EE 3CL4, §8

1 / 77
Tim Davidson

Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response EE3CL4:
Plotting the
freq. resp. Introduction to Linear Control Systems
Mapping
Contours Section 8: Frequency Domain Techniques
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Tim Davidson
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s McMaster University

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Winter 2020
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
2 / 77
Tim Davidson Outline
Transfer
functions
1 Transfer functions
Frequency
Response
2 Frequency Response
Plotting the
freq. resp. 3 Plotting the freq. resp.
Mapping
Contours 4 Mapping Contours
Nyquist’s
criterion 5 Nyquist’s criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. Ex: unst., P control
Nyquist’s Ex: unst., PD contr.
Stability
Criterion as a Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and 6 Nyquist’s Stability Criterion as a Design Tool
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Relative Stability
Gain margin and Phase margin
Relationship to transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
4 / 77
Tim Davidson Transfer Functions:
Transfer A Quick Review
functions • Consider a transfer function
Frequency Q
Response (s + zi )
G(s) = K Qi
Plotting the j (s + pj )
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours • Zeros: −zi ; Poles: −pj
Nyquist’s
criterion
• Note that s + zi = s − (−zi ),
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • This is the vector from −zi to s
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • Magnitude:
Nyquist’s Q
Stability |s + zi | prod. dist’s from zeros to s
Criterion as a |G(s)| = |K | Qi = |K |
Design Tool j |s + pj | prod. dist’s from poles to s
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to • Phase:
transient response

∠G(s) = ∠K + sum angles from zeros to s

− sum angles from poles to s
EE 3CL4, §8
6 / 77
Tim Davidson Frequency Response
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response • For a stable, linear, time-invariant (LTI) system, the
Plotting the
freq. resp.
steady state response to a sinusoidal input is
Mapping
a sinusoid of the same frequency but possibly different
Contours
magnitude and different phase
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
• Sinusoids are the eigenfunctions of convolution
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • If input is A cos(ω0 t + θ)
Nyquist’s
Stability
and steady-state output is B cos(ω0 t + φ),
Criterion as a
Design Tool
then the complex number B/Aej(φ−θ)
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
is called the frequency response of the system at
Phase margin
Relationship to
frequency ω0 .
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
7 / 77
Tim Davidson Frequency Response, II
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours • If a stable LTI system has a transfer function G(s),
Nyquist’s
criterion
then the frequency response at ω0 is G(s)|s=jω0
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• What if the system is unstable?
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
9 / 77
Tim Davidson Plotting the frequency response
Transfer
functions

Frequency • For each ω, G(jω) is a complex number.

Response

Plotting the
• How should we plot it?
freq. resp.
 
Mapping • G(jω) = G(jω)ej∠G(jω)
Contours  
Nyquist’s
Plot G(jω) versus ω, and ∠G(jω) versus ω
criterion
Ex: servo, P control  
Ex: unst., P control • Plot 20 log10 G(jω) versus log10 (ω), and
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
∠G(jω) versus log10 (ω)
Nyquist’s
Stability
• G(jω) = Re G(jω) + j Im G(jω)



