DC MACHINES

Construction of DC machine
An electrical DC machine can convert mechanical energy into direct current electricity (DC generator)
or vice versa (DC motor) without any constructional changes. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can
be broadly termed as a DC machine.

Two electrical circuits present in the dc

machine:
1- Field circuit
2- Armature circuit

Stator: Stationary part of the machine

Rotor: rotating part of the machine

Stator:

Poles: projects inwards and

provides a path for the magnetic
flux

Poles: the end of the poles that are

close to rotor “spread out” over the
rotor surface to distribute flux evenly
over the rotor surface. We call the end
as “pole shoe”. Due to their spread out
they are often called
Salient Poles.

Field windings: windings responsible for

magnetic flux production
Frame: provides physical support

THE STATOR COULD BE

LAMINATED OR MADE OF
SINGLE CAST PIECE OF METAL Stator
Rotor: Rotating part of machine

Rotor of dc machine is often called “armature” as it holds the armature

windings
Armature winding: carries current crossing the field, thus creating shaft torque in a rotating
machine as well as generate an electromotive force (EMF). Some call it “The power-producing
component” of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Commutator: built on the shaft of the rotor at one end of the core. Made of copper bars
insulated by mica. The commutator serves as a “mechanical rectifier”. Its main function, in a DC
generator, is to collect the current generated in armature conductors and change it from
internal AC to DC output. Whereas, in case of a DC motor, commutator helps in providing
current to the armature conductors that can produce a rotating torque in them. Since this
mechanism is called a commutator, DC machinery is also known as commutating machinery.

Brushes: made of carbon, graphite or a mixture of both. They have high CONDUCTIVITY and low
friction coefficient to reduce the wear but they are softer than commutator to avoid Armature
commutator wear. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current
THE ROTOR IS COMPOSED OF MANY LAMINATIONS
STAMPED FROM A STEEL PLATE.
Commutator:
Operating Principle of AC generator:

Rotating Loop in B-field

Mechanical energy is converted to electrical 𝝋
energy
F
Three requirements are essential
1. Conductors
2. Magnetic field
F
3. Relative motion of conductor and magnetic field
An alternating AC current is produced by
rotating a loop in a constant magnetic field 𝒊
𝒊
Current on left is outward by right-hand rule

The right segment has an inward current

Faraday’s Law: If a wire moves through magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it

• A potential difference is maintained across the conductor as long as there is motion through the field
• If motion is reversed, polarity of potential difference is also reversed
Operation Principle of AC generator

𝝋 𝝋
F

The total induced voltage on the loop is:

Operating Principle of AC generator:
Why do we need Commutator? Theory of Commutation:

Commutation : is the process of converting the ac voltage and currents

in the rotor of a dc machine to dc voltages and currents at its terminals. It
is the most critical part of the design and operation of any dc machine.

❑ According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current

changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes.
❑ Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is
moving outwards. When the armature completes a half rotation, the
direction of motion of that particular conductor will be reversed to inwards. Using “slip” rings
Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating with
slip rings

❑Using a semicircular commutating segments (split rings), connections of the armature

conductors also gets reversed whenever the current reversal occurs.

❑And therefore, the output at the fixed contacts (brushes) is always built up
invthe same way resulting in unidirectional DC output current.

Using “split” rings

Why do we need Commutator? Theory of Commutation:

Adding more armature coils smooth out

induced voltage fluctuation and changes

the direct current from pulsating to regular

DC
Power flow diagram
DC generators take in mechanical power and produce electric power. The efficiency of a DC machine is defined by

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 - total losses

𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 - stray losses-rotational losses
= 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + copper losses
The Losses in DC Machines
The losses that occur in DC machines can be divided into four basic categories:
1. Electrical or copper losses
2. Core losses
3. Mechanical losses
4. Stray load losses

ELECTRICAL OR COPPER LOSSES. Copper losses are the losses that occur in the armature and field windings of the machine.

CORE (or MAGNETIC) LOSSES: The core losses are losses encountered in the magnetic core of the machine which include the
hysteresis losses and circulating eddy current losses.

