its outer shell is called a Group 2 element.
■ An atom with three electrons in its outer shell is called a Group 3 element.
■ An atom with four electrons in its outer shell is called a Group 4 element.
■ An atom with five electrons in its outer shell is called a Group 5 element
(et cetera).

Semiconductors are Group 4 elements as they have four electrons in their

outermost shell or four valence electrons.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5

Energy band diagrams show the energy levels of the electrons, or how far
away the electrons are from the centre or nucleus. We are only interested in
two of the bands: the valence band, which is the farthest from the nucleus;
and the conduction band. The conduction band is where the electrons are free
of their atom's nucleus and are allowed to roam around.

6
 • • • e•••
••
Conduction band

e--<--- Free electrons

+
Energy Gap

e e e'f e e Valence band

•
••••
• • • • • ◄
111(1- - Valence electrons

The valence shell contains electrons that are at the highest energy level but
are still attracted to their atom's nucleus. The conduction band is occupied
by electrons that are free from their parent atoms. These electrons have
enough energy to leave their parent atoms and are free to move through
the semiconductor material. When a voltage is applied to these atoms, the
electrons will drift to produce an electrical current.
In semiconductors, there is a gap between the Conduction Band

•t
valence and conduction bands. This energy gap (Empty)
reflects the amount of energy that would be
needed to move an electron from the valance band Energy Gap
to the conduction band where it is free of its atom's
nucleus.
Valence Band
If we supply an external energy source to an atom, (Full)
electrons in the valance shell will transfer an
electron to the conduction band. This produces a
free electron in the conduction band and leaves a hole (a vacant spot where
the electron was) in the valence band.
The free electrons are now available to contribute to an electrical current if a
voltage is applied to the material. The holes (the vacant electron positions) in
the valence band will also now allow movement of electrons in the valence
band. This can also contribute to an electrical current.

•.., • •
1 •
. "" '""
I
I I
I I I
I \ I
, I
,,'
I
'
I

,,
\ I
I I
I
I I

7
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

To produce semiconductor materials, specific amounts of impurities are

added to the pure silicon. This process is called doping, and the impurity
atoms are called donor atoms.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: P-type semiconductors and
N-type semiconductors.
The pure silicon is doped (has impurities added to it) with Group 5 elements
such as phosphorus, antimony, or arsenic. These materials have atoms with
five valence electrons, and silicon has only four valence electrons. Four
of these electrons will form covalent bonds with neighboring silicon atoms.
Now, as there are only four bonds binding the donor atom to the
neighboring silicon atoms, the fifth electron is not part of a covalent bond
and is therefore a free electron.
Every impurity atom will produce a free electron in the conduction band.
These electrons will move to produce electrical current if a voltage is applied
to the material.
Silicon atoms containing four electrons
bonding with their neighbors.

Impurity atom bonding with neighbor still

leaves an extra electron to wander freely!

8
 ■ The silicon atoms form a square lattice.
■ The white atoms represent the donor atoms.
■ Four of the five valence electrons form covalent bonds with neighboring
silicon atoms.
■ The fifth electron has no neighboring electron to pair with and is a free
electron.
■ Each donor atom produces a free electron.
Note: It is called an N-type semiconductor because the majority of charge
carriers that will contribute to an electrical current through the material are
negatively charged free electrons produced by the doping process. There will
be some contribution to the current flow from positively charged holes due to
electron hole generation in the silicon, but these holes are the minority charge
carriers in this material.

Energy Band

This diagram shows an energy band for an N-type semiconductor. The

valence band is completely full as all of the covalent bonds are complete. The
conduction band contains free electrons from the fifth valence electrons in the
donor atoms.
N-Type Semiconductor

•:•.•..•.•.•.•. Conduction Band

9
 Valence Band

Note: This diagram does not show the electron holes that would be present.
The electron holes are minority charge carriers in N-type semiconductors, the
majority being the free electrons produced by the doping process.
 Holes

The movement of electrons in the valence band is complicated. As they

move to fill the vacant electron positions, the position of the hole appears
to move in the opposite direction to the electrons. In fact, it is easy to
consider the movement of the hole, and we can imagine it to be a positively
charged particle because of the direction of its movement (opposite to that of
negatively charged electrons).
• = 1 electron

Open Space or Hole

Timel ••• ! ...............

At first, this may seem to be a strange idea, but later you will see that by
considering the movement of these virtual particles, it is much easier to
understand how semiconductor devices work. However, it is important to
remember that although we regard holes as positively charged particles, they
are not real particles, and all the effects we see are actually caused by the
movement of electrons in the valence band.
411( 1 Electron Moves to the Left
/
Time2 • • ••••••••••••••
Hole )I,

The hole where the electron was

moves to the right!

30
In each of the time diagrams, you can see that as one electron moves to the
left, a hole is created where it came from, which in turn is filled by another
electron. As this happens, the hole that the electron leaves is moving to the
right. Therefore, as electrons move left, holes move right.
Ill( 1 Electron Moves to the Left
/
····\·············
Time 3

Hole >
The hole where the electron was
moves to the right!
P-type Semiconductor

In this instance, the pure silicon is doped with a Group 3 element such as
boron, aluminum, or indium. These materials have atoms with three valence
electrons. The three electrons will form covalent bonds with neighboring
silicon atoms, but there are not enough electrons to form the fourth covalent
bond. This leaves a hole in the covalent bond structure, and therefore a hole in
the valence band of the energy level diagram.
Every impurity atom will produce a hole in the valence band. These holes will
drift to produce an electrical current if a voltage is applied to the material,
but the P-type semiconductor is still a much better conductor than the pure
silicon material.
Group 3 impurity with only 3 electrons in
the valence shell

This leaves a "hole" where an extra electron would

fit in to satisfy the covalent bond of the atoms.

31
 ■ The silicon atoms form a square lattice.
■ The white atoms represent the donor atoms.
■ Three of the four covalent bonds are formed with neighboring silicon
atoms.
■ The fourth bond cannot be formed as there are not enough electrons. This
leaves a hole in the valence band.
■ Each donor atom produces a hole in the valence band.
Note: It is important to point out that the material is called P-type
semiconductor because the majority of charge carriers that contribute to
an electrical current are positively charged holes produced by the doping
process. The majority of the current carriers here are the "holes" and not the
electrons.

Energy Band Diagram

The diagram shows an energy band diagram for a P-type semiconductor. The
valence band contains holes due to the incomplete covalent bond around each
donor atom. The conduction band is empty, as there are no free electrons.

Empty Conduction Band

Holes
••• : ....
••• ••• •
Valence Band

32
 Semiconductor Theory
Answer the following questions in your notebook.

1. List three basic types of materials that we work with in electronics.

2. Why is the nucleus of an atom positively charged?
3. When is an atom said to be electrically neutral or balanced?
4. The orbits for electrons around the nucleus of an atom are arranged in
layers or sometimes referred to as _
5. Atoms with one electron in the outer shell are referred to as _
6. Atoms with four electrons in the outer shell are referred to as

7. What do energy band diagrams show?

8. The outermost band where electrons are farthest away but still held in
orbit by the nucleus is called the _
9. Electrons that have enough energy to break away from their parent
atoms and are free to move around are in the _
10. When an electron leaves the valence band, we say it leaves a _
in the space it once occupied.
11. The process of adding impurities to silicon to create semiconductors is
called _
12. Name the two types of extrinsic semiconductor materials.
13. In N-type materials, the impurities are added from group _
elements, so there will be a free electron available in the semiconductor
material.
14. "Holes" are not really particles but spaces left by moving _
15. In P-type materials, the impurities are added from group _
elements, which leaves a hole in the covalent bond in the semiconductor
material.

33