Criterion as a
Design Tool 


Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Plot the curve Re G(jω) , Im G(jω) on an “x–y ” plot
Phase margin  
Relationship to
transient response
Equiv. to curve G(jω)ej∠G(jω) as ω changes (polar plot)
EE 3CL4, §8
10 / 77
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 1
Transfer
functions Let’s consider the example of an RC circuit
Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
V2 (s) 1
Ex: unst., PD contr. • G(s) = V1 (s) = 1+sRC
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• G(jω) = 1
1+jω/ω1 , where ω1 = 1/(RC).
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
1 ω/ω1
Gain margin and • G(jω) = − j 1+(ω/ω
Phase margin 1+(ω/ω1 )2 1)
2
Relationship to
transient response
1
• G(jω) = √ e−j atan(ω/ω1 )
1+(ω/ω1 )2
EE 3CL4, §8
11 / 77
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 1
1 ω/ω1
• G(jω) = − j 1+(ω/ω
Transfer 1+(ω/ω1 )2 1)
2
functions
1
Frequency
Response
• G(jω) = √ e−j atan(ω/ω1 )
1+(ω/ω1 )2
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
12 / 77
Tim Davidson Polar plot, example 2
K
Consider G(s) = s(sτ +1) .
Transfer
functions
• Poles at origin and s = −1/τ .
Frequency
Response • To use geometric insight to plot polar plot,
Plotting the K /τ
freq. resp. rewrite as G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Mapping
Contours   K /τ
• Then G(jω) = |jω| |jω+1/τ |
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
and ∠G(jω) = −∠(jω) − ∠(jω + 1/τ )
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
13 / 77 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• When ω → 0+ , |G(jω)| → ∞, ∠G(jω) → −90◦ from below
Nyquist’s Tricky
Stability
2
Criterion as a • To get a better feel, write G(jω) = ω−K ω τ ωK
2 +ω 4 τ 2 − j ω 2 +ω 4 τ 2
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Hence, as ω → 0+ , G(jω) → −K τ − j∞
Phase margin
Relationship to • As ω increases, distances from poles to jω increase.
transient response
Hence |G(jω)| decreases
• As ω increases, angle from pole at −1/τ increases.
Hence ∠G(jω) becomes more negative
EE 3CL4, §8
14 / 77 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
√ ◦ ◦
• When ω = 1/τ , G(jω) = (K /τ )/ (1/τ )( 2/τ ) e−j(90 +45 )


Nyquist’s
Stability √ ◦
Criterion as a
Design Tool
i.e., G(jω)|ω=1/τ = (K τ / 2)e−j135
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• As ω approaches +∞, both distances from poles get large.
Phase margin
Relationship to Hence |G(jω)| → 0
transient response

• As ω approaches +∞, angle from −1/τ approaches −90◦

from below. Hence ∠G(jω) approaches −180◦ from below
EE 3CL4, §8
15 / 77 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control Summary
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• As ω → 0+ , G(jω) → −K τ − j∞
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
• As ω increases,
Design Tool |G(jω)| decreases, ∠G(jω) becomes more negative
Relative Stability
√ ◦
Gain margin and
Phase margin • When ω = 1/τ , G(jω) = (K / 2)e−j135
Relationship to
transient response
• As ω approaches +∞,
G(jω) approaches zero from angle −180◦
EE 3CL4, §8
16 / 77 K /τ
Tim Davidson Polar plot, ex. 2, G(s) = s(s+1/τ )
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
17 / 77
Tim Davidson Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions

Frequency • Bode magnitude plot

Response

Plotting the
freq. resp. 20 log10 |G(jω)| against log10 ω
Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion • Bode phase plot
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
∠G(jω) against log10 ω
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• In 2CJ4 we developed rules to help sketch these plots
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• In this course we will use these sketches to design
transient response
controllers
EE 3CL4, §8
18 / 77
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams
Transfer
functions
• Consider generic transfer function of LTI system
Frequency
K i (s + zi ) k (s2 + 2ζk ωn,k s + ωn,k2 )
Q Q
Response

Plotting the G(s) = N Q Q 2 2

freq. resp. s j (s + pj ) r (s + 2ζd,k ωnd,r s + ωnd,r )
Mapping
Contours
where zi and pj are real.
Nyquist’s
criterion • Unfortunately, not in the form that we are used to for
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Bode diagrams
Q Q 2
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• Divide numerator by i zi k ωn,k
Nyquist’s
Stability • Similarly for denominator
Criterion as a
Q Q 2 Q Q 2

Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Then if K̃ = K i zi k ωn,k / j pj r ωnd,r ,
Gain margin and
Phase margin

K̃ i (1 + s/zi ) k 1 + 2ζk (s/ωn,k ) + (s/ωn,k )2

Relationship to
Q Q

transient response

G(s) = N Q Q 2


s j (1 + s/pj ) r 1 + 2ζd,k (s/ωnd,r ) + (s/ωnd,r )
EE 3CL4, §8
19 / 77
Tim Davidson Sketching Bode Diagrams, II
Transfer
functions
• Now, frequency response can be written as:
Frequency
Response
Q
Plotting the K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
freq. resp. G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Mapping
Contours
2
Q

Nyquist’s k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
criterion ×Q 2


Ex: servo, P control
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Four key components:
Stability
Criterion as a
• Gain, K̃
Design Tool • Poles (or zeros) at origin
Relative Stability
Gain margin and • Poles and zeros on real axis
Phase margin
Relationship to • Poles and zeros in complex conjugate pairs
transient response

• Each contributes to the Bode Diagram

EE 3CL4, §8
20 / 77
Tim Davidson Bode Magnitude diagram
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. Q 2


k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Mapping ×Q 2


r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Bode Magnitude diagram:
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s 20 log10 |G(jω)| against log10 ω

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• 20 log10 |G(jω)| is
Relationship to
transient response

Sum of 20 log10 of components of numerator

− sum of 20 log10 of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, §8
21 / 77
Tim Davidson Components for magnitude
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q

Mapping k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Contours ×Q 2


Nyquist’s
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Poles at origin: slope starts at −20N dB/dec
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Gain |K̃ | incorporated in position of that sloping line
Stability
Criterion as a • First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability increase slope by 20 dB/dec at ω = zi
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• First order component in denominator:
transient response
decrease slope by 20 dB/dec at ω = pj
• Second order components:
increase or decrease slope by 40 dB/dec at ω = ωn
EE 3CL4, §8
22 / 77
Tim Davidson Bode Phase Diagram
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp. Q 2


k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Mapping ×Q 2


r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Bode Phase Diagram
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s ∠G(jω) against log10 ω

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• ∠G(jω) is
Relationship to
transient response

Sum of phases of components of numerator

− sum of phases of components of denominator
EE 3CL4, §8
23 / 77
Tim Davidson Components
Transfer
functions
Q
Frequency K̃ i (1 + jω/zi )
Response G(jω) =
(jω)N j (1 + jω/pj )
Q
Plotting the
freq. resp.
2
Q

Mapping k 1 + 2ζk (jω/ωn,k ) + (jω/ωn,k )
Contours ×Q 2


Nyquist’s
r 1 + 2ζd,k (jω/ωnd,r ) + (jω/ωnd,r )
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• Phase of K̃
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Poles at origin: −N90◦
Stability
Criterion as a • First order component in numerator:
Design Tool
Relative Stability linear phase change of +90◦ over ω ∈ [zi /10, 10zi ]
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• First order component in denominator:
transient response
linear phase change of −90◦ over ω ∈ [pj /10, 10pj ]
• Second order components:
phase change of ±180◦ around ω = ωn
EE 3CL4, §8
24 / 77
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
25 / 77
Tim Davidson Graphically
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
26 / 77
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
Isolated first order pole (analogous for zero)
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
27 / 77
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
functions
Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles
Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
28 / 77
Tim Davidson Accuracy of Bode Sketches
Transfer
functions

Frequency Isolated complex conjugate pair of poles

Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
29 / 77
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions 5(1 + jω/10)
G(jω) =

Frequency
Response
jω(1 + jω/2) 1 + 0.6(jω/50) + (jω/50)2
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
30 / 77
Tim Davidson Example
Transfer
functions
5(1 + jω/10)
Frequency G(jω) =

Response jω(1 + jω/2) 1 + 0.6(jω/50) + (jω/50)2
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
32 / 77
Tim Davidson Introduction
Transfer
functions • We have seen techniques that determine stability of a
Frequency
Response
system:
Plotting the
• Routh-Hurwitz
freq. resp. • root locus
Mapping
Contours
• However, both of them require a model for the plant
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • Today: frequency response techniques
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr. • Although they work best with a model
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• For an open-loop stable plant, they also work with
Nyquist’s
Stability measurements
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• Key result: Nyquist’s stability criterion
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response • Design implications: Bode techniques based on gain
margin and phase margin
EE 3CL4, §8
33 / 77
Tim Davidson Characteristic equation
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion • To determine the stability of the system we need to
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control examine the characteristic equation:
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s F (s) = 1 + L(s) = 0

Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
where L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s).
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• The key result involves mapping a closed contour of
transient response
values of s to a closed contour of values of F (s).
• We will investigate the idea of mappings first
EE 3CL4, §8
34 / 77
Tim Davidson Simple example
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and • Set F (s) = 2s + 1
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response • Map the square in the "s-plane" to the contour in the
"F (s)-plane"
EE 3CL4, §8
35 / 77
Tim Davidson Area enclosed
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
• How might we define area enclosed by a closed contour?
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
• We will be perfectly rigorous, but will go against
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
mathematical convention
Nyquist’s • Define area enclosed to be that to the right when the contour
Stability
Criterion as a is traversed clockwise
Design Tool
Relative Stability • What you see when moving clockwise with eyes right
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to • Sometimes we say that this area is the area “inside” the
transient response
clockwise contour
• Notions of “enclosed” or “inside” will be applied to contours
in the s-plane
EE 3CL4, §8
36 / 77
Tim Davidson Encirclement
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion • In the F (s)-plane, we will be interested in the notion of
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control encirclement of the origin
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• A contour is said to encircle the origin in the clockwise
Nyquist’s
Stability
direction, if the contour completes a 360◦ revolution around
Criterion as a the origin in the clockwise direction.
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• A contour is said to encircle the origin in the anti-clockwise
direction, if the contour completes a 360◦ revolution around
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
the origin in the anti-clockwise direction.
• We will say that an anti-clockwise encirclement is a
“negative” clockwise encirclement
EE 3CL4, §8
37 / 77
Tim Davidson Example with rational F (s)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability s
• A mapping for F (s) = s+2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• Note that s-plane contour encloses the zero of F (s)
• How many times does the F (s)-plane contour encircle
the origin in the clockwise direction?
EE 3CL4, §8
38 / 77
Tim Davidson Cauchy’s Theorem
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response • Nyquist’s Criterion is based on Cauchy’s Theorem:
Plotting the • Consider a rational function F (s)
freq. resp.

Mapping • If the clockwise traversal of a contour Γs in the s-plane

Contours
encloses Z zeros and P poles of F (s)
Nyquist’s
criterion and does not go through any poles or zeros
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • then the corresponding contour in the F (s)-plane, ΓF
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. encircles the origin N = Z − P times in the clockwise
Nyquist’s direction
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• A sketch of the proof later.
Gain margin and
Phase margin • First, some examples
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
39 / 77
Tim Davidson Example 1
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool s
Relative Stability
• A mapping for F (s) = s+1/2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• s-plane contour encloses a zero and a pole
transient response
• Theorem suggests no clockwise encirclements of origin
of F (s)-plane
• This is what we have!
EE 3CL4, §8
40 / 77
Tim Davidson Example 2
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• s-plane contour encloses 3 zeros and a pole
Relationship to
transient response
• Theorem suggests 2 clockwise encirclements of the
origin of the F (s)-plane
EE 3CL4, §8
41 / 77
Tim Davidson Example 3
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool • s-plane contour encloses one pole
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin • Theorem suggests -1 clockwise encirclements of the
Relationship to
transient response origin of the F (s)-plane
• That is, one anti-clockwise encirclement
EE 3CL4, §8
42 / 77
Tim Davidson Informal Justification of
Transfer Cauchy’s Theorem
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
(s+z1 )(s+z2 )
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • Consider the case of F (s) = (s+p
1 )(s+p2 )
Nyquist’s
Stability • ∠F (s1 ) = φz1 + φz2 − φp1 − φp2
Criterion as a
Design Tool • As the contour is traversed the nett contribution from
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
φz1 is 360 degrees
Relationship to
transient response
• As contour is traversed, the nett contribution from other
angles is 0 degrees
• Hence, as contour is traversed, ∠F (s) changes by 360
degrees. One encirclement!
EE 3CL4, §8
43 / 77
Tim Davidson Informal Justification
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping • Extending this to any number of poles and zeros inside

Contours

Nyquist’s
the contour
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
• For a closed contour, the change in ∠F (s) is
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
360Z − 360P
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• Hence F (s) encircles origin Z − P times
Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
45 / 77
Tim Davidson Cauchy’s Theorem (Review)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp. • Consider a rational function F (s)
Mapping
Contours • If the clockwise traversal of a contour Γs in the s-plane
Nyquist’s
criterion
encloses Z zeros and P poles of F (s)
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
and does not go through any poles or zeros
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• then the corresponding contour in the F (s)-plane, ΓF
Nyquist’s
Stability encircles the origin N = Z − P times in the clockwise
Criterion as a
Design Tool direction
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
46 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist’s goal
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping • Nyquist was concerned about testing for stability

Contours

Nyquist’s
• How might one use Cauchy Theorem to examine this?
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • Perhaps choose F (s) = 1 + L(s), as this determines
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr. stability
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Which contour should we use?
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
47 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist’s contour
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to Actually, we have to be careful regarding poles and zeros on
transient response
the jω-axis, including the origin.
Standard approach is to indent contour so that it goes to the
right of any such poles or zeros
EE 3CL4, §8
48 / 77
Tim Davidson Modified Nyquist contour
Transfer
functions Here’s an example for a model like that of the motor in the
Frequency lab.
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
49 / 77
Tim Davidson Coarse Applic. of Cauchy
Transfer
functions
• Recall that the zeros of F (s) = 1 + L(s) are the poles of
Frequency
Response the closed loop
Plotting the
freq. resp.
• Let P denote the number of right half plane poles of
Mapping
Contours F (s)
Nyquist’s
criterion • The number of right half plane zeros of F (s) is N + P,
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
where N is the number of clockwise encirclements of
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
the origin made by the image of Nyquist’s contour in the
Nyquist’s
Stability
F (s) plane.
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• A little difficult to parse.
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• Perhaps we can apply Cauchy’s Theorem in a more
sophisticated way.
EE 3CL4, §8
50 / 77
Tim Davidson Towards Nyquist’s Criterion
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response • F (s) = 1 + L(s), where L(s) is the open loop transfer
Plotting the function
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours
• Encirclement of the origin in F (s)-plane is the same as
Nyquist’s encirclement of −1 in the L(s)-plane
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
• This is more convenient, because L(s) is often
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. factorized, and hence we can easily determine P
Nyquist’s
Stability
• Now that we are dealing with L(s), P is the number of
Criterion as a
Design Tool
right-half plane poles of the open loop transfer function
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• If we handle the remainder of the components of
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Cauchy’s theorem carefully we obtain:
EE 3CL4, §8
51 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist’s Criterion: Simplified
Transfer statement
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.
• Consider a unity feedback system with an open loop transfer
Mapping
Contours function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),with no z’s or p’s on jω-axis
Nyquist’s • Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in RHP
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • Consider the Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• Let ΓL denote image of Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Nyquist’s • Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that ΓL
Stability
Criterion as a makes of the point (−1, 0)
Design Tool
Relative Stability • Nyquist’s Stability Criterion:
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to Number of closed-loop poles in RHP = NL + PL
transient response

• Note that for a stable open loop, the closed-loop is stable if

the image of the Nyquist contour does not encircle (−1, 0).
EE 3CL4, §8
52 / 77
1000
Tim Davidson Ex: L(s) = (s+1)(s+10) (stable)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • For 0 ≤ ω < ∞:
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr. • No zeros, two poles.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• |L(0)| = 1000/(1 × 10) = 100; ∠L(0) = −0 − 0 = 0
Nyquist’s
Stability • Distances from poles to jω is increasing;
Criterion as a
Design Tool hence |L(jω)| is decreasing
Relative Stability • Angles from poles to jω are increasing;
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
hence ∠L(jω) is decreasing
transient response • As ω → ∞, |L(jω)| → 0, ∠L(jω) → −180◦
• Recall that L(−jω) = L(jω)∗
• Remember to examine the r → ∞ part of the curve
EE 3CL4, §8
53 / 77
1000
Tim Davidson Ex: L(s) = (s+1)(s+10) (stable)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response

Note: No encirclements of (−1, 0) =⇒ closed loop is stable

EE 3CL4, §8
54 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist’s Criterion: Refined
Transfer statement
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping • Consider a unity feedback system with an open loop transfer

Contours

Nyquist’s
function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
• Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in open RHP
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr. • Consider the modified Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
looping to the right of any poles or zeros on the jω-axis
Nyquist’s
Stability • Let ΓL denote image of mod. Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Criterion as a
Design Tool • Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that ΓL
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
makes of the point (−1, 0)
Relationship to
transient response • Nyquist’s Stability Criterion:
Number of closed-loop poles in open RHP = NL + PL
• Now we can handle open-loop poles and zeros on jω-axis
EE 3CL4, §8
55 / 77
Tim Davidson Example: Pole of L(s) at origin
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response • Consider
Plotting the K
freq. resp. L(s) =
Mapping
s(τ s + 1)
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
• Like in servomotor
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Problem with the original Nyquist contour
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • It goes through a pole!
Nyquist’s
Stability • Cauchy’s Theorem does not apply
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Must modify Nyquist Contour to go around pole
Gain margin and
Phase margin • Then Nyquist Criterion can be applied
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
56 / 77
Tim Davidson Example: Pole of L(s) at origin
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a Now three key aspects of the curve
Design Tool
Relative Stability • Around the origin
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to • Positive frequency axis;
transient response

remember negative freq. axis yields conjugate

• At ∞
EE 3CL4, §8
57 / 77
Tim Davidson Around the origin
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s • L(s) = K
Stability s(τ s+1)
Criterion as a
Design Tool • Around the origin, s = ejφ ,
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
where φ goes from −90◦ to 90◦
Relationship to
transient response • In the L(s) plane: lim→0 L(ejφ )
• This is: lim→0 K K −jφ
ejφ
= lim→0 e
EE 3CL4, §8
58 / 77
Tim Davidson Up positive jω-axis
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
K ◦
Nyquist’s
• For 0 < ω < ∞, L(jω) = √ e−j(90 +atan(ωτ ))
Stability ω 1+ω 2 τ 2
with phase −90◦
Criterion as a
Design Tool • For small ω, L(jω) is large
Relative Stability
Gain margin and Actually, as we worked out in a previous lecture,
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
as ω → 0+ , L(jω) → −K τ − j∞
• For large ω, L(jω) is small with phase −180◦
√ ◦
• For ω = 1/τ , L(jω) = K τ / 2 e−j135
EE 3CL4, §8
59 / 77
Tim Davidson For s = rejθ for large r
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s • For s = rejθ with large r , and θ from +90◦ to −90◦ ,

Stability
Criterion as a • limr →∞ L(rejθ ) = K2 e−j2θ
Design Tool τr
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
• How many encirclements of −1 in L(s) plane? None
transient response

• Implies that closed loop is stable for all positive K

• Consistent with what we know from root locus (Lab. 2)
EE 3CL4, §8
60 / 77
Tim Davidson Example with open loop RHP
Transfer pole, proportional control
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Consider G(s) = 1
Ex: unst., PD contr. s(s−1)
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
• Essentially the same as plant model for VTOL aircraft
Stability example in root locus section
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Consider prop. control, Gc (s) = K1 , and H(s) = 1.
Gain margin and
Phase margin
• Hence, L(s) = K1
Relationship to s(s−1)
transient response

• Observe that L(s) has a pole in RHP; hence PL = 1

EE 3CL4, §8
61 / 77
Tim Davidson Ex. with open loop RHP pole
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.
• L(s) = K1
Mapping s(s−1) . For s = jω and 0 < ω < ∞,
Contours
−K1 K1 K1
Nyquist’s
∠ 90◦ + atan(ω)


criterion L(jω) = 2
+j 2
= √
Ex: servo, P control
1+ω ω(1 + ω ) ω 1 + ω2
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr. • For ω → 0+ , L(jω) → −K1 + j∞
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s • As ω increases, real and imag. parts decrease,

Stability
Criterion as a
imag. part decreases faster
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Equiv. magnitude decreases, phase increases
Gain margin and
Phase margin • For ω → ∞, L(jω) is small with angle +180◦
Relationship to
transient response
• Conjugate for −∞ < ω < 0
• What about when s = ejθ for −90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ ?
L(s) = K1 ∠(−180◦ − θ)
EE 3CL4, §8
62 / 77
Tim Davidson Example with open loop RHP
Transfer pole
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin • Recall PL = 1
Relationship to
transient response • Number clockwise encirclements of (−1, 0) is 1
• Hence there are two closed loop poles in the RHP for all
positive values of K1
• Consistent with root locus analysis
EE 3CL4, §8
63 / 77
1
Tim Davidson Root locus of L(s) = s(s−1)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
64 / 77
Tim Davidson Example with open loop RHP
Transfer pole, PD control
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping 1
Contours • G(s) = s(s−1) and H(s) = 1. L(s) = GC (s)G(s).
Nyquist’s
criterion
• In the VTOL aircraft example, showed that closed-loop can
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
be stabilized by lead compensation, GC (s) = K(s+p)
c (s+z)

Ex: unst., PD contr.

Ex: RHP Z, P contr. • It can also be stabilized by PD comp., GC (s) = K1 (1 + K2 s).
Nyquist’s (Under the presumption that this can be realized. It can be
Stability
Criterion as a realized when we have “velocity” feedback.)
Design Tool
Relative Stability • Using the root locus, we can show that when K2 > 0 there is
Gain margin and
Phase margin a K1 > 0 that stabilizes the closed loop (see next page)
Relationship to
transient response
• Can we see that in the Nyquist diagram?
• Plot the Nyquist diagram of L(s) = Gc (s)G(s), where
K1
G(s) = s(s−1) and Gc (s) = 1 + K2 s
EE 3CL4, §8
65 / 77
Tim Davidson Root locus analysis
Transfer 1
functions Root locus of (1 + K2 s) s(s−1) for a given K2 > 0
Frequency
Response
• Poles, zero and active sections of real axis
Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
• Complete root locus
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
Conclusion: For any given K2 > 0 there is a K̄1 > 0 such
that closed loop is stable for all K1 > K̄1 . We can find K̄1
using Routh-Hurwitz
EE 3CL4, §8
66 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist diagram of
K1
Transfer (1 + K2 s) s(s−1)
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool • Recall that PL = 1
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• If K1 K2 > 1, there is one anti-clockwise encirc. of −1
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• In that case, number closed-loop poles in RHP is
−1 + 1 = 0 and the closed loop is stable
• Consistent with root locus analysis;
but gives K̄1 = 1/K2 directly
EE 3CL4, §8
67 / 77
Tim Davidson One more example
Transfer K (s − 2)
functions L(s) =
Frequency (s + 1)2
Response
Open loop is stable, but has non-minimum phase (RHP) zero
Plotting the
freq. resp. √
K ω2 + 4
Mapping
∠ 180◦ − atan(ω/2) − 2 atan(ω)


Contours L(jω) =
ω2 + 1
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
• For small positive ω, L(jω) ≈ 2K ∠180◦
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
K
Nyquist’s
• For large positive ω, L(jω) ≈ ω∠ − 90◦
Stability
Criterion as a • In between, phase decreases monotonically, 180◦ → −90◦ .
Design Tool
Relative Stability
magnitude decreases monotonically (Bode mag dia.)
Gain margin and
√