MECHANICAL LOSSES: The mechanical losses in a dc machine are the losses associated with mechanical effects due to friction
and windage. Friction losses are caused by the friction of the bearings in the machine with the shaft and friction between brushes
and commutator, while windage losses are caused by the friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the
motor's casing.
STRAY LOAD LOSSES: Stray losses are losses that cannot be placed in one of the previous categories such as losses due to
distorted flux and short circuit currents in coils.
The EMF Equation:

Induced E.M.F = PΦnmZ / 60a

P = number of field poles

Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
a =no. of parallel paths in armature: This describes the way the machine's armature conductors
are connected relative to each other and to the number of poles. The two basic ways of
connecting these conductors are called 'lap' and 'wave‘
𝒏𝒎 = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min (rpm) a=P a=2
(lap) (wave)

Lap winding is suitable when requirement is : Large DC

currents and low voltage.

Wave winding is suitable when requirement is: Low DC

current and high voltage
DC generator Connections:
There are five major types of dc generators, classified according to the manner in which their field flux is produced:

DC machine

Separately excited Self excited Permanent magnet

Series Shunt Compound

Cumulative Differential

❑ ALL generators are driven by a mechanical force, usually called as a prime mover. A prime mover may be a diesel engine, steam turbine, or even an electric

motor.

❑ DC generators are quite rare in modern power systems. Even dc power systems such as those in automobiles now use ac generators plus rectifiers to produce dc

power.
 Equivalent circuits
Separately excited Shunt Series

𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴
𝐼 𝐿 = 𝐼𝐴 𝐼 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴(𝑅𝐴+𝑅𝑆)
𝑉𝐹 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝑆= 𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝐹 = 𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹

Voltage regulation (VR): 𝑉𝑅% = 𝑉𝑇𝑛𝑙−𝑉𝑇𝑓𝑙 × 100

𝑉 𝑇𝑓𝑙

where
𝑉𝑇𝑛𝑙 : No-load terminal voltage of the generator

𝑉𝑇𝑓𝑙 : Full- load terminal voltage of the generator

DC generator characteristics:
Generally, the following two characteristics of DC generators are taken
into considerations:

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (EA/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetization curve. This

characteristic shows the relation between generator induced e.m.f. (EA)
and the field current (If) at a given speed.
The magnetization curve at no-load is almost similar for all type of
generators. If Φ increases, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾Φ ↑ ω𝑚 increases
If ω𝑚 increases, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾Φω𝑚 ↑ increases
2. Loading characteristics (V T /IL)

The load characteristic curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage (VT) and load current (IL). The
terminal voltage (VT) is less than generated emf EA due to voltage drop in the armature circuit in addition to the
armature reaction effect
Armature reaction: The effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux under main poles of a
generator which demagnetizes or weakens the main flux. We solve it through many techniques such as placing interpoles,
brush shifting and compensating windings

Loading characteristic curves differ according to each type of generator as follows;

Separately excited generator

𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾Φω𝑚

• In this generator the field circuit is electrically separate of the armature circuit, hence the field current
and in turn the internal generated voltage (EA ) is independent of (IA ) which is meanwhile the load current.

• At no load (𝐼𝐿=0), the terminal voltage is the internal induced voltage whose characteristic is a straight
line as it is independent of load current (𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴). When the load is applied (𝐼𝐿increases):
𝐼𝐿 ⇑, ∴ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿 ⇑, ∴ 𝐼A𝑅A ⇑, ∴ 𝑉𝑇 ⇓= 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴 ⇑

• To control the generator terminal voltage, either increasing ω𝑚 or Φ increases EA , hence increasing VT .
However, in many applications, the speed range of the prime mover is quite limited, so the terminal voltage is
most commonly controlled by changing the field current, by changing the field resistance.

• Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field excitation. Hence, they
are used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for various applications

Applications
Shunt generator 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹 + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐹

𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾Φω𝑚
• The voltage build-up in a DC generator depends on the presence of a residual flux in. the poles of the generator. When a
generator first starts to turn, an internal voltage will be generated, which is given by .. This voltage appears at
the terminals of the generator causing a current to flow in the generator 's field coil. This field current produces a
magneto motive force in the poles which increases the flux in them. The increase in flux causes an increase (EA ), thus
causing increase in VT .When VT rises, 𝐼𝐹 increases, increasing the flux more, which increases EA, ……etc.
𝐼𝐿 ⇑, ∴ 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹 + 𝐼𝐿 ⇑, ∴ 𝐼A𝑅A ⇑, ∴ 𝑉𝑇 ⇓= 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴𝑅𝐴 ⇑ same behavior as separately excited generator

More drop compared to the separately excited

BUT 𝑉𝑇 ⇓, 𝐼𝐹 ⇓, 𝜑 ⇓, 𝐸𝐴 ⇓, 𝑉𝑇 ⇓⇓ generator!