2K 2ω 2 −1+jω(5−ω 2 )
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• L(jω) = (1+ω 2 )2
; When ω = 5, L(jω) = K /2
• When s = rejθ with r → ∞ and θ : 90◦ → −90◦ ,
L(s) → (K /r )e−jθ
EE 3CL4, §8
68 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist plot of L(s)/K
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability • Number of open loop RHP poles: 0
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
• Number of clockwise encirclements of −1:
Gain margin and
Phase margin if K < 1/2: 0; if K > 1/2: 1
Relationship to
transient response
• Hence closed loop is
stable for K < 1/2; unstable for K > 1/2
• This is what we would expect from root locus
EE 3CL4, §8
69 / 77
s−2
Tim Davidson Root locus of L(s) = (s+1)2
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
71 / 77
Tim Davidson Nyquist’s Criterion (Review)
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours • Consider a unity feedback system with an open loop transfer
Nyquist’s function L(s) = Gc (s)G(s)H(s),
criterion
Ex: servo, P control • Let PL denote the number of poles of L(s) in open RHP
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• Consider the modified Nyquist Contour in the s-plane
Nyquist’s (looping to the right of any poles or zeros on the jω-axis)
Stability
Criterion as a • Let ΓL denote image of mod. Nyquist Contour under L(s)
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
• Let NL denote the number of clockwise encirclements that ΓL
Phase margin
Relationship to makes of the point (−1, 0)
transient response

• Nyquist’s Stability Criterion:

Number of closed-loop poles in open RHP = NL + PL

EE 3CL4, §8
72 / 77
Tim Davidson Relative Stability: Introductory
Transfer Example
functions Consider
Frequency K
Response L(s) =
Plotting the
s(τ1 s + 1)(τ2 s + 1)
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours
Nyquist Diagram:
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
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Tim Davidson Zoom in
Since L(s) is minimum phase (no RHP zeros), we can zoom in
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
For a given K ,
Phase margin
Relationship to • how much extra gain would result in instability?
transient response
we will call this the gain margin
• how much extra phase lag would result in instability?
we will call this the phase margin
EE 3CL4, §8
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Tim Davidson Formal definitions
Transfer
functions

Frequency
• Gain margin: |L(jω1
Response
x )|
,
Plotting the
freq. resp.
where ωx is the frequency at which ∠L(jω) reaches −180◦
Mapping amplifying the open-loop transfer function by this amount
Contours
would result in a marginally stable closed loop
Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control • Phase margin: 180◦ + ∠L(jωc ),
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
where ωc is the frequency at which |L(jω)| equals 1
Nyquist’s adding this much phase lag would result in a marginally
Stability
Criterion as a stable closed loop
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and
Phase margin • These margins can be read from the Bode diagram
Relationship to
transient response
EE 3CL4, §8
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Tim Davidson Bode diagram
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and 1
Phase margin L(jω) =
Relationship to
transient response
jω(1 + jω)(1 + jω/5)

• Gain margin ≈ 15 dB
• Phase margin ≈ 43◦
EE 3CL4, §8
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Tim Davidson Phase margin and damping
Transfer
functions
• Consider a second-order open loop of the form
ωn2
Frequency L(s) = s(s+2ζω n)
, with ζ < 1
Response
p
Plotting the • Closed-loop poles s1 , s2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2
freq. resp.

Mapping • Let ωc be the frequency at which |L(jω)| = 1

Contours

Nyquist’s • Square and rearrange: ωc4 + 4ζ 2 ωn2 ωc2 − ωn4 = 0;

criterion ω2
p
Ex: servo, P control Equivalently, ωc2 = 4ζ 4 + 1 − 2ζ 2
Ex: unst., P control n
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.
• By definition, φpm = 180◦ + ∠L(jωc )
Nyquist’s
Stability
• Hence
Criterion as a
 2 
Design Tool φpm = atan p
Relative Stability (4 + 1/ζ 4 )1/2 − 2
Gain margin and
Phase margin
Relationship to
transient response
• Phase margin is an explicit function of damping ratio!
• Approximation: for ζ < 0.7, ζ ≈ 0.01φpm , where φpm is
measured in degrees
EE 3CL4, §8
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Tim Davidson Previous example
Transfer
functions

Frequency
Response

Plotting the
freq. resp.

Mapping
Contours

Nyquist’s
criterion
Ex: servo, P control
Ex: unst., P control
Ex: unst., PD contr.
Ex: RHP Z, P contr.

Nyquist’s
Stability
Criterion as a
Design Tool
Relative Stability
Gain margin and 1
Phase margin L(jω) =
Relationship to
transient response
jω(1 + jω)(1 + jω/5)

• Phase margin ≈ 43◦

• Damping ratio ≈ 0.43