• As with the separately excited generator, to control the generator terminal voltage in the
shunt generator, either increasing ω𝑚 or Φ increases EA , hence increasing VT . Changing
𝐼𝐹 , by changing the field resistance is the main principle to control VT.

• The application of shunt generators are restricted for its dropping voltage characteristic.
They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated very close to its position, as
lighting, battery charge, for small power supplies
Applications Voltage buildup in a DC generator
Series generator

𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐼𝐴(𝑅𝐴+𝑅𝑆)
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝑆= 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐹

𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾Φω𝑚

• In DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load current is
similar to field current. Thus, the loading characteristic curve is close to the machine magnetization curve. At no
load, there is no field current, so VT is reduced to a small level given by the residual flux in the machine.
• As the load increases, the field current rises, so EA rises rapidly, The IA (RA + Rs) drop goes up too, but at first the
increase in EA goes up more rapidly than the drop rise, so VT increases.
• After a while, the machine approaches saturation, and EA becomes almost constant. At that point, the resistive
drop is the predominant effect, and VT starts to fall.

• This machine gives constant current in the dropping portion of the characteristic curve. For this property they
can be used as constant current source and employed for applications as arc welding and for supplying field
excitation current in DC locomotives

Applications
 DC MOTOR

• For special applications such as in steel mills, mines and electric trains, it is
advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in order to use
motors
• The reason is that speed/torque characteristics of d.c. motors are much more
superior to that of a.c. motors. Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for
industrial drives, d.c. motors are as popular as 3-phase induction motors

• In dc machines, field winding are on stator and armature windings are on rotor
• The electric motor operated by dc is called dc motor
 Operating Principle of DC Motor

• A machine that converts d.c power into mechanical power is known as a d.c motor

• Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force

• The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is
given by:
F= BIl Newtons
 Types of DC Motor

There are five major types of dc motors in general use:

(a)The separately excited dc motor
(b)The shunt dc motor
(c)The permanent-magnet dc motor
(d)The series dc motor
(e)The compounded dc motor
 Separately Excited DC Motor

• Separately excited dc motor is a motor whose field circuit is supplied from a

separate constant-voltage power supply
 Shunt DC Motor
• A shunt dc motor is a
motor whose field
circuit gets its power
directly across the
armature terminals of
the motor
 Separately Excited and Shunt DC Motor

• The Kirchhoff 's voltage law (KVL) equation for the armature circuit of
these motors is
 Terminal Characteristics of Shunt DC Motor

• A terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine's output quantities

versus each other
• For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed
 Speed Control Of Shunt DC Motor

• There are two methods used to control the speed of Shunt DC Motor,
a) Adjusting the field resistance R (and thus the field flux)
Speed Control Of Shunt DC Motor
 Speed Control Of Shunt DC Motor

b) Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature

• The second form of speed control involves changing the voltage applied to the
armature of the motor without changing the voltage applied to the field
• For this, the motor must be separately excited to use armature voltage control
Speed Control Of Shunt DC Motor
Terminal Characteristics of Shunt DC Motor
 Terminal Characteristics of Shunt DC Motor

The resulting
torque- speed
characteristic of a
shunt dc motor is:
 Terminal Characteristics of Shunt DC Motor

• Another effect internal to the motor that can also affect the shape of the
torque-speed curve is armature reaction
• If a motor has armature reaction, then as its load increases, the flux-
weakening effects reduce its flux
• The effect of a reduction in flux is to increase the motor's speed at any
given load over the speed it would run at without armature reaction
 Terminal Characteristics of Shunt DC Motor

• The torque-speed characteristic of a shunt motor with armature reaction is

 Compensating Windings

• If a motor has compensating windings, there will be no flux-weakening problems

in the machine, and the flux in the machine will be constant
• In order to neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction, a
compensating winding is used.
• A compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in slots in the
• pole faces as shown in Fig.
• It is connected in series with armature in a manner so that the direction of current
through the compensating conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the
direction of the current through the adjacent armature conductors
Compensating Windings
Example
Example
Example
Example
Example
Torque-Speed characteristics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo