





INDEX
TOPICS Page. No.
01. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1-28
02. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE 30-81
03. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 83-110
04. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 112-140
05. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 142-155
06. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM 157-189
07. MAGNETISM AND MATTER 191-219
08. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 221-259
09. ALTERNATING CURRENT 261-292
10. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 294-305
11. ATOMS 307-328
12. NUCLEI 330-355
13. RAY OPTICS 356-451
14. WAVE OPTICS 453-482
15. ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES 484-496

 
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS

qrest = qrelativisitc speeds.
INTRODUCTION
 A charged body may attract a light uncharged
Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which body due to charging by induction.
deals with static electric charges or charges at
 Static charge produces electric field only. But
rest. In this chapter, we shall study the basic
charge in uniform motion can produce electric
phenomena about static electric charges. The and magnetic fields.
charges in a electrostatic field are analogous to
 An oscillating or accelerating charged not only
masses in a gravitational field. These charges have
produces electric and magnitic fields and also
forces acting on them and hence possess potential emits electro magnetic radiation.
energy. The ideas are widely used in many METHODS OF CHARGING
branches of electricity and in the theory of atom. 1. CHARGING BY FRICTION
CHARGE This is the introductory electrostatics. When two
An American Scientist Benjamin Franklin bodies are rubbed with each other, due to friction
introduced a convention that charge that appears electrons are transferred from one body to other.
on amber (resinous) is –ve and that on wool Some examples of frictional electricity are given
(vitreous) is +ve. below.
 A comb passed through dry hair becomes
 The gravitational force of attraction between two charged.
electrons 1 cm apart = 5.5 × 10–67 N. However  An automobile is charged as it passes through
an electron repels another electron at 1 cm with air.
a force 2.3 × 10–24 N. This force is called electric  A paper sheet is charged when it is passed
force which is much larger than gravitational through a printing machine.
force. Fe/Fg ~ 1042.  A gramophone record becomes charged where
 Charge is quantized, all observable charges must it is rubbed with dry cloth.
be an integral multiples of electron’s charge  Charge on a glass rod rubbed with silk is
(e = 1.6 × 10–19 C). If an object contains n1 conventionally taken as +ve, the charge on silk
protons and n2 electron, the net charge on it is being -ve. Electrons are transferred from glass
(n1 – n2)e . to silk.
 Charge on an ebonite (or amber) rod rubbed
 Quarks:These are the particles having fractional
with fur (or wool) conventionally taken as –ve,
charges(e.g.,e/3;–e/3)but they never exist
independently.They exist in group so as to make the charge on fur (or wool) being +ve. Electrons
total charge on a body as an integralmultiple of e. are transferred from fur (or wool) to ebonite or
amber. Thus once being rubbed an ebonite rod
 In macroscopic level, quantization of charge is starts attracting fur (or wool).
insignificant.  Metals have free electrons (or amber outer most
 A neutral body has equal number of protons and electrons due to their zero inertia are free to
electrons. move). Thus they can conduct electricity due
 A +ve charge means loss of electrons. to their free electrons.
 A –ve charges means gain of electrons.  Electrolysis conduct due to their +ve as well as
–ve ions.
 Like charges repel each other and unlike charges
 Insulators or dielectrics have no free electron.
attract each other.
Hence they do not conduct.
 S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C).  Semiconductors behave like insulators at low
 Units of charge temperature, but at room temperature they
SI : Coulomb, CGS : esu/Stat Coulomb/Franklin conduct electricity due to their free electrons and
1 C = 3 × 109 Stat Coulombs, 1 Ah = 3600 C holes
 Electric charge of an isolated system is
2. CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
conserved.
When a charged body is touched with a neutral
 Charge is relativistically invariant
body, some amount of charge is flown from

Page 1
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

charged body to neutral body(actually, electrons potential becomes zero, charge may or may
flow from low potential body to high potential not be zero.
body) till electric potential of both bodies are
 If an isolated body is connected with earth then
equal. So in this case, the neutral body becomes
its potential and charge both are zero, in fact to
charged and the nature of charge developed in
this body is identical to that on initial charged make the potential zero, excess charge from the
body. body is removed to earth.

3. CHARGING BY INDUCTION LEAF ELECTROSCOPE:

In this process, a charged body (let take q) A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body.
should be placed very close to neutral body Based on charging by induction. It consists of a
without touching it. vertical metal rod housed in a box, with two thin
 In neutral body, opposite charges (in this case gold leaves attached knob at the top of the rod,
– ve) will appear at the near end to charged body charge flows on the leaves and they diverge. The
and like charges (in this case +ve) will appear at degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount
far end. This rearrangement of charges in neutral of charge.
body is known as induction. Metal cap
 For charging by induction, neutral body should
be grounded / earthed. So charges appeared in Insulator
far end is neutralized by transfer of electrons
between the earth and body. Leaving only near
end charges (in this case – ve) in the body. Metal stem
 After removing earth and then the charged body,
Gold leaf
the excess charge (in this case – ve) in neutral
body is distributed uniformly, making the body
oppositely charged. Earthed metal
A A Cage
Electrons
– +
(a) (b) +q – + a. Place charge on the cap;
– +
– + b. Charge spreads to the stem and to the leaf;
A A c. The leaf is repelled by the stem as they acquire
– – the same charge. To determine the type of
(c) +q – (d) +q –
– – charge, charge the electroscope with a known
– –
charge
 Amount of charge induced depends on nature
DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE
of neutral body. If K is its dielectric constant,
amount of charge induced Linear charge distribution : In which the
charge is distributed along a line. Charge on small
 1 length dl
q '   q  1   (will be discussed later)
 K
dq  dl  q   dl
For metals K   , So q ' = – q. ++
++++
For other bodies (dielectrics) (K > 1), So | q ' | < |q| +++ dl
++
+ ++
EARTHING
If charge is distributed uniformly dq  dl
If any body is connected with earth then its
Page 2
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

dq = relative permittivity of the medium (r )

where  = linear charge density =  0 r
dl
Surface charge distribution : In which the  ‘r ’ is also called dielectric constant of the
charge is distributed over a surface. Charge on medium. It is represented by ‘k’ also.
a small area dA
 Similar charges repel each other i.e. two positive
dq  dA  q   dA charges (or two negative charges) exert force
on each other that act away from the charges.
+ + + + +
+ + + + Dissimilar charges attract each other.
+ +
+
+ +
+  r = 1 for vacuum and r   for metals
+ + + +
+ + dA  Force between two charges in vacuum / Force
between same charge in a medium of dielectric
dq F0
where  surface charge density = constant k = = k.
dA F
Volume charge distribution : In which the  Coulomb’s law is applicable for point charges
charge is distributed in a volume charge on small and stationary charges only .
volume dV  Electrostatic force is a conservative force, which
dq  dV  q   dV depends on intervening medium b/w charges.
dV  The force of interaction between two charges
is independent of presence or absence of other
charge(s).
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
dq If more than two charges are present in space,
where  = volume charged density =
dV the net force F on any charge q, is the vector
COULOMB’S LAW sum of the electrical forces (coulomb forces)
acting on it individually due to other charges.
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 are in
vacuum at a separation r, the force between them Q2
1 q1q2
is F = where ‘ 0 ’ is called
4 0 r 2 q
Q1 F1
permittivity of vacuum.
In S.I. units, 0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C2/ Nm2 F3
F2
So, 1 ~
 9 109 Nm2 / C2 -Q3
4 0
   
Y F  F1  F2  F3  ........ where F1 is the force on
q1 q2 charge q due to charge Q1 and so on.
F1  F r F2  F
 If equal charges are symmetrically distributed
r1 around a given charge then resultant force on
r2 the given charge is zero.
  X Illustration 1 :
 1 q1 2 r1  r2 
q 
Vectorically, F1    3 A particle of charge q 1 and mass m is
40 | r1  r2 |
If the charges are located in a medium revolving around a fixed negative charge of
magnitude q2 in a circular path of radius r.
1 q1q2 Find the time period of revolution.
F= ,
4  r 2 Solution :
where  = permittivity of the medium
Also, the ratio of  and 0 is called

Page 3
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
The force of attraction between q 1 and q2
provides necessary centripetal force.
l
 

Fe T T
q2 q1
Fe Fe

1 q1q 2 mg mg
Hence Fe = Fc = 4   m2r
0 r2 1 q2
Fe 
4 0  2l sin  2 ...... (1)
q1 q 2 2
  and Time period T 
4 0 mr 3  T sin   Fe ...... (2)
 0 mr T cos   mg ...... (3)
T  4r
q1 q 2 T
Illustration 2 : 
Two point charges Q and q are placed at Fe
r
distance r and respectively along a
2 mg
straight line from a third charge 4q. If q is
Q
Eliminating T and Fe, we get
in equilibrium, determine q . q2
Tan 
Solution : mg 4 0l 2 sin 2 
Net force on q = 0
  q 2  (4mgl 2 sin2  tan ) 4 0
F1  F2  0
Illustration 4 :
r/2 r/2
Two identical balls each having density 
Q F2 q F1 4q are suspended from a common point by two
insulating strings of equal length Both the
1 Qq 1 4q.q balls have equal mass and charge. In
   0
4 0 (r /2)2 4 0 (r /2)2 equilibrium, each string makes an angle 
with the vertical. Now both the ball are
Q immersed in a liquid. As a result, the angle
  4
q  does not change. The density of the liquid
Illustration 3 : is  . Find the dielectric constant of the
2 Small spheres each of mass m and carrying liquid.
+q coulomb, are suspended by massless Solution :
insulating threads, each of length l. Prove
that q 2  (4mgl2 sin2  tan )40 , where  l l
 
is angle made of strings with the vertical at
equilibrium. T T
T cos
Solution :
When the system is in equilibrium, each string F T sin F
x
makes an angle  with the vertical.
W air W

Page 4
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

From the above three equations, we can write

l 1 q QRd  d 
l 2
 2T  
  4 0 R 2 R  2 
T T
T cos+ Vg
 sin    for small angle 
T sin F qQ
F after simplification finally T  8 R 2
x 0

W Liquid W Illustration 6 :
Let v is the volume of each ball, then mass Atomic number of copper is 29, its atomic
of each ball is m   v ; When balls are in air weight is 63.5 gm/mole. If two pieces of
T cos   mg ; T sin   F copper having weight 10 gm are taken and
from one of the pieces 1 electron per 1000
F  mg tan    vg tan  ---------(1) atom is transferred to the other piece and
When balls are suspended in liquid. The there after these pieces are placed 10 cm
1 F apart, then what will be the coulomb force
coulombic force is reduced to F  and
K between them?
apparent weight = weight - up thrust ;
Solution:
W 1   vg   vg In 1 mole copper (63.5 gm) there are 6 × 1023
According to the problem, angle  is atoms (NA = Avagadro number = 6 × 1023
uncharged-Therefore atoms)
F 1  W 1 tan     vg   vg  tan  ---(2)
6  1023  10
F  Number of atoms = =9.45 × 1022
K  63.5
From (1) and (2) ;
F1   For every 1000 atoms, 1 electron is transferred
Illustration 5 : therefore total number of transferred electron is
A ring of radius R is with a uniformly
distributed charge Q on it. A charge q is now 9.45  1022
  9.45  1019
placed at the centre of the ring. Find the 1000
increment in tension in the ring Therefore charge on one piece is 9.45 × 1019
Solution: e and on the other will be (9.45 × 1019e)
Consider an element of the ring. Its enlarged view
is as shown. For equilibrium of this segment, we Force when they are kept 10 cm apart
can write. 1 q1q 2 1 (9.45  1019 )2 e2
F F 
4 0 r2 4 0 (10  102 )2
Q 9  109  (9.45  1019 )2  (1.6  1019 )2
d
= (10  102 )2
q d/2 d/2
T T
d
= 2 × 1014 N
Illustration 7 :
q
Consider four equal charges (q each) placed
 d 
F  2T sin   on the corners of a square with side a.
 2  Determine the magnitude and direction of
Here F is the repulsive force between q and
the resultant force on the charge on lower
elemental charge dQ
right corner.
 Q  Solution:
 dQ  2 R  Rd  
  The forces on the charge on lower right corner
The electric outward force on element is due to charges 1, 2, 3 are F1 = kq2/a2, F2 = kq2/
1 qdQ a2, F3 = kq2/2a2 The resultant of F1 and F2 is
F
4 0 R 2
Page 5
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

q3 a 2q distributed a long its length). find the

magnitude of electric force between the two.
a a
Solution:
2a
L r q
q q dE
a F1
1 P
F3 dx x
F2
Consider a small element of the rod of length dx,
F12  F12  F22  2F1F2 cos 90º  2kq 2 / a 2 at a distance ‘x’ from the point charge q. Treating
This is in the direction parallel to F3. Therefore the element as a point charge, the force between
the total force on the said charge is F = F12 + F3 ‘q’ and charge element will be
1 kq 2 1 qdQ Q
F (1  2 2) The direction of dF  2 ; But, dQ  dx
2 a2 4 0 x L
F is 45º below the horizontal line
1 qQdx
Illustration 8 : So, dF  4  Lx 2
Five point charges, each of value +q are 0

placed on five vertices of a regular hexagon 1 qQ r  L dx

F   dF 
of side L. What is the magnitude of the force 4 0 L r x 2
on a point charge of value –q coulomb
r L
placed at the centre of the hexagon? 1 qQ  1  1 qQ  1 1 
   
Solution: 4 0 L  x  r 4 0 L  r r  L 

If there had been a sixth charge +q at the
remaining vertex of hexagon force due to all the 1 qQ
F
six charges on -q at O will be zero (as the forces 4 0 r  r  L 
due to individual charges will balance each other),
 ELECTRIC FIELD
i.e., FR = 0.
The space around electric charge upto which its
E D influence is felt is known as electric field.
q q  Electric field is a conservative field.
q q Intensity of Electric Field: The intensity of
0
F -q C electric field or electric field strength E at a point
in space is defined as the force experienced by
q unit positive test charge placed at that point”.
A B  The intensity of electric field is also often called
  as electric field strength.
Now If f is the force due to sixth charge and F  Consider an electric field in a given region. Bring
 
due to remaining five charges, F  f  0 a charge q0 to a given point in that field without
  disturbing any other charge that has produced
i.e. F   f or,,
the field.
1 q xq 1 q 
2

Ff    Let F be the electric force experienced by q0
40 L2
40  L 
and it is found to be proportional to q0
Illustration 9 :
   
A point charge q is situated at a distance ‘r’ F  q0  F  Eq0 . Here E is proportionality
from one end of a thin conducting rod of
constant called electric field strength
length L having a charge Q (uniformly
Page 6
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

 charges where resultant or net field is zero.

 F
E Case 1: If the charges are like, the neutral point
q0 will be between the charges.
 Electric field strength is a vector quantity. Its x (r-x)
direction is the direction along which a free q1 p q2
positive charge experiences the force in the 
electric field. Let P be the null point where Enet  0
 
 The S.I unit of electric field strength is newton  E1  E2  0 (due to those charges)
per coulomb (NC-1). It can also be expressed in  
volt per meter (Vm-1). or E1   E2 and E1  E2

ELECTRIC FIELD INTERNSITY DUE TO AN ISOLATED 1 q1 1 q2

 
POINT CHARGE : 4 0 x 2
4 0  r  x  2
Consider a point charge ‘Q’ placed at point A q1 q2
 or x 2  r  x 2
as shown. Let us find the electric field E at a  
point P at a distance ‘r’ from charge Q. Imagine r
x
a positive test charge q0 at P. The charge Q on solving we get q2
1
 q1
produces a field E at P..
Case 2 : If the charges are unlike, the neutral
Q r q0
point will be outside the charge on the line joining
A p them.
The force applied by Q on q0 is given by r
1 Qq0 x q1 - q2
F 2 . This acts along AP..
4 0 r q1 q2
According to definition In this case x 2
 2
  r  x
 F  1 Q
E E rˆ r
q0 4 0 r 2 x
 On solving we get q2
 If ‘Q’ is positive, E is along AP and if ‘Q’ is 1
 q1
negative E will be along PA .
 If instead of a single charge, field is produced
 If the charge ‘Q’ is in a medium of permittivity
by number of charges, by the principle of super
   position resultant electric field intensity
 , and dielectric constant K,  K    the    
 0 
E  E1  E 2  E 3  ....
intensity of electric field in a medium (Emed) is
given by MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD :
1 Q E free space
Emed   Emed  A charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ is
4 r 2 K initially at rest in a uniform electric field of
NULL POINT OR NEUTRAL POINT intensity E. The force acting on it, F  Eq .
In the case of a system of charges if the net
electric field is zero at a point, it is known as null  Here the direction of F is in the direction of field
point. if ‘q’ is  ve and opposite to the field if ‘q’ is
 Application : Two point (like) charge q1 and q2  ve .
are separated by a distance ‘r’ and fixed, We
can locate the point on the line joining those
Page 7
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

E E  Eq 
v y  at   t
+  m 
F  Eq F   Eq
2 2 2E 2 q 2t 2
 The body travels in a straight line path with  v  v  vx  v y  u 
m2
F Eq
uniform acceleration a   , initial  Two charges +Q each are separated by a distance
m m 'd'. The intensity of electric field at the midpoint
velocity u  0 . of the line joining the charges is zero.
At an instant of time t. Illustration10 :
Two charges +Q each are placed at the two
 Eq  vertices of an equilateral triangle of side a.
Its final velocity, v  u  at   t The intensity of electric field at the third
 m  vertex is
1 2 1  Eq  2 Solution:
E  E
Displacement s  ut  at   t
2 2 m 
Momentum, P  mv   Eq  t a a
Kinetic energy,
+Q a +Q
1 2 1  E 2q 2  2
K .E  mv   t 1 2 2
E  E  E  2  E  E  cos 
2 2 m  2
 2 E 2  2 E 2 cos  2 E 1  cos  
 When a charged particle enters perpendicularly
into a uniform electric field of intensity E with a 
= 2 E cos ; Here   600
velocity ‘v’ then it describes parabolic path as 2
shown in figure. 1 Q
 E= 3
4  0 a 2
+ + + + + +
Illustration11 :
u
+ Two charges +Q, -Q are placed at the two
q vertices of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’,
y then the intensity of electric field at the third
vertex is
Solution:
x 
 Along the horizontal direction, there is no E1 = 2E cos = E (   1200 )
acceleration and hence x  ut . 2
E
Along the vertical direction, acceleration
120°
F Eq
a  (here gravitational force is not a
m m E
considered) a
1  Eq  2 +Q a –Q
Hence vertical displacement, y    t
1 Q
2 m 
E1 = 4   a 2
2 0
1  qE  x   qE  2
y      x Oblique projection of charged particle in an
2  m  u   2mu 2  uniform elctric field (Neglecting
 At any instant of time t, horizontal component of gravitational force) : Consider a uniform
velocity, vx  u electric field E in space along Y-axis. A negative
charged particle of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ be
 vertical component of velocity projected in the XY plane from a point ‘O’ with

Page 8
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

a velocity u making an angle  with the X-axis. 2u sin 

(Neglecting gravitational force). a. Time of flight  EQ
g
m
Ejˆ u 2 sin 2 
b. Maximum height 
 EQ 
2 g  
υ  m 

θ u 2 sin 2
X c. Range 
o g
EQ
 Initial velocity o f the particle is m
 TIME PERIOD OF OSCILLATION OF A CHARGED BODY
u  u cos  iˆ  u sin  ˆj
  The bob of a simple pendulum is given a +ve
Force acting on the particle is F  qE (along- charge and it is made to oscillate in a vertically
ve Y axis) upward electric field, then the time period of
 qE ˆ oscillation is
a j
m
Velocity of the particle after time ‘t’ is
    T E
v  u  at ; v  u cos  iˆ   u sin   at  ˆj
If the point of projection is taken as origin, its T  2
l
position vector after time ‘t’ is g
EQ
 m
r  xiˆ  yjˆ where x=(ucos  ) t
1 mg
y   u sin   t  at 2
2  In the above case, if the bob is given a -ve charge
If the charged particle is projected along the x- then the time period is given by
axis, then   00
Eq ˆ T
 v  uiˆ  tj E
m
1 Eq 2 l
T  2
Here x  ut and y  t EQ
2 m g
m
 Direction of motion of particle after time ‘t’
makes an angle  with x-axis, where mg
Eqt  A sphere is given a charge of 'Q' and is
tan  
mu suspended in a horizontal electric field. The
 A charged particle of charge Q is projected angle made by the string with the vertical is,
with an initial velocity u in a vertically upward
 EQ 
electric field making an angle  to the horizontal.   tan 1  
Then  mg 
If gravitational force is considered  The tension in the string is  EQ 2   mg 2
Net force = mg  F  mg  Eq
Hence effective acceleration
Eq
Net acceleration = g  2
m F  Eq 
 The negative sign is used when electric field is in geff   g2   
m  m
upward direction where as positive sign is used
when electric field is in downward direction for  Time period of oscillation is given by
positively charged projected particle.

Page 9
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

mass and the wall

l l b) Find the separation of the point mass and
T  2  2
g eff 2 Eq 
2
wall at the equilibrium position of mass
g   c) Find the energy stored in the spring at
 m
the equilibrium position of the point mass.
Illustration12 :
E
An infinite number of charges each ‘q’ are
placed in the x-axis at distances of wall
m K
1,2,4,8...meter from the origin. If the q
charges are alternately positive and
negative find the intensity of electric field
at origin. L
Solution: Solution:
At maximum separation, velocity of point
The electric field intensities due to positive
mass is zero. From work energy theorem,
charges and due to -ve charges the field intensity
is towards the charges Wspring  W field  0
1
E4 qEx0  kx02  0 (x0 is maximum elongation)
E2 2
E1
2qE 2qE
E3  x0  ;  separation = L 
K k
q q q q b) At equilibrium position.
x=0 x=1 x=2 x=4 x=8 qE
Eq  kx  x 
The resultant intensity at the origin k
E  E1  E2  E3  E4      qE
 separation = L 
k
Q  1 1 1  1 2 1  qE 
2
q2E 2
E  1  2  2  2  ........ 
4 0  2 4 8  c) U  kx  k   
2 2  k  2k
Since the expression in the bracket is in GP
Illustration14 :
1 1 A block having mass ’m’ and charge ‘q’ is
with a common ratio =  2 
2 4 resting on a frictionless plane at distance L
Q 1 Q 4 from the wall as shown in fig. Discuss the
E  motion of the block when a uniform electric
4 0   1   4 0 5
1   4   field E is applied horizontally towards the
   wall assuming that collision of the block
4 Q with the wall is perfectly elastic.
E
5 4 0
Q R
E
5 0 E
Illustration13 : m q
A point mass ‘m ’ and charge ‘q’ is
connected with a spring of negligible mass L
with natural length L., Initially spring is
mg
in natural length. Now a horizontal
Solution:
uniform electric field E is switched on as The situation is shown in fig. Electric force
shown. Find  
a) The maximum separation between the F  qE will accelerate the block towards the
Page 10
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

wall producing an acceleration The net electric field at centre will be along angle
bisector which can be calculated by integrating
F qE 1
a  L  at 2 dEcos  within limits from  / 2 to  / 2
m m 2 Hence net electric field strength at centre C is
 /2
2L 2mL Q
i.e., t   Ec   dE cos    cos  d
a qE 4 0 R 2
 / 2
As collision with the wall is perfectly elastic, the  /2
Q
block will rebound with same speed and as now   cos  d
is motion is opposite to the acceleration,, it will 4 0 R 2  / 2

come to rest after travelling same distance L in Q  /2

2 
 sin   / 2
same time t. After stopping it will be again 4 0 R 
accelerated towards the wall and so the block
Q
will execute oscillatory motion with time period sin  / 2  sin  / 2
4 0 R 2
2mL 2Q sin  / 2 
T  2t  2 Ec 
qE 4 0 R 2
However, as the restoring force F(=qE) when for a semi circular ring    . So at centre
the block is moving away from the wall is constant
2Q sin  / 2  2Q sin  / 2  2Q
and not proportional to displacement x, the Ec  2
 2
 2
motion is not simple harmonic. 4 0 R  4 0 R  4  0 R 2

Illustration15 : ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO

A UNIFORMLY CHARGED ROD
Consider a circular arc of radius R which
At an axial point :
subtends an angle  at its centre. Let us
calculate the electric field strength at C. L
+ P
+ + + + + + + + ++ r
Rd

+ R
+
+
E Consider a rod of length L, uniformly charged
d

+
+


+  C with a charge Q. To calculate the electric field

+ dE strength at a point P situated at a distance ‘r’
+
+
+ from one end of the rod, consider an element of
+
length dx on the rod as shown in the figure.
Solution:
Consider a polar segment on arc of angular width L
r
d at an angle  from the angular bisector XY dE
as shown. The length of elemental segment is P
dx x
Rd  . The charge on this element dq is
 Charge on the elemental length dx is
Q
dq  d dq Qdx
 Q
dq  dx dE  2

Due to this dq, electric field at centre of arc C is L 4 0 x 4 0 Lx 2
given as
 The net electric field at point P can be given by
dq integrating this expression over the length of the
dE 
4 0 R 2 rod.
The electric field component dE to this segment rL rL
dE sin  which is perpendicular to the angle Q Q 1
E p   dE   2
dx   dx
bisector gets cancelled out on integration. r Lx 4 0 4 0 L r x 2

Page 11
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

rL L

Q  1  Qr 2
dx
Ep 
4 0 L  x  r Ep 
4 0 L  3/ 2

L
2
r 2
 x2 
Q 1 1  Q
Ep      x
4 0 L  r r  L  4 0 r  r  L  From the diagram tan  
r
At an equatorial point : To find the electric x  r tan 
field due to a rod at a point P situated at a distance On differentiation; dx  r sec 2  d
‘r’ from its centre on its equatorial line
Qr r sec2  d Q sec 2 d
4 0 L  r 3 sec3  4 0 Lr  sec3 
Ep  ; 
P
Q Q
  cos  d  sin  
r 4 0 Lr 4 0 Lr
+ + + + + + + + 1 x 1 x
Substituting   tan r  sin
x2  r 2
L L
Q  x 2
(a) EP 
4 0 Lr  x 2  r 2   L ;
2
dE dE cos
  
 
P Q  1 
dE sin r 
 4 0 r L 2 
  r2 
+++ + + + dx +  4 
x
Q  2 
Ep   2 
4 0 r  L  4r 2 
(b) ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A
 Consider an element of length dx at a distance UNIFORMLY CHARGED RING :
‘x’ from centre of rod as in figure (b). Charge on
THE INTENSITY OF ELECTRIC FIELD AT A DISTANCE ‘X’
Q
the element is dq  dx . METERS FROM THE CENTRE ALONG THE AXIS:
L
 The strength of electric field at P due to this point Consider a circular ring of radius ‘a’ having a
charge ‘q’ uniformly distributed over it as shown
charge dq is dE.
in figure. Let ‘O’ be the centre of the ring .
dq A
 dE  dx
4 0  r  x 
2 2

 The component dEsin  will get cancelled and a (x, 0) dE2

 X
net electric field at point P will be due to O  p
x dE1
integration of dE cos only..
Net electric field strength at point P can be given
as dx B
L Consider an element dx of the ring at point A.

2
Qdx r 1 The charge on this element is given by
E p   dE cos    L r   qdx
L
2
x 
2
r  x 4 0
2 2
dq  dx  charge density dq 

2 2 a
a) The intensity of electric field dE1 at point P due
to the element dx at A is given by

Page 12
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

1 dq dy
dE1  2
4 0 r P
The direction of dE1 is as shown in figure. The x dE
component of intensity along x-axis will be
1 dq
cos   dE1 cos 
4 0 r 2  Electric field strength due to a uniformly charged
The component of intensity along y-axis will disc at a distance x from its surface is given as
1 dq   x 
be 4 r 2 sin   dE1 sin  E 1  2 
0 2 0  x  R2 
 Similarly if we consider an element dx of the ring
opposite to A which lies at B, the component of 
If x 0 we get E 
intensity will be equal and opposite to the 2 0
component of intensity perpendicular to the axis ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
due to element at A. Hence they cancel each
It is a path such that the tangent to this path at
other. Due to symmetry of ring the component
of intensity due to all elements of the ring any point gives the direction of electric field
perpendicular to the axis will cancel. intensity at that point. Line of force start from a
So the resultant intensity is only along the axis of positive charge and end on a negative charge. It
the ring. The resultant intensity is given by can be straight or curved. They do not intersect
1 dq each other. At a point where magnitude of E is
E cos  more, lines of force are more crowded. Lines of
4 0 r 2
1 qdx x force do not exist inside a conductor, because E
E 
4 0  2 ar 2 r (where cos  x / r )
= 0 inside a conductor.
 Line of force is not the path travelled by test
1 qx 1 charge in Electric field.
E   3 
dx
4 0  2 a 
a  x 
2 2 2
E = constant
2 3/ 2
 r 3   a 2  x  
  E = constant E = variable
1 qx 1
E  2 a
4 0 2 a  a  x 2 3/2
2  Number of lines of force originating from a
given charge is proportional to the magnitude
1 qx
E of charge
4 0  a  x 2 3/ 2
2

At its centre x = 0
 Electric field at centre is zero.
 By symmetry we can say that electric field +q -q
strength at centre due to every small segment on
ring is cancelled by the electric field at centre
due to the element exactly opposite to it. As in
the figure the electric field at centre due to segment
A is cancelled by that due to segment B. Thus  Electric lines of force should be  to
net electric field strength at the centre of a equipotential surface.
uniformly charged ring is Ecentre  0 .
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO A
UNIFORMLY SURFACE CHARGED
DISC +q -q

Page 13
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

 Electric lines of force do not form a loop.

E
 Tcos 
T

qE
+q E=0 +q Tsin 

mg
(b) Tension T, electric force Fe and gravity force
  
Electric lines of force are always  to mg act on the bob, as shown T  qE  mg  0
equipotential surface. Also T balances the resultant of qE and mg.
Illustration 16 : Therefore T =  qE 2   mg 2
An  particle is located at a point where
electric field strength is 3 × 10 4 N/C. = 2 qE (as qE = mg)
Calculate (a) the force on the  -particle (b) = 2  2  10 9  2  104
its acceleration. = 5.64 × 10–5 N
Solution : Illustration 18:
  Along x-axis at positions x = 1, x = 2, x = 4
(a) F  qE
.........  charges q are placed. What will be

F   2  1.6  10  C  3  10  N / C 
19 4
electric field at x = 0 due to these charges.
What will be the value of electric field if
15 15
 6  1.6  10  9.6  10 N the charges are alternately positive and
  negative.
 F qE 9.6  10 15 N
(b) a  m  m  4  1.6  10 27 kg us Solution:
By superposition theory
q q q q
 1.5  1012 m /s2 
x=0 x=1 x=2 x=4 x=8
Illustration 17 :
A pendulum bob has mass 4 mg and carries q 1 1 1 1 
a charge 2 × 10–9 coulomb. It hangs in E  2
 2  2  2  .....
4 0 1 2 4 8 
equilibrium from a massless thread of
length 50 cm whose other end is fixed to a q 1 1 1 1 
      .....
vertical wall. A horizontal electric field of 4 0 1 4 16 64 
intensity 200 V/cm exists in space. Calculate Terms in the bracket are G.P. with first term a =
(a) Angle made by the thread with 1 a
the vertical 1 and common ratio r = . Its sum S 
4 1 r
(b) Tension in the thread
q  1   1 4
Solution :  E   q
(a) At equilibrium, qE = T sin  4 0 1  1/ 4   4 0  3
mg = T cos  Therefore,
If the charges are alternately positive and negative
qE 2  109  2  10 4 q q q q
tan     1.0
mg 4  10 6  10 x=0 x=1 x=2 x=4 x=8
 = 45°
q  1 1 1 
E 1  4  16  64  ....
4 0
where a = 1, r = –1/4
q  1   1  4q
E   =  4   5
4  0 1  (  1/ 4)   0

Page 14
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Illustration 19 :  1 q  
3
A copper ball of density 8.6 gm/cm , 1 cm in
Now, E   3
rp  rq 
4 0 | rp  rq |
diameter is immersed in oil of density 0.8 g/ Substituting the values, we have
cm3. What is the charge on the ball if it  (9  109 )(1.0  106 )
remains just suspended in oil in an electric E  3/2
(ˆi  6ˆj  k)
ˆ
(38)
field of intensity 36000 V cm –1 acting in the

upward direction? E  (38.42iˆ  231.52jˆ  38.42k) ˆ N
Solution : C
–1 6
E = 36000 V cm = 3.6 × 10 N/C Illustration 21 :
= 3.6 × 1011 dyne/C The f i eld lines f or two point charges are
r = radius of the ball = 0.5 cm shown in f ig.
V = vo1ume of the ball
3
4 3 4 1  3
= r      cm
3 3 2 6 A D B C E
U= upthrust = weight of the displaced oil =

Vdg = × 0.8 × 980 dyne i. Is the field uniform?
6
U ii. Determine the ratio qA / qB .
E
iii. What are the signs of q A and qB ?
qE
iv. If qA and qB are separated by a distance
10 cm, find the position of neutral point.
Solution:
i. No
ii. Number of lines coming from or coming to a
mg charge is proportional to magnitude of charge,
 q A 12
m = mass of the ball = Vd1 = (8.6) so q  6  2
6
B
For equilibrium; U + qE = mg
 iii. q A is positive and qB is negative
 0.8  10 2  9.8  q  3.6  1011
6
iv. C is the other neutral point.

  8.6  102  9.8 v. For neutral point E A = EB
6
–12
Solving q = 1.11 × 10 Coulomb.
1 qA 1 qB
Illustration 20: 2

4 0  l  x  4 0 x 2
A charge q = 1  C is placed at point (1m,
2m, 4m). Find the electric field at point EB
P(0m, –4m, 3m). A B EA
Solution : l C

Here, rq  î  2 ĵ  4k̂ 2


l  x qA
and rp  4jˆ  3k ˆ     2  x  24.2 cm
 x  qB
 
 rp  rq   î  6 ĵ  k̂ ELECTRIC FLUX
or It is the measure of total number of electric
  2 2 2 lines of force crossing normally the given area.
| rp  rq | (1)  (6)  (1)  38 m
 The total flux passes through the given surface is
Page 15
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
  y
given by   E . A E

E a
ds
 x
ds
a
a
z
 in= –a2 E and  out= a2 E
   EA cos   total =0
where  is the angle made by the normal with
E
the electric field.
 total = 0
 Its unit is N m2/Coulomb or volt-meter. Its R
dimension is ML3T–3A–1.
The area vector of shown surface is ds . E
 acute   is  ve
 exiting line of force R q
 obtuse   is  ve kq q q
E   2 R 2  2

 entering line of force R 2 4  0 R 2 0
 This vector is perpendicular to the surface. Note : here electric field is radial
Then flux linked with this surface ELECTRIC DIPOLE
  A pair of equal and opposite charges separated
 E   E  ds  E ds cos 
 Electric flux is also defined as the total number by a small distance is called a dipole. Its dipole
of lines of force passing normally through the moment is p  q  d where d is the distance
given surface. between the charges and q is magnitude of the
 The value of  is zero in the following 
circumstances : charge. Dipole moment p is a vector and
(a) If a dipole is (or many dipoles are) enclosed by a 
direction of p is from --q to +q.
closed surface
(b) Magnitude of (+ve) and (-ve) charges are equal  For convenience of calculation the distance d is
inside a closed surface written as 2a in which case | p|  2a.q
(c) If no charge is enclosed by the closed surface 
(d) Incoming flux (- ve) = out going flux (+ve) p (resultant due to many dipoles)
 
ds  p1  p2  ....
E FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF A
R E
ds ds DIPOLE
E
 in= –  R2 E and  out=  R2 E -q +q E2 E E
2a P 1
 total = 0 r

R E 1 2 pr
Ea 
4  (r  a 2 ) 2
2
E
 
1 2pr
 in=  circular = –  R E2  Vectorially E  where r is the
40 (r 2  a 2 )2
and  out=  curved =  R2 E distance of the point from the centre of the
 total = 0 
dipole. The direction of E is same as the

direction of dipole moment p . If r >> a,
 
 1 2 p  2kp
Ea 
40 r 3 r3

Page 16
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON THE EQUATORIAL Note : For a short dipole

LINE OF A DIPOLE 1
(a) E on the same line
Ee 
1 p r3
3/2  
 4 0 r  a 2 (b) E a  2E e for same `r’’
2
 
E1 TORQUE ON A DIPOLE PLACED IN AN EXTERNAL
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD

 +q
E
qE
 P m
a
E2 2a sin  E
 a
r
m 
qE -q
 
-q +q Net Force on dipole = qE – qE = 0
P Net Torque on the dipole 
a a  = (Either force) × (perpendicular distance
 1 p kp
Ee   3
 between the two parallel forces)
40 (r 2  a 2 )3 / 2
r 2
a 2 2
 = qE . 2a sin  = 2aq.E.sin    = pE sin 
  Vectorically, τ = p × E
1 p 
If r >> a, E e   3
  kp / r 3   
4π 0 r ( tries to allign p along E)
 
For r >> a Ea  2E e  pE sin 
angular acceleration  
FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT HAVING POLAR I 2ma 2
CO-ORDINATES (R, θ ) Illustration 22:
2pcos  psin  Calculate the electric field intensity due
 E11  E 
4 0 r 3 40 r3 to an electric dipole of length 10 cm having
charges of 100 µC at a point 20 cm from
1 p
2
E  E11  E 2 E 3 cos 2   1 each charge on equatorial line.
4 0 r 3 Solution:
E The electric intensity on the equatorial line of
E  E11
an electric dipole is
1 p
E
4  0 (d  l 2 ) 3 / 2
2


r p = 2l q C-m
os
pc

= 10–5 C-m
 p d2 + l2 = (20 × 10–2)2 = 4 × 10–2
-q +q
9  109  105
p sin E
 Direction of E w.r.t direction of r is given by (4  102 )3/2
tan  1  tan   9  109  10 5 9
tan   or   tan     107
2  2  10 3  8 8
E = 1.125 × 107 N/C
E  E11
 Illustration23 :
P Find out the torque on dipole in N-m given :

L Electric dipole moment P  107 (5iˆ  ˆj  2k)
ˆ
r
co

ulomb meter and electric field
 p E  107 (iˆ  ˆj  k)
ˆ Vm–1 is -
-q P +q
Page 17
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Solution:
d 2
ˆi ˆj kˆ  
   dt 2
  PE = 5 1 2  This equation represents simple harmonic motion
1 1 1 (SHM). When dipole is displaced from its mean
position by small angle, then it will execute SHM.
 ˆi(1  2)  ˆj(2  5)  k(5
ˆ  1)  3iˆ  7ˆj  4kˆ
d 2 pE

|  | 8.6 N-m Eq (iii) can be written as  0
dt 2 I
Illustration24 :  On comparing above equation with standard
Three points charges +q, –2q, +q are equation of SHM.
arranged on the vertices of an equilateral d 2
triangle as shown in the figure. Find the 2
  2 y  0 , we have ;
dipole moment of the system. dt
-2q pE pE
2   
30o 30o
I I
a a
I
T  2 , where T is the time period of
+q a +q pE
Solution:
oscillations.
Arrangement of the charges is equivalent to two
dipoles having dipole moment p each as shown Illustration 25:
above. An electric dipole of dipole moment p is kept
Net dipole moment at a distance r from an infinite long charged
Pnet = p cos 30° + p cos 30° wire of linear charge density  as shown.
Pnet = 2p cos 30° = p 3 = qa 3 Find the force acting on the dipole ?
psin30o -q -q psin30
o

A
o o
+ P
 30 30 +
 + r
+
2pcos
+q +q +
OSCILLATORY MOTION OF DIPOLE IN
A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD Solution:
When dipole is displaced from its position of Field intensity at a distance r from the line of
equilibrium. The dipole will then experience a 
charge is E
torque given by    pE sin  2  0 r
For small value of  ,    pE --------(i) dE
 Where negative sign shows that torque is acting The force on the dipole is F  p dr
against increasing value of 
  
Also,   I ,  p    p
2
Where, I = moment of inertia and  2 0 r  2 0 r 2
  angular acceleration. Here the net force on dipole due to the wire will
d 2 be attractive.
  I 2 ---------(ii)
dt F ORCE BETWEEN TWO SHORT DIPOLES
 Hence, from eqs (i) and (ii), we have Consider two short dipoles separated by a
d2 2
d   pE distance r. There are two possibilities.
I 2   pE or 2   ----(iii); a) If the dipoles are parallel to each other.
dt dt I

Page 18
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Illustration26 :
Six charges are placed at the vertices of a
r regular hexagon as shown in the figure. The
P1 P2
electric field on the line passing through
point O and perpendicular to the plane of
E2 E1
the figure at a distance of x   a  from O
1 3p1p2 is
F  4  a
0 r4
Asthe force +Q –Q
 is positive, it is repulsive. Similarly
if p1 || p2 the force is attractive.
b) If the dipoles are on the same axis
+Q O –Q
P1 E2 P2 E1

r
1 6p1p 2 +Q –Q
F   4  4 Solution:
0 r
This is basically a problem of finding the electric
As the force is negative, it is attractive. field due to three dipoles. The dipole moment of
Quadrapole: We have discussed about electric
each dipole is P  Q  2a 
dipole with two equal and unlike point charges
separated by a small distance. But in some cases KP
Electric field due to each dipole will be E  3
the two charges are not concentrated at its ends. x
(Like in water molecule) consider a situation as The direction of electric field due to each dipole
shown in the figure. Here three charges –2q, q is as shown below:
and q are arranged as shown. It can be visualised Enet  E  2 E cos 60 0  2 E
as the combination of two dipoles each of dipole
 1   2Qa  Qa
moment p = qd at an angle  between them.  2     3
The arrangement of two electric dipoles are called  4 0   x   0 x
quadruple. As dipole moment is a vector the a
resultant dipole moment of the system is +Q –Q
p  2p cos  / 2 .
|
E
q q
–q 60°
–2q 
+Q E –Q
 =
–q 60°
q q E
Few other quadruples are also as shown in the +Q –Q
following figures. GAUSS THEOREM
+q +q
GAUSS'S LAW
–2q
–2q +q In electrostatics, Gauss law is a powerful tool
+q which is useful in simplifying electric field
calculations where there is symmetry in
–q +q charge distribution. This law can be used to
–q 2q –q find total flux associated with a closed
surface. It can also be used to find how
+q –q electric charge is distributed itself over

Page 19
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

conducting bodies. The statement of Gauss surface of the sphere.

law is as given below Flux through that element, d  E  ds
(or) d  E ds cos 00
"The total electric flux through any closed ( E and ds are both radially outwards)
1 1 q
d  ds
surface is equal to  times the net charge 4 0 r 2
0
enclosed by that surface."  Total flux through the sphere
Here 0 is permitivity of free space. If a 1 q
   d   ds
closed suface S encloses an electric 4 0 r 2
charge q, then according to Gauss's 1 q 1 q 2 q
theorem, the total electric flux through the

4  0 r 2  ds 
4  0 r 2
(4 r )  
0
closed surface is given by But flux through the sphere (B) is equal to the
q flux through the closed surface (A) enclosing

0 By definition, the total electric flux the sphere, because all the lines of force passing
through the closed surface S is given by through the sphere (B) also passes through the
  closed surface (A).
  E.dS
S
 The total flux through a closed surface is
 1
where E is electric field at the area element always times charge enclosed
 0
dS . Therefore, Gauss's theorem may
  q irrespective of shape and size of the closed
be expressed as 
 E.dS 

S 0 surface and position of charge.
Hence, Gauss's theorem may also be stated as (b) EXPLANATION OF GAUSS LAW
below Consider charges q1, q2 ,q3,........qn inside a
If a closed surface encloses a charge, then closed surface and charges Q 1, Q 2 ,......Q n
outside that surface.
surface integral of the electric field (due to
Consider a point P on the surface. Let
enclosed charge) over the closed surface is E1 , E2 ,......E n be the fields produced by q1,
1 q 2, q 3,.......q n at P and E1 , E 2 ,......E n be the
1 1 1

equal to  times the charge enclosed. fields produced by the charges Q1, Q2, .........Qn
0
(a) PROOF OF GAUSS'S THEOREM at P
Q1
A
E q1
B P q3
q q2
Q2 Q3
Now the resultant electric field at P is given
by
Consider a point charge q inside a closed
surface (A) as shown . Imagine a sphere (B) 
E   E1  E 2  ...  E n   E11  E12  ...  E1n 
of small radius 'r' with charge q at the centre The flux of resultant electric field through
of the sphere. Electric field at any point on the closed surface is
1 q
the surface of the sphere is , E  4   2 .
0 r
 
 E.d s   E .ds   E .d s  .....   E .d s 
1 2 n

Consider an element of area 'ds' on the

  E .d s   E .ds  .....   E .ds 
1
1
1
2
1
n

Page 20
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
surface is along the normal to the surface.
Here  E1.d s is the flux due to q1 which is TO DEDUCE COULOMB'S LAW FROM
q1 / 0 and  E11.d s is the flux due to Q 1 GAUSS'S LAW
Consider a point charge q 1 at O. Let us
which is zero, as it is not enclosed by the construct a Gaussian surface in the form of
Gaussian surface. a closed sphere, having its centre at O and
Similarly the flux due to the other charges with a radius OP = r. Here P is a point on the
also can be written. surface of that sphere
dS E
Now we can write  E.d s
r p
O q
q q q  1
  1  2  ......  n   0  0.....
0 0 0 
S
 q  q  ....  q n  The electric field strength at P due to charge
 1 2  q1 will be E which will be radially outwards.
 0  Let us consider a small area element ds at P


 qenclosed on the surface of the sphere. ds will be along
 E.ds  0
outward normal to the surface and is
parallel to E. So we have
Here  q enclosed is the sum of all enclosed
E.d s  Eds cos 0  Eds . This condition is
charges which can be positive, negative or
applicable at every point on the surface of
zero.
 The flux linked with any closed surface is the sphere.
not influenced by the charges present
 E.ds   E.ds  E  ds  E4r
2
outside the surface. Now
s
But t he el ect r ic fiel d at any point is t he net qenclosed
fiel d due to al l char ges present inside as well But from Gauss's law  E.ds  0
as out side t he cl osed sur face. s
(c) GAUSSIAN SURFACE q 1 q1
 E4r 2  1 or E 
The expression for electric field intensity 0 40 r 2
can be obtained by applying Coulomb's law This is the field intensity due to point charge
only in simple cases. In the situations, where q1 at a distance r from that charge. If we keep
Coulomb's law and principle of a charge q2 at P, the force acting between q1
superposition becomes difficult in 1 q1q2
calculating the electric field, the same is and q 2 is F  Eq 2  4 2 which is
0 r
achieved easily by using Gauss's law. For
Coulomb's law in electrostatics.
this, one has to evaluate the surface integral.
To evaluate the surface integral easily, a GAUSS LAW : A FEW POINTS FOR
closed surface is chosen cleverly around the CONSIDERATION
charge distribution. The surface so chosen Gauss Theorem is applicable for all types of
is called the Gaussian surface. surfaces, whether regular or irregular, but surface
Thus, Gaussian surface around a charge must be fully closed.
distribution (may be a point charge, a line  However to calculate electric field using Gauss
charge, a surfae charge or a volume charge) Theorem only symmetrical surfaces should be
is a closed surface, such that electric field considered.
intensity at all the points on the surface is  qin 
 In the formula  E.ds  , E is due to entire
same and the electric flux through the 0
Page 21
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

charge distribution while net flux is due to

those charges only which are enclosed inside
the closed Gaussian surface. q
 If a closed body encloses no net charge, then  Sphere =  q
0
total flux linked with that closed body will be
zero, but It is not necessary that field will also
be zero.
 If a point charge q is at the centre of a
symmetrical closed body of ‘n’ symmetrically
identical faces, then flux linked with each will q q
 hemisphere
= 2
q 0
be  
n 0
 If a point charge is at the centre of a cube then
the flux linked with the cube is
q
q q
 The flux linked or emerging out of any face of  Total = 0
R
q R
the cube, in this case is   .
6 0 q
 cylinder = 2 
 If a point charge is at one corner of the face of 0
cube, then flux emerging out of the cube is APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS LAW
1. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY
q CHARGED INFINITE LINE CHARGE:
cube 
8 0 q Consider an infinite line which has a linear charge
density  . Using Gauss’s law, let us find the
q electric field at a distance ‘r’ from the line charge.
Total    The cylindrical symmetry tells us that the field
0
strength will be the same at all points at a fixed
distance r from the line. Thus, the field lines are
directed radially outwards, perpendicular to the
q line charge.
.
+ dS
+
S2 + E
+
+
+
+
 If a point charge is placed at the centre of a +
+
r
E + S1 E
face of the cube, then total flux emerging out of +
+ dS
+
the cube is +
+
+
S3 + E
+
+
+ dS

q q  The appropriate choice of Gaussian surface is a


2 0 cylinder of radius r and length L. On the flat end
 
faces, S 2 and S3 , E is perpendicular dS , which
 Similarly for sphere, hemi sphere and cylinder means flux is zero on them. On the curved surface
the flux given by    
S1 , E is parallel dS , so that E, dS  EdS .
 The charge enclosed by the cylinder is Q  L .

Page 22
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

 Applying Gauss’s law to the curved surface, we ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO TWO INFINITE
λL
PLANE PARALLEL SHEETS OF

have 
E dS  E ( 2 πrL ) 
ε or E  CHARGE :
0 2 0 r
Electric Field Due to a Uniformly
Charged Infinite Non Conducting Sheet:
Let us consider a thin non-conducting charged
σA σB
plane sheet, infinite in extent, and having a surface II
I III
A B
charge density (charge per unit area)  C / m 2 .
 Let P be a point, distance r from the sheet, at
which the electric intensity is required.
 Let us choose a point P  symmetrical with P, on Consider two infinite plane parallel sheets of
the other side of the sheet. Let us now draw a charge A and B, having surface charge densities
Gaussian cylinder cutting through the sheet, with equal to  A and  B respectively. The two sheets
its plane ends parallel to the sheet and passing divide the space of three regions namely region
through P and P  . Let A be the area of each
I. Lying to the left of sheet A, region II between
end.
the sheets A and B and region III to the right of
+ + + + sheet B as shown in figure.
+ ++
++ + + +
P' ++ + + + P i) In region I : The electric fields due to both
E + + ++ + E
+
+ + ++ dS
dS +++++ + + + the sheets of charge will be from right to left
(opposite to the direction, in which distances are
 By symmetry, the electric intensity at all points measured as positive). The electric field due to
on either side near the sheet will be perpendicular sheets A and B in region I will be
to the sheet, directed outward (if the sheet is

positively charged). Thus E is perpendicular to      
E   A  A 
the plane ends of the cylinder and parallel to the  2 0   2 0 
curved surface. Also its magnitude will be the 1
same at P and P  . Therefore, the flux through E  A   A  .......(i)
2 0
the two plane ends is
    ii) In region II: The electric field due to sheet
 E   E .dS   E . dS   E dS   E dS of charge A will be from left to right (along
positive direction) and that due to sheet of charge
 EA  EA  2EA B will be from right to left (along negative
 The flux through the curved surface of the direction). Therefore, in region II,
 
Gaussian cylinder is zero because E and dS are
    
at right angles everywhere on the curved surfaces. E   A  A 
 Hence, the total flux through the Gaussian  2 0   2 0 
1
cylinder is  E  2EA E  A   A  .......(ii )
2 0
The charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface q  A iii) In region III: The electric fields due to both
the sheets of charge will be from left to right. i.e.
Applying Gauss’s law, we have along positive direction. Therefore, in region III,
A 
2EA  E
0  2 0
Page 23
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

  
    Now resultant field at P2 : E2   
E  A  A  2 0 2 0 0
 2 0   2 0 
1  
E  A   A  .......(iii ) Now resultant field at P3 : E3   0
2 0 2 0 2 0

Special case : If  A   and  B   , then it So, E1  E2 
0
follows that electric field is zero in regions I and  In case two infinite plane charged
III, conductors of finite thickness are placed
while in the region II, the electric field is given by parallel to each other, the equations (i), (ii)
and (iii) will modify to
1
E       
2 0  E
1
 A   B  ...in region  I
 0
E 1
0 E  A   B  ...in region  II
0
Thus, in case of two infinite plane sheets of charge 1
having equal and opposite surface charge E  A   B  ...in region  III
0
densities, the field is non-zero only in the space
between the two sheets and it is constant i.e,
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED
uniform in this region. Further, the field is
independent of the distance between the infinite SPHERICAL SHELL (OR
plane sheets of charge. CONDUCTING SPHERE):
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE
q P
SHEET (CONDUCTING) : + + + dS
Consider an infinite conducting sheet as shown. + Rr + Charged spherical
+ +
+ O shell
When charge is given to it, it distributes itself over + +
+ +
the outer surface of the sheet. For a thin
conducting sheet, the charge distributes on both Gaussian
Surface
of its faces. So, conducting sheet is equivalent to Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R
the combination of two non-conducting sheets, and Centre O. Let +q be the charge on the
with the same charge spherical shell. Let us find electric field at
point P distant r from the centre of the
spherical shell.
P1 P3 Case (i): When point P lies outside the
P2
spherical shell: Draw the Gaussian surface
through point P. It will be a spherical shell
of radius r and centre O.

Let E be the electric field at point P due to
charge q on the spherical shell. It is
The electric field at any point is the super- position
evident that the field due to charged
of the fields due to two non -conducting charged
sheets.
spherical shell is radial and
spherically symmetric. At every point on the
   surface of shell, the field has same
Now resultant field at P1 : E1   
2 0 2 0 0
Page 24
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

magnitude and is along normal to the behaves as if the entire charge on it were
surface. Therefore, total flux through the concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Gaussian surface is given by Case (iii): For points inside the charged
  spherical shell (r <R)
  dS   E dS  E  dS  E4 r 2
E.
S S S Consider a concentric Gaussian surface with
Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian radius r < R as shown. We have
surface is q, according to the Gauss's
 E.ds   Eds  E4r
2
theorem, S S
q
E.4r 2  or q
0
+ + +
E
1 q
. 2 (for r> R) ........(i)
+ +
4 0 r +R P +
It is the same as that at distance r from a r
+
point charge q. It implies that for the + +
points outside the charged spherical shell, + +
the shell behaves as if the charge on the shell As P is inside the shell, there is no charge
were concentrated at its centre. The above enclosed by the Gaussian surface as charge
result for electric field due to a charged resides only on the outer surface of the shell.
spherical shell can also be expressed interms
of its surface density as explained below: q enclosed
From Gauss's law  E.d s 

0
If  is uniform surface charge density of the S 0
spherical shell, then q  4R 2   E  0 inside the charged shell.
substituting for q in equation (i), we have
E
 R2  2
E  . 2 (for r > R) or E    R  r 1 r
0 r 0  r 3  1
4 0 R 2 E
Where r is position vector of the point with r2
respect to centre of the sphere.
Case (ii): When point P lies on the surface of r
R
spherical shell: The gaussian surface
through point P will just enclose the charged ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO A
spherical shell. Therefore, according Gauss's UNIFORMLY CHARGED NON-
theorem, CONDUCTING SOLID SPHERE :
q Consider a charged sphere of radius R with
E.4R 2  (or) total charge q uniformly distributed
0
q
1 q on it. Here volume charge density  
E . 2 (for r=R) ...... (ii) V
4 0 R
4 3
where V is R .
Since q  4R 2  , the equation (ii) becomes 3
  Case (i) : For Points Outside the Sphere r  R
E (for r=R) ...... (iii) (or) E  ˆ
n
0 0 Consider a Gaussian surface which is
where n̂ is the unit vector normal to the concentricsphere (around the charged
surface. sphere) with radius
 For points outside and on the surface of a r > R.
uniformly charged spherical shell, it
Page 25
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

q
From Gauss's law  E.ds  0 On the surface of the sphere r = R and
S

 E.d s  E4r
2
where 1 q
S E
q 4 0 R 2
 E.4r 2 
0  In the case of a uniformly charged spherical
distrbution,

+ + + 1 q 1 q
+ + + n i) for r  R, E  and V 
++ + + 4 0 r 2
4 0 r
r ++R
E
+ +
+ +
1 q 1 q
ii) for r  R, E  and V 
4 0 R 2
4 0 R
1 q
E
4  0 r 2 for r > R iii) for r  R, E  1 qr
and
4 0 R 3
 1 q  The variation of E with distance r from
and E   3
r.
 4 0 r  centre is as shown in the graph.
Case (ii) : For Points Inside the Sphere r  R
E 1
Let us consider a concentric Gaussian E
surface of radius r < R . Here also E will be 1 q r3
1
radial everywhere but charge enclosed 4 0 R 2 E
r2
by the Gaussian surface is

R r
E
+ ++ + ELECTRIC INTENSITY DUE TO
+ ++ + + +
+R+ + + + + + CONCENTRIC CONDUCTING
+ ++ +r + + CHARGED SPHERICAL SHELLS
+

+ + Two concentric spherical conducting shells

+ +
of radii a,b (b>a) have charges q1
q 4 3 qr 3 and q2 . Find electric intensity and electric
qen   r  3 potential at a distance 'r' from the common
V 3 R
centre 'O'.
q
From Gauss's law  E.ds  en0 case (i) : If r < a (ie for points inside the inner
S shell)
qr 3 1 qr
 E4r 2  3 and E  q2
0 R 4 0 R3 q1
4 3 + + + b
+ +
But q   R + a +
3 + r
r    + +
E and E   + +
r
3 0  3 0 
Case (iii) : At the centre of the sphere (r = 0) 1
2
Electric field q enclosed  0 ,  E  4r    0  0  E  0
0
At the centre of the sphere r = 0  E = 0 case (ii): If r = a (ie for points on the surface of
inner shell) q enclosed  q1 ,

Page 26
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

1 1 q Illustration 29 :
 E  4a 2  (q1 )  E  . 21
0 4  0 a A point charge +q is located L/2 above the
 The point lies on the surface of the inner centre of a square having side L. Find the
shell & inside the outer shell flux through this square.
case (iii) : If r = b (i.e, for points on the surface of Solution:
The charge q can be supposed to be situated at
center shell ); enclosed  q1  q 2
the centre of a cube having side L with outward
1 1 q
 E  4r 2  (q1 )  E  1
2
flux  . In this cube the square is one of its face
0 4  0 r
having flux  / 6 .
case (iv) :If r = b [i.e, for points on the surface of q
outer shell]; q enclosed  q1  q 2 L/2

 E  4b 2 
1 1 q  q 
. 1 2 2
L
0
 q1  q 2   E 
4  0
O
b
case (v) : If r > b i.e, for points outside the outer q
shell; q enclosed  q1  q 2  Flux through the square  6 
0
1 1  q1  q 2 
 E  4r 2   q1  q 2   E  Illustration 30 :
0 4  0 r2
Illustration 27 : A cylinder of length L and radius b has its
axis coincident with the x axis. The electric
What is the value of electric flux in SI unit

in Y-Z plane of area 2m 2, if intensity of field in this region E  200iˆ . Find the flux
 through (a) the left end of cylinder (b) the
electric field is E  (5iˆ  2ˆj) N/C. right end of cylinder (c) the cylinder curved
Solution: surface, (d) the closed surface area of the
  N 2 cylinder.
  E .dA  (5iˆ  2 ˆ ˆ
j).2i = 10 m Solution:
C
From figure, then
Illustration 28 :
A point charge q is placed at a corner of a
cube with side L. Find flux through entire E SC dA
surface and flux through each face. dA
dA
Solution: E
Sa Sb
A corner of a cube can be supposed to be the
centre of a big cube made up of 8 such cubes,  
(a)  a  E .A  EA cos 
therefore flux through it is q / 8 0 . The direction
of E is parallel to the three faces that pass through 2
= 200 × b  cos   200b
2
this face, thus flux through these is zero.
(b)  b  EA cos 0  200b 2
(c) c  EA cos 90  0
Aq (d)   a  b c  200b2  200b 2  0  0

Flux through the other three faces

1  q  q
  
3  8 0  24 0

Page 27
 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Illustration 31 :
A charge Q is distributed uniformly on a
ring of radius r. A sphere of equal radius r
is constructed. With its centre at the
periphery of the ring (fig.) Find the flux of
the electric field through the surface of the
sphere.

Ring A
O
O1
Sphere
B

Solution:
From the geometry of the fig. OA = OO1 and
O1A= O1O. Thus, OAO1 is an equilateral
triangle.
Hence AOO1 = 600 OR  AOB = 1200
The arc AO1B of the ring subtends an angle 1200
at the centre O. Thus, one third of the ring is
inside the sphere. The charge enclosed by the

Q Q
sphere  . Thus flux out of sphere 3 
3 0

Page 28
Page 29
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

INTRODUCTION at a point is independent of the charge placed
 The electrostatic field in a region of space is at that point depends only on charge and sign
 of source.
described by assigning a vector quantity E at
 If source charge q is positive, then potential at
each point. The same field can also be described P is positive. On the other hand if q is negative,
by assigning a scalar quantity, known as electric then potential at P is negative
potential. Having studied the electrostatic field
POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A GROUP OF POINT
of a charged body, we now turn our attention
CHARGES :
to electric potential, a concept that arises from
the idea of electric potential energy. The idea of  Electric potential obeys superposition principle.
using the potential will be evident in the simpler The potential at any point P due to a group of
calculations in this chapter compared with those point charges q1,q2…..qn is equal to algebraic
in the preceding chapter. sum of the potentials due to q1,q2…..qn at P.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL: q2
q3
Work done to bring a unit positive charge from
infinite distance to a point in the electric field is q1 r2
r1
called electric potential at that point . r3
W P
 It is given by V 
q rn
S.I Unit: J/C or volt (V). r4
Dimensional formula: M 1 L2 T 3 A1 . qn q4
It is scalar quantity.
Let V1,V2,V3….Vn be the potentials at P to the
 It represents the electrical condition or state of
the body and it is similar to temperature. charges q1,q2…..qn respectively.
 +vely charged body is considered to be at higher Now, total potential at P is
potential and -vely charged body is considered V= V1+V2+V3+……+Vn
to be at lower potential.
 Electric potential at a point is a relative value 1  q1 q2 qn 
but not an absolute value. V     ......  
4 0  r1 r2 rn 
POTENTIAL DUE TO POINT CHARGE:
The electrostatic potential at a point P due to a  Two charges +Q and -Q are separated by a
1 Q
distance 2a as shown in fig., the potential on
source charge Q is V  4  r . the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
0
charges is zero.
Q r P
P
 Potential at a point due to a point charge
1 Q
 . r 2  a2 r2  a2
4 0 r r
 Like Electric field intensity, Potential too has
specific value for a given point.
 Electric potential and sign of electric potential a O a
-q q

Page 30
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

B +q1 –q2
 Two charges +Q and -Q are separated by a
distance d. The electric potential at point ‘P’ in y d
between the charges is At the point B V1  V2

Q 1 q1 1 q2
P Q 
  4 0  y  4 0 d  y
x  d x
d
q2 q
 1
1 Q Q  dy y
V  
4   0  x d  x 
d q
 Two charges +Q and -Q are separated by a 1  2
y q1
distance d. The electric potential at point ‘P’
out side the charges is d q2
 1
y q1
Q Q P
 ............
d x
d
y
q2
1  Q Q  1
V  q1
4 0  d  x d  x 

 Points of zero potential exists only for unlike
ZERO POTENTIAL POINT
charges
Points of zero potential exists only for unlike
Illustration-1:
charges both in between and out side the line
Two point charges - 5 C and + 3 C are
joining the charges
placed 64 cm apart. At what points on the
 Two unlike charges are separated by a distance
line joining the two charges is the electric
d. Two zero potential points are obtained. One potential zero? (Assume the potential at
point between two charges and other outside infinity to be zero)
nearer to smaller charge. Solution:
+q1 A –q2 For the potential to be zero, at the point P, it
will lie either between the two given point
x (d – x) charges or on the extended position towards
the charge of smaller magnitude.
d Suppose the point P is at a distance x cm from
V1  V2  0(or )V1  V2 the charge of larger magnitude. Then from the
1 q1 1 q2 following figure potential at P is 0.
 64cm
4 0 x 4 0 d  x
d  x q2 d q X
 1  2
x q1 x q1
d –5C P +3C
d q2 x 
 1 q2 1  5  10 6
3  10 6

x q1 1  4 .  x  10 2   64  x   102   0
q1 0  
If q1 < q2 in magnitude zero potential point is 3 5 8 x  320
 0 ;  0 or, x = 40 cm
obtained outside nearer to q1. 64  x x x  64  x 

Page 31
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
x and a charge -q is fixed at each of the points
x = 2x 0, x = 4x0, x = 6x0, ….  , here x0 is a
–5C +3C P positive constant. Then find the potential
at the origin due to the above system of
64cm charges.
From the above figure, we get Solution:
3 5 320  2 x Potential at origin will be given by
 0 ;  0 ; x = 160 cm
x  64 x x  x  64 
q 1 1 1 1 
V      ........
Illustration -2: 4 0  x0 2 x0 3 x0 4 x0 
Two electric charges q and -2q are placed
at a distance 6m apart on a horizontal plane. q 1  1 1 1 
 . 1  2  3  4  ........
Find the locus of point on thus plane where 4 0 x0
the potential has a value zero.
y q
 ln(2)
4 0 x0
P
Illustration -4:
Infinite charges of magnitude q are placed
r1 y r2 at coordinates x = 1m, 2m, 8m........ 
respectively along the x-axis. Find the
+q -2q value of potential at x = 0 due to these
x
x (6 - x)  1 
charges.  k  4 
6m  0 
Solution: Solution:
If point P is at a distance r1 from point charge Resultant potential at x=0
+q and r2 from charge -2q (figure), then 1 1 1 1   1 
V  kq     ........  kq   2 kq
1 2 4 8  1  1 / 2 
1   q 2q 
VP  V1  V2     Illustration -5:
4 0  r1 r2  In the given figure, there are four point
charges placed at the vertices of a square
According to the problem, VP  0 , i.e., of side a = 1.4 m. If q1 = +18 nC, q2 = -24
q 2q nC, q3 = +35 nC and q4 = +16 nC, then
  0  r2  2r1 ..........(I) find the electric potential at the centre P
r1 r2
of the square. Assume the potential to be
But if the charge q is assumed to be situated at zero at infinity.
q4 q3
the origin, then r12  x 2  y 2 and
2
r22   6  x   y 2
P
So substituting these values of r1 and r2 in Eq.
2
(i), we get  x  2   y 2  16
So the locus of the point P is a circle with radius q1 q2
4m and centre (-2, 0) Solution:
Illustration -3: The distance of the point P from each charge is
A charge +q is fixed at each of the points
x=x0, x = 3 x0, x = 5 x0, ….  on the x- axis

Page 32
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

a 1.4m between two points having a p.d. V2  V1 is

r  = 1m
2 1.4 q V2  V1 
V  V1  V2  V3  V4  When a charged particle is accelerated from
rest through a p.d. ' V ' , work done,
1  q1 q2 q3 q4 
      1 2 2Vq
4 0  r1 r2 r3 r4  W  Vq  mv  or  v 
2 m

1 q1  q2  q3  q4  The earth is a huge reservoir of charges, which

 . is electrically neutral. We take the earth or
4 0 r
ground as reference at zero potential. Addition
9
1 18  24  35  16   10 C of any amount of charge to the earth or removal
 . of any amount of charge from the earth does
4 0 1m
not change the electrical status of the earth.
  9 109    45 109  V = 405V So potential of earth is taken as zero.
Illustration -6: A conducting spherical bubble of  If a negatively charged conductor is grounded,
radius r and thickness t (t >> r) is charged to a electrons flow from it to the earth and if a
potential V. Now it collapses to form a spherical positively charged conductor is grounded,
droplet. Find the potential of the droplet. electrons flow from the earth to the conductor.
Solution: Here charge and mass are conserved. In both cases potential of the conductor is finally
If R is the radius of the resulting drop formed
same as that of earth.i.e..,it becomes zero.
and  is density of soap solution,
4 3
R   4r 2 t  R  (3r 2 t)1/ 3
3 electrons
1 q Current
Now potential of the bubble is V 
4 0 r
or q  4 0 rV
Now potential of resulting drop is +++++
1/ 3 +++++ electrons
1 q  r
V|    V.
4 0 R  3t  Current
Relatively potential of positively charged body
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
is higher than that of the earth. Hence, it is
Potential difference between two points in an taken as positive potential. Similarly potential
electric field is defined as the work done per of negatively charged body is lower than that of
unit positive test charge in moving it from one the earth. Hence it is taken as negative potential.
point to the other against the electric field. Electron-volt (eV):
The potential difference (p.d.) is measured in
The conventional unit of energy is joule. But
volt. It is a scalar quantity.
this unit is very large for computing nuclear
 The potential difference between two points energies, electron energies in atomic physics.
does not depend on the path followed. This is
So, a smaller and convenient unit called
because the electrostatic field is a conservative
electron- volt is used in such cases.
field.
 Work done in moving a charge q through a  “The amount of energy gained by an electron
potential difference V is W = qV. when accelerated through a potential difference
 The work done in moving a charge of q coulomb of one volt is known as electron-volt.”

 1eV  1.6  10 19 J

Page 33
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Potential difference between two points in Where x  AB cos  is the component of

non-uniform electric field
AB along the direction of E
The difference in potentials between any two  V
points 1 and 2 can be defined as the work done We can also say that E 
by an external agent in slowly shifting a unit x
+ve charge between these points (from 1 to 2) Special cases :
Case-I : Line AB is parallel to electric field.
x
2
A B
E

VA  VB  E x and VB  VA   E x
Case-II : Line AB is perpendicular to electric field.
A
y E
1 B
Wext 1 2 VA  VB  0 and VA  VB
 V2  V1 Where
q Relation between Electrostatic Potential
2   2   (V) and Electric Intensity (E)
Wext 1 2    E.dl ; V2  V1   V     E.dl Electric field at a point is equal to the negative
1 1 gradient of the electrostatic potential at that
If Wext  0, V2  V1 ; point 2 is at higher potential point.
than point 1. dV
i.e., E  
dr
If Wext  0, V2  V1 ; point 2 is at same potential The negative sign indicates that the direction of
as at point 1. 
E is always in the direction of decrease of
If Wext  0, V2  V1 ; point 2 is at smaller electric potential.
potential than point 1. dV  
Potential difference in a uniform electric E  dV   Edr  dV   E .dr
dr
field Vf rf
 
B E
  dV    E.dr
+q Vi ri

Unit of potential gradient. In SI, the unit of

y potential gradient is volt metre–1 (V m–1)
 If we choose the potential at initial point ‘i’ as
Vi  0 , then potential V at final point f is given
-q  x
A f     
by V  E.dr . where dr  rf  ri
i
x 
 If A and B are two points in an electrostatic
VB  VA   E. AB
   field,
 E AB cos    E x   E x B  
VB  VA   E.dr
  
A dr  rB  rA
 In the direction of electric field potential

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

decreases.
 For uniform electric field the relation between
  E.d 0
E and V is E = V/d Where ‘d’ is distance The line integral of electrostatic field over a
between two points having Vpotential closed path in an electric field is zero.
difference.
 As electrostatic force is conservative, all paths
 Electric field is always in the direction of
from i to f yield the same result, when the line
decreasing potential .
integral is found.
The component of electric field in any direction
is equal to the negative of potential gradient in EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES :
that direction. Equipotential surface in an electric field is a
   V   V  V  
surface on which the potential is same at every
E   i j k point. In other words, the locus of all points
 x y z 
CONSERVATIVE NATURE OF ELECTRIC which have the same electric potential is called
equipotential surface.
FIELD
An equipotential surface may be the surface of
A conservative force is that force for which the
a material body or a surface drawn in an electric
work done around a closed path is zero.
y field. The important properties of equipotential
i surfaces are as given below.
l1
a) As the potential difference between any two
ri f points on the equipotential surface is zero, no
l2
work is done in taking a charge from one point
rf to another.
x
+q b) The electric field is always perpendicular to an
equipotential surface. In other words electric
field or lines of force are perpendicular to the
z equipotential surface.
Consider a closed path i  f and f  i in c) No two equipotential surfaces intersect. If they
the electric field of point charge +q. Let a small intersect like that, at the point of intersection
test charge +q0 be moved over the closed field will have two different directions or at the
path. same point there will be two different potentials
f which is impossible.
w i f
Then   E.d 
 (along l1) d) The spacing between equipotential surfaces
q0 enables to identify regions of strong and weak
i
 Vf  Vi dV 1
fields E   . So E 
i dr dr
w (if dV is constant).
and f  i   E.d l
 (along l2)
q0 e) At any point on the equipotential surface
f
= Vi  Vf component of electric field parallel to the surface
wi f wf  i is zero.
   (Vf  Vi )  (Vi  Vf )  0 f) In uniform field , the lines of force are straight
q0 q0
and parallel and equipotential surfaces are planes
In other words work done in moving an unit perpendicular to the lines of force as shown in
positive test charge over a closed path in figure
electrostatic field is zero. It means electrostatic
field is a conservative field and electrostatic
forces are conservative.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Solution:
As electric field E is related to potential V
equipotential through the relation
surface
dV
E
dr
dV d
Ex     (4 x 2 )  8 x  8  1  8
The equipotential surfaces are a family of dx dx
concentric spheres for a uniformly charged dV d
Ey     (4 x 2 )  0
sphere or for a point charge as shown in figure dy dy
Equipotential surfaces in electrostatics are dV d
similar to wave fronts in optics. The wave fronts And E z     (4 x 2 )  0
dz dz
in optics are the locus of all points which are in 
the same phase. Light rays are normal to the So, E  Ex i  Ey j  Ez k  8xi
wave fronts. On the other hand the equipotential  
at (1m, 0m, 2m) E  8 i
surfaces are perpendicular to the lines of force.
1) In case of non-uniform electric field, the field i.e., it has magnitude 8 V/m and is directed along
lines are not straight, and in that case negative x-axis.
equipotential surfaces are curved but still Illustration -8:
perpendicular to the field. Find the potential difference VAB between
2) Electric potential and potential energy are always A (2m, 1m, 0m) and B (0m, 2m, 4m) in an

defined relative to a reference. In general we electric field, E  ( xi  2 y j  zk ) V/m.
take zero reference at infinity. The potential at a Solution:
point P in an electric field is V if potential at  
dV  E.d r
infinity is taken as zero. If potential at infinity is (2,1,0)
A
V0, the potential at P is (V–V0).
3) The potential difference is a property of two
 dV  
B

(0,2,4)
( xi  2 y j  zk ).(dxi  dy j  dzk )

points and not of the charge q0 being moved.

4. The spacing between equipotenital surfaces (2,1,0)

enables us to identify regions of strong and weak VA  VB    ( xdx  2 ydy  zdz )
field. (0,2,4)

(2,1,0)
dV 1  x2 z2 
E E VAB     y2    3 volt
dr dr
2 2  (0,2,4)
Ex:
Illustration -9:
Find the potential difference between
points A and B in an electric field
EP < EQ < ER
R 
E  (2i  3j  4k ) NC 1
P Q

30V 20V
40V 10V 
Illustration -7: where rA  (i  2 j  k ) m
If electric potential V at any point (x, y, z) 
and rB  (2i  j  2k )m .
all in meters in space is given by V = 4x2
volt. Calculate the electric field at the point Solution:
(1m, 0m, 2m)  
We know that dV   E.d r

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

  A Solution:
VAB  VA  VB    E.d r B C
B

(1, 2,1)

  (2i  3 j  4k ).(dxi  dy j  dzk ) P

(2,1, 2)

(1, 2,1)
0.2m
  (2dx  3dy  4dz )
(2,1,2)
A 0.2m D
 [2 x  3 y  4 z ] | (1, 2,1)
 1 volt BPD is equipotential line. VP>VA
(2,1,2)
 Electric field is perpendicular to equipotential line
Illustration -10:
and directed from higher potential to lower
The electric field in a region is given by
potential. i.e., along PA.
 A
E  3 i . Write the SI unit for A. Write an dV 3 15 15
x E    along PA
expression for the potential in the region dx 0.2 2 2 2
assuming the potential at infinity to be Illustration -13:
zero. The electric potential existing in space is
Solution: V(x, y, z) = B(xy + yz +zx). Find the
A expression for the electric field at point P(1,
As E  , A  Ex 3  ( N / C ) m 3  Nm 3 / C .
x3 1, 1) and its magnitude if B = 10 S.I. unit.
Potential in the region,
x   x
Solution:
 A 
V    E.d x     3 i .(dxi) V  B ( xy  yz  zx )
  x 
x
 V
x
 x 2  A Ex    B( y  z)
3
  A x dx   A  x
  2
  2   2 x because variables y and z are treated as
Illustration -11: constant

An electric field E  Cxi exists in the space, Now, put the values of B, y and z. Given B =
10 and (x, y, z) are (1,1,1) respectively..
where C  10 V / m 2 . Taking the potential
at (10 m, 20 m) to be zero, find the potential V
So, E x    B( y  z)
at the origin. x
Solution: = - 10 (1+1) = -20N/C
x0
V
V
 dV    Ex dx Similarly, E y   B( x  z)
V 0 x 10
y
0
[now treating x and z are constants]
 x2 
 V  0  C   therefore E y  10(1  1)  20 N/C
 2 10
V
 V  50 C  500 volt and Ez    B ( x  y )  20 N/C
z
Illustration -12:

A, B, C, D and P are points in a uniform therefore, E  E x i  E y j  Ez k
electric field. Potentials at these points are 
VA=2V, VP=VB=VD=5V. Find the electric or, E  (20i  20 j  20k ) N/C
field at P.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Now, if we want the magnitude of 

E ,then it’ss V
mgd
;V 
(10 14 )(9.8)(1102 )
equal to q (9.8 10 10 / 3 109 )
2 2 2 V  3  10 4 volt
E x2  E y2  E z2   20    20    20  Now if the polarity of the plates is reversed,
both electrical and gravitational force will act
 20 3 N / C . downward
Illustration -14: So, F = mg + qE = 2mg (as mg = qE)

An electric field E  (20i  30 j ) newton/ And hence instantaneous acceleration of drop:
coulomb exists in the space. If the potential F 2mg
a   2 g  19.6 m / s 2
at the origin is taken to be zero, find the m m
potential at (2m, 2m). Illustration -16:
Solution: An oil drop ‘B’ has charge 1.6    C
  and mass 1.6   kg. If the drop is in
dV   E.dr  (20i  30 j ).(dxi  dy j ) equilibrium position, then what will be
or, dV  20dx  30dy potential difference between the plates.
Now we will have to integrate in within limits. [The distance between the plates is 100 mm]
Given V=0 when x = 0 and y = 0 (lower limit) Solution:
and we have to calculate V when x = 2 and y
=2 (upper limit) For equilibrium, electric force = weight of drop
Therefore, + + + + + + + + +
A
V x2 y2

 20 dx  30 B
 dV
0

x0

y0
dy 10cm
– – – – – – – – –
 V  40  60  100 volt. V
Illustration -15:  qE  mg or q  mg
d
A positively charged oil droplet remains mgd 1.6  1014  9.8 10 103
stationary in the electric field between two V  
q 1.6  1019
horizontal plates separated by a distance
of 1cm. I f the charge on the drop is 9.8  104 volt

 esu and the mass of droplet is   g, Illustration -17:
what is the potential difference between An infinite plane sheet of charge density
two plates? Now if the polarity of the plates 10-8 C/m2 is held in air. In this situation,
is reversed what is the instantaneous how far apart are two equipotential
acceleration of the droplet? [g = 9.8 m/s2] surfaces where potential difference is 5V.
Solution: Solution:
As the droplet is at rest, its weight W = mg will Here;   10 8 C / m 2 , dV  5V
be balanced by electric force F = qE
dV
i.e., qE = mg Since E  (neglecting -ve sign with dV/dr)
dr
+ + + + + – – – – – 
an d E 
Fe= qE 2 0
+ (for an infinite plane charged sheet)
+
qE mg F0 = mg
– – – – – + + + + +

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

 dV V V 12 J / C
 or As E  , r   0.5 m
2 0 dr r E 24 N / C
Q
2 0 dV 2(8.85 10 12 C 2 / Nm 2 )(5V ) As V  ke ,
dr   r
 10 8 C / m2
Vr (12 J / C )(0.5m)
 8.85  103 m  8.85mm Q   0.67  109 C
ke 9  109 Nm2 / C 2
Illustration -18:
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY (OR)
A uniform field of magnitude 2000 N/C is
directed 370 below the horizontal as shown ELECTROSTATIC INTRACTION ENERGY:
in the figure. Find (a) the potential The workdone in assembling number of charges
difference between P and R. (b) If we define to a given configuration by bringing them from
infinity is called electrostatic potential energy of
the reference level of potential so that
system of charges.
potential at R is 500V, what is the potential
at P?  Two charges Q1 and Q2 are separated by a
distance 'd'. The P.E. of the system of charges
1 QQ 1 2
is U  4  . d from U=W=Vq
0

d
5cm Q1 Q2
P R
37°
 Three charges Q1 , Q2 , Q3 are placed at the three
vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 'a'. The
P.E. of the system of charges is
1 QQ 1 2 QQ QQ 
U   2 3  3 1 or
4 0  a a a 
Solution:
(a) Here 1 Q Q 1 2
0 U
E  2000 N / C ,   37 , VR  500V 4 0 a
dl  PR  5cm  5  102 m Q3
 
E.dl  Edl Cos
 (2000 N / C )(5  102 m) cos 37 0  80V a a
 
Thus, VP  VR  E.dl  80V
(b) As VP  VR  80V and VR  500V , Q1 a Q2
 Four identical charges of each magnitude Q are
VP  500V  80V  580V placed at four corners of a square of each
Illustration -19: side’d’. The electrostatic interaction energy of
Electric field intensity at point B due to a all the particles is
point charge Q kept at point A is 24 N/C Q Q
 
and the electric potential at point B due to
the same charge is 12J/C. Calculate the d
distance AB and the magnitude of charge
Q.
Solution: Q  d
 Q

Here; E  24 N / C , V  12 J / C

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

1  4Q 2 2Q 2  Q2  Consider two charges q1 and q2 located at two

U  U  4  2 
 0  d ;
2d   0  points A and B having position vectors r1 and
 A charged particle of charge Q2 is held at rest r2 respectively. Let V1 and V2 be the potentials
at a distance 'd' from a stationary charge Q1 . due to external sources at the two points
When the charge is released, the K.E. of the respectively.
1 Q1Q2 The work done in bringing the charge q1 from
charge Q2 at infinity is 4  . d .
0 infinity to the point A is W1  q1V1
 If two like charges are brought closer, P.E of
the system increases. In bringing charge q2 , the work to be done not
 If two unlike charges are brought closer, P.E of only against the external field but also against
the system decreases. the filed due to q1 .
For an attractive system U is always negitive.
For a repulsive system U is always positive. The work done in bringing the charge q2 from
For a stable system U is minimum. infinity to the point B is W2  q2V2 .
dU The workdone on q2 against the field due to
i.e. F   = 0 (for stable system)
dx
1 q1q2
 Two charged particles Q1 , Q2 are separated q1 is W2  4 r where r12 is the distance
0 12
by a distance d1 . The work required to change
between q1 and q2 .
the distance between them to d 2 is
The total work done in bringing the charge q2
Q1 d1 Q2 against the two fields from infinity to the point B
 
1 q1q2
  is W2  q2V2  4 r
Q1 d2 Q2 0 12

The total work done in assembling the

Q1Q2  1 1  configuration or the potential energy of the
W  PE2  PE1 ; W  4  d  d 
0  2 1 1 q1q2
 Three indetical particle of each charge ‘Q’ are system is W  q1V1  q2V2  4 r
0 12
placed at three corners of an equilateral triangle
 Electric field is conservative in an electric field
of each side d1 . The work required to shift the work is path independent and work done in
charges to corners of another equilateral triangle moving a point charge q between two fixed
of each side d 2 is points having a potential difference V is equal
to, WAB = –UAB = q(VB – VA)= q V
3Q 2  1 1  And hence in moving a charged particle in an
W  PE2  PE1 ; W    
4 0  d 2 d1  electric field work is always done unless the
points are at same potential as shown in Fig.
Q
below.
Q
B I
d2 d2
d1 d1
Q d1 Q
II
I II A B
Q d2 Q
+Q
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF A +q L L
TWO CHARGES IN AN EXTERNAL (A) (B)
FIELD:

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

A m v0 Large separation

I

 q2 a  q1
II + Q Fixed
v0

B
 b 
 q2
rmin
 q1
(C) Fixed
 When a charged particle is accelerated
Case-II:
by an electric field (uniform or non - uniform),
No charge is fixed and both are free to move
by Work energy theorem, i.e., KE  W , we (along same line)
have Figure (a) shows a charge q1 and of mass m1 at
1 2 1 2
mv  mu  qV (but W = qV) rest and another charge q2 of mass m2 is
2 2 projected towards it from a large separation
 2 2qV 
or v   u   with initial speed v0. In this case as charge q2
 m  gets close to q1, due to mutual repulsion q1 also
And if the charged particle is initially at rest, i.e., u starts moving and because of electric force its
=0 speed increases and that of q2 decreases. As
the separation between the two charges
2qV
v decreases their interaction energy increases and
m interaction energy will be maximum when they
And if the field is uniform, i.e. E = (V/d) will be at the distance of closest approach rmin:
At this state the kinetic energy of the two
2qEd
v charges will be minimum and as already
m analyzed in the topic of linear momentum
CLOSEST DISTANCE OF APPROACH BETWEEN conservation that at the point of maximum
TWO CHARGES potential energy in collision the speeds of
Case-I: particles are equal. By conservation of energy
One Charge is kept Fixed and other is moving and linear momentum of the two moving charges
Figure (a) shows a fixed charge q1 and from a we can find the closest distance of approach as
large distance another charges particle having explained below.
mass m and charge q2 is projected towards it m2 v0 m1

with an initial speed v0. If due to repulsion, 

 q2
a

 q1
at rest
charge q2 gets close to the fixed charge q1 upto
m2 vf m1 v f
a minimum distance rmin as shown in figure (b)
then this closest distance of approach can be

 q2 r
min

q1

calculated by using conservation of energy b 

between initial state when charge was projected If at the distance of closest approach the speed
and at the state of minimum separation, given of particles is v f then by conservation of linear
as momentum, we have
1 2 Kq1q2 2 Kq1q2 m2v0   m1  m2  v f ..... (i)
mv0   rmin 
2 rmin mv02 By using energy conservation, we have
q1q2 1 1 Kq q
 rmin  m2 v02   m1  m2  v 2f  1 2 ..... (ii)
2 0 mv02 2 2 rmin
Solving equations i and ii, we get

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Solution:
2 Kq1q2  m1  m2 
rmin  WAB  100 J , q0 = 4C ; VA= -10 v, VB= V
m1m2v02
WAB
q1q2  m1  m2  Since VB  VA  q ,
rmin  0
2 0 m1m2 v02
100 J
V-(-10v)=  25v
Case-III: 4C
One Charge is fixed and other moving not in Or V=25 v -10v=15v
line Illustration -21:
Figure-(a) shows a fixed charge q1 and another A charge of 10 C is moved in an electric
charge q2 of mass m is projected towards it field of a fixed charge distribution from
with initial speed v0 at an impact parameter d point A to another point B slowly. The work
from large separation. Due to mutual repulsion done by external agent in doing so is 100
the path of q2 gets deviated as shown in figure- J. What is the potential difference
(b) and it moves in the curved path as shown.
The separation between the two charges is
V A  VB ?
minimum during motion will be the normal Solution:
distance between charge q1 and the trajectory Wext  q(VB  VA )  100  10(VB  VA )
of q2 as shown. If at the point of closest
 VA  VB  10 Volts
approach the speed of then by conservation of
Illustration -22:
angular momentum we can write
Suppose an electron in the picture tube of
v0 d a television set is accelerated from rest
mv0 d  mv f rmin ; v f  ......(i )
rmin through a potential difference Vb  Va  Vba
By conservation of energy, we have = + 5000V
(a) What is the change in electric potential
1 2 1 2 Kq1q2
mv0  mv f  ......(ii) energy of the electron?
2 2 rmin (b) What is the speed of the electron (m =
Using eq. i and ii, we can solve these for rmin 9.1  1031 kg) as a result of this
acceleration?
v0 Solution:

q The electrons, accelerated towards the positive
2 d

 q1
plate, will change in potential energy by an
amount PE = q V b a . The loss in potential
a Fixed
energy will equal to its gain in kinetic energy
 q2 (energy conservation)
vf
m  (a) The charge on an electron is
rmin
d q = -1.6  10 19 C.

 q1 Therefore its change in potential energy is
b
Illustration -20:  PE = q V b a = (-1.6  10 19 C)(+5000 V)
If 100J of work has to be done in moving = -8.0  10 16 J
an electric charge of 4C from a place where The minus sign indicates that the potential energy
potential is -10V to another place where decreases. The potential difference, Vba , has a
potential is V volt, find the value of V.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

positive sign since the final potential Vb is higher between them (treat the charges as point
charges and mass of q2 is m)
than the initial potential Va . Negative electrons
Solution:
are attracted towards a positive electrode and q1 q2
repelled away from a negative electrode.
(b) The potential energy lost by the electrons r0
becomes kinetic energy KE. From conservation According law of conservation of energy
of energy,  KE +  PE = 0, so U1+ K1 = U2+ K2
  KE = -  PE 1 q1q2 1 q1q2 1 2
0  mv
1 2 4 0 r0 4 0 r 2
 mv - 0 = q Vb  Va  = qVba
2
1 2 q q  1 1
Where the initial energy is zero since we are mv  1 2   
given that the electron started from rest. We 2 4 0  r0 r 
solve for v.
q1q2  1 1 
2 qVba v   
v 4 0 m  r0 r 
m
Illustration -25:
2 1.6  10  19 C   5000V  A charge +q0 is fixed at a position in space.
=  31
9.1  10 kg From a large distance another charged
particle of charge -q and mass m is thrown
= 4.2 x 107m/s.
towards +q0 with an impact parameter L
Illustration -23:
as shown. The initial speed of the projected
A particle of mass m and positive charge q particle is v. Find the distance of closest
is released from point A. Its speed is found approach of the two particles?
to be v when it passes through a point B. –q V
Which of the two points is at higher
potential? What is the potential difference
between the points?
L as
Solution:
The point A is at higher potential than B as the
particle has gained kinetic energy while moving +q0
from Solution:
A to B. As -q moves towards +q0 an attractive force
The kinetic energy acquired by the particle is acts on -q towards +q0. No torque acts on -
equal to loss in potential energy. i.e., q relative to +q0 because electrostatic force
1 2 is a central force. In other words angular
K  q VA  VB  mv  q VA  VB  momentum of -q must remain constant.
2
When -q is closest to +q0, it will be moving
1 mv 2 perpendicularly to the line joining the two
 VA  VB 
2 q charges as shown.
–q
Illustration -24: V
Charge q1 is fixed and another point charge
L
q2 is placed at a distance r0 from q1 on a
+q0
friction less horizontal surface. Find the r
velocity of q2 as a function of separation r
vc

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Let r be the closest separation between the closest approach for the two protons. Given
charges and vc be the velocity of -q at that
(1/ 4 0 )= 9  109 m / F ;
instant.
From conservation of angular momentum, m p  1.67 10 27 kg and e  1.6  1019
mvL = mvcr
coulomb.
From conservation of mechanical energy
Solution:
1 2 1 2 1 qq0 As here the particle at rest is free to move, when
mv  mvc 
2 2 4 0 r one particle approaches the other, due to
On solving the above equation, we can get r. electrostatic repulsion other will also start moving
and so the velocity of first particle will decrease
Illustration -26:
while of other will increase and at closest
A particle of mass 40  g and carrying a
approach both will move with same velocity.
charge 5  10 9 C is moving directly towards So if v is the common velocity of each particle
fixed positive point charge of magnitude at closest approach, by ‘conservation of
10-8 C. When it is at a distance of 10 cm momentum’.
from the fixed point charge it has a velocity
of 50 cm/s. At what distance from the fixed 1
mu  m  m i.e.,   u
point charge will the particle come 2
momentarily to rest? Is the acceleration And by ‘conservation of energy’
constant during motion?
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 e2
Solution: mu  m  m 
If the particle comes to rest momentarily at a 2 2 2 4 0 r
distance r from the fixed charge, then from
4e 2  u
‘conservation of energy’ we have So, r  2  as   
4 0 mu  2
1 1 Qq 1 Qq
mu 2   And hence substituting the given data,
2 4 0 a 4 0 r
Substituting the given data, we get 4  (1.6 1019 )2
r  9 109  = 10-12 m
1.67 1027  (7.45 105 )2
1 1 1
 40  106   Illustration -28:
2 2 2 An electron travelling from infinity with
1  velocity ‘v’ enters into an electric field due
 9  109  108  5  109   10
r  to two stationary electrons separated by a
distance of 2m. If it comes to rest when it
1 5 106 100 reaches the midpoint of the line joining the
or  10  8
 or ,
r 9  5 10 9 stationary electrons, find the initial
velocity ‘v’ of the electron.
1 100 190
  10  m Solution:
r 9 9 
i.e., r  4.7  102 m
e
1 qQ F 1
As here, F  4  r 2 ; so a   2 e e
0 m r
i.e., acceleration is not constant during motion. r
Illustration -27: From law of conservation of energy.
A proton moves with a speed of 7.45 X 105 1 1 (2e)e
m 2 
m/s directly towards a free proton 2 4 0 r
originally at rest. Find the distance of

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

1 Solution:
i.e., (9.1 1031 ) 2  The work required to make an arrangement of
2
charges is equal to potential energy of the system
9 109  2  (1.6  1019 ) 2
q2 3q 2
1 W  3 
4 0 a 4 0 a
  32 m / s.
Work done by electric field represents the
Illustration -29: decrease in potential energy. So, we have
Two identical particles of charge q each
are connected by a massless spring of force WE . Field  U  U i  U f
constant K. They are placed over a smooth Now,
horizontal surface. They are released when q2 q2
the separation between them is r and spring Ui   3 ;U f  3
is unstretched. If maximum extension of 4 0 (a) 4 0 (2a )
the spring is r, find the value of K? (neglect 3q 2 3q 2 3q 2
gravitational effect) WE .Field   
Solution: 4 0 a 8 0 a 8 0 a
From conservation of mechanical energy Illustration - 32:
Determine the interaction energy of the
1 2 1  q2 q2  point charge located at the corners of a
Kr  
2 4 0  r r  r  or
square with the side a in the circuits shown
in figure.
1 2 q2 q2 +q +q +q –q +q +q
Kr  , K 
2 8 0 r 4 0 r 3
Illustration -30: +q +q –q +q –q –q
If an electron enters into a space between (a) (b) (c)
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor at Solution:
an angle  with the plates and leaves at Interaction energy of any two point charges q1
an angle  to the plates, find the ratio of q1q2
and q2 is given by 4  r , where r is the
its kinetic energy while entering the 0
capacitor to that while leaving. separation between the charges.
Solution: Hence, interaction energy of the system.
Let u be the velocity of electron while entering
the field and v be the velocity when it leaves the q2 q2
Ua  4 2
plates. Component of velocity parallel to the 4 0 a 4 0 ( 2a)
plates will remain unchanged.
Hence u cos   v cos  q 2 q2
Ub  4 2
1
4 0 a 4 0 ( 2a)
2
 2 mu  2 2
and
u cos       u    cos  
     
 1 2   v   cos  
v cos   mv  q2 2q 2 2q 2
2  Uc  2  
4 0 a 4 0 a 4 0 ( 2 a)
Illustration -31:
Calculate the work required to be done to 2q 2

make an arrangement of three particles 4 0 a
each having a charge +q such that the Illustration -33:
particles lie at the vertices of an equilateral Two protons are separated by a distance R.
triangle of side a. What work will be done What will be the speed of each proton
by electric field when the particles are when they reach infinity under their
shifted away so that the side of triangle mutual repulsion?
becomes 2a? Solution:
Let the charge on each proton be Q. Initially
they are at rest, so their kinetic energy (KE)=0

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
and they have only potential energy equal to work done is final potential energy minus initial
Q2 potential energy.
. Q
4 0 R
Q R Q
Finally at infinity, they have infinite separation A A
so their potential energy will become zero.
(because R=  now.). And total kinetic
1 2 Q A Q
energy is, ( mv for each proton)
2 1 3Q 2
1 Initial potential energy (for each
2  mv 2  mv 2 (where m is the mass of 4 0 A
2
each proton and v is the speed with which Q2
they are moving at infinity). Now, total initial combination, the energy is and we have
energy = total final energy. 4 0 A
Q2 three such combinations)
or,  mv 2
4 0 R 3Q 2
m m Final potential energy =
v 4 0 A / 2
at inf inite separaton
3Q 2 3Q 2
Q Now, work done W  
Therefore v  4 mR 4 0 A / 2 4 0 A
0

Illustration -34: 3Q 2
Therefore, W 
A bullet of mass 2 gm is moving with a speed 4 0 A
of 10 m/s. If the bullet has a charge of 2
micro coulomb, through what potential it Illustration -36:
be accelerated starting from rest, to acquire Two particles have equal masses of 5 g each
the same speed? and opposite charges of 4  105 C and
Solution: 4 105 C . They are released from rest
1 2 with a separation of 1 m between them.
Use the relation qV  mv ; Find the speed of particles when the
2
Here, m  2 103 kg ; v  10 m / s separation is reduced to 50 cm.
Therefore Solution:
Again in this question we have to do the
mv 2 2  10 3  (10) 2 10 1
V   conservation of mechanical energy. Initially,
2q 2  2  106 2 10 6 there is only potential energy but finally there is
 5  104 volt  50 kV both kinetic and potential energy.
Illustration -35: Initial state energy:
–5 –5
Three equal charges Q are at the vertices Q1 = 4×10 C Q2 = –4×10 C
of an equilateral triangle of side A. How
1m
much work is done (by an external agent)
Bodies are at rest so kinetic energy = 0
in bringing them closer to an equilateral
Q1Q2
triangle of side A/2? Potential energy = 4 R
0
Solution:
In this problem first we have to calculate the 9 109 (4 105 )(4 105 )
initial and final potential energy and then the   14.4 joule
1

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Final state energy: P cos 

v v V 
40r 2 .
2 2 2 2
m m  r  a cos   r

0.5m Hence potential varies inversely as the square

 Let us suppose both the charges approach each of the distance from the dipole.
other with individual speed v. (both will have SPECIAL CASES
same speed because masses are same and 1) On the axial line : For a point on the axial
momentum will be conserved. Since initial line   00  Vaxial  p / 40 r 2 for a dipole.
momentum is zero, they will have final 2) On the equitorial line : For a point on the
momentum also equal to zero. Since momentum
equatorial line   90 0 .  Vequitorial  0 .
is vector, they will have equal and opposite
momentum) Equatorial line is a line where the potential is
1 2 zero at any point.
2
Final kinetic energy of both = 2  mv  mv Interaction Energy of a Dipole in Electric Field
2
Q1Q2 Figure shows a dipole placed at an angle 
Final potential energy = 4 R with the direction of electric field. In this situation
0
= we consider that the two charges of dipoles are
located on two equipotential surfaces having
9 109 (4 105 )(4 105 )
 28.8 joule potentials V1 and V2 which can be related as
0.5
Now, initial total energy = final total energy
V1  V2  Ed cos 
-14.4 = mv 2 -28.8 v1 v2
therefore, mv 2 = 14.4; or
E
14.4 +q
v  54 m / s
5 103
POTENTIAL DUE TO A DIPOLE: d 
Electric potential due to a dipole, at a point ‘P’,
when line joi ning between point P and centre
of dipole makes an angle  with axis of dipole -q
is
P
The interaction energy of the dipole with electric
field can be given as
r
N +q U   qV1  qV2  q V2  V1 
–q
O  U   qEd cos    pE cos 
A B
a  a In vector notations we can write interaction
 
M
energy of dipole in electric field as U   P.E
 
q 2a cos   In vector from U   p.E
V
4 0 r 2 a 2 cos 2   if   00 ;  0 and U   pE
P cos  if   900 ;  pE and U  0
V
4 0  r 2  a 2 cos 2   if   1800 ;  0 and U  pE
For short dipole i.e., if r >> a  
 So, if p is parallel to E then, potential energy
is minimum and torque on the dipole is zero,
and the dipole will in stable equilibrium.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
 
 If p is anti parallel to E then, potential energy  d  
F   ( p.E )r
is maximum and again torque is zero, but it is in dr
unstable equilibrium. d
Work done in Rotation of a Dipole in F    PE cos  
dr
Electric Field  
When a dipole is placed in an electric field at an If p and E are along the same direction we can
angle  , the torque on it due to electric field is write
given as   d  dE 
F ( pE cos  ) or F   p  .
  pE sin  dr  dr 
E Illustration -37:
qE
+q An electric dipole consists of two charges
 qE of equal magnitude and opposite sign
+q
separated by a distance 2a, as shown in

-q figure. The dipole is along the x-axis and
qE is centered at the origin.
qE -q y

Figure shows a dipole placed at an angle 1 to a a

the direction of electric field, the torque on it P
acts in clockwise direction. If we rotate the x
–q q
dipole in anticlockwise direction from an angle
1 to 2 slowly, we have to apply an x
anticlockwise torque equal to that applied by
the electric field, then the work done by external (A) Calculate the electric potential at point
agent in this process will be given as P.
2
(B) Calculate V at a point far from the dipole.
W   dW    d   pE sin  d Solution:
1
(A) For point P in figure
W  pE  cos 1  cos  2 
 The workdone in rotating the dipole in electric qi  q q  2ke qa
V  ke  = ke    =
field of intensity E from from an angle 1 to
r1  xa xa x2  a 2
(B) If point P is far from the dipole, such that
2 is W  pE  cos 1  cos 2 
x > > a, then a 2 can be neglected in the term
Force on an electric dipole in non-
uniform electric field x 2  a 2 and V becomes
Force on dipole in nonuniform electric field: The 2ke qa
V (x > > a)
force on the dipole due to electric field is given x2
by F  U (Force = negative potential Illustration -38:
energy gradient). When an electric dipole is placed in a

If the electric field is along r , we can write uniform electric field making angle  with
electric field, it experiences a torque  .
Calculate the minimum work done in
changing the orientation to 2 .

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Solution: Work done by external agent
 (W )  pE (cos 1  cos  2 )
  pE sin   pE 
sin  (Where p is the dipole moment of the dipole).
W  U   pE cos  2  pE cos 1 1
W  pE (cos 0  cos 60)  pE
 W  pE[cos   cos 2 ] 2
(1   ,  2  2 ) 1
Work done by the field  W   pE
2

W  [cos   cos 2 ] Illustration -41:
sin 
An electric dipole of dipole moment p is kept
Illustration -39: at a distance r from an infinite long charged wire
A molecule of a substance has a permanent of linear charge density  as shown. Find the
electric dipole moment of magnitude 10-29
force acting on the dipole?
C m. A mole of this substance is polarised
(at low temperature) by applying a strong
electrostatic field of magnitude 106 Vm-1.
The direction of the field is suddenly +
+ P
changed by an angle of 600. Estimate the
heat released by the substance in aligning +
+ r
its dipoles along the new direction of the +
field. For the simplicity, assume 100% +
polarisation of the sample.
Solution:
Here, dipole moment of each molecule = 10-29 Solution:
C m. As 1 mole of the substance contains Field intensity at a distance r from the line of
6  1023 molecules, total dipole moment of all
the molecules, 
charge is E  2  r
P  6  10 23  1029 Cm  6  106 Cm 0

Initial potential energy (when   600 ), The magnitude force on the dipole is

U i  6  10 6  10 6 cos 60 0  3 J dE   p     p
F  p ;  2;
Final potential energy, dr  2 0 r  2 0 r 2
U f   pE cos  Here the net force on dipole due to the wire
  6  106  106 cos 00 will be attractive.
 6 J ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
LINEAR CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
Change in potential energy = -6 J - (-3 J)= -3J
Y
So, there is loss in potential energy. This must
be the energy released by the substance in the +
form of heat in aligning its dipoles. +
 Heat energy released is 3J +
+
Illustration -40:
+
An electric dipole in a uniform electric field r dS
l O+
E is turned from   0 position to   600 + P E
position. Find work done by the field. + Gaussian
+ surface
Solution: +
+
+
Y
Page 49
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

where C is constant of integration

We know that V  r     E .dr
ELECRTIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A
 CHARED SPERICAL SHELL (OR
Here E  2  r and E .dr  Edr CONDUCTING SPHERE):
0

 E
So V  r     Edr    2  r dr q P
0
+ + + dS
+ R r + Charged spherical
   + +
V  r    log e r   C + O Shell
 2 0  + +
+ +
Where C is constant of integration and V(r)
gives electric potential at a distance ‘r’ from the Gaussian
linear charge distribution Surface
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and
 The electric potential due to line of charge at having charge +q on the spherical shell.
any point cannot be defined. We can define only Case (i): When point P lies outside the spherical
P.D between two points. shell.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO 1 q
INFINITE PLANE SHEET OF V r  r  R
4 0 r
CHARGED (NON CONDUCTING)
Case (ii) : When point P lies on the surface of
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive spherical shell
charge having a uniform surface charge density
1 q
 on both sides of the sheet. by symmetry , it V r  R
4 0 R
follows that the electric filed is perpendicular to
the plane sheet of charge and directed in out Case (iii) : For points inside the charged spheri-
ward direction. cal shell (r < R), the electric field E = 0
dV
 So we can write  0
The electric field intensity is E  2 dr
0
 V is constant and is equal to that on the sur-
Electrostatic potential due to an infinite plane
sheet of charge at a perpendicular distance r 1 q
face.So, V  4  R for r  R
from the sheet given by 0

V  r     E .dr    Edr The variation of V with distance ‘r’ from centre

is as shown in the graph.
   
V  r    dr   rC  1 q
2 0  2 0  V VS 
4 0 R
where C is constant of integration similarly the
electric potential due to an infinite plane con- v  1/r
ducting plate at a perpendicular distance r from
the plate is given by r=R r
V  r     E .dr    Edr ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A UNI-
FORMLY CHARGED NON-CON-
   DUCTING SOLID SPHERE:

V  r    dr   rc Consider a charged sphere of radius R with to-
0  0  tal charge q uniformly distributed on it.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Case (i) : For points Outside the sphere (r > R) Potential due to a charged ring: A charge
1 q q is distributed over the circumference of ring (
V r   (r > R) either uniformly or non-uniformly ) , then electric
4 0 r
po tent ial at t he cent re o f the ring is
Case (ii) : When point P lies on the surface of
spherical shell 1 q
V .
1 q 4 o R .
V r  R At distance ‘r’from the centre of ring on its axis
4 0 R
Case (iii) : For points inside the sphere (r < R) 1 q
would be V  4 .
1 qr o R2  r 2
The electric field is E  4  R 3 Electric potential due of a uniformly
0
charged disc
+ E + Consider a uniformly charged circular disc
+ + + having surface charge density  .
+ + +
+ +  Potential a at point on its axial line at distance x
r + +
+ + + 
from the centre is V  2  R  x  x 
2 2
+
+ + o
+ +
R R
+
 At the centre of disc x  0 V  2
dV  E .dr   Edr o

q
v r r
1 qr  For x  R , V  4 x
 dV    E dr    4 
vs R R 0 R3
dr o

R
 Potential on the edge of the disc is V  
o
r
1 q  r2  Illustration -42:
V  Vs     A charge Q is distributed over two concen-
4 0 R 3  2  R
tric hollow spheres of radii ‘r’ and R ( > r)
such that the surface densities are equal.
1 q 1 q  r 2 R2  Find the potential at the common centre.
V   
4 0 R 4 0 R3  2 2  Solution:
If q1 and q2 are the charges on spheres of radii
1 q 3 r2 
V    ‘r’ and R respectively, then in accordance with
4 0 R  2 2 R 2  conservation of charge
At the centre r = 0 then Potential at centre
q1  q2  Q ------(1)
1 3q 3 1 q
VC   And according to given problem  1   2 ,
4 0 2 R 2 4 0 R
The variation of V with distance ‘r’ from centre q1 q2 q1 r 2
i.e.,  or  ------(2)
is as shown in the graph. 4 r 2 4 R 2 q2 R 2
 So from Eqs (1) and (2)
v
vs
Qr 2 QR 2
q1  2 q 
vs  r  R 2  and 2  r 2  R   ----(3)
vs Now as potential inside a conducting sphere is
v  1/r equal to that at its surface, so potential at the
r<R r<R common centre,
r=R r

Page 51
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
a) determine the charge on the outer shell,
1  q1 q2  and
V  V1  V2   r  R 
4 0 b) find the potential of the inner shell.
Substituting the value of q1 and q2 from Eq.(3)

1  Qr QR 
V  2 2  2 2 
4 0   R  r   R  r  
 

1 QR  r

4 0  R 2  r 2 
Illustration -43:
Figure shows two concentric conducting
Solution:
shells of radii r1 and r2 carrying uniformly a) We know that charge on facing surfaces is equal
distributed charges q1 and q2 . respectively.. and opposite. So, if charge on inner sphere is
Find out an expression for the potential of q0 , then charge on inner surface of shell should
each shell. be  q0 . Now, let charge on outer surface of
+q2
r2 shell be q2 .
As the shell is earthed. So its potential should
+q1
be zero. So,

r1

Solution: kq0 k   q0  kq2

Vshell     0  q2  0
The potential of each sphere consists of two r2 r2 r2
points: Hence, charge on outer surface of shell is zero.
One due to its own charge, and Final charges appearing are shown in fig
Second due to the charge on the other sphere. b) Potential of inner sphere:
Using the principle of superposition, we have
V1  Vr1 , surface  Vr2 ,inside and kq0 k  q0  q 1 1 
V1    0   
r1 r2 4 0  r1 r2 
V2  Vr1 ,outside  Vr2 , surface
Illustration -45:
1 q1 1 q2 Consider two concentric spherical metal
Hence, V1  4 r  4 r shells of radii ‘a’ and b > a. The outer shell
0 1 0 2
has charge Q, but the inner shell has no
1 q1 1 q2 charge, Now, the inner shell is grounded.
and V2  4 r  4 r This means that the inner shell will come
0 2 0 2 at zero potential and that electric field
Illustration -44: lines leave the outer shell and end on the
In the previous example, if the charge inner shell.
a) Find the charge on the inner shell.
q1   q0 and no charge on outer shell. The b) Find the potential on outer sphere.
outer shell is earthed, then
Page 52
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Q b  a 
shell will be  0.
b
b) Potential of outer surface VB  potential due
to charge on A + potential due to charge on B.
VB  Va ,out  Vb ,both surface 
1 q' 1 Q

Solution: 4 0 b 4 0 b
a) When an object is connected to earth
(grounded), its potential is reduced to zero. Let  a
 Q 
q ' be the charge on A after it is earthed as 1  b 1 Q Q b  a 
  
shown in fig 4 0 b 4 0 b 4 0b 2
Q + q
Illustration -46:
Two circular loops of radii 0.05 and 0.09m,
–q respectively, are put such that their axes
coincide and their centres are 0.12 m apart.
Charge of 106 coulomb is spread uniformly
on each loop. Find the potential difference
between the centres of loops.
q2
q1 r2
The charge q ' on A induces  q ' on inner r 1

surface of B and  q ' on outer surface of B. In R2

R1
equilibrium, the charge distribution is as shown
in fig. Potential of inner sphere = potential due O1 O2
to charge on A+ potential due to charge on B=0 x
q' q' Q  q'
VA    0
4 0 a 4 0b 4 0b
Solution:
' a
or q  Q   The potential at the centre of a ring will be due
b to charge on both the rings and as every element
This implies that a charge Q  a / b  has been of a ring is at a constant distance from the
transferred to the earth leaving negative charge centre, so
on A. Final charge distribution will be as shown 1 q q2 
in fig.. V1   1 
4 0  R1 R22  x 2
Q ba
+ + 104
+ b 104 
+ +  9  109   
+ Qa +  5 92  122 
+ + b
1 1 
++  9  105     2.40  105 V
+ Qa  5 15 
+
b + 1  q2 q1 
+
+ + + V 
similarly, 2 4 R   
+ + + 0 
 2 R1
2
 x 2

+ +
As b>a, so charge on the outer surface of outer 3 1 1  198
or V2  9  10      105
 9 13  117
5
V2  1.69  10 V

Page 53
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

So, V1  V2   2.40  1.69   105  71 kV

Illustration -47:
A circular ring of radius R with uniform O
positive charge density  per unit length a b
is located in the y - z plane with its centre
at the origin O. A particle of mass ‘m’ and
positive charge ‘q’ is projected from the  We will calculate potential at three different
point p   3R, 0, 0  on the negative x-axis points A, B and C. A lies inside the inner shell B
lies in the space between the two shells and C
directly towards O, with initial speed v. lies outside the outer shell.
Find the smallest (non-zero) value of the Potential at point C:
speed such that the particle does not return
 OC = r, where r > b.
to P?
 As the point C, lies outside the outer shell po-
  Q
q2
r  R
 tential at C due to outer shell is V2  4 r
q   0

P Similarly potential at C due to inner shell is

 O 
 3R, 0, 0 q1
  V1 
 4 0 r
 
 q1  q2
Solution: So, potential at C is VC  4 r
0
As the electric field at the centre of a ring is q2
zero, the particle will not come back due to
repulsion if it crosses the centre fig.
1 2 1 qQ 1 qQ O
mv   a C
2 4 0 r 4 0 R r
But here, Q  2 R and b
2
r  3R   R2  2R Potential at point B:
 Let OB = r, where a < r < b.
1 2 1 2 R q  1  As the point B, lies inside the outer shell, po-
So, 2 mv  4 1
 0 R  2  q2
tential at B due to outer shell is V2  4 b .
 q   q  0

or v    So, Vmin    The point B lies outside the inner shell, the po-
 2 0 m   2 0 m  q1
Potential due to a group of concen- tential at B, due to inner shell is V1  4 r
0
tric shells:
q1 q2
 To calculate the potential due to a group of con- So, potential at B is VB  4 r  4 b
centric shells, we can use superposition prin- 0 0

ciple. For any point, we can simply add the q2

potentials due to individual shells. Consider a
pair of two uniformly charged concentric shells q1
having radii ‘a’ and ‘b’ and carrying charges q1
O r
and q2 respectively. Let a<b. a
B

Page 54
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Potential at point A: + + +
+ +
 Let OA = r, such that r < a. +
The point A lies inside the outer shell, +
q2 +
+
+ +
q1 Cavity +
+
O r
a +
A +
+ +
+ +
b + +
So, potential at A, due to outer shell is  Ed s  0
q2 For the dotted surface
V2   q  0 inside cavity..
4 0b
From the above result, any cavity in a conduc-
Similarly, potential at A, due to inner shell is
tor remains shielded from outside electric influ-
q1 ence: the field inside the cavity is always zero.
V1 
4 0 a This is known as electrostatic shielding. The
q1 q2 effect can be made use of in protecting sensi-
So, potential at A is VA  4 a  4 b tive instruments from outside electrical influence.
0 0  When metal conductor is kept in an electric field,
ELECTRO STATICS OF CONDUCTORS:
1. Electrostatic field is zero inside a conductor. 
+ + + E
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electro- + + 0
static field must be normal to the surface at ev- +
+
ery point. + E0
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess +
Q0
charge in the static situation: + +
0
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the + +
V  constant
volume of the conductor and has the same value +
(as inside) on its surface. +
+
5. Electrostatic shielding. + +
+ +
Consider a conductor with a cavity then there
1. The field inside the conductor is zero.
will be no electric field inside a charged con-
2. The charge resides only on the outer surface.
ductor and all the charge resides on its outer 3. The field is normal to every point on the sur-
surface only. Suppose that charged conductor face.
has a cavity or cavities and there are no charges 4. The potential is constant at everywhere on the
within the cavity or cavities, even then charge surface and throughout the volume of conduc-
tor.
resides on the outer surface of the conductor. CAPACITY OF AN ISOLATED CONDUC-
There will be no charge on the walls of the cav- TOR
ity or cavities. This can be verified very easily If the charge on an isolated conductor is
using Gauss’s law by enclosing the cavity with gradually increased, its potential also increases.
a Gaussian surface. At any instant, the charge Q on the
conductor is directly proportional to the
potential V of the conductor.
 Q  V (or) Q  CV

Page 55
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

The proportionality constant C is called the Q Q

capacitance of the conductor. It depends on C    40 R
V Q / 40 R
the shape, size, and permittivity of the
surrounding medium of the conductor. It coulomb 
Unit of C is Faraday  Faraday  
does not depend on the charge or potential of  volt 
the conductor. (i) C depends on shape and size of the
 The S.I unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt conductor only independent of charge and
which is called farad (Symbol is F) potential.
(ii) C depends on the medium in which the
CAPACITY OF AN ISOLATED SPHERE
sphere is placed.
Let us consider an isolated metal sphere of
radius R having a positive charge of +Q. This Q
 The single sphere capacitor has C  where
forms a capacitor with earth as second V
conductor and air as the dielectric medium V is p.d. of sphere
between the two conductors. We know that CAPACITANCE OF A TWO CONCENTRIC CONDUCTING
the potential of an isolated charged sphere is SHELL:
Q (i) Inner sphere is charged and outer is earthed
V .
4 0 R (Spherical capacitor)
+
++++ ++++
++
++ R +
r
+ +
+ +
++
+ + + ++ R

Dielectric
earth 40 Rr
C
Q R r
By definition of capacitance C  (ii) Outer sphere is charged and inner is earthed
V
 C  4  0 R
 The capacity of a spherical conductor depends r
on dimensions of the conductor, nature of the
R
medium in which conductor is placed.
 The capacity of a spherical conductor is
4 0 Rr 4 0 R 2
independent of charge on the conductor . C   4 0 R 
R r R r
 In CGS system, the capacity of a spherical
PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR :
conductor is numerically equal to radius of the
 In a capacitor, the maximum charge holding
conductor.
capacity of a conducting plate is increased by
 For the earth, R  6.4106 m placing a neutral earthed plate near it, which
The capacity of earth is lowers its surface potential there by increasing
1 its charge holding capacity.
C  4 0 R  9
6.4106  711 F PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
910
Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor which
CAPACITANCE OF A SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR:
consists of two parallel plates each of area A,
 Let a spherical conductor of radius R be given
separated by a distance 'd' as shown in figure.
charge Q. Then its potential becomes
Q .Then
V
40 R

Page 56
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Q 0 A
C 
d V  BX 2 
X  1  
 3 

Illustration-49 :Capacitor has square plates

each of side ‘l’ making an angle '  ' with
each other as shown. Then for small value
Let 'E' be the electric field intensity at any point
of  , the capacitance ‘C’ is given by
between the plates.
q l
If the surface charge density   . 
A
The electric field between the plates is d
 q
E 
0  0 A l
Since the field is uniform, the electric field Solution. At one side, distance between plates
d,
V
intensity between the plates is E  , where At another side,
d
distance  d  l sin   d  l
V is potential difference between the plates.
From the above two equations Mean distance between the plates
q V q  A d   d  l  l
   0 
2
d
2
0 A d V d
q 0 A 0 l 2
But capacity C0  Capacity C  
V d
d
l
The capacity of air filled parallel plate capacitor 2
1
 A 0 l 2  l  0 l 2  l 
is C0  0  1  1
d  2d  d  2d 
d
 Unit of Permittivity DIELECTRICS
C.d farad  m Substances which do not possess free electrons
0    farad / metre. or possess very less number of free electrons
A m2
Unit of permittivity = farad/metre. to constitute electric current are known as
Illustration -48: dielectric materials. In such materials the
Two conductors carrying equal and electrons will be tightly bound to the nucleus.
opposite charges produce a non uniform DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION:
electric field along X - axis given by Dielectric polarization is defined as the dipole
Q moment per unit volume of the dielectric.
E (1  Bx 2 ) where A and B are
0 A  When a dielectric slab is kept in a uniform elec-
constants. Separation between the tric field between two unlike charged parallel
conductors along X-axis is X. Find the plates, the electric field applied across the plates
capacitance of the capacitor formed. will displace the centres of negative and posi-
Solution: Potential difference between the con- tive charges and this displacement causes di-
X pole effect in every atom. If we consider the
ductors is given by V  V  V   Edx
entire dielectric substance the total dielectric will
0
X develop certain dipole moment with all dipoles
Q 2
V  0 A (1  Bx )dx put together. The dipole moment per unit vol-
0 ume is called polarization.
X
Q  Bx 3  Q  BX3   For linear isotropic dielectrics, polarization is
or V x   X

0 A  3  0 A  3 
O
Page 57
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
directly proportional to the electric field  
E  E0  Ei (as E 0 and E i are opposite in
p  E or p  e E where  e is a character- direction)
istic of dielectric and is known as electric sus- i q1
where i E  
ceptibility of the dielectric medium. 0 A 0
 Let us consider a slab of cross-sectional area A E
and length ‘L’ (for convenience). Then the mo- But E  0 (K is dielectric constant)
K
lecular charges developed on the edge faces of
E0
the dielectric are as shown in figure.  E0  Ei
E0
K
q q q1  1
   q1  q  1  
+q1
A 0 K A 0 A 0  K
ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT:
–q1 We know that dielectric polarization (P) is nu-
merically equal to induced surface charge den-
A 
sity on it and  i  P.n where n is unit vector
L along outward normal to the surface. The above
 The dipole moment of the total slab = Lq1 and equation is true for any shape of the dielectric.

volume of the slab LA. By definition, For the dielectric slab in the figure, P is along
Lq1 q1 n at the right surface and opposite to n at the
polarization P    i . left surface. i.e., the induced charge density is
LA A positive at the right surface and it is negative at
 Hence dielectric polarization (p) is numerically the left surface.
equal to induced surface charge density on it. –i +i

In vector form,  i  P.n where n is unit vec- + –
E0
+ –
+ – + –
tor along outward normal to the surface. E1
INDUCED OR BOUND CHARGE: + – + –
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor with charge + – + –
q on its positive plate and -q on its negative + – + –
plate. So, electric field between the plates will + – + –
be q P –q
 q The electric field
E0  0 
0 A 0 0 i
 When dielectric slab is introduced between the
E
0
plates, polarization takes place. Let q1 be the 
magnitude of induced charge. Due to the in- 
  0  P.n
duced charges there will be an induced electric In vector form E.n 
0
field Ei.This field opposes the external field E0.    

The net electric field will be E  E 0  E 1
 
 0 E .n   0  P.n   0   0 E.n  P.n
 
 0  ( 0 E  P ).n
q –q
+ – + –  
E0 The quantity  0 E  P is called the electric dis-
+ – + –
E1 
+ – + – placement vector ( D ).
   
+ – + – D   0 E  P and  0  D.n
+ – + – 1. In vacuum, electric field E is related to the free
+ – + –
1 1
charge density  0 . But in a dielectric medium
–q q

Page 58
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

the role of electric field is taken by electric E  E0  E p ... (i)

displacement (D) and it is directly related to the Also by definition of dielectric constant (k)
free charge density  0 as seen in the above E0
E ... (ii)
equation. k
 A E0 B
2. Since polarization vector ( P ) is along the di- –
 +
–
rection of electric field, all the three vectors P , +–
 
E and D are parallel. +– E0 + –
3. In dielectric medium +– Ep + –
 +– + –
D   0  0     E  k 0 E +– E + –
 + p t p –
k 0 E  D   0 E  P  –
d
k 0 E   0 E   e E
k 0   0   e   e  (k  1) 0 Combining (i) and (ii) E p  E 0 1  1  ... (iii)
 k
DIELECTRIC IN AN ELECTRICFIELD 0 p
If a parallel slab of a dielectric material is kept Also E 0  and E p 
0 0
in an external electric field E0, there is electric
 1
field EP generated inside the slab. So the net So we can write  p  0 1   ..... (iv)
electric field E inside the slab is the difference  k
Variation of E and V as we move from plate A
of E0 and Ep. to B
 Behaviour of polar dielectrics E V
E0 
E0–Ep

x A x
A t B B
d
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH
dipoles are randomly DIELECTRIC
alined when Eext = 0 If the space between the plates of the capacitor
Eext = E0 is completely filled with a dielectric medium of
dielectric constant K, then
+ –
+ K –
+ E –
+ –
+ –
+ –
When Eext is applied E0
E0 Q A
Here C  
– + V Ed
Ep
–E 0 – Ep = E + A A  
– +    as E 0  
E0   0 
– + d d
K K 0
– +
– + K 0 A

Net E inside the dielectric d
is reduced
Page 59
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

0 KA 0 A the effective distance between the plates

 C 

d d /K 1 
decreases by t 1   . So capacity increases
While measuring capacity, the dielectric medium  K
of thickness d is equivalent to d/K in air. and potential difference across the capacitor
 On comparison we can conclude that decreases. To bring back the potential to its initial
capacitance of capactior with multiple dielectric value the distance between plates should be
media (with no air gap) is given by  1
increased by t 1  
 K 
 A number of dielectric plates are inserted
between the plates of capacitor with some air
K1 t1
K2 gap as shown.
t2
K3 t3

K1 t1
d
A 0 K2 t2
C
Thickness of medium
 Re lative permittivity
A 0
i.e, C  The capacity of capacitor is given by
 t1 t2 
 K  K  ..... 0 A
 1 2  C
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR  t1 t2 
 d   t1  t 2  ....  K  K  ....
PARTIALLY FILLED WITH MEDIUM  1 2 
Let us consider a case of parallel plate capacitor Illustration -50:
in which a medium of dielectric constant K is A metal slab of thickness, equal to half the
partially filled as shown in figure. distance between the plates is introduced
between the plates of a parallel plate ca-
Then the field is uniform in air as well as in the pacitor as shown. Find its capacity.
medium, but fields will have different values. let q
't' be the thickness of the medium whose relative
permittivity is K. The remaining space of ( d- t) air
d
thickness be occupied by air. d/2
q
air
d
K t Solution:
When capacitor is partially filled with dielectric
0 A
capacity C 
d  t(1  1 ) 
 k 
Since thickness of dielectric medium is t, its
equivalent air distance is t/K. The effective For metal slab of thickness t = d/2,
distance between the plates of capacitor is (d- 0 A
C ( K   for metal slab)
t) + (t/K). The capacity of capacitor is dt
0 A 0 A
C  
0 A  A
2 0 .
d  t   t / K   d  t(11 / K )  d d
  d .
 When capacitor is partially filled with dielectric 2

Page 60
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Capacitance when the space is filled partly connecting wires. Now we say that capacitor
by a metal slab: is fully charged with a potential difference V and
A 0 charge Q = CV.
C {as K =  } The applied voltage ‘V’ is such that the
dt
electric field between plates becomes equal to
When partly filled by metal slab, variation of E
and V as we move from +ve to –ve plate. dielectric break down then the capacitor cannot
E be further charged.
Illustration-51:
Charges Q 1 and Q 2 are given to two
identical metal plates. Find the charge
X distribution on the four surfaces of the
plates. Find the potential difference of
t such arrangement shown in the figure ?
V
Q1 Q2



X
(Area of each plate is A and separation
t between the plates is d. Ignore fringing
 Capacitance when the space is completely effect)
filled by metal slab is C   Solution:
 If space between plates of capacitor is filled The charge on the plates is distibuted equally
by a dielectric of r = K on both sides and charges are induced on the
plates as shown.
[capacitor is charged and disconnected from Initial charges
supply] Q Q Q
1 Q1 2 2
2 2 2
E  without dielectric  V  without dielectric  2

E  with dielectric  V  with dielectric 
capacitance (with dielectric)
 K Q2 Q1 Q1
capacitance (without dielectric) + Q2 2 +2
2 2
CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR Induced charges
Consider a capacitor C connected in a circuit The charge on inner surface of positive charger
with a battery as shown. Here battery provides Q1  Q 2
plate or the charge of capacitor is
the energy and pulls the electrons from plate a 2
and send to plate b as shown. As a result positive Capacitance C 
q (Q1  Q2 )
where V is

charge on plate a and negative charge on plate V 2V
b start increasing. The potential difference potential difference between plates of capacitor.
between the plates increases until it equals the
0 A
applied voltage V between the terminals of the Capacity C 
d
battery. Finally plate a and the terminal of the Q1  Q 2 (Q1  Q 2 )d
battery connected to that plate will be at the V 
2C 2 0 A
same potential. There will be no longer an
Illustration-52:
electric field in the conducting wires. Similarly
plate b and the terminal of the battery connected An isolated parallel plate capacitor of
to that plate also will be at the same potential capacitance ‘C’ has four surfaces with
and no electric field in the connecting wire charges q1, q2, q3 and q4 as shown. Find
between them. As there is no electric field, no the potential difference between the
further motion of electrons will be there in the plates ?

Page 61
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Solution:
q3 q4 Let 1 and 2 be charges on the two plates
q2 and E be electric field between the plates due
q1
to these charges.
Solution:
q1 q 2
We know that conducting surfaces facing each 
other must have equal and opposite charges
1  2 A A  q1  q 2
Then, E  = 2 2A 0
 q2 = –q3 2 0 0

We also know that charge on capacitor means q1  q 2

charge on the inner surface of the positive plate P.d. between plates V = Ed = d
2A 0
ie q2 here
Now potential difference between the plates is q1  q 2 q q
=  1 2
q 2 2q 2 q 2  (q 2 ) q q  A 2C
V   or V  2 3 2 0
C 2C 2C 2C d
Illustration-53 :
A capacitor of capacitance C is charged to =

2 103 - -110-3 
= 1250 Volt

a potential difference V from a cell and 2 1.2106
then disconnected from it. Now a charge GROUP OF CAPACITORS
+q is given to its positive plate. Then find
the potential difference across the CAPACITORS IN SERIES
capacitor. Let us consider three capacitors of capacities
Solution: C1, C2 and C3
When charge q is given to positive charged plate connected in series across a source of
it is equally shared on both sides of the plate potential difference 'V' as shown in figure.
q V1 V2 V3
and charge is induced on the inner surface +q -q +q -q +q -q
2
q
of 2nd plate and
2
is induced on the outer C1 C2 C3
surface of 2nd plate as shown. V
+
As the capacitors are different, the potentials
+CV
developed across them will be different.
-CV q  C1V1  C2 V2  C3V3
q  q q q
q q q
2 2 2 2 V1  , V2  , V3 
Now, the total charge on the inner surface of C1 C2 C3
positive charged plate or the charge on the But V  V1  V2  V3
capacitor is
1 1 1
q Vq    .... (a)
Q  CV   C1 C2 C3 
2  
Q q If a single capacitor when connected across
Potential difference   V
C 2C
the same source draws the same charge, that
Illustration-54:
capacitance is said to be the equivalent
A charge of + 2.0 × 10–8 C is placed on the
capacitance of the three capacitors. If CS is
positive plate and a charge of –1.0 ×10–8C
the equivalent capacitance.
on the negative plate of a parallel-plate
q
capacitor of capacitance 1.2 µF. Calculate CS 
V
the potential difference developed between
the plates.
Page 62
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

q V
V
CS ... (b)  Charge comming from battery Q  C
eff

Substituting (b) in (a) Illustration-55:

q q q q Figure shows two capacitors connected in
  
CS C1 C2 C3 series and joined to a battery. Draw the
1 1 1 1 graph showing the variation in potential
   ... (c) as one moves from left to right on the
Cs C1 C2 C3
branch containing the capacitors. Take C1
In general > C2.
1 1 V
 ... (d)
CS Cn – –
 a) The result ant capacity of series
combination is smaller than the least capacity
of the capacitors of the combination.
b) In series, ratio of charges on three A B
C1 C2
capacitors is 1 : 1 :1. Solution:
c) The ratio of potential differences across Let V1 and V2 be potential drops across the
three capacitors is capacitors C1 and C2 respectively.
Q Q Q 1 1 1
V1 : V2 : V3  : :  : : Then by potential division rule,
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
d) P.D across first capacitor is C2  V 
V1  V    C2
1 C1  C2  C1  C2 
C1
V1  V C1  V 
 1 1 1 V2  V    C1
 C C  C  C  C  C 
C3 
1 2 1 2
1 2 V
similary we can find V2 and V3.
 Consider two capacitors of capacities C1 and
C2 are connected in series to a battery of V1 V2
potential difference V. Then
C1 C2 V2
V

As C1 > C2, So V1 < V2. Also there is no

potential drop along the connecting wires,
V because no current flows through the wires in
C2V steady state. So the total available potential drop
 Potential difference on C1 is V1  C  C occurs across the plates of C1 and C2 only.
1 2
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL:
C1V
 Potential difference on C2 is V2  C  C
1 2

C1C2
 Effective capacity Ceff  C  C
1 2

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
+Q1 –Q1
C Cs
Cs  ; Cp  nC ;  n 2 :1
+Q2 –Q2 n Cp

+Q3 –Q3

Q 1+ Q 2 + Q 3 Q 1+ Q 2 + Q 3
C1
V
+ –
C2
As all capacitors are connected in parallel, so
the potential across any of the capacitors is Q
same . V
q1 q 2 q3 C1Q C2 Q
Q1  , Q2 
i.e., V1  V2  V3 ; V    C1  C2 C1  C2
C1 C2 C3
 Using n number of identical capacitors,
 q1  q 2  q 3  C1V  C2 V  C3 V
combination having different capacitance
q  V  C1  C2  C3 
obtained = 2n – 1. While that for unidentical
q capacitors different combinations is 2n.
 C1  C2  C3 ... (a)
V Illustration-56:
If a single capacitor when connected to the same
The equivalent capacity between A and B
source draws a charge q then that capacitor is in the given circuit is
said to be the effective or equivalent capacitor
8F
for the three parallel capacito rs.
A B
If the effective capactiance is Cp, 12F 12F
q
CP  ... (b) 8F
V Solution:
from (a) and (b) Here 12 F and 12 F are short circuited.
C P  C1  C 2  C 3 Hence they are not charged.
 Take only 8 F and 8 F parallel
In general CP   Cn --- (4.6) combination.
 a) The resultant capacity of parallel C  8  8  16 F
combination is greater than the largest capacity Illustration-57
of the capacitors of the combination. In the net work three identical capacitors
b) In parallel, ratio of P.D. on three capacitors are connected as shown. Each of them can
is 1 : 1 :1. withstand to a maximum 100 V potential
c) The ratio of charges on three capacitors is difference. What is the maximum voltage
Q1 : Q2 : Q3  C1V : C2V : C3V  C1 : C2 : C3 that can be applied across A and B so that
no capacitor gets spoiled.
d) The charge on first capacitor is
C
C1 C
Q1  Q
C1  C2  C3 B
A
similarly we can find Q2 and Q3.
C
 When n identical capacitors each of capacity Solution:
C are first connected in series and next Let q max be the max-charge supplied by the
connected in parallel then the ratio of their battery between A and B so that no capacitor
effective capacities gets spoiled.
For each capacitor
q max  CV0  C(100)  100 C

Page 64
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
For the combination q max  Cequivalent  Vmax  each stair is a and the height is b. Find
2 the capacitance of the assembly.
100 C  C  Vmax   Vmax  150 V
3
Among 150V, potential difference across
parallel combination is 50V and the potential
difference across the other capacitor is 100V. b
Illustration-58 d a
Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate 3a
capacitor, with plate area A and distance
Solution:
between the plates d, when filled with a
This is equivalent to 3 capacitors in parallel
dielectic whose permittivity varies as
where area of each plate is (A/3).
 d
 ( x ) 0  kx  0  x   0  A / 3   A / 3  A / 3
 2 C1  , C2  0 , C3  0
d  d db d  2b
 ( x) 0  k( d  x )   x  d Then, net capacitance C = C1 + C2 + C3
2 
Solution: 0 A  1 1 1 
dx =  
3  d d  b d  2b 

Illustration-60:
x Two capacitors of capacitances 20.0 pF
and 50.0 pF are connected in series with a
battery of 20 V. Find the energy supplied
by the battery.
Solution:
In Series, net capacitance is
x=0 x=d
The given capacitor is equivalent to two C1C2 20  50
C  pF  14.28pF
capacitors in series. Let C1 and C2 be their C1  C2 20  50
capacities. Then
Charge supplied by battery
1  1 l 
q  CV 14.281012 20 Coulomb
C   dC1 dC2 
   
 2.85 10 10 C
Consider an element of width dx at a distance
Work done by battery W = Charge Supplied
x from the left plate. Then
by battery × emf of battery
 0  kx  A
dC1  for 0  x  d = q  V  2.85  1010  20 = 5.70 × 10–9
dx 2
Joule.
and dC2 
0  k(d  x) A for d
xd Illustration-61:
dx 2 Each capacitor shown in figure has a
on substituting these two values we get capacitance of 6.0 µF. The emf of the
battery is 50 V. How much charge will flow
1 l 2  2  Kd 
  n 0 through AB if the switch S is closed?
C dC KA  2 0  S
KA  2 0  Kd 
C n
2  2 0 
Illustration-59:
A capacitor is made of a flat plate of area
A and a second plate having a stair-like
structure as shown in figure. The width of B
A

Page 65
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Solution: 2 C 2 A
On closing S, one capacitor becomes shorted,
hence charge on this capacitor becomes zero. 11V 4 4
Initially the system had 6.0 + 6.0 = 12 µF in
series with another 6 µF.
B
12 6 Solution:
Initial Capacitance C0  = 4µF
12  6 Capacitance of system
Final Capacitance C 1 = 12µF (as third  2 4 
capacitor become useless) 2  4  
24 16
  = F
Initial Charge q 0  C 0 V  50  4  200C , Final  2  4  11
24 
charge = q = 50 x 12 = 600  C.  2 4
So charge q , that flows from A to B is q – q0 Charge on system
Therefore, q = (final charge on outermost 16
q = CV = 11 × C = 16 C
plates) – (final charge on same plates) 11
= q – q0 = 600 µC – 200 µC = 400 µC Charge between A and B = Charge between
Illustration-62: 4/3 q 16
C and B = q    = 4 µC
A capacitor of capacity C1 = 10  F can 4 4 3 4 4
withstand maximum voltage V 1 = 6kV P.d. between A and B =
while another capacitor of capacitance C2
= 2 µF can withstand maximum voltage Charge between A and B 4 C
= = 1 Volt
V2 = 4kV. What maximum voltage will the Capacity 4 F
system of these two capacitors withstand Equivalent Dielectric constant:
if they are connected in series ?
 When the space between the plates of a parallel
Solution:
plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs
In series pd across the capacitor is inversely
of dielectric constants K1 and K2 and each slab
proportional to capacitance.
When a p.d. of 6 kV is applied across the 10 A
having area and thickness equal to distance
µF capacitor, the corresponding p.d. across the 2
of seperation d as shown in the figure.
6 10
2µF capacitor is  30 kV . But the 2µF
2
capacitor can withstand only 4 kV. Therefore
such arrangement does not work i.e., we cannot
apply maximum possible p.d. across the 10 µF
piece.
However if we apply 4 kV across the 2µF K1 K2
piece,
The equivalent circuit is as shown
Corresponding pd across other one is
2
4 kV × = 0.8 kV, which is less than the A A
10 2 2
limit of 6 kV.
Therefore Maximum p.d. across the system is d K1 K2 d
V1 + V2 = 0.8 + 4.0 = 4.8 kV.
Illustration-63:
Find the p.d. between the points A and B 0 A
in the fig. The values of capacitances are a)Capacity of the left half C1= K1
in  F.. 2d

Page 66
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

0 A d) Effective capacity
b) Capacity of the right half C2 = K2
2d CC  A  2K1K 2   2K1 K 2 
C 1 2  0    C0 
c) C 1 and C 2 may be supposed to be C1  C2 d  K1  K 2   K1  K 2 
connected in parallel then effective capacity Here C0 is the capacity of the condenser with
 A  K  K2  air medium.
C = C1 + C2  0  1 
d  2   2K1 K 2 
e) Effective dielectric constant K= 
K
 1  K 2  K1  K 2 
C = C0 
  where C0 is capacity of  Dielectrics in series
2  t  t  .......  t
1 2 n
capacitor without dielectric. K eq 
t1 t 2 t
  .....  n
k1 K 2 Kn
K1  K 2
d) Effective dielectric constant K 
2
K1 K2 K3 Kn
 Dielectric in parallel
K1A1  K 2 A 2  .......  K n A n
K eq  t1 t2 t3 tn
A1  A 2  .......  A n Illustration-64
K1 A1
A2 A parallel plate capacitor of area A, plate
K2 separation d and capacitance C is filled
with three different dielectric materials
Kn An having dielectric constants K1, K2 and K3
 When the space between the plates of a parallel as shown in fig. If a single dielectric
plate condenser is completely filled with two slabs material is to be used to have the same
of dielectric constants K1 and K2 and each slab effective capacitance as the above
d combination then its dielectric constant K
having area A and thickness equal to as shown is given by :
2
in the figure Solution
0 A
 A C1  K1 2 K C
K1 Let C 0 ; d 1 ;
d
2
K2
0 A K  A
C2  K 2 2  K C C3  3 o ,  2K 3 C
2 ; d
d
2 2
The equivalent circuit is as shown
A/2 A/2
A
d K1 K2
K1
2 d
A K3
d
K2 A
2 The equivalent circuit as shown
A
2K1 o A 2
A
2
a) Capacity of the upper half C1  d d
d K1 K2
2 2
2K 2 o A
b) Capacity of the lower half C2 
d
c) C1 and C2 may be supposed to be conencted in K3
series. A

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

1 1 1 1 1 1
  , KC  2K C   K  K  C A
C C3 C1  C 2 3 1 2

1 1 1 B
 
K K1  K 2 2K 3 Solution:
Illustration-65
If the plates are numbered as 1,2, 3 and 4 from
A parallel plate capacitor is constructed
top to bottom, plates 1 and 3 are at same
using three different dielectric materials
as shown in the figure. seperation between potential. So they have been joined together in
the plates of the capacitor is d.Find the an equivalent diagram. Similarly plates 2 and 4,
equivalent capacitance between the plates ? being at same potential, have been joined
together. Thus, the system comprises of 3
identical capacitors in parallel. Here again, each
K
3K
0 A
Plate-1
capacitor has capacitance , Then CAB =
Plate-2 d
2K
d/2 d/2 0 A
3C  3
Solution d
Let C1 , C2 and C3 be the capacitances of the
parts with dielect rics K, 2K and 3K  If alternate numbered plates are joined, then n
respectively plates will form (n–1) capacitors in parallel.
C1
A 0
CAB =  n  1
d
C3 1
d
2
C2 3 B
 A A 4
Let C 0
d
n
0 A / 2  K  KA
C1   0  KC
d/2 d Illustration-67
0 A / 2  2K 2 0 KA Four identical metal plates are located in
C2    2KC
d/2 d air at equal distance d from one another.
The area of each plate is A. Find the
0 A
C3  3K  6KC equivalent capacitance of the system
d/2 between X and Y.
C1 and C2 are in parallel and this combination
is in series with C3. 1
1 1 1
X
So,   2
C eff C1  C 2 C3
1 1 1 2 1 1 3
   
C eff 3KC 6KC 6KC 2KC Y
0 A 4
C eff  2KC  2K
d Solution
Illustration-66:
Find the equivalent capacitances between Let us give numbers to the four plates. Here X
points A and B for the following fig. and Y are connected to the positive and negative
Assume that each plate has surface area A terminals of the battery (say), then the charge
and the separation between the two
consecutive plates is d. distribution will be as shown

Page 68
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

1 Illustration-69
+ Find equivalent capacity X and Y
2 X
1
3 X
2
4 Y
3
Here the arrangement can be represented as
the grouping of three identical capacitors each Y
4
 A Solution
of capacity 0 . The arrangement will be as
d Let us give numbers to the four plates. Here X
shown and Y are connected to the positive and negative
2 1
terminals of the battery (say).
34
1
(+) (-) X
++++++ 2
23 ++++++
Now the equivalent capacitance between X and 3
(C  C)C 2C 2 0 A Y
Y is CXY    ++++++ 4
CCC 3 3d
Here the arrangement can be represented as
Illustration-68 the grouping of three identical capacitors each
Find equivalent capacity between X and Y  A
1 of capacity 0 . The arrangement will be as
d
2 shown
X 3 Y 2 1 4 3

4 X Y
+
Solution
2 3
Let us give numbers to the four plates. Here X Now the equivalent capacitance between X and
and Y are connected to the positive and negative   C C   C 3
terminals of the battery (say) , Y is CXY    C C C
 C  C  2 2
1
++++++++
2 3 3 0 A
= CXY  C 
2 2 d
X Y
3
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS
+ + + + + + + +4
A circuit with five capacitors as shown is known
Here the arrangement can be represented as as wheatstone bridge circuit
the grouping of two identical capacitors each A
 A
of capacity 0 . The arrangement will be as
C1 C2
d
shown
2
C5
1 X Y
C3 C4
X Y
+
B
4 3 C C
Now the equivalent capacitance between X and a) If 1 = 3 in this circuit, it is said to be
C2 C 4
Y is balanced. In such a case, VA – VB = 0 So,
0 A capacitor C5 will have no charge and while
C XY  (C  C )  2C  2
d
simplifying the circuit, we can ignore C5.

Page 69
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Now the circuit will change as shown below.

C1 C2 C2
C1 C5

X Y C3 C4
(6)
C3 C4
Effective capacity between X and Ywill be X Y
C
 CC   CC 
CXY   1 2    3 4 
 C1  C2   C3  C 4 
Based on balanced wheatstone bridge principle, For (1) and (2)
the following circuits can be simplified
C1  C 1C 2   C 3 C 4 
C0    
C5 C2  C1  C 2   C 3  C 4 
(1) X C3 Y
For (3) and (4) CXY = C0 + C
C4 C1 C2
b) If  in the wheatstone bridge, the
C5 C3 C 4
C1 potential difference across C5 is not zero and
X C2 the circuit is not balanced. Such circuits must
(2) C3 Y be solved by circuit analysis i.e., we use
kirchhoff’s laws.
C4 Some times unbalanced bridge circuits can be
C1 analysed with reverse symmetry method. Such
X C3 C5 circuit is given below
C1 C2
(3) C C4 C2
Y C5
C Y
X
C2 C1

C C C
Let q1 and q2 be the charges on capacitor C1
(4)
and C2 when a battery is connected between
C
X and Y the charge distribution will be as
Ceq = C shown
q1 q2
C C C C
q3
C C X q2 q1 Y
C
(5)
C C C
Ceq=C Ceq=C q = q1 + q2 V

Page 70
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Illustration-70 Since it is infinite network, the effective capacity

If the effective capacity between x and y is does not change, even when one repeated
C in the given circuit, the capacity of the branch of network is added (or) removed.
condenser p is
2C 2C Let CXY = CAB = C
Then the given circuit can be modified as
C1
C
X Y X

4C 4C C C
Solution C2
Except P and 3C, remaining part is wheatstones
bridge. Y
The effective capacity of Wheatstone bridge
part is 3C. 1 1 1
 
 P, 3C and 3C are in series. C C1 C  C2
1 1 1 1 On simplification, we get
    P  3C
P 3C 3C C
C2  C2  4C1C2
Illustration-71 C
2
In the given circuit if the P.D. between M
and N is zero, the capacity C is Illustration-72
16F 16F 12F Find the capacity between x and y if
M C  1F .
C C C
12F X

6F N 4F 2C 2C

Y
24 V C C
Solution Solution
If p.d. between M and N is zero then the circuit C C
is similar to wheatstones bridge. A
X
P R 8 6
 i.e.,  C  5  F 2C 2C
Q S 12  C  4 
INFINITE LADDER NETWORKS Y
B
A circuit with capacitors connected in a C C
repeated manner upto infinity can be called Here CXY = CAB = C0
as infinite ladder network. An example for such Then the given circuit can be modified as
network is as given below C
C1 C1 X
A
X
C 2C C0
C2
C2
Y Y
B C

Page 71
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

1 1 1 1 2) When three capacitors are in parallel, the

   ratio of energies is
C0 C 2C  C0 C

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
   U1 : U 2 : U 3  C1V 2 : C2V 2 : C3V 2
C0 1 2  C 0 1 2 2 2
 C1 : C2 : C3
1 2  C0  1  2  C0
  If a battery is used to charge a capacitor, work
C0 2  C0
done by the battery is W and energy stored in
2  C0  C0 (5  2C0 )  5C 0  2C20
the capacitor is U. Let Q be the charge delivered
2C20  4C0  2  0 by the battery to the capacitor. Then work done
on simplification we can get by the battery is
C0  1  2 1
W = VQ and energy stored is U  QV
Since capacity is positive, 2
C0  CXY   
2 1 F.  U  W2
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR The remaining energy is W – U which is equal
 When a capacitor is connected to the battery, 1
the battery transfers positive charge from to QV or U will be lost as heat energy and
2
negative plate to the positive plate. Some work
is done in transferring this charge, which is light energy
stored in the capacitor in the form of ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY DENSITY
Electrostatic Energy.  It is the energy per unit volume inside an electric
field. The electric field inside a parallel plate
1 1 2 Q2
Energy Stored, U  QV  CV = capacitor is uniform and existing in a volume
2 2 2C (A × d). Therefore
 Graph between U & V or U and Q
U(P.E) Total energy CV 2
Ud  
Total volume 2 Ad

V,Q (Potential or charge)  A (Ed ) 2 1

 0   0 E 2
 Work done in charging a capacitor from potential d 2 Ad 2
1 SHARING OF CHARGE (OR)
V 1 to V2 ;
2

W  C V22  V12  REDISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE
 Energy given by battery in charging a neutral  Two capacitors of capacities C1 and C2 are
capacitor from 0 to V potential = CV2, but charged to potentials V1 and V2 separately and
energy stored in the capacitor is half of it. they are connect so that charge flows. Here
 Total potential energy of a group of capacitors charge flows from higher potential to lower
potential till both capacitors get the same
is equal to the sum of potential energy of
potential
individual capacitors. This is irrespective of their 1) Two capacitors are connected in parallel such
grouping (i.e., Parallel or Series or mix of the that positive plate of one capacitor is connected
two). to positive plate of other capacitor
 U = U1 + U2 +U3 +
 1) When three capacitors are in series, the
ratio of energies is
Q 2 Q 2 Q2 1 1 1 =
U1 : U2 : U3  : :  : :
2C1 2C2 2C3 C1 C2 C3 +

Page 72
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Let V be the common potential Illustration-73

Then Q = Q1 + Q2 (charge conservation) Two conductors of capacity 8.4 mF each
(C1 + C2) V = C1V1 + C2 V2 charged to potential 500V and -500V are
C1V1  C2 V2 joined by a conducting wire. If the mass of
V the wire 500 g and specific heat of the
C1  C2
material is 0.1 cal/g/°C, the raise in the
In this case there will be loss in energy of the
system temperature of the wire is
Solution
1 C1C2
U  (V1  V2 )2 According to Joule’s law W = JQ
2 C1  C2 Loss in energy = m s 
2) If positive plate of one capacitor is connected 1 C1C 2
 V1  V2  2  m s 
to negative plate of other capacitor, common 2 C1  C2 2

potential is given by 
1 8.4  10

3

1000 2  500  103  0.1  4200 
C V ~ C2 V2 
2 2 8.4 103 
V 1 1   10 C 0
C1  C2
Illustration-74
Here charge flow takes place if V1  V2
Parallel plate capacitor of capacitance ‘C’
In this case, the loss of energy is charged to a potential difference ‘V’.
1 C1C2 Another capacitor of capacitance ‘2C’ is
U  (V1  V2 )2 charged to a potential difference 2V. The
2 C1  C2
two capacitors are connected in parallel
Redistribution of charges when two to each other in such a way that the
conductors are connected by conduting positive terminal of one is connected to
wire : negative terminal of the other. The final
Q2 energy of the configuration is
Q1 Solution
1 2Q Q
Common potential VC  C  C
C1 A B C2 1 2

CV   2C 2V
= =V
3C
V1 V2 1 1
C1V1  C2 V2 r1V1  r2 V2 Final energy =  C1  C2  VC2   3C V 2
V  2 2
C1  C2 r1  r2
3
Effective capacity, Uf = CV2
2
Q Q11  Q12 Q11 Q12 Illustration-75
C     C1  C2
V V V V A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A
Loss in energy of the system and separation ‘d’ is charged to a P.D (V)
and then battery is disconnected. A slab of
1 1 1 dielectric constant (K) is inserted to fill the
U  C1V12  C2 V22  CV 2
2 2 2 space between the plates. The work done
on the system in the process of inserting
1  C1C2  the slab is
=   V1  V2 2
2  C1  C2  Solution
1
1  4  0 r1r2  Initial enrgy of the system U I  CV2
   V1  V2 2 2
2  r1  r2  After inserting slab, C1 = KC
since charge is constant
If V1 = V2, then neither the charge flows nor the
energy is lost.

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

V C1 C2
Q1  Q; KCV   CV; V1  S1 S3 S2
K
2 V1 = 100 V V2 = 20 V
1  V 1 1 
Final PE U f   KC     CV 2 
2  K  K 2 
Work done W = Ui – Uf Solution
When S1,S2 and S3 are closed, both the
1 2 1
W  CV 1   capacitors are in parallel with unlike charged
2  K
plates together. So, they attain a common
1  0 A.V 2  1 
W  1  k  potential.
2 d
Before closing the switches,
Illustration-76
Charge on C1 is q1  100  1  100 C
A capacitor of capacitance Co is charged Charge on C2 is q 2  20  2  40 C
to a potential Vo and then isolated. A small After closing the switches
capacitor C is then charged from C o ,
discharged and charged again, the process Common potential
being repeated n times. Due to this,
potential of the large capacitor is q q 100  40
V 1 2   20 V
decreased to V. Find the capacitance of C1  C 2 3
the small capacitor: Now final charges q11  C1V  1 20  20 C
Solution q12  C2 V  2  20  40 C
When key is closed, common potential The charge that flows through S1 is
q  100  20  80 C
C V
V1  o o charge left on large capacitor after Illustration-78
Co  C
first sharing of charges Q1o  Co V1 A charge ‘Q’ is given to spherical shell of
common potential after second sharing of radius R. The energy of the system is
C0 Solution
charges in V2  C  C V1
0
1 Q2 Q2 Q2
C2o V0 U CV 2   
V2 = 2 2C 2  4  0 R  8 0 R
( Co + C)2
n
This is same as self energy of charged con-
 Co  ducting sphere.
after nth sharing charges Vn =  V0
 C + C 
o  Let n identical charged liquid drops each
But Vn  V having radius ‘r’ , charge ‘q’ , potential ‘v’
n
 C0  and capacity ‘c’ are combined to form a
V V0 big drop.
 C 0  C 
For big drop
 V  1/ n 
C  Co  o   1 (i) Radius R  n1/3r
 
 V  (ii) Charge Q = nq
Illustration-77 (iii) Capacitance C  n1/ 3c
In the circuit shown in figure C1  1 F (iv) Charge density   n1/ 30 where  0
and C2  2 F . The capacitor C1 is charged
to 100V and the capacitor C2 is charged to is charge density of small drop
20V. After charging then are connected as (v) Potential V  n 2 /3v
shown. When the switches S1 , S2 and S3 are (vi) Potential Energy U  n5/3u
closed, the charge flowing through S1 is
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC
 When a dielectric (K) is inserted between

Page 74
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor 2
connected to a voltage source V Q2 Q
U = 2 KC
(i) Potential difference across the capacitor 2C 0
remains same
 When the plate separation between the
(ii) Capacitance becomes K-times as
capacitor plates is made n times:
A0 K Charged and source is Charged and source is
C = K C0 where C0 is capacitance
d not disconnected disconnected
with out dielectric V Same Q Same
(iii) Charge on capacitor becomes K times as
C becomes 1 times
Q = CV = K C0V = K Q0 where Q0 is n
A 0 
C becomes 1 times
 n
charge on capacitor with out dielectric as C 
 D 

(iv) Electric field between the plates of capacitor
Q becomes 1 times V becomes n times
will remain same as E  V n  Q
 as V  
d as Q  CV   C
(v) Charge density will becomes K-times as becomes 1 times remains same
n  Q
Q K Q
0  Q  as s  
   as s    A
A A  A
(vi) Potential Energy U becomes K times as E becomes 1 times E remains same
n  V
1 1 2  V  as E  
U  CV 2  KC0V  KU  as E  
d
 d
2 2 

(vii) Additional charge passing through battery U becomes 1 times U becomes n times
n  Q2 
is Q  Q  Q0 = Q0 K  1  1
 asU  CV 
2 asU 


2C 
 2 
(viii) Additional work done by battery Illustration-79:
W  Q0V K  1 A capacitor is composed of two plates
separated by a sheet of insulating material
 When a capacitor, charged and then 3mm thick and of relative permittivity 4. The
disconnected from the source distance between the plates is increased to
and a Dielectric (K) is inserted between
allow the insertion of second sheet 5 mm
the plates of a capacitors
thick and of relative permittivity r . If the
(i) Charge (Q) on the capacitor will remain capacitance of the capacitor so formed is 1/
same. 3 of the original capacitance, find r .
(ii) Capacitance will become K times as, Solution :
A0 K Let initial capacitance final capacitance be C
C = KC0 and C/3 respectively.
d
(iii) Potential difference across the capacitor 0 A
Then, C  ..... (i)
becomes 1/K times (3 / 4)
V = Q/C = Q /KC0 C 0 A
 ..... (ii)
1 V 3 (3/ 4)  (5/ r )
(iv) Electric field will become times as E 
K d 3 3 5
(v) Charge density on the plates will remain same Solving (i) & (ii), we get 3   
4 4 r
Q
as   r  3.33
A
1 Illustration-80:
(vi) Potential Energy U becomes times as The parallel plates of a capacitor have an
K
area 0.2 m 2 and are 10-2 m apart. The
original potential difference between them

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
is 3000V, and it decreases to 1000 V when which is unchanged.
a sheet of dielectric is inserted between the
plates. Compute r2 q1 r2 q1
(a) Original capacitance C0
(b) The original charge Q on each plate r1 r1
(c) Capacitance C after insertion of the
dielectric Now electric potential of inner sphere is
(d) Dielectric constant K
(e) The original field E0 between the plates 1  q1 0  1 q1
V1    
and 4 0  r1 r2  4 0 r1
(f) The electric field E after insertion of
Electric potential of outer shell is
the dielectric. ( 0 = 8.85 × 10–12 S.I. unit)
Solution : 1  q1 0  1 q1
V2    
4 0  r2 r2  4 0 r2
8.85 10 12  0.2
(a) C 0  0 A  F  Now Potential difference between the two
d 0.01
(b) Q  C0 V  1.77  3000C = 1.77 × 10–10 F q1  1 1 
(c) As Q remains constant, So C0V0 = CV conductors is V1  V2  4   r  r 
0  1 2 
C0 V0 1.77 10 10 1000
 C  From this we can conclude that potential
V 3000
11
= 5.90 10 F difference in this case depends on q1 only. It
does not depend on any charge on the outer
C V0 3000
(d) K    =3 shell. Let us check the same as given below. If
C 0 V 1000
q2 is the charge on the outer shell, then
(e) E 0  V0  3000  3 10 5 V / m 1  q1 q2 
d 0.01 V1    
4 0  r1 r2 
V 1000 1  q1  q2 
(f) E    10 5 V / m
d 0.01 and V2  4   r 
0  2 
VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR:
 Van de Graff generator is used to develop very q1  1 1 
Now V1  V2  4   r  r 
high charges and intense electric field or very 0  1 2 
high voltages of order of a few million volts.  Here the potential difference ( V1  V2 ) will
The resulting large electric fields are used to remain the same for any value of q2.
accelerate charged particles like electrons, If the two spheres are connected as shown in
protons and ions to high energies. figure (b), the charge flows from higher potential
Principle:
to lower potential. Ultimately all the charge
 Whenever a charge is given to a metal body it
resides on the surface of outer sphere.
will spread on the outer surface of it. If we put
a charged metal body inside the hollow metal Force Between Plates of a Capacitor
body and the two are connected by a wire, +Q -Q

whole of the charge of the inner body will flow E

to the outer surface of the hollow body. This
principle is used in Van de Graff generator. F = QE
Theory:
 Consider a spherical conductor 1 of radius r1
holding charge q1 uniformly distributed on it. It 1 2
is kept inside a hollow conductor 2 of radius r2

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 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Electric field due to plate 1 and 2 2 0 K L

C
 Q q  b
E  from C  2.303 log10  
2 0 2 A 0 , towards right V  a
Force on plate 2
Q2 ADDITIONAL POINTS
F  QE  , towards left
2 A 0 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS FOR
The force between plates of capacitor is CAPACITOR CIRCUITS
attractive and can be expressed as Kirchhoff’s laws are useful in circuit
analysis which involve capacitors, resistors,
 A 0  inductors and batteries. We will discuss about
Q 2
 CV 
2  d V
F      these in the next topic. For circuits with
2 A 0 2 A 0 2 A 0 capacitors we have junction law and loop laws.
2
1 V  1 Node law :
 A 0    A 0 E 2 From junction law, we can say “the algebraic
2 d  2
sum of the charges at any junction is zero”
CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR Similarly total charge of an isolated system
A cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial remain constant or zero.
cylinders of radii a & b as shown in figure. The
cylinders are conducting. Let q be the charge
-q q O q -q
given to the inner cylinder. Let the outer cylinder 1
1 2 2

be earthed. q 3

-q3
dr
q
b At junction O, q  0
a  q 1 + q2 + q3 = 0
The dotted line forms isolated system so in that
case also q1 + q2 + q3 = 0
In order to calculate the capacitance let us (Similary for currents i  0 from junction rule)
consider a coaxial cylindrical shell of thickness  At a node total charge entering = total charge
dr. The surface of the imaginary cylinder is coming out
Gaussian surface. The electric flux emanating q1 q5
from charged cylinder will pass through the

Gaussian surface and hence q2 q q4

3

 q  q1 + q2 + q3 = q4 + q5
 E.ds    Loop law :
 0K 
Where K is relative permittivity of the medium In a closed loop, algebraic sum of the potential
between the two cylindrical surfaces. differences across all circuit elements must be
q  1 equal to zero.
q
E  2 rL   E 
 0K ;  2  0 KL  r
  p.d  0

V
q   b 
log e     E  iR  0 for resistors and batteries

2  0 KL   a q
 E  C  0 for capacitors and batteries

Page 77
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

q 1µF 2µF
 E  C  iR  0 for all the three a
C1 10V C2 b
The junction rule is an application of principle
of conservation of charge, where as loop rule Solution
is a consequence of conservation of energy. Va – Vb = 10 V
While applying loop rule, potential gain or Let the charge on each capacitor be ‘q’ (in µC)
potential fall will be calculated as mentioned q q
Va  6
 10   Vb
below. 1  10 2  10 6
R +q  q 1
Va  Vb  10   q   6
 2  10
a b a b a b
I  q
q  20 10 ; q 
6 40
C
Fig(b) Fall in potential  2 3
Fall in potential Po tent ial difference acro ss 1 µF is
q 40
V1   V
q C1 3
Va – Vb = + iR or or E
C Potential difference across 2µF is
R +q q 20
V2   V
a b C2 3
a b a b
I E
R +q Illustration-82
< Two capacitors A and B with capacities
a i b a b a b
E 3µF and 2  F are charged to a potential
Fig (c) Potential rise difference of 100V and 180V respectively.
q The plates of the capacitors are connected
Va – Vb = – iR or or –E with the given charge polarities shown.
C An uncharged capacitor of capacity 2µF
q
 In a closed loop  E   0 for eg. is connected by closing the switches.
c Calculate the final charge on the three
E1 E2 E3 capacitors
A B C
C
q1 q2 2F
C1 C2 C3
3F 2 F
A B+
F E D
In the circuit shown, q1 & q2 are the Solution
assumed charges. Then, the equation for the Let q be the charge flowing during redistribution
loop & for the loop. of charge in the circuit. From Kirchhoff’s
voltage law we can write
q1  q1  q 2 
AFEBA, E1    E2  0 300  q q 360  q
C1 C2   0
3 2 2
+q -q
q 2  q1  q 2 
BCDEB, –E 3   0
C3 C2 (300 q)
Illustration-81
(360 q)
In the given branch, if potential of a is 10V
higher than b, find the potential of each 4q
 280  q  210C
capacitor and charge on each capacitor ? 3
Final charge on the capacitors are 90c,210c
and 150c

Page 78
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

Illustration-83 So flow of charge through section 1 is

T h r ee capaci t or s C 1 ,C 2 and C 3 are = qf – qi = C2E – 0 = C2E
connected as shown. Let V1, V2 and V3 be Flow of charge through section 2 is qf – qi
their potentials (of P, Q, R). Then find the
C1C2 E
potential at the junction O . = – q1 – q = –(q1 + q) = C  C
1 2
Q
ie charge flows towards the junction at section 2
O C2
P
C1 C3 HIGH VOLTAGE BREAK DOWN (OR)
R CORONA DISCHARGE
Solution Let us consider two conducting spheres A and
Let q1,q2 and q3 be the charges on the B connected by a conducting wire. A charge
capacitors C1, C2 and C3 respectively. Q is given to the system. This charge will be
q1 q q shared between them in such a way that their
V1  V0  ; V0  V2  C ; V0  V3  C
2 3
potentials become equal. Let q1 and q2 be the
C1 2 3
From junction rule applied at 0 charges on them. Thus
q1 = q2 + q3 VA  VB
C1 (V1 –V0) = C2 (V0 – V2) + C3 (V0 – V3) R
 C V  C2 V2  C3 V3  r
 V0   1 1 
 C C C
1 2 3 A B
Illustration-84 Fig. (a)
What charge will flow through 1 and 2 if 1 q1 1 q 2 q1 R
 
switch S is closed ?
S C1
4 0 R 4 0 r ; q2 r
q1
E C2 E 1 4  R 12 r2 q
and   2 1
2 q2 R q2
1 2
4 r 2
Solution
1 r 2 r r 1
Before closing the switch, both capacitors are  2   ; we can say  
in series with second source. Now charge on 2 R R R r
It shows that the field is higher at the surface of
1 2  CC 
each capacitor is q   C  C  E small spheres.
1 2
After closing the switch, let q1 and q2 be the The same can be explained with a conductor
charges on the capacitors having sharp end. It can be shown by simple
q1 C1 know ledge of lines of force that field around
the sharp end is much higher than the field in
the other regions.
E C2 E E2
Air
+ + + +
+ + + +
1 2 +
+ +
q 2 Conductor
For the left loop, E0 + + E1 +
C2 + + +
+ + + +
and for the right loop E1> E2
q1 q Fig. (b)
E 2  0
C1 C2 Due to this very high field at the sharp ends of
From these loop equations, we get q1 = 0 and
q2 = EC2
Page 79
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

the conductor, the air near these points break the battery ie H = W
down and conductor starts discharging. This is If Uf > Ui then H = (Ui – Uf) + W
known as corona discharge. W = (Uf – Ui) + H
HEAT GENERATED IN CIRCUITS Here (Uf – Ui) = H
For circuits involving capacitors and voltage W
sources, we can apply conservation of total i.e., H or (Uf – Ui) =
2
energy. The basic equation for conservation of SELF ENERGY OF A CHARGED
energy will be Ui + W = Uf + H SPHERICAL SHELL SPHERE:
Ui = Initial energy stored in all capacitors of Consider a spherical shell having charge Q and
the circuit radius R. Let the instantaneous charge on the
Uf = Final energy stored in all capacitors of the shell be q. Work done by an external agent in
circuit slowly bringing a charge from infinity and as-
W = Work done by the sources / batteries sembling on the surface of the shell is
H = Heat generated Transfer
Here W can be positive or negative R dq
Case (i) :
If battery or source supplies charge q, work q0
done will be positive

W = E q ( >0) q
E q dW  Vdq  dq
If a capacitor of capacitance C charged to a 4 0 R
potential V (V  0) is connected to a source of Net work done in charging the shell is
emf E work done will be positive if E >V. Q
q Q2
Work done W = E q W  dq 
0
4 0 R 8 0 R
Where q = (qfinal – q initial)
W = E ( CE – CV) = CE (E – V) This work done is the electrical potential
energy of self energy of the charged sphere.
Case (ii) :
If battery / source gets charge, work done by it SELF ENERGY OF A UNIFORMLY
will be negative CHARGED SPHERE:
W = E q ( < 0) Let us consider that the charge Q being brought
from infinity to form the sphere of radius R.
Let at any time, charge q has already been
E q brought to from a sphere of radius x and fur-
If a capacitor of capacitance C charged to ther a very small chrge dq is brought from in-
potential V is connected to a source of emf E finity and assembled on the surface of sphere,
which increase its radius by dx. Electrical po-
such that E < V1 work done by the battery will
tential energy of this charge dq is given by
be negative.
dU  dq  potential at the position of charge
Work done W = E q
dq
= where q = qfinal – q initial
or W = E ( CE – CV) = – CE ( V – E)  1 q
dU  dq  V  dq  
Case (iii) :  4 0 x 
If Ui = Uf, Heat generated = work done by If Q is the total charge to be brought to form

Page 80
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

the complete sphere of radius R, then the

Q

charge density  is given by 4
 R3
3

1 q4 3  4 2 4
dU  
4 0 x  3
 x  

 4 x 2
dx   
3 0
x dx

Total electrical potential energy is

R
4 2 4 3Q 2
U  x dx 
0 3 0 20 0 R
SELF AND INTERACTION ENERGY OF
TWO SPHERES:
Two spheres 1 and 2 are placed at a suffi-
cient distance apart. Sphere 1 is uniformly
charged, and sphere 2 is a charged conduct-
ing shell. Total energy of the system is the
sum of self ineteraction energies of the
shpheres and interaciton energy. Thus total
energy of the system is

 3q12   q22  1  q1q2 

U   
 20 0 a   8 0 b  4 0 l

+ +a b
q1 + q2
+ ++
+ q0
+ ++

l
(1) (2)

Page 81
Page 82
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Where f is the frequency of revolution in Hertz.
SYNOPSIS  is the angular frequency in rad/sec
v is linear velocity of the charge q
Strength of Electric Current r is radius of the circular path
The strength of electric current is defined as 4. If in a discharge tube n1 protons are moving
the rate of the flow of charge through any cross from left to right in t seconds and n2 electrons
section of a conductor. are moving simultaneously from right to left in t
The instantaneous current is defined by the seconds, then the net current in any cross
equation, section of the discharge tube is
Q dQ ( n  n )e
I  Lt  I  1 2 (from left to right)
t 0 t dt t
q here e is the magnitude of charge of electron
Average current i  (or) proton.
t 
Ampere : If one coulomb of charge passes Current Density ( J ) : Current density at a
through a cross-section of the conductor per point is defined as a vector having magnitude
second then the current is one ampere.
equal to current per unit area.
1coulomb
1 ampere =  1sec ond  I dI
J  Lt  nˆ
s  0  s ds
current is a scalar quantity.
Applications on electric current If the normal to the area makes an angle 
1. If the current is varying with time t, then the with the direction of the current, then the current
charge flowing in a time interval from t1 to t 2 dI
is density is J  , dI  Jds cos 
ds cos 
t2 (or)
q   Idt    
t1 dI  J .ds i.e., I   J .ds
2. If n particles, each having a charge q, pass 
SI unit of J is Am–2
through a given cross sectional area in time t,
nq Dimensional formula of J is [ AL2 ]
then average current is i = Current is the flux of current density.
t
3(i). If a point charge q is revolving in a circular orbit Relaxation time ( ) : It is the time interval
of radius r with speed v then its time period is between two successive collisions of electrons
with +ve ions in the metallic lattice. The
resistance of a conductor is given by
ml
R=
ne 2 A
T  (2 r / v) where n = no. of electrons per unit volume of
conductor
e = magnitude of electron charge
(ii).The average current associated with this m = mass of electron ;  = relaxation time.
revolving charge is DRIFT VELOCITY : Drift velocity is the
q  vq average velocity acquired by free electrons
I   fq  q inside a metal by the application of an electric
T 2 2 r
field which results in current.

Page 83
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

J I Illustration-3:
Drift velocity v d   Consider a wire of length 4m and cross-
ne Ane
sectional area 1 mm 2 carrying a current of
where, J = I/A is current density
2A. If each cubic meter of the material
n is number of free electrons per unit volume contains 10 29 free electrons, find the
e is charge of electron average time taken by an electron to cross
The drift velocity(vd) is related to relaxation time the length of the wire.
eE Solution:
(  ) is vd   i 2
m  vd   29 6 19
ms 1
nAe 10  10  1.6  10
Note : 1.The drift velocity of electrons is of the order = 12.5 × 10–4 ms–1
of 104 ms 1 . Average time taken by an electron to cross the
2. Greater the electric field, greater will be the drift length of wire
velocity v d  E l 4
t  4
3. The direction of drift velocity for electrons in a v d 1.25  104 s = 3.2 × 10 s
metal is opposite to that of electric field applied
 Mobility (  ) : Mobility (  ) of a charge carrier
E (like electron) is defined as the average drift
Illustration -1: velocity resulting from the application of unit
In a Hydrogen atom, electron moves in an electric field strength.
-11
orbit of radius 5 × 10 m with a speed of
drift velocity |V |
2.2 × 106 m/s. Calculate the equivalent  ;  d
current. electric field E
v Mobility depends on pressure and temperature.
Solution: Current i  f .e  .e
OHM’S LAW : For a given conductor, at a
2 r
given temperature, the strength of electric
2.2 106 –19 current through it is directly proportional to
= 11 × 1.6 × 10
2  5 10 the potential difference applied across at its
= 1.12 × 10–3 amp = 1.12 mA. ends.
Illustration -2: V
The current through a wire depends on i.e. I  V  I  ; V = IR
R
time as i  i0   t , where i0  10 A and Where R is electrical resistance of the
conductor
  4 A / s . Find the charge that crossed
through a section of the wire in 10  Ohm’s law is neither a basic law nor a derivable
seconds. one
Solution:  Ohm’s law is just an empirical relation.
 Microscopically, Ohm’s law is expressed as
dq
i  i0   t ; but i  J  nev d  J   E where  is the
dt
 dq  (i0   t )dt electrical conductivity of the material.
 The conductors which obey Ohm’s law are
t 10 10
 2
t  called Ohmic conductors or ohmic devices.
q  dq  q  i0 t  
t 0  2 0 Ex : all metals
 For Ohmic conductors V – i graph is a straight
= (10i0  50 ) = 300 coulomb line passing through origin (metals).

Page 84
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
T1 Factors Effecting Resistance of a
1
V V Conductor
T2
2 1. The resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to the length (l) of the conductor
   (when area of cross section is constant)
i i R1 l1
i.e. R l (or) R  l
2 2
(A) Slope of the line (B) Here tan 1  tan  2
tan   V / I  R ; So R1  R2 i.e T1  T2 R l
For small changes in the length, 
 The substances which do not obey Ohm’s law R l
are called non-ohmic conductors or non-ohmic 2. The resistance of a conductor is inversely
devices. proportional to the area of cross-section (A)
Ex: Thermistor, Electronic Valve, Semi- (When length of the conductor is constant)
conductor devices, gases, crystal rectifier etc.,
 The V – i graph for a non – Ohmic conductor 1 1 R1  A2   r22 
is non-linear. i.e., R  (or) R  ; R   A    r2 
A r2 2  1  1 
(mA)
i For small changes in area (or) radius we have
i 1
X V X R A 2r
0  
V R A r
(A)
i
V 3. As the temperature increases resistance of
vaccum tube semi conductors
metallic conductors increases and that of
i i semiconductors decreases.
i2 Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance
V 0 (R) is called conductance.
i1 V
i 1
V1
V
Ne Gas conductance, G  .
Thermistor
With tungsten Electrode R
i The S.I unit of conductance is mho    or
Siemen or ohm-1.
V 0
V Resistivity: As we know, that the resistance
i of the conductor is directly proportional to its
dilH2SO4 length and inversely proportional to its area of
(Platinum Electrode) cross section, we can write
Resistance-Definiton : The resistance of a
conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential l l
R R
difference ‘V’ across the conductor to the A A
current ‘i’ flowing through the conductor. where  is specific resistance or resistivity of
V the material of the conductor.
Resistance R 
i 1. Resistivity is the specific property of a material
S.I unit of resistance is ‘ohm’    . but resistance is the bulk property of a
 The resistance of a conductor depends upon conductor.
1) shape (dimensions) 2) nature of material 2. Resistivity is independent of dimensions of the
3) impurities 4) Temperature conductor such as length, area of the cross
 The resistance of a conductor increases with section.
impurities.
 The resistance of a semi conductor decreases 3. Resistivity depends on the nature of the material
with impurities. of the conductor, temperature and impurities.

Page 85
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

4. Resistivity of any alloy is more than resistivity 5. If a wire of resistance R is stretched to ‘n’ times
of its constituent elements. its original length, its resistance becomes n2 R.
i) R alloys  R conductors ii) metals  alloys 6. If a wire of resistance R is stretched until its
Special Cases : 1
radius becomes th of its original radius then
1. The alternate forms of resistance is n
l2 l 2 d V m its resistance becomes n4R.
R   2  7. When a wire is stretched to increase its length
V m A d A2
by x% (where x is very small) its resistance
Where d is density of material of conductor increases by 2x %.
V is volume of the conductor
m is mass of the conductor 8. When a wire is stretched to increase its length
2. If a conductor is stretched or elongated or by x% (where x is large) its resistance increases
drawn or twisted, then the volume of the  2 
conductor is constant. Hence  2x  x 
by  100  .
l 2 
a. R   R l 2 9. When a wire is stretched to reduce its radius
V
byx% (where x is very small), its resistance
V 1 1 increases by 4x%.
b. R  2  R 2  4
A A r Illustration -4:
l2 A rectangular block has dimensions 5 cm
c. Interms of mass of the wire R × 5 cm × 10 cm. Calculate the resistance
m
measured between (a) two square ends and
m m (b) the opposite rectangular ends. Specific
and R 2  4
A r resistance of the material is 3.5  105  m .
3. For small changes in the length or radius during Solution:
the stretching a) Resistance between two square ends
R l R A r 
2 ;  2  4 R1 
R l R A r A
4. In case of a cuboid of dimensions l  b  h 3.5  10 5  10  10 2
R1   1.4  103 
5  5  10 4

5 cm

5 cm 10 cm
b) Resistance between the opposite rectangular
l 
Resistance across AB, RAB  ends R2 
b h A

b 3.5  10 5  5  10 2
Resistance across CD, RCD  R2   1.4  10 4 
lh 5  10  10 4
Conductivity: Conductivity is the measure
h of the ability of a material to conduct electric
Resistance across EF, REF 
l b current through it. It is reciprocal of resistivity.
If l  b  h , then 1 l
2
 
l h R l  RA
Rmax  ; Rmin   max  2
bh l b Rmin h S.I unit : Siemen / m : (Sm–1)

Page 86
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
For perfect insulators   0 Temp. coefficient Variation of
Material of resistance with
For perfect conductors,  is infinity.. temperature rise
resistance ()
Temperature dependence of resistance:
Metals Positive Increases
For conductors i.e metals resistance increases
Solid non-
with rise in temperature Zero independent
metal
R t  R o (1  t   t 2 ) for t > 300oC Semi- Negative Decreases
conductor
o
R t  R o (1  t) for t < 300 C or Electrolyte Negative Decreases
R  Ro Ionized
 t 0 Negative Decreases
R ot / C gases

Alloys Small positive Almost

R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC value constant

Rt = resistance of conductor at toC and

Variation of Resistivity with Temperature:
 If 1 is the resistivity of a material at
,  = temperature coefficients of resistance
temperature t1 and  2 is the resistivity of the
If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1oC and same material at temperature
R1 1   t1 t 2 ,then 2  1 1    t 2  t1  
t2oC respectively then R  1   t
2 2 Y rs
cto
R2  R1 u
  ond
R1t2  R2t1 r c
fo
The value of  is different at different for manganin and constantan
Resistivity

temperatures. for
sem
1  dR  ico
n
At a given temperature     at t0C  duc
to
R  dt  rs

X
Graph shows the variation of resistivity with 0
Temperature
temperature for conductors, semiconductors Illustration -5:
and for alloys like manganin and constantan.
The temperature coefficient of resistance
Since the resistivity of manganin and
of platinum is   3.92  103 K 1 at 0° C.
constantan remains constant with respect to Find the temperature at which the increase
change in temperature, these materials are used in the resistance of platinum wire is 10%
for the bridge wires and resistance coils. of its value at 00C.
 The resistivity of manganin and constantan is 110R1
almost independent of temperature. Solution: R2   1.1R1 ;   3.92  103 K 1
100
 Two resistors having resistances R1 and R 2  R1 1.1 R1  R1
R2 at 0o C are connected in series. The t  
R1  R1 
condition for the effective resistance in
series is same at all temperatures 
R1 (1.1  1) 0.1R1
 
0.1
R1 R1 3.92  10 3
R1  R2  R1'  R2'
t  25.510 C ;
R1  R2  R1 (1  1t )  R2 (1   2t )
t2  t1  25.510 C  t2  0  25.510 C
R11   R2 2
Variation of resistance of some materials t2  25.510 C

Page 87
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Illustration -6: Solution :

The resistance of iron wire is 10 and Slope of line gives resistance
  5  103 C .If a current of 30A is So, R1  tan   R 0 1 T1 
flowing in it at 20C , keeping the R2  tan(90 )  cot   R0 1 T2 
potential difference across its length
constant, if the temperature is increased cot   tan   R 0 T2  T1 
to 120C , what is the current flowing cos  sin 
through that wire ? or   R 0   T2  T1 
sin  cos 
Solutions:
cos 2
R120  R20 R 0 T2  T1  
 R
5  10 3  120
 10 sin 2
R20 120 20  ; 10  100 2
 R120  15 ; But V = IR or T2  T1  cot 2
Here V is constant. Hence, Illustration -10:
I120 R20 I120 10 Figure shows a conductor of length l
 ;  ;  I120  20 A having a circular cross -section. The radius
I 20 R120 30 15
of cross-section varies linearly from a to b.
Illustration -7:
The resistivity of the material is  .
Resistance of a wire at temperature t0C is
Assuming that b - a << l, find the resistance
R  R0 (1  at  bt 2 ) of the conductor.
Here, R is the temperature at 00C. Find Solution:
0
the temperature coefficient of resistance
at temperature t is
Solution:
1 dR 1
 .  [ R0 (a  2bt )]
R dt R0 (1  at  bt 2 )
 a  2bt 
   2 
 1  at  bt 
Illustration -8:
A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1  at
27.5C & 2.7 at 1000C. Determine the ba ya
temperature coefficient of resistance of sil- tan   
l x
ver.
yl - al = bx - ax
Solution:
Rt = R0 (1 + αθ )  dy   l 
l    (b  a)  dx    dy  (1)
2.1 = R0 (1+ α  27.5) ......(1)  dx  ba
2.7 = R0 (1+ α  100) ......(2) Resistance across the elemental disc under
Solve equation (1) and (2) α=0.00390 C-1 dx
consideration dR    (2)
Illustration -9: A
V- I graph of a conductor at temperature  l  dy
T1 and T2 are shown in the figure (T2 – T1) from (1) and (2) dR     2
ba  y
is proportional to  Resistance across the given conductor,,
V b y b
T2 l dy
R   dR  R   . 2 ;
T1 y a  (b  a ) y a y
 l
R  
  ab
I

Page 88
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Illustration -11: Illustration -13:
A hollow cylinder of specific resistance A hollow copper cylinder is of inner radius
 , inner radius R, outer radius 2R and 4cm and outer radius 5cm. Now hollow
length l is as shown in figure. What is the portion is completely filled with suitable
net resistance between the inner and copper wires. Find percentage change in
outer surfaces ? its electric resistance.
Solution : Solution :

Consider a ring of width ‘dr’ and radius ‘r’.

Resistance across the ring is A hollow cylinder of inner radius ‘r’ and outer
radius ‘R’ has specific resistance '  ' . If its
 dr  dr
dR   length is ' l ' then its resistance is,
dA 2 rl
Net resistance l l l k
R1    
2R  (dr )       R  r    5  4  9 9
2 2 2 2

  log r R  
2R
 2 l 
 l n (2)
R (2 rl ) 2 l After filling the hollow portion, its final resistance
Illustration-12:
There are two concentric spheres of radius is ,
a and b respectively. If the space between l l k
 
R2 =   5  25 25
2
them is filled with medium of resistivity
 , then the resistance of the inter gap
between the two spheres will be (Assume b Percentage of change = R2  R1  100
> a) R1
Solution: k k
 25 9  100  64%
k
9
a
Illustration -14:
x If resistivity of the material of a
O dx
conductor of uniform area of cross-
b section varies along its length as
  0 1  x  .Find the resistance of the
Consider a concentric spherical shell of radius conductor , if its lengths is ‘L’ and area
x and thickness dx, its resistance is dR, of cross-section is ‘A’
 dx Solutions :
dR = dx dx
L
4 x 2
dR =   0 1  x  ;  R   dR
Total resistance A A 0
b b L
   dx   1 1    x2    1 
R =  dR  R   4   x 2  4  a  b  R  0  x    = 0  L   L2 
a   a   A 2 0 A 2 

Page 89
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Illustration -15: Colour bands on a resistor: B.B.ROY

How many number of turns of nichrome of Great Britain having Very Good Wife with
wire of specific resistance 106 m and Gold and Silver
 Resistors in the higher range are made mostly
diameter 2mm that should be wound on a
from carbon. Carbon resistors are compact,
cylinder of diameter 5cm to obtain a
inexpensive and thus find extensive use in
resistance of 40 ? electronic circuits.
Solution : Illustration -16:
If R is the radius of the cylinder Suppose the colours on the resistor as
r is the radius of the wire shown in figure are brown, yellow, green
N is the number of turns
and gold as read from left to right. Using
ρ  2  R  N the table, find the resistance of the
then R '   R '
A r 2 resistor

40
10 6
22.510 2
N 
Solution:
 N  800 Yellow Gold
6
110 Brown Green
Thermistor: A thermistor is a heat sensitive
and non-ohmic device.
 This is made of semiconductor compounds as
oxides of Ni, Fe, Co etc. From Figure
 This will have high +ve (or) -ve temperature Brown Yellow Green Gold
coefficient of resistance. 1 4 ×105  5%
 Thermistor with -ve ‘  ’ are used as
resistance 5
R  14  105 
100
14  105  
themometers which can measure low
temperature of order of 10K –3and small  (1.4  0.07)10 6   (1.4  0.07)M
changes of in the order of 10 K.
Some times tolerance is missing from the code
 Having -ve  , these are widely used in
measuring the rate of energy flow in micro and there are only three bands. Then the
wave beam. tolerance is 20%.
 Thermistor can also be used to serve as  Super Conductor : There are certain
thermostat. metals for which the resistance suddenly falls
Resistor Colour codes to zero below certain temperature called
Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance(%) critical temperature.
 Critical temperature depends on the nature of
Black 0 × 10° material. The materials in this state are called
Brown 1 × 101 super conductors.
 Without any applied emf , steady current can
Red 2 × 102
be maintained in super conductors.
Orange 3 × 103 Ex: Hg below 4.2 K or Pb below 8.2K
Yellow 4 × 104 Resistances In Series:
A B C D
Green 5 × 105
R1 R2 R3
Blue 6 × 106
I I
Violet 7 × 107  
Gray 8 × 10 8
V
White 9 × 10 9 – 1. If resistors of resistances R 1, R 2, R3, ..... are
connected in series, the resultant resistance
Gold – ×10–1  5% R = R1 + R 2+ R3 + ........
Silver – ×10–2  10% 2. When resistances are connected in series, same
No color –  20% current passes through each resistor. But the
digit 2 tolerence
digit 1 multiplier Page 90
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
pot ential differences are in the ratio 2. In ‘n’ wires of equal resistances are given, the
V1 : V2 : V3 ..... = R1 : R2 : R3 ..... number of combinations that can be made to
3. When resistors are joined in series, the effective give different resistances is 2n –1 .
resistance is greater than the greatest resistance 3. If ‘n’ wires of unequal resistances are given,
in the circuit. the number of combinations that can be made
4. When two resistances are connected in series to give different resistances is 2n (If n >2).
then voltage division laws are, 4. If R s and R p be the resultant resistances of
VR1 VR2 R1 and R2 when connected in series and parallel
V1  and V2  then
R1  R2 R1  R2
1
Resistances in Parallel 
R1  R s  R s2  4R s R p
2

I1 R1
1

R 2  R s  R s2  4R s R p
2

I2 R2 5. If a uniform wire of resistance R is,
A stretched to ‘m’ times its initial length and
bent into a regular polygon of ‘n’ sides then
I3 R3 a) Resistance of the wire after stretching is
I R1  m 2 R ( R ' l 2 )
I m2 R
V b) Resistance of each side R2 
n
c) Resistance across diagonally opposite points
1. If resistors of resistance R1, R2, R 3 ……..are
connected in parallel, the resultant resistance R n 
 2 R2  m2 R
1 1 1 1 R0     R0 
is given by R  R  R  R  ............  2  4
1 2 3
 
2. If resistances R1 and R2 are connected in d) Resistance across one side
R 1R 2 (n  1) (n  1)m 2 R
parallel, the resultant resistance. R  R  R R3  R2 
1 2 n n2
6. 12 wires each of resistance ‘r’ are connected
3. When resistors are joined in parallel the potential to form a cube. Effective resistance across
difference across each resistor is same. But the 5r
currents are in the ratio i1 : i2 : i3:............. a) Diagonally opposite corners = .
6
1 1 1 3r
=R R : : : ............ b) face diagonal  .
1 2 R3 4
4. When two resistances are parallel then current 7r
division laws are c) two adjacent corners  .
12
IR2 IR1 7. If two wires of resistivities 1 and  2 , lengths
I1  and I2 
R1  R2 R1  R2 l1 and l2 are connected in series, the equivalent
5. When resistors are joined in parallel, the 1 l1   2 l 2
effective resistance is less than the least resistivity   l  l .
resistance in the circuit. 1 2

1. A wire of resistance ‘R’ is cut into ‘n’ equal 1   2

parts and all of them are connected in parallel, If l1  l 2 then   .
2
R
equivalent resistance becomes 2 . 21 2
n If l1  l 2 then conductivity  =    .
1 2

Page 91
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

8. I f two wires of resistivities  1 and  2, Areas

of cross section A1 and A2 are connected in R1 C R1 R1
A
parallel, the equivalent resistivity
1  2  A1  A2  R2 R2 R2 To inifinity
= .
1 A2   2 A1
B
D
21 2 A R1
C
If A1 = A2 then  =    .
1 2

  2
and conductivity   1
X R2 X
.
2
9. If ‘n’ wires each of resistance ‘R’ are
B D
connected to form a closed polygon,
equivalent resistance across two adjacent Illustration -18:
 n  1 For a circuit shown in fig. Find the value
corners is Reff   R of resistance R2 and current I2 flowing
n 
INFINITE LADDER NETWORK through R2
Some networks make a ladder (or a grid) and
extend to infinity. To reduce such networks
we use the following steps. R1  10
Step-1: Let as assume the total resistance of
the infinite network to be X (say).
Step-2: now just retain one basic repetitive unit Solution :
and we observe the remaining circuit to be the If equivalent resistance of parallel
same as the original circuit. So, resistance of combination of R1 and R2 is R, then
this left out circuit must be X. RR 10R 2
Step-3: Now the equivalent circuit, is the R 1 2 
R1  R 2 10  R 2
combination of basic unit and original repetitive
circuit of resistance X, such that the net V
According to Ohm’s law, R 
resistance of the entire circuit is X I
Illustration -17: 50 10R 2
R  5   5  R  10 .
Find effective resistance between points 10 10  R2 2

A and B of an infinite chain of resistors The current is equally divided into R1 and R2.
joined as shown.
R R R Hence I2 = 5A.
A
1 C 1 1

R2 R2 Illustration -19:
R2 To inifinity
Two wires of equal diameters of resistivities
B  and  and length x and x respectively
D 1 2 1 2
Solution :
Suppose the effective resistance between are joined in series. Find the equivalent
A and B is X. Applying the steps discussed, resistivity of the combination.
we get Solution :
R2 X
 X  R1   R2 || X   R2  Resistance, R1  11 ;R2  2 2
 R2  X  A1 A2
 X 2  R1 X  R1 R2  0 1  x1 ,  2  x2
1 As the wires are of equal diameters A1  A2  A .
X
2 
R1  R1
2
 4 R1 R2  
Page 92
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

x1 x x
R1  , R2  2 ; R  i' 100 
A A A A
where x = x1 + x2; R = R1 + R2
x 1x1 2 x2 50V
  ; x  1x1  2 x2
A A A
(x1  x2 )  1x1  2 x2 [ x  x1  x2 ]
1 x1  2 x2 300 
  1.5 V
x1  x2
Illustration -20. When S1 and S2 are closed, total current is
Equivalent resistance between the points 1.5
i
A and B (in  ) 100 R
 300
100  R
1 1 4 1 1
A B
1.5[100  R ]
i ,
Solution : 400 R  30, 000
1 1 4 1 1 ammeter reading is
A Y Y B
R
i ||  i  .........(2)
1 R  100
Parallel, 
3 According to problem i1  i11
1
1 1 1
Solving for R, we get R  600 .
A X Y Illustration -22:
1
Find the equivalent resistance of the
1 7 1 network in Fig. between points (i) A and
Req  1   1   2 
3 3 3 B and (ii) A and C.
Illustration -21: 10
In the given circuit Ammeter reading is A B C
same when both switches S1, S2 are closed
or opened. The value of resistance R is 30 7.5
100
A
S1 S2
50 Solution:
R
(i)The 10 and 30 resistors are connected
in parallel between points A and B. The
equivalent resistance between A and B is
300 1.5V
Solution : 10  30
R1  ohm = 7.5
When S1 and S2 are opened, ammeter reading 10  30
is, (ii) The resistance R1 is connected in series with
1.5 resistor of 7.5 , hence the equivalent resistance
i1  ..... (1) between points A and C is, R2=(R1+7.5) ohm
450
= (7.5+7.5) ohm = 15  .

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Illustration -23: Illustration -25:

Find potential difference between points Determine the current drawn from a 12V
A and B of the network shown in Fig. and supply with internal resistance 0.5 Ω in
distribution of given main current the infinite network shown in fig. Each
through different resistors. resistor has 1 Ω resistance.
4 6 1 1 1

I=2.7A
8 12V, 0.5 1 1
A 9 B
I 1 1 1
Solution :
Solution : First calculate net resistance of infinite network
Between points A and B resistors of 4 , 6 1
and 8 resistances are in series and these are
in parallel to 9 resistor..
Equivalent resistance of series combination is X 1 x
R1 = (4 + 6 + 8 ) ohm = 18
If equivalent resistance between A and B is
R = 9 × 18 / (9 + 18) ohm = 6  1
Potential difference between A and B is x
x=2+ ; 2
x+1 x  2x  2  0
;
V = IR = 2.7 × 6V = 16.2V
Current through 9  resistor = 16.2/9=1.8A on solving, x  1  3  2.73
Current through 4  ,6  and 8  resistors = Total resistance = 2.73 + 0.5 = 3.23 Ω
2.7 – 1.8 = 0.9A.
12
Illustration -24: I= =3.73A
P and Q are two points on a uniform ring 3.23
of resistance R. The equivalent resistance JOULE’S LAW: According to Joule’s law,
between P and Q is the current passing through a conductor
P produces heat.
W = vit
 Now, work done, W = (iR)it
O
Q 2
W = i2Rt = v t = vit
Solution : R
Resistance of section PSQ This work is converted into energy in the
P S conductor.
 Thermal energy produced, Q = i2 Rt (joules)
 Q
i 2 Rt
or Q = (cal)
O 4.2
As H  i 2 , heating effect of current is common
T to both A.C and D.C.
R R Joule’s effect is irreversible.
R1  . r  ; Resistance of section PTQ
2 r 2 Electrical Energy:
Rr 2  The electric energy consumed in a circuit is
R2  ; R 2   defined as the total workdone in maintaining
2 r R2  the current in an electric circuit for a given time.
2
As R1 and R2 are in parallel
V2t
R1 R2 R Electrical Energy = Vit = Pt = i2Rt 
Req   2 2 S.I. unit of electric energy is joule
R
So, R1  R2 4

Page 94
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1 K.W.H. = 36 × 105 J
 2 r 4 sd  mp   r  J
Electrical Power: t ;t  r4
2
 The rate at which work is done in maintaining I 
the current in electric circuit is electrical power
i.e., in absence of radiation looses, the time in
W V2 which fuse will melt is also independent on length
P  Vi  i2R  watt (or) joule / sec and varies with radius as r4.
t R
 Heat energy produced due to the electric Illustration -26:
A fuse wire with radius of 0.2mm blows
W Pt Vit i2Rt V2t
current H =     off with a current of 5 Amp. The fuse wire
J J J J RJ of same material, but of radius 0.3mm will
H  mst blow off with a current of
where J is mechanical equivalent of heat. 3 5 3
Consumption of Electrical Energy: 1) 5 Amp 2) Amp
 Units of electrical energy consumed by an 2 2
electrical appliance = 27
Number of watts× Number of hours 3) 5 Amp 4) 5 Amp
8 3 3
1000 Solution: i1  r1  2  0.2  2
It is in KWH. i2  r 3 ; i   r    0.3 
Fuse wire: 2 2
A fuse wire generally prepared from tin - lead 27
alloy (63% tin + 37% lead). It should have i2  5 Amp
high resistivity, low melting point. 8
Let R be the resistance of fuse wire.
L Illustration -27:
We know that R  2 A 1 kW heater is meant to operate at 200
r V. (a) What is its resistance ? (b) How
(L and r denote length and radius) much power will it consume , if the line
The heat produced in the fuse wire is voltage drops to 100 V ? (c) How many
i 2
L units of electrical energy will it consume
H  i2R  2
r in a month (of 30 days) if it operates 10 hr
 If H0 is heat loss per unit surface area of the daily at the specified voltage ?
fuse wire, then heat radiated per second is = Solution :
H 2rL At thermal equilibrium, a) The resistance of an electric appliance is given by
0
2 2
i L
2
i2  VS  200   40
 H 0 2rL H
(or) 0  , R so, R 
r 2 22r 3 W 1000
According to Newton’s law of cooling. b) The ‘ actual power ‘ consumed by an electric
H 0  K appliance is given by ,
2
Where  is the increase in temperature of fuse V 
wire and K is a constant. P   A  W
 VS 
i 2
 2
22r3K so, P   100   1000  250W
Here  is independent of length L of the fuse  200 
wire provided i remains constant. c) The total electrical energy consumed by an
For a given material of fuse wire i2 r 3 . electric appliance in a specified time is given
 If radiation losses are neglected, due to by,
heating effect of current the temperature W1h1
of fuse wire will increase continuously, and E kWh
it melt in time ‘t’ such that 1000

H  ms  ;
I 2 Rt
 ms ( mp  r ) so, E  1000  (10  30)  300kWh
J 1000

Page 95
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Bulbs connected in Series:  If ‘n’ appliances, each of resistance ‘R’ are

connected in parallel with a voltage source ’V’,
P1 P2 Pn the power dissipated ‘Pp’ will be
V2 nV 2
Pp  
R / n  R
Pp
 n 2  or  Pp  n 2 PS
V PS
 If bulbs (or electrical appliances) are connected
in series, the current through each resistance is This shows that power consumed by ‘n’ equal
same. Then power of the electrical appliance resistances in parallel is n2 times that of power
consumed in series , if voltage remains same.
P  R & V  R  P  i2Rt 
 In parallel grouping of bulbs across a given
i.e. In series combination , the potential source of voltage, the bulb of greater wattage
difference and power consumed will be more will give more brightness and will allow more
in larger resistance. current through it, but will have lesser resistance
 When the appliances of power P1, P2 , P3 .... are and same potential difference across it.
in series, the effective power consumed (P) is  For a given voltage V, if resistance is changed
R
1 1 1 1 from ‘R’ to  n  , power consumed changes
    ......... i.e. effective power is  
P P P P
1 2 3
V2 R
less than the power of individual appliance. from ‘P’ to ‘nP’; P'  where R  , then
R' n
 If ‘n’ appliances, each of equal resistance ‘R’
V2 nV 2
are connected in series with a voltage source P    nP .
R / n  R
V2
‘V’, the power dissipated ‘ Ps ’ will be Ps  .  If t1, t 2 are the time taken by two different coils
nR
for producing same heat with same supply, then
Bulbs connected in parallel: (i) If they are connected in series to produce
P1 same heat, time taken t  t1  t2
(ii) If they are connected in parallel to produce
1 2 tt
P2 same heat, time taken is t  t  t .
1 2

Illustration -28:
Pn A lamp of 100W works at 220 volts. What
is its resistance and current capacity ?
V Solution :
Power of the lamp, P = 100W
Operating voltage, V = 220V
 If bulbs (or electrical appliances) are connected Current capacity of the lamp,
in parallel, the potential difference across each
P 100
1 1 i   0.455A
resistance is same. Then P and I . V 220
R R
Resistance of the lamp, R  V  (220)  484
2 2
i.e. The current and power consumed will be
more in smaller resistance. P 100
 When the appliances of power P1, P2 , P3 .... are Illustration -29:
in parallel, the effective power consumed(P) is A 100W – 220V bulb is connected to 110V
source. Calculate the power consumed by
P  P1  P2  P3  .........
the bulb.
i.e. the effective power of various electrical Solution :
appliance is more than the power of individual Power of the bulb, P = 100W
appliance. Operating voltage, V = 200V

Page 96
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
V2 (220)2 Solution :
Resistance of the bulb, R    484
P
1
100 V2
Actual operating voltage, V = 110 V Resistance of a bulb is R  where P de-
Therefore, power consumed by the bulb, P
(V1 )2 (110)2 notes the power of the bulb.
P1    25W.
R 484  Resistance of B1(R1) = V2 / 100
Resistance of B2 (R2) = V2 / 60
Illustration -30: Resistance of B3(R3) = V2 / 60
A 100W and a 500W bulbs are joined in 250 250300
series and connected to the mains. Which  I1 = Current in B1  R  R   8V 2
bulb will glow brighter ? 1 2
Solution : 250 250 300
Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of the two I2 = Current in B2  R  R  
bulbs. If each bulb is connected separately to 1 2 8V 2
the mains of voltage V, I3 = Current in B3 = I1 as B1, B2 are in series
V2 V2  output power of B1 is W1 = I12 R1
then P1  and P2 
R1 R2
 250300 2 V 2
 W1    
 8V2  100
P1 R2 R1 P2 500
    5
P2 R1 (or) R 2 P1 100
If the two bulbs are in series with the mains, the  250 300 2 V 2
W2  I 22 R 2 or W2   
same current ‘i’ flows through each of them.  8V 2  60
Let P1 and P2 be the powers dissipated by two
bulbs, then  250300 2 V 2
W3  I22 R 3 or W3   
P11  i2 R1 and P21  i2 R 2  8V 2  60
P11 R1  W1 : W2 : W3  15 : 25 : 64 or W1 < W2 < W3
  5 or P11  5P21
P21 R2
Since 100 watt bulb dissipates more power, it CELLS
glows brighter  Primary Cells: Voltaic, Leclanche, Daniel
Illustration -31: and Dry cells are primary cells. They convert
chemical energy into electrical energy. They
A 100 W bulb B1 and two 60 W bulbs B2
can’t be recharged. They supply small currents.
and B3, are connected to a 250V source, as
shown in the figure. Now W1 , W2 and W3 Secondary Cells (or) Storage Cells:
are the output powers of the bulbs B1, B2  Electrical energy is first converted into chemical
and B3 respectively. Then find the ratio of energy and then the stored chemical energy is
output powers of the bulbs . converted into electrical energy due to these
B1 B2 cells.
 These cells can be recharged.
 The internal resistance of a secondary cell is
low where as the internal resistance of a primary
cell is large.
B3 emf of a Cell: The energy supplied by the
battery to drive unit charge around the circuit is
defined as electro motive force of the cell.
 EMF is also defined as the absolute potential
difference between the terminals of a source,
when no energy is drawn from it. i.e., in the
open circuit of the cell. It depends on the nature
of electrolyte used in the cell.
250V Unit :J/C (or) Volt

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

 emf of a cell depends on  Internal resistance of cell is,

E V
a) metal of electrodes i  r  E V .
b) nature of electrolyte r i
c) temperature  E V 
r     E  V  R   E  1 R
 emf of the cell is independent of  V   V  V 
 R 
a) area of plate
b) quantity of electrolyte ER
 V = iR =
c) distance between plates R  r 
d) size of the cell V R
Internal Resistance of a Cell  Fractional energy useful = 
E Rr
 It is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of  % of fractional useful energy
the cell. V   R 
It depends on =   100 =  100
E Rr
1
i) area of the electrodes ( r ) V' r
A  Fractional energy lost, 
ii) nature of electrolyte , concentration( r C ) E Rr
 '
iii) area of cross section of the electrolyte  V 100   r 100
through which the current flows and  % of lost energy, E
  Rr
iv) age of the cell. DIFFERENT CONCEPTS WITH A CELL
 Internal resistance of an ideal cell is zero.  When the cell is charging, the EMF is less than
Terminal Voltage: the terminal voltage (E < V) and the direction
When no current flows through the cell, the of current inside the cell is from + ve terminal
circuit is said to be an open circuit. This is shown to the –ve terminal.
in figure. i i
V E EV
V=E+ir
E, r  When the cell is discharging, the EMF is greater
than the terminal voltage (E >V) and the
B direction of current inside the cell is from – ve
In such a case, the potential difference (p.d) terminal to the +ve terminal.
across the terminals of the cell, called the
i i
terminal voltage (V) will be equal to the emf
(E) of the cell. E EV
If an external resistance R is connected across V = E – i r ; Hence E  V
the two terminals of the cell, as in figure then Maximum power transfer theorem
current flows in the closed circuit.,
i
E, r r
i i E R
R
V Consider a device of resistance R connected
i ........... (1) to a source of e.m.f E and internal resistance r
R
E  E 
and also i  as shown. Current in the circuit is i   .
 R  r
........... (2) R  r 
iR + ir = E, V +ir = E, V = E – ir Power dissipated in the device is P = i2R
Lost volts: It is the difference between emf E2R
and P.D. of a cell. It is used in driving the current P
between terminals of the cell. (R  r)2
Lost volts E - V = i r

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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
For maximum power dissipated in the device Solution :
d  E R 2 i) According to maximum power transfer theorem
dP
0   0 3R 6R 4
dR dR  (R  r)2  R ext  R int   4  R   2
9R 2
On simplification, we can get R = r
So, the power dissipated in an external ii) Pmax  i2 R ext
resistance is maximum if that resistance is equal
to internal resistance of the source supplying  E 2 E2

 4 
 4  4  16
E2
the current to that device. So Pmax 
4r
2
Pmax = E /4r Illustration -33:
A cell develops the same power across two
P resistances R1 and R2 separately. The in-
ternal resistance of the cell is
Solution :
R=r Let r and E are the internal resistance and emf
R of the cell. When connected across the resis-
Here the % of energy lost and energy useful tance R1 in the circuit, current passing through
are each equal to 50% the resistance is
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN E.M.F OF A  E 
2
E 
CELL AND POTENTIAL i  P1  i R1  
2
 R
DIFFERENCE R1  r ;  R1  r  1
EMF OF A CELL  
2

1. The emf is the maxdimum potential difference Similarly P2   E  R 2 ; Given that P = P
betwen the electrodes of a cell, when the cell is  R 2  r  1 2

in its open circuit.

2. The emf is independent of the resistance of Substituting the values, we get ; r  R1R 2
circuit. It depends on the nature of the Back EMF: When current flows through the
electrodes and the nature of the electrolyte of electrolyte solution, electrolysis takes place with
the cell. a layer of hydrogen and this hinders the flow of
3. It is used as a source of energy current. In the neighborhood of both electrodes,
4. emf is a cause
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE the concentrations of ions get altered. This
1. It is the difference of potentials beetween two opposing EMF is called back EMF and the
points in a closed circuit. phenomenon is called Electrolytic polarisation.
2. The potential difference depends upon the To reduce back emf manganese dioxide (or)
resistance between the two points of the circuit potassium dichromate is added to electrolyte
and current flowing through the circuit. of cell.
3. It is measured between any two points of the Illustration -34:
electric circuit.
4. Potential difference is an effect. When a current drawn from a battery is
0.5A, its terminal potential difference is
Illustration -32: 20V and when current drawn from it is
A battery of internal resistance 4 2.0A, the terminal voltage reduces to 16 V.
is connected to the network of resistances Find out the e.m.f and internal resistance
as shown. What must be the value of R so of the battery.
that maximum power is delivered to the Solution:
network ? Find the maximum power ?
R 2R
We know
V = E --- Ir ; I = 0.5 A, V = 20 Volt, we have
6R 20 = E – 0.5r ....... (i)
I = 2 A, V = 16 Volt, we have
2R 4R 16 = E – 2r ....... (ii)
By solving (i) and (ii)
we get E = 21.3V, r = 2.675  .
E
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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Illustration -35:  effective internal resistance = n r

An ideal battery passes a current of 5A nE
through a resistor. When it is connected  Current through external resistance i =
R nr
to another resistor of resistance of 10  in

parallel, the current is 6A. Find the  If R << n r then i = = current from one cell
resistance of the first resistor. r
Solution: nE
 If R>> n r then i =
R1 R2 = 10 R
 If two cells of different emf’s are in series
R1 E1  E2
5A Eeq = E1 + E2 ; req = r1 + r2 ; i  r  r  R
1 2
6A E1 E2
V
V
Current through R1 in the first case i1 = 5A r1 r2
Current in the second case i2 = 6A
Effective resistance in the second case
R1R 2 RR
1 2
R
R ; V  I1R1 and V  I2 R  R Terminal voltage across the first cell V1=E1- ir1
R1  R 2 1 2
Terminal voltage across the second cell V2=E2-ir2
I1R1  I2
R1R 2
 I1  I2
R2  If one of the cell is in reverse connection
R1  R 2 R1  R 2 ( E1 > E2 ) then Eeq = E1 - E2
10 E1  E2
5  6
R1  10
 5(R1  10)  60 req = r1 + r2 ; i  r  r  R
1 2
5R1 + 50 = 60, 5R1 = 10 E1 E2
10
R1   2
5
Illustration -36: r1 r2
When a battery is connected to the
resistance of 10 , the current in the circuit
is 0.12A. The same battery gives 0.07A R
First cell is discharging then V1 = E1 - ir1
current with 20 . Calculate the e.m.f. and Second cell is charging then V2 = E2 + ir2
internal resistance of the battery. cell having less emf in charging state.
Solution : WRONGLY CONNECTED CELLS
We know that E  Ir  IR  By mistake if ‘m’ cells out of ‘n’ cells are
I2 R 2  I1R1 wrongly connected to the external resistance
I1r  I1R1  I2 r  I2 R2 ; r 
I1  I2 ‘R’ in series combination,
(a) total emf of the combination = (n – 2m) E
0.07  20  0.12  10 1.4  1.2 0.2
r    4 (b) total internal resistance = n r
0.12  0.07 0.05 0.05 (c) total resistance = R + n r
Internal resistance r  4
e. m. f E  Ir  IR
n  2mE
(d) current through the circuit (i) =
0.12  4  0.12  10  0.48  1.2 ; E = 1.68 volt. R  nr
Illustration -37:
GROUPING OF CELLS Two cells A and B with same e.m.f of 2 V
Electric Cells in Series: When ‘n’ each and with internal resistances
identical cells each of EMF ‘E’ and internal rA  3.5 and rB  0.5 are connected in
resistance ‘r’ are connected in series to an series with an external resistance R  3 .
external resistance ‘R’, then Find the terminal voltages across the two
 total emf of the combination = n E cells.

Page 100
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Solution: the circuit is from A to B through e
Current through the circuit Illustration -40:
 2 2 4
i   A voltmeter of resistance 500  is used to
 R  r   3  3.5  0.5  7
measure the emf of a cell of internal resis-
i) R  3, rA  3.5 , E  2V
tance 4  . The percentage error in the
Terminal voltage across A, VA  E  irA
reading of the voltmeter will be
4
 2   3.5  0 volt Solution:
7
V = E – ir
ii) rB  0.5 , R 3 , E  2V
E ir
Terminal voltage across B, VB  E  irB  Percentage error  100  100
4 E E
 2   0.5  1.714 volts.
7  E 

 R  r 
Illustration -38: r
 r 
Two cells A and B each of 2 V are  100   100
connected in series to an external E  R  r 
resistance R=1 ohm . The internal
 4 
resistance of A is rA =1.9 ohm and B is rB   100  0.8%
=0.9 ohm. Find the potential difference  500  4 
between the terminals of A.
Solution: ELECTRIC CELLS IN PARALLEL
net emf When ‘n’ identical cells each of emf ‘E’ and
Total current through the circuit i internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in parallel
Total resist an ce
r = 1.9 0.9 to an external resistance ‘R’, then
 total emf of the combination = E
A B
r
 effective internal resistance =
R =1 n
4 4
  A. r
 1  1.9  0.9  3.8  total resistance in the circuit = R +
n
potential difference at A, VA    ir ,  current through the external resistance
4 E nE
 2  1.9 = 2 – 2 = 0.
3.8 i= r

nR r
R
Illustration -39: n
In the given circuit as shown below, r E
calculate the magnitude and direction of  If R >> , then i = = current from one cell.
the current n R
A 2 e 2 B r nE
 If R << , then i =
10V 5V n r
 If two cells of emf E1 and E2 having internal
resistances r1 and r2 are connected in parallel
D C
1 to an external resistance ‘R’, then
Solution:
Effective resistance of the circuit is i1 +r1 E-1 i
Reff  2  2  1  5
V V E2
 total current in the circuit is i  1 2 i2 +r -
i
Reff i 2 R

10  5
i=  1A
5
Since the cell of larger emf decides the direction
of flow of current, the direction of current in

Page 101
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

 Equivalent internal resistance of the combination

E1 E2
 nr
r1 r2 req =
Eeff  m
1 1
  Main current flowing through the load
r1 r2 nE nmE
i 
E1r2  E2r1 nr mR  nr
R
the effective emf, Eeff  m
r1  r2  Condition for maximum current
r1 r2 R r
+ =minimum
the effective internal resistance, reff  r  r n m
1 2
d  mR r   N
Eeff     0 ; n  
Current through the circuit, i  r  R dm  N m   m
eff
R r R r
i = i1 + i2  2  0; i.e.,  (N = n x m)
N m n m
E1  i R E2  iR So in case of mixed grouping of cells,
i1 = and i 2  r
r1 2 current in the circuit will be maximum when
Potential difference across R, i.e terminal R r  nE mE
Eeff R    ; I max  
 n m 2 R 2r
potential of the cells is V  iR  R  r  Total number of cells = m  n
eff

 When the cell E2 is reversed in polarity then  nr

Condition for maximum power is R  and
m
we should use - E2 in all the above equations.
 Similarly, for n different cells are connected in 2 E2
Pmax  i max  R   mn 
parallel 4r
E1 E2 E KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
  ....  n When the circuit is complicated to find current
r r2 rn Kirchhoff’s laws are formulated.
Eeff  1
1 1 1 (i) Kirchhoff`s First Law (Junction Law or
  .... 
r1 r2 rn Current law) : It states that the sum of the
currents flowing into a junction is equal to the
1 1 1 1 sum of the currents flowing out of the junction
   .... 
reff r1 r2 rn Or
“The algebraic sum of currents at a junction is
zero”.
Mixed Grouping: If n identical cells are
connected in a row and such m rows are R4
connected in parallel then
I1 I4
E,r E,r E,r R1 R3
1
A I3
1 2 n I2 R2
2

Distribution of current at a junction in the

i
m circuit
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 or I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 = 0
V If we take currents approaching point A in figure
as positive and that leaving the point as negative,
R
then the above relation may be written as
 Equivalent emf of the combination Ee q = nE

Page 102
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
I1 + I2 +(–I3) + (–I4) = 0 ; I  0 Apply the kirchhoff’s second law to the loop
 Kirchhoff’s first law is in accordance with law ADCBA, then
of conservation of charge, since no charge –iR – ir2 + E2 – E1 – ir1 = 0
can accumulate at a junction and at any part of E 2  E1
the closed circuit. i(r1 + R + r2) = E2 – E1  i 
r1  r2  R
(ii) Kirchhoff`s Second Law (Loop Law or 1) This law represents “conservation of energy”
Potential law): Kirchhoff’s second law 2) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of
states that the algebraic sum of the changes in independent equations in accordance with loop
potential around any closed loop is zero (in rule will be (n – 1).
ideal condition ) Application : This is the most general case of
(Kirchhoff’s second law) can be expressed as parallel grouping in which E and r of different
cells are different and the positive terminals of
V  0 . cells are connected as shown
In terms of potential drops and emfs, the law is E1 r1
expressed as   iR E  0 i1

Sign conventions: E2 r2
(a) The change in potential in traversing a resistance i2
in the direction of current is –IR while in the i i
opposite direction +IR as shown in the figure. R
R Kirchhoff’s second law in different loops gives
A I B A I R B the following equations,

V A - IR = V B V B + IR = V A E1  iR  i1r1  0 or i1  E1  iR ......... (1)

r1 r1
V A - V B = IR V A - V B = IR
E iR
(b) The change in potential in traversing an emf E2  iR  i2 r2  0 ; i2  2  ..... (2)
source from negative to positive is +E while in r2 r2
the opposite direction –E , irrespective of the Adding Eqs. (1), (2) we get
direction of current in the circuit as shown in i1  i2  ( E1 / r1 )  ( E2 / r2 )  iR (1/ r1  1/ r2 )
the figure.
or i[1  R(1/ r1  1/ r2 )]  ( E1 / r1 )  ( E2 / r2 )
A I +E - I B A I +E - I B
( E / r )  ( E2 / r2 )
i  1 1
VA - E = VB VB + E = VA 1  R (1/ r1  1/ r2 )
VA - VB = E VA - VB = E Illustration -41:
Find the emf (V) and internal resistance
Example 1: (r) of a single battery which is equivalent
to a parallel combination of two batteries
of emfs V1 and V2 and internal resistances
E r1 and r2 respectively, with polarities as
shown in figure

Apply the Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop r2 V2

-
+
ABCDA, then A r 1 V1 B
E
– iR1 – iR2 – iR3 + E = 0 ;  i   R  R  R  Solution:
1 2 3 emf of battery is equal to potential difference
Example 2: across the terminals, when no current is drawn
A r1 a r2 B from battery (for external circuit) [Here, all the
elements in the circuit are in series]
i E1 i E2 i Current in internal circuit = i
R i
Net emf V  V2
D i C i or i= 1
Total resistance r1  r2

Page 103
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

r2
i2 R3  (i1 i2 ) R2  E2  0 ; i2  i1  i2  4
i V2
i1  2i2  4  (2)
+ -
A i r1 V1 B Solving equation (1) and (2) we get i1 = 0A, i2
= 2A
 VA  VB  V1  ir1 [  V1 cell is discharg- Thus currents through R1 is 0, while through
ing] R3 and R2 are 2A each.
Illustration -43:
 V1  V2 
  r1
or VA  VB  V1   Solve for current values in figure.
 r1  r2  i1 8V, 1 i1
A F
V1r2  V2 r1 i S
or VA  VB  B
1 12V, 1.5
E
r1  r2 i3 i2 i
i3 2
 Equivalent emf of the battery = V C D
V1r2  V2 r1 9

 V  r r
Solution :
1 2 Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at the junction B
(ii) Internal resistance of equivalent battery. r1 and we have i1 + i2 = i3 ....... (1)
r2 are in parallel. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop
1 1 1 r1r2 ABEFA
  or r 
r r1 r2 r1  r2 – 12 + i2 x 1.5 – i1 x 1 + 8 = 0
Illustration -42: i1 – 1.5 i2 = – 4. ....... (2)
In the given circuit values are as follows From loop BCDEB
E1  2V , E2  4V , R1  1  and R2  R3  1 .
– (i2 x 1.5) – (i3 x 9) + 12 = 0
Calculate the Currents through R1,R2 and 1.5 i2 + 9i3 = 12 ....... (3)
R. on solving i1 = – 1A and i3 = 1 A
3

WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE
B
I3
P Q
I1 I
A G C
F
I2
Solution:
R S
A -B C I4
i1 E E2 I D
1
R1 R2 R3 i
2
( )
(i1+i2)
E K
G +F D Condition for balancing of bridge :
Let i1 , i2 are currents through R1 and R3. Applying Kirchhoff`s first law at junction B and
(i1 + i2) is current through R2. D we get I1 – I3 – IG = 0 ; and I2 + IG – I4 = 0
Their direction are taken as shown Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for closed
From Kirchhoff’s second law for AGFBA loop loop ABDA, I1P  IGG  I2 R  0

i1R1  (i1 i2 ) R2  E1  0 ; i1  i1  i2  2

2i1  i2  2  (1)
From Kirchhoff’s second law for BCDFB loop

Page 104
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for closed B
loop BCDB , I3Q  I4S  IGG  0 P Q
The values of P, Q, R, S are adjusted such that i1
i A i2 C
I G becomes zero. At this stage the bridge is
said to be in balance condition.
R S
i.e., I n balanced condition of bridge I G = 0
 In balanced condition the above equations D
respectively become
I 1 = I3 ........(1) VAB  VA  VB  i1P  i
R  S P
and I2 = I4 ........(2) PQ R S
I1P  I 2 R ...........(3)  P  Q R
VAD  VA  VD  i2 R  i
I 3Q  I 4 S ............(4) PQ R S
Dividing equation (3) by equation (4) i
VB  VD     P  Q  R   R  S  P 
I1P I 2 R PQRS 

I 3Q I 4S i
Using equations (1) and (2) we get 
PQ R S
 QR  PS 
P R
 .......(5) if QR  PS , VB  VD  current flows from B to
Q S
D when wire is connected beween B and D.
This is the balancing condition for Wheatstone
bridge. QR  PS , VB  VD  current flows from D to B
APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE when wire is connected beween B and D.
BRIDGE
1. We can compare two unknown resistances R QR  PS , VB  VD  Balanced bridge
Common forms of balance Wheatstone bridge
P R
and S from  Q
Q S
2. In place of resistances we can use capacitors
A G S B
to form a D.C. Wheatstone bridge with four
capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3 and C4. P

C1 C3
The balancing condition will be C  C R
2 4 P Q
3. It has been found that the bridge has the
greatest sensitivity when the resistances are as
nearly equal as possible. A B
The bridge is most sensitive if P = Q = R = S.
4. Equivalent resistance of balanced bridge across
the ends of battery when the bridge is balanced R S

P  Q R  S 
is given by Rtotal 
PQ R S
P
Application : Direction of current in an G Q
unbalanced wheatstone’s bridge :
A

B
S

Page 105
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

P Q  P R
Wheatstone Bridge   
Q S 
+ -
( )
Cell
R S Key
RB
R X
G J
Illustration -44: A l1 l2 B
Determine the current in each branch of H.R G
the network shown in fig.  When the Meter bridge is balanced then
B R l1 l1
 
10 5 X l2 100  l1
A C Where l1 is the balancing length from the left
5
end.
5 1. If resistance in the left gap increases or
10
resistance in the right gap decreases, balancing
D point shifts towards right side.
2. If resistance in the left gap decreases or
10V 10 resistance in the right gap increases, balancing
B I-I1 point shifts towards left.
10 5 3. If a cm, b cm are the end corrections at A and
1
AI 5 C R l1  a
I-I1 I-2I
1 B, then X  l  b
2

5 4. M eter bridge is more sensitive when l1 = 50

I 10 I cm
I1
D 5. The resistance of copper strip is called end
F E resistance
10V 10 Illustration -45:
Solution:
Apply KVL in loop ABDA In the experimental arrangement of the
of the meter bridge as shown , if AC corre-
10I1  5 I  2I1   5 I  I1   0 sponding to null deflection of galvanom-
eter is x, what would be its value if the
2I  5I  .......(1)
radius of the wire AB is doubled?
Apply KVL in ADCEFA loop
5 I  I1  10I1  10 10I=0 R1 R2
5I1 + 15I = 10 .......(2)
From equation (1) and (2) G

10 2I 4
I= ; I1   A A x C B
17 5 17 Solution:
4 For null deflection of galvanometer in a meter
Current in AB branch  bridge experiment,
17
Current in AD branch R1 R AC R x
 or 1 
10 4
=I  I1    A
6 R 2 RCB R 2 100  x
17 17 17 Since R1 / R2 remains constant, x / (100-x) also
Current in DB branch remains constant. The value of x remains as
10 8 2 such.
I  2I  = - = A  Length of AC = x
17 17 17
 Metre bridge: It works on the principle of Illustration -46:
A resistance of 2 is connected across

Page 106
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
one gap of a meter bridge (the length of length L and resistance R. The current through
the wire is 100 cm) and an unknown resis- the potentiometer wire is
tance, greater than 2 , is connected E
across the other gap. When these resis- I
tances are interchanged, the balance point r  R  Rs
shifts by 20 cm. Neglecting any correc- The potential of the wire decreases from the
tions, the unknown resistance is end A to the end B. The potential fall or potential
Solution: drop across a length l of the potentiometer
Refer to the diagram Apply the conditions of wire is
the balanced Wheatstone’s bridge for the two V = Current x Resistance of length l of the
cases.
R
R1 R2 potentiometer wire  I    l
L
G R
If the resistance per unit length of the wire ,
L
l
100-l is denoted by  , the potential drop across the
wire is
2 
 ..................................(i) V  I   
x 100  
x   20 V
 ....................................(ii) is called potential drop per unit length of
2 80   l
the potentiometer wire or potential gradient of
Equations (i) and (ii) give x  3 the wire. It is given by
Potentiometer: Potentiometer is an instrument
which can measure accurately the emf of a V  E R
source or the potential difference across any  I   
l  r  R  RS  L
part of an electric circuit without drawing any Thus, the unknown voltage V is measured when
current from the battery whose emf is to be no current is drawn from it.
measured. 1) When specific resistance (S) of potentiometer
Principle : The principle of potentiometer states wire is given then potential gradient
that when a constant current is passed through
a wire of uniform area of cross-section, the IS IS
potential drop across any portion of the wire is X  2
A r
directly proportional to the length of that portion.
The principle of potentiometer require that where A = area of cross - section of
i) potentiometer wire should be of uniform potentiometer wire r = Radius of
area of cross-section and potentiometer wire.
ii) current through the wire should remain 2) When two wires of lengths L1 and L2
constant. and resistances R1 and R2 are joined
Theory of potentiometer : The ends of the
potentiometer wire AB are connected to a together to form the potentiometer wire, then
standard cell of emf E or a source of emf E that x1 R1 L2
supplies constant current. The current through 
x2 L1 R2
the potentiometer wire can be varied by means
Potential gradient depends on
of a series resistance Rs which is adjustable. a) Resistance per unit length of the
potentiometer wire (  =R/L)
b) Radius of cross-section of the potentiometer
wire, when the series resistance is included in
the circuit and cell in the primary circuit is not
ideal.
c) Current flowing through potentiometer wire.
d) emf of the cell in primary circuit
e) Series resistance in the primary circuit
Let r be the internal resistance of the cell of emf f) Total length (L) and resistance (R) of the
E connected across the potentiometer wire of potentiometer wire.
g) If cell in primary circuit is ideal and in the

Page 107
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

absence of series resistance potential gradient

only depends on emf of cell in primary circuit  E1  E2   xl1  E1  E2   xl2
and length of potentiometer wire E1  E2 l1 E1 l1  l2
TO DETERMINE THE INTERNAL   (or) E  l  l
RESISTANCE OF A PRIMARY CELL: E1  E2 l2 2 1 2

e, r k Rh Comparison of resistances:
( )
Let the balancing length for resistance R1 (when
J XY is connected) be l1 and let balancing length
A B
E G for resistance R1  R2 (when YZ is connected)
be l2 . keeping x constant
( )
R1 K1
 Initially in secondary circuit key K 1 remains
open and balancing length  l1  is obtained. Since
cell E is in open circuit so it’s emf balances on
length l1 ; i.e E  xl1 .....(i)
 Now key K 1 is closed so cell E comes in closed
circuit. If the process of balancing is repeated
again keeping potential gradient constant then
Then iR1  xl1 and
potential difference V balances on length l2
R2 l2  l1
i.e V  xl2 .....(ii) i  R1  R2   xl2  
By using the formula for internal resistance R1 l1
E  To determine thermo emf:
r    1 .R / e r
+ -
K Rh
V  ()
Where E = emf of cell in secondary circuit R A
V = Terminal voltage i.e p.d on R1 , A HRB B
G
 l l  + -
r   1 2  R' E0 1 2 3
G

 l2 
COMPARISON OF EMF’S OF TWO CELLS  Cold ice Hot sand
The value of thermo-emf in a thermocouple for
 Let l1 and l2 be the balancing length with the ordinary temperature difference is very low
cell E1 and E2 respectively, then E1  xl1 106 volt  . For this the potential gradient x
E1 l1 must be also very low 10 4 V / m  . Hence a
and E2  xl2  E  l
2 2 high resistance (R) is connected in series with
e,r K Rh the potentiometer wire in order to reduce
( ) current
in the primary circuit
A
J  The potential difference across R must be equal
B
E1 G to the emf of standard cell
1 E
E2 i.e iR  E0 i  0
2 R
 Let E1  E2 and both are connected in series.  The small thermo emf produced in the
thermocouple e  xl
If balancing length is l1 when cells assist each
iR| iR ' l
other and it is l2 when they oppose each other  x  i   e
as shown then: L L
E1 E2 E1 E2
where L = Length of potentiometer wire,
         =resistance per unit length, l  balancing
length of e and R| = Resistance of
potentiometer wire

Page 108
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
SENSITIVITY OF POTENTIO METER  The balancing length l1 for unknown potential
1. Sensitivity of potentio meter is estimated by its difference V ' is given by (closing 2 and 3)
potential gradient.
2. Sensitivity is inversely proportional to potential E 
V |  xl1   0  l1
gradient so lower the potential gradient higher  l0 
will be the sensitivity. If the voltmeter reading is V then the error will
3. The best instrument for accurate measurement
be V  V  which may be +ve, -ve or zero
|
of e.m.f. of a cell is potentiometer, because it
does not draw any current from the cell. Difference between Voltmeter and
Calibration of ammeter: Checking the Potentiometer
correctness of ammeter readings with the help VOLTMETER
of potentiometer is called calibration of 1. It draws some current from source of emf.
ammeter. 2. The potential difference measured by it is lesser
+e -
K Rh than the actual potential difference.
() 3. Its sensitivity is low.
4. It is a versatile instrument.
A + B
5. It is based on deflection method.
+ - E1 1 POTENTIOMETER
2 G 1. It does not draw any currrent from the source
1 3 of unknown emf.
A
+ - 2. The potential difference measured by it is equal
K2 Rh
+ - () to actual potential difference.
 For the calibration of an ammeter, 1 3. Its sensitivity is high.
resistance coil is specifically used in the 4. It measures only emf or potential diference.
secondary circuit of the potentiometer, because 5. It is based on zero deflection method.
the potential difference across 1 is equal to Illustration -47:
the current following through it i.e V  i The length of a potentiometer wire is 1m
 If the balancing length for the emf and its resistance is 4 . A current of 5
mA is flowing in it. An unknown source of
E0 e.m.f is balanced on 40 cm length of this
E0 is l0 then E0  xl0  x  l (Process
0 wire, then find the e.m.f of the source.
of standardisation) Solution:
 Let i ' current flows through 1 resistance R 5 4
x I  I   20 mV
giving potential difference as V '  i ' 1  xl1 L 1
E = l x = 0. 40 x 20 = 8 mV
where l1 is the balancing length. so error can
Illustration -48:
E0 A cell of e.m.f 2 volt and internal resistance
be found as i  i  i '  i  xl1  i  l  l1
0 1.5 is connected to the ends of 1m long
Here i is ammeter reading wire. The resistance of wire is 0.5 / m .
Calibration of voltmeter: Find the value of potential gradient on the
 Checking the correctness of voltmeter readings wire.
with the help of potentiometer is called Solution:
calibration of voltmeter.
I R  E  R 2  0.5
 If l0 is balancing length for E0 the emf of X    =0. 5 V/m
standard cell by connecting 1 and 2 of bi- L  R  r  L 0.5  1.5
Illustration -49:
directional key, then x  E0 / l0 In a potentiometer experiment the balancing
K1 Rh length with a cell is 560 cm. When an
+ -
() external resistance of 10  is connected in
parallel to the cell, the balancing length
A + B changes by 60 cm. Find the internal
+ - E0 1 resistance of the cell.
2 G Solution:
V 3
RB
K2
+ - ()

Page 109
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Balancing length 1  560 cm

Change in balancing length (1   2 )  60 cm
560   2  60
  2  500 cm
   
rR  1 2   r10
60 6
 1.2  .
  2  500 5
Illustration -50
In a potentiometer experiment, when a
battery of e.m.f. 2V is included in the
secondary circuit, the balance point is
500cm. Find the balancing length of the
same end when a cadmium cell of e.m.f.
1.018V is connected to the secondary
circuit.
Solution:
1E 1 
E ; E 
2 2
E2 1.018
2   1   500  254.5 cm .
E1 2

Page 110
Page 111
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
INTRODUCTION  Different energy level with continuous energy
variation form energy bands (According to
 Electronic instruments are being utilized in Pauli’s principle)
various fields like telecommunication,  The energy band formed by a series of energy
entertainment, computers, nuclear physics and bands of valance electrons is valence band.
many more. Although the history started with  At 0 K, electrons start filling energy level in
the adventment of vacuum tubes, however the valence band starting from the lowest one.
 The highest energy level, occupied by an electron
rapid advancement in electronics which we
in the valence band at 0K is called Fermi level.
see today is due to the valuable contributions  The lowest unfilled energy band formed just
of semiconductor devices. above valence band is called conduction band.
 Semiconductor devices are not only small in  Depending on the forbidden energy gap
size, consumes less power, have long life time between valence band and conduction band, the
and are more efficient than vacuum tubes but solids are classified as conductors, insulators and
also are of low cost. That is why these have semiconductors.
replaced vacuum tubes nearly in all applications. 1) Conductors : The energy band structure
As an example we can consider the case of a in conductors have two possibilities
computer. In early days, the vacuum tube  The valance band may be completely filled and
based computers were as big as the size of a the conduction band partially filled with an
room and were capable of performming simple extremely small energy gap between them
calculations only. At present the personal Eg  0
computer (PC) that you see in laboratory or
Eg: Sodium (Na)
at your home is much smaller in size and
 The valence band is completely filled and
capable of performing many operations. conduction band is empty but the two overlap
Needless to say this is possible because of each other. Eg: Zn
the advances in semiconductor technology.
 We will learn the basic concept of semi
conductors. This will enable us to understand
the operation of many semiconductor devices
and then we will be discussing few
semiconductors devices like diode, transistor
along with their applications.
Electron energies

Conduction
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, EC band
CONDUCTORS ANDSEMICONDUCTORS: Ev
Valence
Energy Band theory in solids: An isolated bond
atom has well defined energy levels and energy conductors

of an electron depends on its orbit (Principal 2) Insulators: In insulators forbidden energy

quantum number) gap is quite large. Eg  3eV
 But in solids atoms are so close such that outer Eg. Energy gap for diamond is 5.5 eV.
Empty
orbits are very close (or) overlapped to form conduction
EC
Electron energies

energy band. band

 Inside the crystal each electron has a unique Eg > 3eV
position and no two electrons see exactly same
Ev
pattern of surrounding charges and each Valence
electron has different energy level. band
Insulators
Page 112 258
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
3) Semi conductors: Semi conductors are conduction and valence bands. For C
the basic materials used in the present solid (diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4
state devices like diode, transistor, Ic’s. eV, 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV, respectively. Sn also is
 The energy band structure of the a group IV element but it is a metal because the
semiconductors is similar to insulators but in energy gap in its case is 0 eV.
their case, the size of forbidden energy gap is Intrinsic semi conductor:
much smaller than that of A semiconductor free from impurities, that is a
insulators. Eg  0.2eV to 3eV pure semiconductor is called an intrinsic or i-
type semi-conductor.
Electron energies

EC Germanium and silicon are the most widely used

Eg < 3eV
semiconductors. An isolated Ge atom has 32
electrons, out of which 4 lie in the outermost
Ev shell and the remaining 28 are distributed
between the inner complete shells as 2,8,18.
Silicon with 14 electrons has a distribution of
Semiconductors
electrons as 2,8,4. The four valence electrons
Eg: Forbidden energy gap for Ge is 0.67eV, in Ge (as well as in Si) form covalent bonds
for Si is 1.1 eV and for GaAs is 1.41eV with the electrons of the neighbouring atoms in
 The vacancy in the covalent band is called hole. the crystal lattice as shown in Figure. Obviously,
 The electrons and holes move in opposite no free electron is left in the crystal. As a result
directions. of this, pure Ge (or Si) is a good insulator at
 The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge absolute zero
depends upon the energy gap between their

S. NO Conductors Semi Conductors Insulators

In this, valence b and

In this, valence band In this, valence band and
and conduction band
1. conduction band overlap conduction band are
are separated by small
each other largely separated
forbidden gap

Forbidden Energy gap is in Forbidden energy gap Forbidden energy the

2.
gap = 0 eV is in the order of 1 eV order of 6 eV

At room temperature
At room temperature At room temperature
3. conductivity is
Conductivity is high conductivity is nil
intermediate
They have resistivity
They possess very low or conductivity
They have high resistivity
4. resistivity intermediate to metals
  1011 1019 m
  102  108 m and insulators
  10 5  10 6  m
V.B is almost full V.B. is completely filled
5. V.B and C.B over lap
C.B. is almost empty C.B. is completey empty
6. Ex: All metals Ex: Ge, Si Ex: Rubber, Glass, Mica

Page 113
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Extrinsic semi conductor: The semi
conductor formed by adding a small quantity of
Ge Ge
impurity (tri or pentavalent) to pure semi
conductor is called as extrinsic semi conductor.
 The extrinsic semi conductor formed by adding
Ge pentavalent impurity atoms is called n-type
semi conductor.
E
Ge Ge
CB
Ge Ge Ee
Excess EF
Ge
electron FB Eg Donor
levels
Concept of a Hole : Ge Ge VB
When an electron gains energy as a result of
thermal excitation, a covalent band is broken. (a) (b)
As the electron leaves its site for another one, Further, it is be noted that if
an excess positive charge appears at the vacant
site since ont he whole the crystal is neutral. N d  donor atoms concnetration (i.e., density
The excess positive charge appearing at the of donor atoms),
vacant site in a srystal is called a hole ne  electron density in the conduction band
CB CB
Electron
Eg Eg Hole nh  hole density in the valence band, then
EF FB EF FB
(i) ne  N d (ii) ne  nh .... (1)
VB VB
Further, it can be sho wn t hat n-type
Intrinsic semiconductor Intrinsic semiconductor semiconductors always satisfy the equality
(at absolute zero) (at room temperature)
(a) (b) n  nh  ni2 .... (2)
From the above discussion, it is clear that the  The extrinsic semi conductor formed by adding
charge carriers in semiconductors may be trivalent impurity atoms is called p-type semi
electrons and holes. conductor.
Further, it is obvious that the electric conductivity E Electron
of a semiconductor depends upon its carrier CB Hole
Ge Ge Eg
concentration or carrier density or number Acceptor
density (number of charge carriers per unit Electron FB levels
Ge EF
volume) vacancy Ee
An int rinsic semiconductor has equal Ge Ge VB
concentration of electrons and holes under
conditions of thermal equilibrium, i,e., (a) (b)
Further, it is to be noted that if
ne  nh  ni  say 
Note : Although an intrinsic semiconductor has equal N a  acceptor atoms concentration (i.e.,
concentrations of electrons and holes under density of acceptor atoms),
conditions of thermal equilibrium, electron ne  electron density in the conduction band,
conduction is predominant. This is because
electrons have a greater mobility as compared nh  hole density in the valence band, then
with holes. In case of hole conduction, the
electrons are more limited (less free) to move (i) nh  N a (ii) nh  ne .... (3)
about than in case of electron conduction. Further, it can be sho wn t hat p-type
Doping: The process of adding impurities to semiconductors also always satisfy the equality,
a pure semi conductor in 1 : 106 ratio so as to ne  nh  ni2 .... (4)
improve its conductivity is called doping.  Fermi level in n-type semi conductors (also
 Pentavalent impurity atoms are called donor known as donor energy level) lies in forbidden
impurity atoms. energy gap and is very close to conduction band
 Trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptor (  0.01eV below conduction band)
impurity atoms.  Fermi level in p-type semi conductor (also

Page 114
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
known as acceptor energy level) lies in Electrical conductivity of Semiconductors:
forbidden energy gap and is very close to (Formulae derivation)
valence band (  0.01 to 0.05 eV above  Consider a block of semiconductor of length l ,
valence band) area of cross-section A and having number
 When ever a covalent bond breaks an electron
hole pair is formed. density of electrons and holes as ne and nh
 When valency electron combines with a hole, a respectively .
covalent bond formed and at the starting point  By that on applying a potential difference, say
of the electron a hole is formed. V, a current I flows through it as shown in figure.
 If a conduction electron combines with a hole a
 The electron current  I e  and the hole current
covalent bond is formed without the formation
of a hole any where.  Ih 
constitute the total current I flowing
 In a doped (or) extrinsic semi conductor number through the semico nductor i.e .,
density of electrons in conduction band (ne),
number density of holes in the valence band I  I e  I h ............1
 nh  and number density of electrons in – + –
conduction band (or) holes in valence band in a + –
+ – +
pure semi conductor  ni  then they are related
l
as ne nh  ni2 . I
 The intrinsic concentration ni varies with T as
 E g / KT
ni2  AoT 3 e (Ao is constant)
V
 The fraction of electrons of valence band present
Eg  If ne is the density of conduction band electrons
in conduction band is given by f  e  KT
in the semiconductor and ve is the drift velocity
Where K is Boltzman’s constant, Eg is forbidden of electrons, then electron current is given by
energy gap and T is temperature
I e  ene Ave ........(2)
The Energy Gap: Experimentally it has been
found that the forbidden energy region Eg Also, the hole current I h  enh Avh ......(3)
depends on temperature. Using the equation (2) and (3) , the equation
(1) becomes
For silicon Eg T   1.21  3.60 104 T
I  ene Ave  enh Avh or
For germanium
I  eA  ne ve  nh vh  ........ 4 
Eg T   0.785  2.23 104 T
If  is the resistivity of the material of the
At room temperature  300K  for silicon semiconductor, then the resistance offered by
the semiconductor to the flow of current is given
Eg  1.1eV and for germanium Eg  0.72eV

 When concentration of donor atoms exceeds by R   .........(5)
the accept or concentration in P type A
semiconductor, it changes from P type to N Since V=RI, from the equations (4) and (5),
type semiconductor. we have
 In semi conductors the total current I is the sum 
V  RI    eA  ne ve  nh vh 
of electron current Ie and holes current Ih A
I = Ie + Ih or V   e  ne ve  nh vh  .............(6)
 Electrical conductivity    e   h If E is the electric field set up across the
  ne e e  nh h e V
semiconductor, then E  ........(7)
For intrinsic semi conductor ne  nh  ni so that 
From the equations (6) and (7) , we have
  ni e  e   h 

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

E   e  ne ve  nh vh  Solution: In thermal equilibrium, ne nh  ni 2 ;

1  v v 
 e  ne e  nh h  .........  8  2
ni 2  3  10 
16
or
  E E  1.5  1010 m 3
 ne   22
On applying electric field, the drift velocity nh 6  10
acquired by the electrons (or holes) per unit
strength of electric field is called mobility of Illustration 3:
electrons ( or holes) Suppose a pure Si crystal has 6 1028
v v atom s m3 . It is doped by 1ppm
e  e and h  h
E E concentration of pentavalent As. Calculate
Therefore, the equation (8) becomes the number of electrons and holes, Given
1 that ni  0.5  1016 m 3
 e  ne e  nh h  .........  9 

Solution: Since ne nh  ni 2
1
Also,   is called the conductivity of  The number of holes

the material of semiconductor. 0.25  1032
nh  22
 4.2  108 m 3
  e  ne e  nh h  .......(10) 6 10
 Electrons mobility is greater than the hole Illustration 4:
mobility An N-type silicon sample of width
 Mobility is a property of the semiconductor itself. 4x10-3 in thickness and length 4x10-2 m
It does not depends on the doping carries a current of 4.8 mA when the
concentration. voltage is applied across the length of
 The mobility of an electron or hole generally thesample. What is the current denisty?
decreases with increase in temperature. If the free electron denisty is 1022m-3,
 Resistance of semi conductors decreases with then find how much time it takes for the
the increase in temperature so semi conductors electrons to travel the full length of the
are insulators at low temperature but becomes sample.
slightly conducting at room temperature. Solution : The current denisty J is given by
 P- type (or) n- type semi conductor material is
i 4.8 X 10  3 4.8 X 10  3
electrically neutral. J   
Illustration 1: A  
4 X 10  3 25 X 10  15 10  6
The energy gap of germanium is 1.28 eV.
What is the maximum wavelength at The drift velocity vd is given by
which germanium will begin absorbing
energy. J 4800
vd   22  3m / s
hc ne 10 X 1.6 X 1019
Solution: Using E
 The tiem taken t is given by
hc 6.628  1034  3  108 L 6 X 102
   m t   0.02 sec
E 1.28  1.6  10 19
vd 3
 12.33  107 m P-N JUNCTION FORMATION
Illustration 2:
 When a single semiconductor crystal is doped
Pure Si at 400K has equal electron ( ne ) with P-type impurities from on side and that
and hole ( nh ) concentrations of of N-type from the other side, a layer in the
crystal separating P-type from N-type, is
3  1016 m 3 . Doping by indium, nh known as P-N junction.
increases to 6  1022 m 3 . Calculate ne in  Diffusion and drift of charge carriers are the
the doped Si. two major processes occurring during the
formation of a P-N junction.

Page 116
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
diffusion current equals the drift current in
magnitude and there is no transfer of charge
at any cross-section.
 DEPLETION REGION(TRANSITION REGION): The
space-charge region on either side of the
p n
(a) junction together is known as depletion
region as the electrons and holes taking
p n
part in the initial movement across the
junction has depleted the region of its free
charges.
(b)

Contact potential or
BARRIER POTENTIAL (CONTACT POTENTIAL

Barrier potential
DIFFERENCE):
In P-N junction, n side is at high potential as
compared to p-side and this potential
difference tends to prevent the movement of
electron from n region into the p region. This
Depletion region or potential difference is termed as barrier
Transition region potential.
 DIFFUSION CURRENT: As the diffusion of Biasing :
electrons continues, the potential difference It means the way of connecting emf source to
between the two sides goes on increasing. P-N junction diode. It is following two types
The filling of the holes in p-crystal gives rise to 1) Forward biasing : Positive terminal of the
more holes in the n-crystal and this action is battery is connected to the P-crystal and
the same as though the holes had diffused negative terminal of the battery is connected
to N-crystal
across the boundary towards the right. As the
E
n-crystal becomes more positive and p-crystal – +
Eb
more negative, electrons will be attracted back
towards the right. ultimately, an equilibrium  – 
–
–
 – 
condition would be developed in which equal – 
 –  –
number of electrons will be crossing the
boundary in the opposite directions. P N
+ –
 DRIFT CURRENT: Because of thermal collisions (i) In forward biasing width of depletion layer
occasionally, a covalent bond is broken and decreases.
the electron jumps to the conduction band. (ii) In forward biasing resistance offered
An electron-hole pair is thus created. Also RForward  10  25
occasionally a conduction electron fills up a
(iii) Forward bias opposes the potential and
vacant bond so that an electron-hole pair is
destroyed. These processes continue in every for V  VB a forward current is set up across
the junction
part of the material. However, if an electron-
hole pair is created in the depletion (iv) The current is given by i  is  e eV / kT  1 ;
region, the electron is quickly pushed by the where is  Saturation current, In the exponent
electric field towards N side and the hole
towards P-side. This makes a current from e  1.6  1019 C , k = Boltzmann’s constant
the N side to the P side. This is called the drift (v) Cut-in (Knee) voltage : The voltage at
which the current starts to increase rapidily.
current. For Ge it is 0.3V and for Si it is 0.7V.
 The drift current and the diffusion current are (vi) df- diffusion, dr - drift
in opposite directions. In steady state, the (vii) It is a low resistance connection or it acts

Page 117
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
like a conductor and for an ideal diode the For Ge it is 25V and for Si it is 35V
resistance is zero (short circuit) Reverse voltage
(viii) The flow of current is mainly due to the Break down Reverse current
diffusion of majority charge carriers (v)
voltage Idf
(ix) The direction of current is from p to n Idr
Inet
side
(vi) The net reverse current is given by:
Forward current in mA

I = Drift current - diffusion current

P N (vii) It is a high resistance connection or it acts
I like an insulator and for an ideal diode the
df

I resistance is infinity
dr

I rest
Knee (viii) The flow of current is mainly due to the
voltage Forward voltage
drift of minority charge carriers.
2) Reverse biasing : Positive terminal fo the
battery is connected to the N-crystal and (ix) The direction of current in it is from n to
negative terminal of the battery is connected p side
to P-crystal (x) The current in this bias is called reverse
E
saturation current or leakage current.
– +
E b
Reverse Breakdown :
If the reverse baised voltage is too high, then
 – –  –
 – –  – breakdown of P-N junction diode occurs, It
–  is following two types
 – –  –
1) Zener breakdown : When reverse bais is
P N
increased the electric field across the junction
– + also increases. At some stage the elctric field
(i) In reverse biasing width of depletion layer becomes so high that it breaks the covalent
increases bonds creating electron-hole pairs. Thus a
(ii) In reverse baising resistance offered large number of carriers are generated. This
5 causes a large current to flow. This mechanism
RRe verse  10 
is knonw as Zener breakdown.
(iii) Reverse bias supports the potential barrier 2) Avalanche breakdown : At high reverse
and no current flows across the junction due voltage, due to high electric field, the minority
to the diffusion of the majority carriers charge carriers, while crossing the junction
(A very small reverse current may exist in the acquire very high velocities. These by collision
circuit due to the drifting of minority carriers breaks down the covalent bonds generating
across the junction) more carriers. A chain reaction is established
(iv) Break down voltage : Reverse voltage at giving rise to high current. Thismechansim is
which break down of semiconductor occurs. called avalanche breakdown.
MODES OF OPERATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE:

W W
 
 
p  n p  n
 
 

2
1
2 1
3
V0 V0

Page 118
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Order of forward current is milli amp(mA)

ΔVi ΔVB
Ri =  100 RB =  10 6 
Δli Δl B
V-I CHARACACTERSTICS OF A P-N V-I Characteristics of P - N Junction Diode
JUNCTION DIODE:  For forward bias arrangement, a milliammeter
Voltmeter(V) is used whereas in reverse bias arrangement a
microammeter is used
 T HRESHOLD VOLTAGE OR CUT-IN VOLTAGE:
The voltage across the diode beyond which
p n the diode current increases exponentially is
called threshold voltage. The resistance of a
Milliammeter p-n junction diode
(mA) is of two types.
Switch
_ (A)STATIC OR DC RESISTANCE
+ (a) of a diode which is defined as rdc = V/Irdc
Experimental setup for varies widely with V as the v – I graph is non
diode in forward bias linear.
(B)DYNAMIC RESISTANCE OR AC RESISTANCE
Voltmeter (V)
V dV
 R or  [slopeof V versus i graph]
i di
or (Reciprocal of slope of i versus V graph)
p n Where V denotes a small change in the
Microammeter (A) applied potential difference and i denotes
corresponding small change in current.
Switch Additional points 1 : The current flows
-
+ (b) through the diode the below circuit is
Experimental setup for I
diode in reverse bias
IF (mA) R VB
Breakdown 80 E  VB
Majority I
voltage 60 R  rf
(zener voltage,Vz) 40 Knee carrlers
20 point V E
VR(V) –80 –60 –40–20 K
VF (V)
Reverse 0.2 0.40.6 0.8
–1 Forward
bias Reverse
–2 Where R = external resistance, r f =
Crystal current bias
breakdown Minority resistance of diode in forward bias, VB =
carriers
IR (A) barrier potential.

Page 119
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Additional point 2 : Solution: The diode D1 is forward biased but
I diode D2 is reverse biased. So no current
R VB pass through the diode D2.
E Current passes through 100  resistor
6
i. Power developed across the diode = VB I   0.02A
ii. Power developed across the resistor = 150  100
 E  VB  I . Illustration 7:
Additional point 3 : The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode
The potential barrier existing across an is shown in the Fig. Calcualtethe
resistance of the diode at a) I D =15 MA
unbiased p-n junction is VB volt.
i. The minimum kinetic energy required by a and b) VD = -10V..
hole to diffuse from the p-side to the n-side is I(mA)
30
' eVB ' . Silicon
ii. If the junction is forward biased at V volt. Then 20
15
the minimum kinetic energy required by a hole 10
to diffuse from the p-side to the n-side is -10V
e VB  V  0 0.5 0.7 0.8 V(V)
1(A)
iii. If the junction is reverse biased at V volt. Solution : Considering the diode characteristics
Then the minimum kinetic energy required by as a straight line between I =10 mA to I = 20
a hole to diffuse from the p-side to then-side mA passing through the orgin,we can calcualte
is e VB  V  . the resistance using ohm’s las.
Illustration 5: a) From the curve, at I=20 mA, V=0.08 V,
Find voltage across resistor, across diode I=10 mA, V=0.7 V
and current through diode.
rfb  V / I  0.1 /10mA  10
Si
b) From the curve at V  10V .I  1 A .
8V 2.2 k Therefore r fb  10V / 1 A  1.0 X 107 
Illustration 8:
A source voltage of 8V drives the diode in
Solution: VD = 0.7V fig. through a current-limiting resistor of
 VR = 8V – 0.7V = 7.3V 100 ohm. Then the magnitude of the slope
of load line on the V-I characteristics of
7.3
 iR = iD =  3.31  10 3 A the diode is
2.2  10 3
Illustration 6: – 8V
If each diode forward resistance is 50  +
then find current through the 100 
resistor in the given circuit. 100 
Solution:
D1 150  If I is the current in the diode and V is voltage
drop across it, then for given figure,
D2 50  voltage equation is:
(I×100) - V = 8
I = (1/100)V+8/100  I=(0.01)V+ 0.08
6V 100    Thus the slope of I-V graph is equal to
1/RL = 0.01

Page 120
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Illustration 9: D.C power output
The I-V characteristic of a P-N junction v) Efficiency   
A.C power input
diode is shown below. The approximate
dynamic resistance of the P-N junction  0.406  RL 
vi) Efficiency       100%
when a forward bias of 2volt is applied is  rf  RL 
i(mA)
800 vii)  max = 40.6% for an ideal diode.
2) Full Wave rectifier:
400 D1

RL
2 2.1 V (volt) ~ O/P (dc)
Solution:
The current at 2V is 400 mA and at 2.1 V D2

it is 800 mA. The dynamic resistance in this

region  Input +
ac signal +
t
0  –   – 
R 
V

 2.1  2   0.25
i  800  400  103 output
dc signal D1 D2 D1 D2
APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE AS t
0   
A RECTIFIER:
Rectifier: Rectifier is a circuit which converts i) Two diodes are used.
ac to unidirectional pulsating output. In other ii) It converts the whole cycle of applied input
words it converts ac to dc. It is of following A.C. signal into D.C. signal.
types. iii) When a full wave rectifier is used to
1) Half Wave Rectifier: convert ‘n’ Hz A.C. into D.C, then the number
of pulses per second present in the rectified
voltage is 2n. i.e., the ripple frequency is
Output twice that of input frequency.
Input ~ dc
ac iv) Output of full wave rectifier is continuous
and pulsating.
V or I D.C power output
Input v) Efficiency   
ac signal + + V0 or I0 A.C power input
t
0  –   – 
 0.812  RL 
V or I
vi) Efficiency     r  R   100%
output
V0 or I0
 f L 
dc signal + +
t vii)  max = 81.2% for an ideal diode.
0   
i) Only one diode is used. viii) Though minimum two diodes are needed,
ii) It converts half cycle of applied A.C into only one diode conducts at a time. The pulsating
D.C. current in output can be made smooth using
iii) When a half wave rectifier is used to filter circuit.
convert ‘n’ Hz A.C. into D.C., then the number KEY POINTS:
of pulses per second present in the rectified  Rectifiers is also find a use in detection of
voltage is ‘n’ only. amplitude modulated radio signals.
iv) The out put is discontinuous and pulsating  Rectifiers are also used to supply polarised
. This pulsation is called ripple. voltage for welding.

Page 121
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

S.No Item Half wave recti?er Full wave recti?er

1. No. of p–n junction diodes used One Two
2. Type of transformer used Ordinary step down Centre tap
transformer transformer is used.
3. Type of output signal obtained It converts half cycle It converts the full
of a.c. signal into cycle of a.c. signal
d.c. signal. into d.c. signal.
4. If a.c. voltage applied is Vi = V0 V0 V0
sint and Rf, R are the resistance
of p–n junction in forward
biasing and load resistance
respectively, then Peak inverse
voltage
5. Peak current in load resistance I0 
V0
I0 
V0
Rf  R Rf  R

6. Output current Id.c. 

Ic
 0.318I0 Id.c. 
2I0
 0.636 I0
 

7. d.c. output voltage Vd.c. 

V0
 0.318V0 Vd.c. 
2V0
 0.636V0
 

8. r.m.s current Irms 

I0
Irms 
I0
2 2

9. r.m.s. voltage Vrms 

V0
Vrms 
V0
2 2

10. The value of ripple factor 1.21 0.482

11. Ef? ciency 0.406 RL 0.812 RL

 
rf  RL rf  RL

12. Maximum ef? ciency 40.6% 81.2%

13. Form factor Irms 

F.F    1.57 F.F=1.11
Id.c. 2

14. Ripple frequency It is equal to the It is twice that of the

frequency of the applied a.c. voltage.
applied a.c. voltage

Page 122
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
3) Full wave bridge rectifier:  Capacitor Filter: When the voltage across
D1 D4
the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there
ac – is no external load, it remains charged to the
supply RL Vout peak voltage of the rectified output. When
D2 D3
+ there is a load, it gets discharged through the
load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In
the next half-cycle of rectified output it again
Input gets charged to the peak value but due to
+
ac signal + large value of time constant of capacitor,
0 – voltage across the capacitor approximately
remain constant.
 Capacitor input filters use large capacitors to
output
dc signal increase the time constant of capacitor
D2D3 D4D1 D3  Capacitor filter is most widely used in power
supplies.
i) Four diodes, D1 , D2 , D3 and D4 are used in SPECIAL PURPOSE OF P-N JUNCTION
DIODE
the circuit.
ZENER DIODE:
ii) During positive half cycle D1 and D3 are
 Circuit Symbol
forward biased and D2 and D4 are reverse
 I-V characteristics
biased.
iii) During negative half cycle D2 and D4 are
forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse
biased.
FILTER CIRCUIT:
 The filter is a device that allows passing the
dc component of the load and blocks the ac
component of the rectifier output. Thus the
output of the filter circuit will be a steady dc
voltage. To get steady DC output from the
pulsating voltage, normally a capacitor is
connected across the output terminals (parallel  Zener Diode is designed to operate under
to the load RL ) reverse bias in its breakdown region.
 Formed by heavily doping both p and n sides
of the junction.
 Depletion region is very thin and zener voltage
will be lesser and sharp.
 More number of electron-hole pairs are created
due to the strong electric field at the junction
ac input

at zener voltage, which increases the reverse

t current without change in voltage.
 Electric field of the junction is very high.
output with

input filter
capacitor

 When the reverse bias voltage V is equal to

breakdown voltage, then the electric field
strength is high enough to pull valence electrons

Page 123
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
from the host atoms on the p side which are Illustration 11:
accelerated to n side. These electrons account In half wave rectifier a p–n diode with
for high current observed at the breakdown.
internal resistance 20  is used. If the
 Field Ionization: The emission of electrons loadresistance of 2k  is used in the
from the host atoms due to the high electric
circuit, then find the efficiency of this
field is known as field ionization or internal
field emission. half wave rectifier.
Solution:
ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
Zener diode is used as voltage regulator and its rf = 20 
circuit diagram is RL = 2k  =2000 
R I IL
0.406RL
Iz  Rectifier efficiency (  ) 
RL  r f
Vi/p Vo/p
Vz 0.406  2000 812
   0.402
2000  20 2020
 Efficiency = 40.2%
1) I  I Z  I L 2) VO / P  VZ  I L RL Illustration 12:
3) VI / P  IR  VZ In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown,
4) Current thro ugh load resistance what is the form of the output across C
and D?
V V
IL   0  Z
RL RL A C

5) Current through series resistance (R) is P Q VCD RL

V V  Vz
I  i B D
R R
Solution:
VI /P  IR  VZ VO / P  VI / P   I Z  I L  R
Half wave rectifier, rectifies only the half cycle
As VI / P changes current through zener diode of input ac signal and it blocks the other half.
changes so that VO/ P (or) VZ remains
constant.
Illustration 10:
If the voltage between the terminals A Illustration 13:
and B is 17 V and Zener breakdown In a zener regulated power supply, a zener
voltage is 9 V, then the potential across R diode with VZ  5.0V is used for
is regulation. The load current is to be 2.0
A
mA and the unregulated input is 10.0V.
R What should be the value of series
resistance RS ?
Solution:
RL The value of RS should be such that the
current through the zener diode is much larger
B than the load current. Choosing zener current
Solution:
Given that Vin  17V as five times the load current, I Z  10mA
VZ  9V ; Vin  VR  VZ The voltage drop across diode is 5V
i.e., 17  VR  9 ; VR  17  9  8V 5
 RS   416
12  103

Page 124
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Illustration 14: When photons of energy greater than the
From the zener diode circuit shown in energy gap of the device material are absorbed
the figure, find (1) the output voltage (2) in the device, hole-electron pairs are generated,
the voltage drop across series resistance the conductivity of the diode increases, and
and (3) the current through zener diode. the reverse current builds up..
I IL The current-voltage characteristics at
 =constant are shown in figure. Here,  stand
R=5k Iz
for incident luminous flux an I is the magnitude
Vi/p=220V 20k of the reverse current. When there is no light
Vz=50V
flux  incident on the device, the usual reverse
leakage current  I 0  , called the dark current.
Solution :
 3>2
From the figure
p 2>1
R = 5k  = 5 × 103  RL 1>
Input voltage = 220V n
 =
3 V
Load resistance RL = 20k  = 20 × 10  
Connection of a Current-voltage
Zener voltage, Vz = 50V photodiode for operation characteristics of a photodiode
in the current mode in the current mode
(1) Output voltage, Vz = 50 V
h
(2) Voltage drop across, series resistance,
R = input voltage – Vz = 220 – 50 = 170 V
(3) Load current,
A
V 50 p - side n - side
IL  z  3
=2.5 × 10–3A
RL 20  10
Current through R, mA

Voltage drop across R 170

I  Reverse bias
R 5  103
= 34 × 10–3A I1 volts
I2
According to Kirchoff’s first law I = IL+IZ I3
I4 A
 Zener current, IZ = I – IL I4 > I3 > I2 > I1

= 34 × 10–3 – 2.5 × 10–3 I = Intensity of incident light.

= 31.5 × 10–3A = 31.5 mA The currnet -flux  I    characteristics of
OPTO ELECTRONIC JUNCTION photodiodes at V=constant are linear and
DEVICES almost independent of the applied voltage
I
PHOTO DIODE:
A photodiode is a semiconductor diode which V=50V
is operated with reverse bias below the
breakdown voltage and whose conductivity is V=10V
modulated by the absorption of light in or
near the depletion layer which exists at the p- V
n junction. I0

In fact, the operation of a photodiode depends 0
on the inner photoelectric effect. Current-flux characteristics

Page 125
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Uses of Photodiodes:

infra red
amber
yellow
I(mA)

white
green
Photodiodes are used: As light detectors, in

blue
red
light operated switches, in reading of computer 50
VA
punched cards and tapes, in alarm systems, in 40
30
+ R
camera exposure controls, as optical fiber VA 20
10
receivers. – I
1 2 3 4 5 VF
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED) separation and collection
Heavily doped p-n junction which under (i) Generation of electron-hole pairs due to light
forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. (with h  E g ) in junction region,
 The compound semiconductor Gallium (ii) Separation of electrons and holes due to
(Ga As1 x Px ) is used electric field of the depletion region. Electrons
A rsenide-Phosphide
for making LEDs of different colours. are swept to n-side and holes to p-side by the
junction field;
(iii) On reaching electrons at n-side and holes on
– at p-side. Thus n-side becomes negative and
+ p-side becomes positive potential and giving
rise to photovoltage.
+ –
(a) (b) LED Conventional Incandescent Lamp
 Low operational voltage  High operational voltage and more
 When a conduction electron makes a transition and less power. power.
to the valence band to fill up a hole in P-N Fast action and no Slow action and some warm-up time
warm-up time required. required.
junction, the extra energy is emitted as a
The bandwidth of The emitted light is not
photon. If the wavelength of this photon is in emitted light is 100 Å to monochromatic.
the visible range one can see the emitted light. 500 Å or in other words
Such a P-N junction is known as light-emitting it is nearly (but not
exactly) monochromatic.
diode (LED)
Long life and ruggedness. Less life.
 When an electron in the conduction band Fast on-off switching Slow on-off switching capability.
makes a transition to the valence band, to capability.
recombine with the holes, energy equal to the
band gap is released. SOLAR CELL
 It is used as indicator lamps, in signal lamps Generates emf when solar radiation falls on a
and displays in computers and calculators. p-n junction.
The infra-red LED is used for optical  Works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
communication.
 Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5
eV, high optical absorption, high electrical
4 conductivity, availability in abundance and low
Light Output
Power (mW)

cost are preferred for making solar cells.

2  When light falls on p-n junction, emf generates
due to the following three basic processes:
0
100 200 generation,
Forward current(mA)
 Example: Si, GaAs, CdTe, CuInSe2
Example : Gallium arsenide, indium
phosphate
I-V characteristics of LED
Page 126
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
fractional change in the majority carriers
SOLAR CELL PHOTODIODE (i.e., n / n )would be much less than that in
the minority carrier (i.e., p / p ). In general,
No external bias. External bias is applied.
we can state that the fractional change due to
Junction area is Junction area is smaller. the photo-effects on the minority carrier
much larger. dominated reverse bias current is more easily
measurable than the fractional change in the
I-V characteristic of Solar Cell forward bias current. Hence, photodiodes are
preferably used in the reverse bias condition
Sunlight for measuring light intensity.
Electron IIlustration 16:
Hole
–+ Why are Si and GaAs are preferred
+ p –+ n – 400
–+ 300 materials for solar cells?
Depletion 200
layer 100
Solution:
0 For the solar radiation spectrum received by
RL 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(a) (b) us, the maxima is near 1.5 eV, hence
I
semiconductor with band gap 1.5 eV or lower
+ – Veq
is likely to give better solar conversation
p n V efficiency. Silicon has 1.1 eV while for GaAs
I Ri
it is 1.53 eV. In fact, GaAs is better (in spite
RL of its higher band gap) than Si because of its
(d) relatively higher absorption coefficient.
( c)
JUNCTION TRANSISTOR:
When this cell is connected to a load (RL), a
It is a device which transfers electrical current
Photocurrent (I) begins to flow which is given from a lower resistance path to a higher
resistance path there by producing amplifying
by I = Where Ri is the internal
action.
resistance of the cell  Transistor consists of two p - n junctions
Illustration 15: joined back to back.
The current in the forward bias is known  Transistors are of two types.
to be more  mA  than the current in the i) p-n-p and 2) n-p-n
reverse bias   A  . What is the reason (a) p-n-p transistor:
then to operate the photodiodes in reverse  In this transistor, a thin layer of n-type
bias? semiconductor is placed between two layers
Solution: of p-type semiconductors. In p-n-p transistors
Consider the case of an n-type semiconductor. holes are majority charge carriers.
The majority carrier density (n) is considerably
 In p-n-p transistor, inside the transistor the
larger than the minority hole density p(n>>p) flow of current is mainly due to holes and in
On illumination, let the excess electrons and the external circuit the flow of current is due
holes generated be n and p , respectively to only electrons.
n1  n  n ; p1  p  p E B C
Here n1 and p1 are the electron and hole iE iC
p n p
concentrations at any particular illumination
and n and p are carriers concentration when iB
there is no illumination. Remember
n  p and n  p . Hence, the VEB VCB

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
(b) n-p-n transistor: MODES OF OPERATION OF JUNCTION
 In this transistor, a thin layer of p-type TRANSISTOR:
semiconductor is placed between two layers  A transistor can be operated in three different
of n-type semiconductors. In n-p-n transistor modes:
electrons are majority charge carriers.
a) Common base configuration: Base is
n-p-n transistor, both inside the transistor and common to both the input and output.
in the external circuit the flow of curent is due b) Common emitter configuration: Emitter is
to the flow of electrons only. common to both the input and output.
E B C c) Common collector configuration: Collector
iE
n p n
iC is common to both the input and output.
1) Common Base Configuration: Base is
iB common to both emitter and collector.
VEE VCC PNP
Ie Ic
 In any transistor circuit I E  I B  I C and for
E C
+
change of currents I E  I B  IC . – Ib RL VCB=output
B –
I B  I E and I C  I E VEB=input
+
COMPONENTS OF JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR:
 Emitter: It is of moderate size and heavily i) Input voltage  I e
doped. It supplies a large number of majority
charge carriers. It supplies a large number of ii) Input voltage  VEB
majority carriers for the current flow through iii) Output voltage  VCB
the transistor.
 Base: It is thinnest (order of 10 6 m ) in size iv) Output current  I C
and lightly doped. It allows most of the With small increase in emitter-base voltage
charge carriers injected in to it to flow into VEB , the emittter current I e increase rapidly
collector wihtout getting neutralized. due to small input resistance.
 Collector: It collects majority charge carriers
supplied by emitter. It is moderately doped v) Input characterstics: If VCB  constant,
and larger in size as compare to emitter. curve between I e and VEB is known as input
Normally, the emitter-base contact area is characteristics. It is also known as emitter
smaller than collector-base contact area. characteristics.
SYMBOLS FOR TRANSISTOR: VCB= -10V

Collector Collector
Ie(mA) VCB= -20V VCE=0

Base Base

Emitter Emitter VEB(in volt)

n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor
Input characdteristics of n-p-n transistor are
 In a transistor, the direction of arrow on the
also similar to the above figure but I e and
emitter represents the direction of flow of
conventional current or hole movement. VEB both are negative and VCB is positive.
Arrow head into the base indicates p-n-p and Dynamic input resistance of a transistor is
arrow head away from the base indicates n-
p-n.
Page 128
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

given by VCE=0
VCE=1V
100 VCE=2V
 V  80 VCE=5V
Ri   EB 
 I e VCB  cons tan t Ib(A)
60
40
( Ri is of the order of 100 ) 20
vi) Output characteristics: Taking the emitter 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
current ie constant, the curve drawn between VBE(volt)
 VBE 
I C and VCB are known as output Dyamic input resistance Ri  I 
 B VCE  cons tan t
characteristics of CB configuration.
Output characteristics: Variation of collector
Ie=30mA
B current I C with VCE can be noticed for VCE
40 A
Ie=20mA
30 A B between 0 to 1 V only. The value of VCE up
IC(in mA)

Ie=10mA
20 A B
Ie=5mA to which the I C changes with VCE is called
10 A B
Ie=0 ICBO knee voltage. The transistor are operated in
the region above knee voltage.
0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
VCB (in volt) 70 IB=300A
60 IB=250A
Dynamic output resistance 50 IB=200A
40 IB=150A
 V  IC(mA) IB=100A
30
R0   CB  20 IB=50A
 iC
 iC  cons tan t 10 IB=0mA

0
2) CE configurations: Emitter is common to 5 10 15 20
both base and collector. VCE(volt)

The graphs betwen voltages and currents Dynamic output resistance

when emitter of a transistor is common to  V 
R0   CE 
input and output circuits are knownj as CE
 I C  I B co ns tan t
characrteristics of a transistor.
1. Saturation region : In this region the collector
PNPC Ic current becomes almost independent of the
Ib B base current. This happens when both
– junctions are forward biased.
E
+ Ie RL VCE=output 2. Cut off region : In this region the collector
VEB=input – current is almost zero. This happens when
+ both the junctions are reerse biased.
3. Active region : In this region collector current
Input chracteristics: Input characteristic  IC  is many times greater then base current
curve is drawn between base current I b and  I B  . A small change in input current  I B 
emitter base voltage VEB , at constant collector produces a large change in the output current

emitter voltage VCE .  I C  . This happens when emitter junction

is forward biased and collector is reverse
biased.
4) Output resistance  R 0  :

Page 129
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
The ratio of change in collector emitter voltage PARAMETERS OF JUNCTION
 V CE  to the change in collector current TRANSISTOR FOR CE CONFIGARATION :
 Input resistance(ri) :
 I C  at constant base current  I B  is called  V 
 VCE  ri   BE 
output resistance. R0   I   I B VCE
 C  Ib  Output resistance(ro) :
Common Collector configuration:  V 
E ro   CE 
 I C  I B

B  Current amplification factor    :

Out put
RL  I 
C
  ac   C 
 I B VCE
+ 
Common Collector

Parameters Common Base (B) Common Emitter (CE) Common Collector (CC)

Input Resistance Low (100) High (750) Very High = 750k

Output Resistance Very High High Low

Current Gain ( Ai or ) 95 /100 ( Ai or ) 95 / 5 ( Ai or ) 100 / 5

IC IC IE
  1 min  1   1 max
IE IB IB

Voltage Gain V0 I C RL V0 IC RL V0 I E RL
AV   AV   AV  
Vi I E Ri Vi I B Ri Vi I B Ri
RL RL RL
Av  Av   Av 
Ri Ri Ri
Power Gain P0 P0 P0
Ap  Ap  Ap 
Pi Pi Pi
2 L R RL R
Ap   Ap  2 Ap  2 L

Ri Ri Ri
Phase difference Same phase (0) Opposite phase () Same phase (0)
(between output
and input)
Application For High frequency For Audible frequency For Impedance Matching
amplifier amplifier

Page 130
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
amplifier.”
TRANSISTOR AS A DEVICE 2) Voltage amplifier: The amplifier which is
T RANSISTOR AS A SWITCH: used to raise voltage level is known as voltage
IC amplifier.
RB C RC + Ic
B IB Ri
IB V
E – O Vi V0
IE VCC
Vi VBB
ac input RL ac output
VBE VCE


 Appling KVL to the input and output sides of

the circuit, We get Fig: n-p-n transistor as an amplifier
Vi  I B RB  VBE and VO  VCC  I C RC i) Voltage gain: It is defined as the ratio of
 In the case of Si transistor, as long as input Vi is change in output voltage to the change in input
less than 0.6 V, the transistor will be in cut off voltage.
state and current IC will be zero. Hence Vo =
VCC When Vi becomes greater than 0.6 V the VCE R (I ) R
transistor is in active state ,so Vo decreases Av    L c   L
VBE Ri (I b ) Ri
linearly till its value becomes less than about
1.0 V. Negative sign indicates input and output voltages
Cutt off are in opposite phase.
region Active ii) Power gain: It is defined as the ratio of
V0
region output power to the input power.
Saturation
region output power I outVout
power gain = input power  I V
in in
Power gain= current gain × voltage gain
AV
Rout
Vi  Ap   Av  2 
Rin
 If we plot the graph V0 vs Vi curve [also called Note-1:
the transfer characteristics of the base biased In common base amplifier, the phase difference
transistor in figure,we see that between cut off between the input and output signals is zero
state and active state and also between active
state and saturation state there are regions of Note-2:
non-linearity showing that the transition from In common emitter amplifier, the phase
cut off state to active state and difference between input and output signals is
from active state to saturation state are not 
sharply defined. RELATION BETWEEN  , and 
Transistor as an Amplifier ,  ,  , 
(CE configuration)
The process of raising the strength of a weak I E  I B  IC I E  I B  IC
I E  I B  IC
input signal to a strong output signal is called Divide by IC Divide by I B
‘amplification’. Divide by IB
Amplifier : It is a device which increases the I E IB IE I
 1  1 C 
weak input signal into strong output signal I C IC IB IB   1
1 
Amplifier has wide applications in industries, 1 1  1  1
T.V, radio and communication systems.    1 
Amplifiers are of two types 1 
1) Power amplifiers 2) Voltage amplifiers   .  
1) Power amplifier: Amplifier which is used 1 
to raise the power level is known as “Power

Page 131
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
 Voltage gain = -(transconductance  output circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations
resistance) i.e. it provides positive feedback.
 Oscillating frequency of oscillator is given by
TRANSISTOR AS AN OSCILLATOR:
1
 A transistor with proper positive feedback f  .
2 LC
can act as an oscillator. It can generate
oscillations without any external signal source.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER:
 The circuit needs only a quick trigger signal to
start the oscillations. Once the oscillations  Contains two components namely feedback
have started, no external signal source is circuit and amplifier circuit.
needed.  The aim of feedback circuit is to return a
 In order to get continuous undamped output fraction of the output voltage to the input of
from the circuit, the following condition the amplifier
(Barkhausen criterion) must be met:
mVAV = 1; Input
Transistor
Amplifier Output
where mV = voltage gain of amplifier without
feedback,
Feedback
AV = feedback fraction. network
T1
Mutual inductance FEEDBACK ARE OF TWO TYPES:
(Coupling through
magnetic ? eld)
3
C T2
n-p-n T2 Output
L
4

S1(Switch)

COMPONENTS OF TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR:

 Tank Circuit: It consists of inductance (L)
connected in parallel with capacitor(C). The A A
frequency of oscillations in the circuit depends Af  Af 
upon the values L and C. 1  A 1  A
 Transistor Amplifier: The transistor amplifier
Illustration 15:
receives d.c. power from the battery and
The base current is 100  A and collector
changes it into a.c. power for supplying to the
current is 3 mA.
tank circuit. The oscillations occurring in the
tank circuit are applied to the input of the (a) Calculate the values of  , I E and 
transistor amplifier. Because of the amplifying (b) A change of 20 A in the base current
nature of the transistor, we get increased produces a change of 0.5 mA in the
output of these oscillations. This amplified collector current. Calculate  ac .
output of oscillations is due to the d.c. power Solution:
supplied by the battery. The output of the
transistor can be supplied to the tank circuit IC 3  103
(a)     30,
to meet the losses. I B 100 106
 Feedback Circuit: The feedback circuit  30 30
supplies a part of collector energy to the tank     0.97
1   1  30 31

Page 132
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

I C 3  31 Find the : (i) input resistance  Rin  and

and I E    3.1 mA
 30 (ii) the base current amplicaion faction
(b) I B  20  A  0.02 mA    . If a load of 6k is used, then also
I C 0.5 find the voltage gain of the amplifier.
  ac    25
I B 0.02 Solution : Given I B  40  A  40 X 10 6 A
Illustration 16: IC  2mA  2 X 103 A
For a CE transistor amplifier, the audio
signal voltage across the collector I BE  0.04 volt, R L  6 k   6 X 10 3 
resistance of 4.0 k is 4.0V. suppose the (i) Input Resistance,
current amplification factor of the VBE 0.04
Rin   6
 103   1k 
transistor is 100. What should be the I B 40 X 10
value of RB in series with supply of 2.0 (ii) Current amplification factor,
V if the de base current has to be 10 VC 2 X 103
times the signal current. Also calculate    50
I B 40 X 106
the dc drop across the VBB collector (iii) Voltage gain in common-emitter
resistance. configuration.
Solution:
The output ac voltage is 4.0 V. So, the ac RL 2 X 103
Au    50 X  300
collector current Rimp 1X 103
I C  4.0 / 4000  1.0 mA . The signal current Illustration 19:
through the base is, therefore given by If a transistor is connected in common
iB  iC /   1.0mA /100  0.010 mA . The emitter mode R0  5 k  , Ri  2 k  ,
dc base current has to be I C  1 mA , I B  40  A . Find the voltage
10  0.010  0.10 mA . gain.
Solution:
Also RB  VBB  VBE  / I B , Assuming Voltage gain
VBE  0.6 V .  I  R 
AV   ( R0 / Ri )   C   0 
RB  (2.0  0.6) / 0.10  14 k   I B  Ri 
The dc collector current  1103   5 
I C  100  0.10  10 mA  6  
 125
 40 10   1 
Illustration 17: Illustration 20:
In a transistor, the value of  is 60. An n-p-n transistor in a common emitter
Calculate the value of  . mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier
Solution: with a collector current of 4 mA. The
  terminal of a 8 V battery is connected to
  60  the collector through a load resistance
1 1 RL and to the base through a resistance
60
 60  60       0.98 R B . The collector emitter voltage VCE  4
61
Illustration 18: V, base-emitter voltage VBE 0.6 V and
A p-n-p transistor is used in common- base current am plification factor
emitter mode in an amplifier circuit. A  d .c  100 . Calculate the value of RL
change of 40 A in the base cureent and R B
brings a change of 2 mA in collector
curent and 0.04 V in base- emitter voltage.

Page 133
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
IB IC DIGITAL ELECTRONICS:
RB RL ANALOGUE SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
C
B VCC=VBB= 8V Analogue Digital
E
VCE Signal Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time
VBE signal which represents signals generated by digital
physical measurements. modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Solution : Potential difference across RL
Representation Uses continuous range of Uses discrete or discontinuous
 8V  V CE  8V  4V  4V . Now values to represent values to represent information
information
4
IC R L  4V ; RL  3
 103   1k  Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs, and
4 X 10 electronic devices. other digital electronic devices.
Further for base emitter equation,
VCC  1B RB  VVBE or I B RB = Potential LOGIC GATES:
difference across R B
Logic gates serve as the building blocks to
 VCC  VBE  8  0.6  7.4 V digital logic circuits using combinational logic.
IC 4 X 103  The table used to represent the Boolean
Again, I B    4 X 105 A expression of a logic gate function is commonly
 100
called a Truth Table. A logic gate truth table
7.4 shows each possible input combination to the
 RB  5
 1.85 X 105   185k 
4 X 10 gate or circuit with the resultant output
Illustration 21: depending upon the combination of these
In a negative feedback amplifier, the gain input(s).
without feedback is 100, feed back ratio  Logic Gates follows certain logical relationships
is 1/25 and input voltage is 50m V. between input and output voltage.
Calculate
(i)gain with feedback  The electronic circuits are of two types. They
(ii) feedback factor are analog and digital circuits.
(iii) output voltage  Analog circuits:
(iv) feedback voltage The waveforms are continuous and a range of
(v) new input voltage so that output values of voltages are possible.
voltage with feedback equals the output
voltage without feedback Ex: amplifier, oscillator circuits.
Solution:
i) Gain with feedback
A 100 V
Af    20
1   A 1  (1/ 25) 100
1
ii)  
25 t
iii) Output voltage O
V0 '  A f Vi  20  50mV  1volt
iv) Feedback voltage Digital circuits:
1 1) The waveforms are pulsated and only
 V0 '   1  0.04 volt discrete values of voltages are possible.
25
v) New increased input voltage Ex: logic gates.
Vi1  Vi 1   A
 1 
 50  1   100   250mV
 25 

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 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
AND Gate:
+V
i) An AND gate has two or more inputs with
one output.
O
Time ii) The Boolean expression is Y = A.B (Y
equals A and B).
2) in the decimal system, there are ten digits. iii) The output (Y) of AND gate is only when
They are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. all the inputs are simultaneously 1.
D1
A
3) In the binary system, there are only two
digits 0 and 1. Y
4) Digital electronics is developed by B R
representing the low and high levels of voltages D2
in pulsated waveform with binary digits 0 and +5V
1 (called bits).
5) The basic building blocks of digital circuits  
are called as logic gates, since they perform 
A 1

B 1
logic operations.
6) Generally the level 1 or high level is at LED
4  1V and level 0 or low level is at 
 6V
0.2  0.2V .
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES
OR Gate:
i) An OR gate has two or more inputs with NOT Gate:
one output. i) It has a single input and a single output.
ii) The Boolean expression is Y = A + B(Y ii) The Boolean expression is Y  A
equals A or B).
iii) The output of NOT gate is the inverse of
iii) The output (Y) of OR gate will be 1 when the input or it performs negation operation.
the inputs A or B or both 1.
Vcc=+5V
D1
A
R
Y = A or B
B
Y
R
D2 A
V=0

O

A 1
O

B 1

6V LED

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

iii) The Boolean expression is Y  A.B .

LED iv) The output of NAND gate is only when
atleast one input is 0.
v) The NOR and NAND gates are considered
O as universal gates, because we can obtain all
the gates like OR, AND and NOT by using
A 1 either NOR or NAND gates repeatedly.
6V LOGIC GATE DESCRIPTION:
 BOOLEAN
NAMES SYMBOL EXPRESSION TRUTH TABLE
A B Y
A 0 0 0
OR B Y Y=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

A B Y
AND A Y=A.B 0 0 0
B Y 0 1 0
NOR Gate: 1
1
0
1
0
1

X Y
NOT X Y Y=X 0
1
1
0

 A B  A B Y
A 0 0 1
NOR B Y
Y A  B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
i) It has two or more inputs and one output. A B Y
A negation (NOT operation) applied after NAND
A
Y Y  A.B 0 0 1
B 0 1 1
OR gate, gives a NOT-OR gate or simple 1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR gate.
A B Y
ii) NOR gate output is inverse of OR gate A 0 0 0
XOR B Y Y  A.B  A.B
output. 0
1
1
0
1
1
1 1 0
The output of NOR gate is 1 only when all
the inputs are simultaneously 0. A B Y
A 0 0 1
XNOR B Y Y  A..B  A.B 0 1 0
iii) The Boolean expression is Y  A  B . 1 0 0
1 1 1
NAND Gate:

A

 
B

i) It has two or more inputs and one output.

A negation (NOT operation) applied after
AND gate, gives a NOT-AND gate or simply
NAND gate.
ii) NAND gate output is inverse of AND gate
output.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
 A.(B.C) = (A.B).C = A.B.C
NAMES CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DISTRIBUTIVE LAW:
X Z  A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
D1
 A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C)
Y
OR D2 RL
DE MORGAN’S THEOREM:

 A  B  A.B
+5V  A.B  A  B
Illustration 22:
RL
Add f ollowing binary numbers
AND X
D1
Z a) 1101 and 1111 b) 11111 and 101
D2
Soluti on:
Y a) According to binary addition
+5V 1+1=10 and 10+1=11
So 1101
RL
NOT Ri + 1111
Z
X 11100
b) 11111
+ 101
100100
+5V I llustration 23:
RL
Subtract f ollowing binary numbers
NOR a) 1111 and 101 b) 1110 and 101
Z
Ri1 Soluti on:
X a) 1111
Y
Ri2 - 101
1010
+5V b) 1110
- 101
Ri1 Ri2 1001
D1 I llustration 24:
NAND X

D2 The Boolean expression of the output Y

Y of the inputs A and B for the circuit shown
in the fig:
A A 1

LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Y
COMMUTATIVE LAW:
 A+B =B+A B 2
B
 A.B = B.A Solution:
ASSOCIATIVE LAW: The output of AND gate 1 is A.B
 A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C = A+B+C

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

The output of AND gate 2 is A.B Identify the logic operation carried out
by the two circuits.
 The output of OR gate is Y  A.B  A.B A A
Illustration 25: Y Y
B
The diagram of a logic circuit is given B
below. The output of the circuit is Solution:
represented by From fig(a). The output of NAND gate is
w connected to NOT gate ( obtained from
X NAND gate) Let Y 1 be the output of NAND
gate and the final output of the combination of
F two gates is Y. The output of a NAND gate
w
is O only when both the inputs are zero, while
Y in NOT gate, the input gets inverted. Truth
Solution: table for the arrangement
F  W  X  .W  Y  A B Y' Y A B Y
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 W .W  W .Y  X .W  X .Y
1 0 1 0 = 1 0 0
 W  W .Y  X .W  X .Y
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
 W 1  Y   X .W  X .Y  W  XW  X .Y 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
 W 1  X   X .Y  W  X .Y It is the truth tables of AND gate. Therefore
the given circuit acts as AND gate.
Illustration 26: b) The output of two NOT gates are
The logic circuit and its truth table are connected to NAND gate Let Y1 and Y2 be
given, what is the gate X in the diagram the outputs of the two NOT gates and the
final output of the combination of three gates
be Y. In a NOT gate. the input gets inverted,
while the output of a NAND gate is ‘O’ only
when both the inputs are zero. Truth table for
given arrangement.
A B Y
A
0 0 0
Y 1 0 1
X 0 1 1
B
Solution: 1 1 1
Illustration 28:
From the truth table we note that Y  A  B
i.e., it is for OR gate (or) Take X and Y input waveforms. Sketch
the output (Z) waveform obtained from
A  X  A  B  A  B.  A  A  A  A  1 AND gate as per the following conditions:
For t  t1 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0
then, A  X  A  B. A  B. A
For t1 to t2 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0
 A. 1  B   A.B  A  A.B For t2 to t3 X = 1, Y = 1 Hence Z = 1
For t3 to t4 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0
So X  A  A.B , which is AND gate with
For t4 to t5 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0
inputs as A and B
For t5 to t6 X = 1, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0
Illustration 27:
For t to t6 X = 0, Y = 1 Hence Z = 0
You are given two circuits as shown in
figure which consist of NAND gates.

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 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Solution: 2) NOT gate
t2 t3
yA
t1 t4 t5 t6
3) OR gate
A A
y  AB
Illustration 29: B
B AB
Sketch the output Y from a OR gate AB
having inputs X and Y as per the following 4) NOR gate
conditions:
A
For t  t1 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0 y AB
For t1 to t2 X = 1, Y = 0 Hence Z = 1 B AB
For t2 to t3 X = 1, Y = 1 Hence Z = 1
For t3 to t4 X = 0, Y = 1 Hence Z = 1 5) EX – OR
For t4 to t5 X = 0, Y = 0 Hence Z = 0 A A AB  p
For t5 to t6 X = 1, Y = 0 Hence Z = 1 B y  pq
For t to t6 X = 0, Y = 1 Hence Z = 1 A
Solution: B B AB  q
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
y  pq  p  q

  AB    AB   AB  AB
   
6) EX – NOR
Illustration 30 : A A
Which represents NAND gate? AB  p
B y  pq y  pq  pq
(1)
A
B B AB  q
(2)
y  pq

(3)   AB   AB 
  

(4)  
 A B . A B 
Solution:
(1) as NAND is a combination of AND and
NOT gate

 A B A B  
CONSTRUCTION OF ALL LOGIC  AA  AB  AB  BB
GAEST USING NAND AND NOR GATES
BY USING ‘NAND’ Gate : y  AB  AB
1) AND gate BY USING ‘NOR’ Gate :
y  AB 1) OR gate
 AB
AB

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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
2) NOT gate INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit(IC) (also termed as chip)
is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands
of tiny resistors, capacitors and transistors are
3) AND gate fabricated.
y  AB  The most widely used technology is the
Monolithic Integrated Circuit.
 AB
 IC can be used as an amplifier, oscillator,
timer, counter, computer memory.
 ICs are of two types i) Analogue ICs ii)Digital
4) NAND gate
ICs.
A  The linear IC’s process analogue signals which
AB y  AB change smoothly and continuously over a range
B of values between a maximum and a minimum.
 The digital IC’s process signals that have only
5) EX – NOR two values. They contain circuits such as logic
gates. Depending upon the level of integration
A (i.e., the number of circuit components or
A B p logic gates), the ICs are termed as follows.
y pq
 Based on level of integration:
Small scale integration (logic gates  10 )
AB q Medium scale integration (logic gates  100 )
B
Large scale integration (logic gates  1000 )
Very large scale integration (logic gates >
y  pq  p.q 1000)

  A  B  .  A  B 
  

 
 A B . A B 
 AA  AB  AB  BA
 AB  AB
6) EX – OR

A
A B p
y pq
y p q

ABq
B

y  pq

  
 A B  A B 
 A.B  A.B
y  AB  AB

Page 140
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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
SYNOPSIS b) Transmission channel: The medium or
Introduction: Communication is an act of the link, which transfers message signal from
exchange of information between the sender and the transmitter to the receiver of a
the receiver. Over decades, methods have been communication system is called channel.
evolved to develop languages, codes, signals c) Receiver: The part of the communication
etc to make communication effective. system, which picks up the information sent out
Communication through electrical signals has by the transmitter is called receiver.
made things much simpler because they can be Basic Terminology Used in Electronic
transmitted over extremely large distances in Communication System
extremely short time as their speed is Some important terms needed to understand
3  108 m / s . the basic elements of communication
Modern communication has its roots in the 19th a) Information : It is nothing but, the message
and 20th century in the work of scientists like to be conveyed. The message may be a
J.C. Bose, F.B. Morse, G.Macroni and symbol, code, group of words etc. Amount of
Alexander Graham Bell. The pace of information in message is measured in “bits”
development seems to have increased b) Communication Channel : Physical
dramatically after the first half of the 20th medium through which signals propagate
century. We can hope to see many more between transmitting and receiving stations is
accomplishments in the coming decades. The called communication channel.
aim of this chapter is to introduce the concepts Transmitter: Essential components of
of communication, namely the mode of transmitter are as follows.
communication, the need for modulation, a)Transducer : Converts sound signals into
production and deduction of amplitude electric signal. The device which converts a
modulation. physical quantity (information) into electrical
Communication is basically of two signal is known as transducer.
types: b)Modulator : Mixing of audio electric signal
a) Point to point :- This takes place between with high frequency radio wave.
a transmitter and a receiver. Telephonic c)Amplifier: Boosting the power of
conversion between two persons is a good modulated signal.
example of it.
d)Antenna : Signal is radiated in the space
b) Broad cast mode :- Here, a large number
of receivers receive the information from a with the aid of an antenna.
single transmitter. Radio and television are
good examples of broadcast mode. Receiver: Basic components of receiver.
Elements of Communication a) Pickup antenna: To pick the signal
b) Demodulator: To separate out the audio
System
signal from the modulated signal
Basic units of a communication system.
c) Amplifier: To boost up the weak audio
Transmitted signal Message signal
signal
d) Transducer: To convert back audio signal
Information
source
Trans-
mitter
Channel Receiver
User
Information
in the form of electrical pulses into sound
waves.
Message Received
signal
Noise
signal Message Signal: Information converted in
a) Transmitter: The part of t he electrical form and suitable for transmission is
communication system, which sends out the called signal.
information is called transmitter.
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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
superposition of sinusiodal waves of frequencies
 A signal is defined as a single-valued function
of time (that conveys the information) and f0 . 2 f 0 ,3 f 0 , 4 f 0 ....nf 0 where n is an integer
which, at every instant of time has a unique extending to infinity and f 0  1/ T0 . The
value.
Types of message signals fundamental  f 0  , fundamental  f 0   second
a) Analog signal: A signal, which is a
harmonic  2 f 0  and fundamental
continuous function of time (usually a sinusoidal
function) is called analog signal.  f0   second harmonic  2 f0   third
b) Digital signal: A discrete signal
harmonic  3 f 0  , are shown in the same figure
(discontinuous function of time) which has only
two levels is called digital signal. to illustrate this fact. It is clear that to reproduce
Noise : This refers to undesired signals which the rectangular wave shape exactly we need to
superimpose all the harmonics
disturb the transmission and processing of
signals. f 0 , 2 f 0 , 3 f 0 , 4 f 0 ..... which implies an infinite
Attenuation : It is the loss of strength of a bandwidth. However, for practical purposes,
signal during propagation in a medium. the contribution from higher harmonics can be
Amplification : It is the process of increasing neglected this limiting the bandwidth. As a result,
the strength of the signal (amplitude) using an received waves are a distorted version of the
amplifier. transmitted one. If the bandwidth is large enough
Range :It is the maximum distance from a to accommodate a few harmonics, the
source upto which the signal is received with information is not lost and the rectangular signal
sufficient strength. is more or less recovered. This is so because
Repeaters : These are the devices used to the higher the harmonic. Less is its contribution
increase the range of communication system to the wave form.
Band width of signals (speech, T.V and (voltage)
-0.6
digital data) : Band width is the frequency
range over which an equipment operates. -0.4

(or) -0.2

(time)
It is the portion of the spectrum occupied by 0
unit
0.5
the signal. -0.2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Bandwidth of signals :
-0.4
In a communication system, the message
-0.6
signal may be voice, music, picture or data etc.
Each of these signals has a spread of different a) Rectangular wave
range of frequencies. Hence, the type of
communication system needed depends upon b) Fundamental  f 0 
the band of frequencies involved. Speech signal c) Fundamental  f0  + second harmonic
requires the band width of 2800 Hz (3100 Hz
to 300 Hz). For music, a bandwidth of about  2 f0 
20KHz is required (due to high frequency
produced by musical instruments). The audible d) Fundamental  f 0  Second harmonic
range of frequencies extends from 20Hz to
20KHz. Video signals require band width of
 2 f 0   third harmonic  3 f 0 
4.2 MHz for picture transmission. However, a  Bandwidth of transmission medium :
band width of 6MHz is needed for T.V signals. The most used transmission media are wire,
(as it contains both voice and picture) free space, and fibre optic cable. Different
Digital signals are in the form of rectangular transmission media offer different band width.
waves as shown in Fig. One can show that this Coaxial cable offers a band width of about 750
rectangular wave can be decomposed into a MHz. Radio wave communication through free

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
space takes place over a wide range of · 2) Line communication
frequencies from 100kHz-GHz. i) Two wire transmission line
Service Frequency bands Comments ii) Coaxial cable
----------------------------------------------------------- iii) Optical fibre cable
Standard 540-1600 kHz (1)SPACE COMMUNICATION
AM broadcast
--------------------------------------------------- Propagation of EM waves in the atmosphere
FM broadcast 88-108 MHz
--------------------------------------------------- The communication process utilizing the physical
Television 54-72 MHz VHF(Very high space around the earth is termed as space
frequencies) communication. Electromagnetic waves which
76-88 MHz TV
174-216 MHz UHF(ultra are used in Radio, Television and other
high communication system are radio waves and
frequencies) microwaves.
420-890 MHz TV
--------------------------------------------------- The velocity of electromagnetic waves of
Cellular Mobile 896-901 MHz Mobile to base different frequency in a medium is different. It
station is more for red light and less for violet light.
840-935 MHz Base station to
Electromagnetic waves are of transverse nature.
mobile
---------------------------------------------------  Ground wave propagation : In this method,
Satellite 5.925-6.425 GHz the radio waves are guided along the surface.
Uplink The wave induces charges on the earth.
Communication 3.7 - 4.2 GHz These charges travel with the wave and this
Downlink forms a current. Now the earth behaves like
--------------------------------------------------- a leaky capacitor in carrying the induced
 Optical communication using fibres is current. The wave loses some energy, as
performed in the frequency range of 1 THz to energy is spent due to flow of charge through
1000 THz (microwaves to ultraviolet). the earth’s resistance. The wave also looses
 An optical fibre can offer a transmission band energy due to diffraction as it glides along the
width in excess of 100 GHz. ground. The loss of energy increases as the
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS: frequency increases. Thus ground
propagation is suitable upto 2MHz. As they
The medium or the link, which transfers loose energy they cannot go to long distances
message signal from the transmitter to the on the ground. Maximum range of the ground
receiver of a communication system is called wave can be increased by increasing the
Communication channel. power of the transmitter.
(i) Space communication Sky wave propagation : Above 2MHz and
(i) Ground wave propagation upto 30MHz, long distance communication
takes place through ionosphere. The ionosphere
(ii) Space wave propagation. (Tropospheric reflects the radio waves back to the earth. This
wave propagatio n. Surface wave method is called sky wave propagation. It is
propagation.) used for shortwave broad casting services.
Ionosphere is a thick blanket of 65 km to 400
(iii) Sky wave propagation: A new dimension km above the earth’s surface. UV rays and
recently added to space communication is other higher energy radiation coming from
space results in the ionization of air molecules.
satellite communication.
The ionosphere is further divided into sereval
layers as shown in table below. It should be
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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
understood that degree of ionization changes radio wave enters the ionosphere from the
with height. This is because the density of underlying unionized medium. Since the
atmosphere decreases with height. At great refractive index of ionosphere decreases from
heights, the radiation is intense, but the D layer to F2 layer, consequently, the incident
molecules available are few. On the other hand, ray will move away from the normal drawn at
near the earth’s surface the molecular the point of incidence following the ordinary
concentration is high but the intensity of radiation laws of refraction
is low and thus again the ionization is low.
Logically, the peak of ionization density occurs
Ionosphere
at some intermediate heights. The ionosphere
acts as a mirror (reflector) for frequencies of
3-30 MHz. Electromagnetic waves of
frequences greater than 30 MHz pass through
Unionized medium
the atmosphere and skip.
Radio wave
The process of bending of EM waves is similar
to total internal reflection in optics. The bending During the propagation in ionosphere the angle
of waves can be easily explained on the basis of refraction gradually increases and the ray
of variation of refractive index of the ionosphere goes on bending more and more till at some
with change in electron density. Suppose that a

Page 145
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

point, the angle of refraction becomes 900 and direct waves get blocked, at some point due to
the wave travels parallel to the earth surface. the curvature of the earth as shown in the figure.
This point is called point of reflection. Then the
ray tends to move in the down ward direction
dm
and comes back to earth because of symmetry.
dT dR
Super high frequency (SHF) waves propagate
as sky waves taking reflection at satellite.
Ionosphere
hT hR

For the signal to be received beyond the

The sky wave propagation can cover a very horizon, the receiving antenna must be high
long distance and so round the globe enough to intercept the LOS waves. If the
communication is possible. transmitting antenna is at a height hT then it
In sky wave propagation, the highest frequency can be shown that the distance to the horizon
of radio waves which when sent straight ( i.e
dT is given by dT  2 RhT where ‘R’ is the
normally) towards the layer of ionosphere gets
radius of earth. Similarly if the receiving antenna
reflected from ionosphere and returns to the
is at a height hR , the distance to the horizon
earth is called critical frequency. It is given
by fC  9( N max )1/ 2 , where N is the number d R is d R  2 RhR
density of electron /m3. For f  f C ionosphere  The maximum distance d M between the
acts as rarer medium
two antennas is d M  2 RhT  2 RhR
Space wave propagation : This method is where
used for line-of-sight [LOS] communication and R = Radius of the earth.
also for satellite communication. At frequencies hT  height of the transmitting antenna and
above 40MHz, communication is mainly by hR  height of the receiving antenna.
LOS method. At such frequencies, relatively If the Population density around the tower is
smaller antenna can be erected above the given, the number of persons covered by the
transmitting tower
ground. Because of LOS propagation, the

Page 146
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
= (Area covered by the tower)  Population As h  R we can ignore h 2
density.
d 2  2 Rh and d  2 Rh
 No . of persons   d 2  covered Range of TV transmission depends upon the
population density (Here d = radius of the area height of the transmission antenna. Broadcasts
covered by single transmitting tower of height are made from tall transmitting antenna.
hT ) Satellite Communication: Long distance
Television broadcast, microwave and satellite communication beyond 10 to 20 MHz was not
communications are a few examples of possible before 1960 because all the three
communication systems that use space wave modes of communication discussed above failed
propagation. The figure below illustrates the (ground waves due to conduction losses, space
various modes of wave propagation. wave due to limited line of sight and sky wave
due to the penetration of the ionosphere by the
high frequencies beyond fc ).
Satellite communication made this possible. The
basic principle of satellite communication is
shown in figure. A communication satellite is a
spacecraft placed in an orbit around the earth.
The frequencies used in satellite communication
lie in UHF/ microwave regions. These waves
can cross the ionosphere and reach the satellite.
Satellite-1
Range of TV transmission : Geostationary
orbit
As the frequency range of TV signals is 100-
200 MHz, such signal transmission via ground
waves is not possible. In such situations, we Earth
use line of sight transmission.
P Satellite-3 Satellite-2

A
MODULATION AND ITS NECESSITY :
Message signals are also called base band
signals. Which essentially designate the band of
O
frequencies representing the original signal, as
Let CP be the TV tower on the earth’s surface. delivered by the source of information. No
It’s antenna is at P. Let PC = h. When TV signal, is a single frequency sinusoid, but it
broadcast is made, the signal can reach the earth spreads over a range of frequencies called the
upto A to B. There will be no reception of the signal bandwidth to transmit an electric signal
signal beyond A and B. Arc length CA and CB frequency less than 20 kHz) over a long distance
is the range of TV transmission. If O is the directly. It is clear that low frequency waves,
centre of the earth, OA = OB = R is the radius can not travel long distances. Hence, to transmit
of the earth, from right angled triangle OAP low frequency wave over long distance, we take
OP 2  OA2  PA2 the help of high frequency waves called carrier
2 wave. The low frequency wave is superposed
h  R  R 2  PA2 over high frequency carrier wave. This process
PA  PB  d is called the modulation. The low frequency wave
2 is called the modulating wave and the high
h  R  R2  d 2 frequency wave is called the carrier wave, and
h2  R 2  2Rh  R 2  d 2

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
the resultant wave is called modulated wave.
In this section we will discuss in detail about Source of
Modulator
modulation. What is it? What is the need of Original Information Baseband Modulated
signal signal signal
modulation or how modulation is done etc. Carrier
wave
No signal in general, is a single frequency but it
spreads over a range of frequencies called the Oscillator
signal bandwidth. Suppose we with to transmit
an electronic signal in the audio-frequency TYPES OF MODULATION:
(20Hz-20kHz) range over a long distance. Can The carrier wave may be continuous (sinusoidal)
we do it? No it cannot because of the following or in the form of pulses as shown in figure(2).
problems.
Size of antenna : For transmitting a signal we Time period T  
2

T
need an antenna. This antenna should have a Amplitude
time
size comparable to the wavelength of the signal. Pulse Pulse (a)
For an electromagnetic wave of frequency rise duration Pulse fall
20kHz, wave length is 15km. Obviously such Pulse
Amplitude
a long antenna is not possible and hence direct
transmission of such signal is not practical. (b)

The linear size of the antenna must be the order Therefore depending upon the specific
of the wave length and for effective transmission characteristic of carrier wave which is being
 varied in accordance with the message signal,
its length must be h = modulation can basically be differentiated as
4
so that antenna properly senses the time (i) continuous wave modulation; and
variation of the signal. (ii) pulse wave modulation.
Example1: For an electromagnetic wave of According to the type of modulation
f = 20 kHz,  = 15 km Obviously, such a long For sinusoidal continuous carrier waves
antenna is not possible to construct and operate. i) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
ii) Frequency Modulation (FM)
Hence direct transmission of such baseband
signals is not practical. iii) Phase Modulation
For pulsed carrier waves
Example2: If f = 1 MHz, then  = 300 m
i) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
h = 75 m ii) Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
Therefore, there is a need of translating the a) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
information contained in our original low b) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse
frequency baseband signal into high or radio Duration Modulation (PDM)
frequencies before transmission. iii) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Effective power radiated by an antenna
Power radiated by an antenna is proportional MODULATION
 l 
to  2  . Where l is length of the antenna . Continuous wave Pulse wave
  modulation modulation
For a good transmission, high powers are
required, hence low wavelength i.e high Amplitude Frequency Phase
frequency transmissions are needed. modulation modulation modulation

Modulation: The process of superimposing

information contained in the low frequency , Pulse Pulse time Pulse code
Amplitude
message signal on a high frequency carrier modulation
modulation modulation

wave, near transmitt er is known as

modulation. Pulse width
Pulse
position
modulation
modulation
row

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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
I) Continuous Wave Modulation I. Continuous Wave Modulation:
1) Amplitude Modulation:
Equation representing sinusoidal carrier wave
can The method in which the amplitude of carrier is
c  t   Ac sin c t    ----(1) varied in accordance with the modulating signal
where c(t) is the signal strength (voltage or keeping the frequency and phase of carrier
current), wave constant is called amplitude modulation
Ac is the amplitude (AM).
 t    is called argument of Phase angle of
c Here we explain amplitude modulation process
the carrier wave using a sinusoidal signal as the modulating signal.
c   2 f c  is the angular frequency
Let m  t   Em sin m t represent the message
 is the initial phase of the carrier wave. During
or the modulating or base band signal. Here
the process of modulation, any of the two
parameters, viz amplitude or phase angle, of m  2 f m is the angular frequency of the
the carrier wave can be controlled by the message signal.
message or information signal. This results in
+
two types of modulations:
i) Amplitude modulation (AM) 0
ii) Angle modulation _
Angle modulation again can be of two types. A-F Signal
They are
i) Frequency modulation (FM) c  t   Ec sin ct represent carrier wave. Here
ii) Phase modulation (PM) c  2 f c is the angular freqency of the carrier
As shown in figure. signal
1
c(t) 0 (a)
-1 Wave
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 + One
1 Cycle One
Current, or Power
Relative Voltage

m(t) 0 (b)
Cycle
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
2 Peak
cm(t) for AM 0 (c) 0 to peak
-2 Amplitude
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1
cm(t) for FM 0 (d) _ Time Time Axis
-1 Starting point
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
1
cm(t) for PM 0 (e)
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 time 3 The modulated signal cm  t  can be written as
II) Pulse Wave Modulation.
The significant characteristics of a pulse are: i) cm  t    Ec  Em sin mt  sin ct ----(1)
Pulse amplitude  E 
ii) Pulse duration or pulse width cm  t  Ac 1 m sinmt sinct -----(2)
iii) pulse position (denoting the time of rise or  Ec 
fall of the pulse amplitude) as shown in figure
cm  t   Ec sin ct   Ec sin mt sin c t --(3)
(3).
TYPES OF PULSE MODULATION: Using the trigonometric relation
a) pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), 1
b) pulse duration modulation (PDM) or pulse sin A sin B 
2
 cos  A  B   cos  A  B   ,
width modulation (PWM)
c) pulse position modulation (PPM). we can write cm  t  of equation (3) as

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
As long as the broadcast frequencies (carrier
Ac Ac
cm  t   Ac sinct  cos  c  m  t  cos c  m  t - waves) are sufficiently spaced out so that
2 2 sidebands do not overlap, different stations can
----(4) Here operate without interfering with each other.
c  m  2  f c  f m  = Lower side band Special cases of Amplitude modulation:
frequency (LSB) CaseI: In the absence of signal.
A A
c  m  2  f c  f m  =Upper side band + No Signal =
A
frequency (USB) Carrier Signal A.M. Wave
Here (m or   Em / Ec ) is the modulation index;
O
(or) modulating factor. Modulation factor ma  x100  0%
A
In practice,  is kept  1 to avoid distortion.
Case-II: When the signal amplitude is equal to CW
Am wave.
Depth of modulation = A 100    100
C Amplitude varies from 2A to zero.
Depth of modulation interms of Emax and Emin
2A
A A
+ =
mEC A

EC Carrier Signal A.M. Wave

Amplitude change in carrier wave 2A  A

  100%
Amplitude of CW A
A.M. Wave Case-III: When the amplitude of the signal is half
Emax  E c  Em  Ec 1  m  of that of CW.
Amplitude of CW changes from A to
E min  Ec  Em  Ec 1  m   A
 A  1.5 A
Emax Ec  Em Ec 1  m   2
 
Emin Ec  Em Ec 1  m  A
0.5A
1.5A
+ =

Carrier Signal A.M. Wave

0 .5 A
Modulation factor =  0 .5
The Band width of AM wave is " 2fm " A
The modulated signal now consists of the carrier  50 %
Case-IV: When the amplitude of signal is 1.5 times
wave of frequency c plus two sinusoidal
that of the CW.
waves each with a frequency slightly different Amplitude of the modulated wave changes from
fromc , known as side bands. The frequency 2.5 A to A
spectrum of the amplitude modulated signal is 2.5A
shown in A
+
1.5A
=

Carrier Signal A.M. Wave

AG
2.5 A  A
Amplitude
AG
Modulation factor ma   1.5 = 150
2 A
%.
(C-m) C (C+m) in radians In this case the quality of signal is lost
figure (5) A plot or amplitude versus  for
an amplitude modulated signal

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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Note:A carrier wave is modulated by a number of 2
sine waves with modulation indices m1, m2 and Ps ma 1
 2

m3. The total modulation index of the wave is PT 2  ma 3 and
m  m12  m22  m32
Pc 2 2
Power out put in AM wave  2

PT 2  ma 3
Pt  Pc  Ps
where Pt is power transmitted m2
Transmission Efficiency  
Pc is power of carrier wave 2  m2
PRODUCTION OF AMPLITUDE
Ps is total power of side bands
MODULATED WAVE
The equation of a carrier wave Amplitude modulation can be produced by a
Yc  Ac sin  wc t    variety of methods. A conceptually simple
Power of carrier wave method is shown in the block diagram of Fig.
2 BANDPASS AM
 Ac  m(t) y(t) SQUARE y(t) FILTER Wave
  +
Pc 
 Arms 2 
2 A
 c
2 Am sin m t
(Modulating
LAWDEVICE CENTRED
AT c
2
R R 2R Signal) c(t) Bx(t)+Cx(t)
Ac sin ct
The power of side bands = The power of lower (carrier)
side band + the power of upper side band
2
Here the modulating signal Am sin mt is added
  mAc    Ac 
2

 2 / 2   m / 2  to the carrier signal Ac sin c t to produce signal

Ps     2 
R R x  t   Am sin mt  Ac sin ct
2 This signal is passed through a square law device
m 2 Ac m2
  Pc which is a non linear device that can give tha
4R 2
output y  t   Bx  t   Cx 2  t  where B and
2
m 2  P 1  m  C are constants
Pt  Pc  Ps  Pc  Pc c
2  2  Thus,
y  t   BAm sin mt  BAc sin c t
 m2 
 Pt  Pc 1     (1)
 2  C  Am2 sin2 mt  Ac2 sin 2 ct  2 Am Ac sin mt sin ct  -(6)

CAm2 CA2 CA2

2  BAm sinmt  BAc sinct   Ac2  m cos2mt  c cos2 ct
Pt m 2 2 2
  1    (2)
Pc 2  CAm Ac cos  c   m  t  CAm Ac cos  c   m  t -
2 (7)
i  m2 Where t he t rigo nometric relatio ns
  t   1    (3)  P  i 2 
i
 c 2 sin 2 A  1  cos 2 A / 2 and the relation for
sinA sinB mentioned earlier are used.
Example: If the modulation factor is 1 ie 100 %
In equation, there is a dc term c / 2  Am2  Ac2 
1
modulation then the useful power is of the and sinusoids of frequencies
3
total power radiated. The remaining 2/3 m , 2m , c , 2c , c  m and c  m .
power is contained by carrier wave As shown in figure this signal is passed through
a band pass filter which rejects dc and the
sinusoids of frequencies m , 2m and 2c and

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
retains the frequencies c , c  m and the power goes waste in the transmitted
carrier, which contains no useful information.
c  m . The output of the band pass filter 3) Due to a large number of side bands,
therefore is of the same form as equation(4) FM transmission can be used for the
and is therefore an AM wave. stereo sound transmission.
It is to be mentioned that the modulated signal Disadvantage of FM:
cannot be transmitted as such. The modulator 1) The bandwidth in FM transmission is
is to be followed by a power amplifier which about 10 times as large as that needed in
provides the necessary power and then the AM transmission.As a result, much wider
modulated signal is fed to an antenna of frequency channel is required in FM
appropriate size for radiation as shown in transmission.
figure(7). 2) FM reception is limited to line of sight.
Due to this, area of reception for FM is
Transmitting
Antenna
much smaller than that for FM.
3) FM transmitting and receiving
m(t)
Amplitude Power equipments are very complex as
Message
Modulator Amplifier compared to those employed in AM
signal
transmission.
Carrier
Detection of amplitude modulated
Figure(7)
wave
A-M Transmitter. The transmitted message gets attenuated in
In the block diagram of the AM transmitter the propagating through the channel. The receiving
r-f section consists of an oscillator feeding a antenna is therefore to be followed by an
buffer, which in turn feeds a system of frequency amplifier and a detector. In addition, to facilitate
multipliers and/or intermediate power amplifiers. further processing, the carrier frequency is
If frequency multiplication is unnecessary, the usually changed to a lower frequency by what
buffer feeds directly into the intermediate power is called an intermediate frequency (IF) stage
amplifiers which, in turn, drive the final power preceding the detection. The detected signal
amplifier. The input to the antenna is taken from may not be strong enough to be made use of
the final power amplifier. and hence is required to be amplified. A block
diagram of a typical receiver is shown in figure.
Antenna

Int Receiving
Power Antenna
CSC Buffer Power
Amp
Amp

If Output
Amplifier Detector Amplifier
Audio A-M Received stage
Amp Mod Signal
Mike
Illustration-1:How many AM broadcast stations
Amplitude-Modulated Transmitter
can be accommodated in a 100 kHZ
Advantages of FM over AM bandwidth if the highest modulating
1) FM reception is quite immune to noise as frequency of carrier is 5 kHZ?
compared to AM reception. In FM receivers, Sol. Any station being modulated by a 5 kHz signal
the noise can be reduced by increasing the will produce an upper side frequency 5 kHz
frequency deviation. above its carrier and a lower side frequency 5
2) FM transmission is highly efficient as kHz below its carrier, thereby requiring a
compared to AM transmission. In FM bandwidth of 10 kHz. Thus, Number of stations
transmission, all the transmitted power is accommodated
useful, whereas in AM transmitted most of

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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
making height of the tower four times to 640m.
Total bandwidth 100
= =10 So, height of the tower should be increased by
Bandwidth per station 10 480 m.
Illustration-2: How many 500 kHz waves can Illustration -5: An audio signal given by
be on a 10km transm ission line
es  15sin 2  200t  modulates a carrier
simultaneously?
Sol: Let  be the wavelength of 500 kHz signal. wave given by es  60sin 2 100, 000t  . If
c 3.0 108 calculate
Then,    5
m  600m a) Percent modulation
f 5.0 10
b) Frequency spectrum of the modulated
The number of waves on the line can be found wave.
from,
Sol: a) Signal Amplitude, B  15
d 10 103 Carrier amplitude, A  60
n   16.67
 600 B 15
Illustration-3: A two wire transmission line has m   0.25
A 60
a capacitance of 20 pF/m and a
 Percentage modulation
characteristic impedance of 50
 0.25 100  25%
a) What is the inductance per meter of this b) By comparing the given equations of signal
cable? and carrier with their standard form
b) Determine the impedance of an
infinitely long section of such cable. es  Es sin s t  Es sin 2 f s t and
Sol: a) The characteristic impedance. Z  L / C ec  Ec sin c t  Ec sin 2 f ct
2
L   Z 2   C   50  20 1012  H  0.05H / m we have signal frequency f s  2000 Hz and
b) The characteristic impedance of a carrier frequency f c  100, 000 Hz
transmission line is the impedance that an infinite The frequencies present in modulated wave
length of line would present to a power supply i) f c  100, 000 Hz  100kHz
at the input end o f t he line. Thus,
ii) f c  f s  100, 000  2000  98kHz
Z   Z 0  50
Illustration -4: T.V. transmission tower at a iii) f c  f s  100kHz  2kHz  102kHz
particular station has a height of 160m. Therefore, frequency spectrum of modulated
a) What is the coverage range? wave extends from 98kHz to 102 kHz is called
b) How much population is covered by band width.
transmission, if the average population Illustration-6: The antenna current of an AM
density around the tower is 1200 per km 2 ? transmitter is 8A when only the carrier is
c) What should be the height of tower to sent but it increases to 8.93A when the
double the coverage range carrier is modulated. Find percent
modulation.
Sol: a) Coverage range d  2 Rh Sol. The modulated or total power carried by AM
 2  6400 103 160m  45.254km  m2 
P
wave T  PC 1  
b) Population covered
 2  . If R is load
  population density    area covered 
resistance. I m is the current when carrier is
 1200    d 2
  77.17 lac modulated and I c t he current when
c) Coverage range  h unmodulated, then
Therefore coverage range can be doubled by

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1/ 2
PT I m2 R m 2 I m2 R   0.6  2 
 ; I   2 I m  6 1    6 1.086  6.52 Amp
PC I c2 R 2 Ic R 2 

Given I m  8.93 A, I c  8 A Illustration -9: A carrier wave of 1000 W is
 8.93  2  subjected to 100% modulation. Calculate
2
 m  2    1  m  0.7 (i) Power of modulated wave, (ii) power is
 8.0   USB, (iii) power is LSB
Therefore, percentage modulation = 70% Sol: i) Total power of modulated wave
Illustration-7: A sinusoidal carrier voltage of  m2 
80 volts amplitude and 1 MHz frequency PT  PC  1   ;
is amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal  2 
voltage of frequency 5kHz producing 50%
modulation. Calculate the amplitude and  12 
 1000  1    1500watt
frequency of lower and upper side bands.  2
Sol: Amplitude of both LSB and USB are equal
1
and given by ii) Power in USB = PSB
2
mEc 0.5  80
   20volts Where power carried by side bands is given
2 2 by amplitude modulation and detection
Now frequency of LSB = f c  f s
 m2   12 
PSB  PC   ;  1000    500 watt
 1000  5  kHz  995kHz  2  2
Frequency of USB = f c  f s 1 1
PUSB  PSB   500  250 watt
 1000  5  kHz  1005kHz 2 2
iii) Since power in LSB = Power in USB
Illustration -8: The load current in the
transmitting antenna of an unmodulated PLSB  PUSB  250watt
AM transmitter is 6 Amp. What will be the Illustration-10: A transmitting antenna at the
antenna current when modulation is 60%. top of a tower has a height 32m and the
Sol: Total power carried by AM wave height of the receiving antenna is 50m.
 m2  What is the maximum distance between
PT  PC  1   ...... 1 them for satisfactory communication in
 2 
LOS mode? Given radius of earth
Where Pc is the power of carrier component 6.4  106 m .
and m is the modulation factor. If R is the Sol:
resistance, I m the antenna load current when d  2  64 105  32  2  64  10 5  50 m
m
modulation is 60% and I c is the antenna load
 64  102  10  8  103  10m
current when un modulated, then
 144 10 2  10m  45.5km
PT I m2 R m 2 I m2
 2 ,1   2 using (1)
PC I c R 2 Ic Illustration-11: A message signal of frequency
10 kHz and peak voltage of 10 volts is used
m 2  
to modulate a carrier of frequency 1 MHz
 
or Im  Ic 1   and peak voltage of 20 volts. Determine
  2  
a) modulation index
Given I c  6 Amp, m  0.6

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 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

b) the side bands produced.

Sol: a) modulation index = 10/20 = 0.5
b) The side bands are at
1000 10 kHz 1010kHz
& 1000  10 kH z   990 kHz . are
frequency.
Conduction
The process of transmission of heat energy in
which the heat is transferred from one particle
to other particle without dislocation of the
particle from their equilibrium position is called
conduction.
(1) Heat flows from hot end to cold end. Particles
of the medium simply oscillate but do not leave
their mean positions.
(2) Medium is necessary for conduction
(3) It is a slow process
(4) The temperature of the medium increases
through which heat flows
(5) Conduction is a process which is possible in
all states of matter.
(6) When liquid and gases are heated from the
top, they conduct heat from top to bottom.
(7) In solids only conduction takes place
(8) In non-metallic solids and fluids the
conduction takes place only due to vibrations of
molecules, therefore they are poor conductors.
(9) In metallic solids free electrons carry the heat
energy, therefore they are good conductor of
heat.
Variable State and Steady state:
Consider a metal rod. Whose sides are covred
with an insulating material so that heat is
conducted only along its length. When the rod is
heated from one end. the amount of heat Q
approaching any section of the rod gets divided
into two parts
i) Q1  heat absorbed by the section
ii) Q2  heat conducted forward to the other
sections of the rod, Q  Q1  Q2
Heat absorbed Q1 by any section is the cause
for the rise of its temperature. “The state of the
rod, where the temperatures of all its sections

Page 155
Page 156
 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

SYNOPSIS
Introduction :
i) A current carrying wire produces a magnetic
field of its own. This was first observed by
Oersted.
ii) When current is flowing through a conductor,
only magnetic field is produced around it, which . The direction of magnetic field for current
is non conservative. i.e.,W  0 in a closed path. carrying conductor is as given below.
iii) The direction of magnetic lines of force due to
P Q P Q
straight current carrying conductor will be i i
concentric circles around the conductor, in a
plane which is always perpendicular to the
length of the conductor. indicatesB into the plane of paper
The direction of magnetic field can be found indicatesB out of the plane of paper
by using: iii) Maxwell’s Cork screw rule :
i) Ampere’s Swimming Rule : Imagine a right handed cork screw, advancing
in the direction of current, then the direction of
Imagine a person swimming along a current
rotation of the screw head gives the direction
carrying wire in the direction of the current facing of magnetic lines of force,
a magnetic needle below the wire, then the i

magnetic north pole of the needle deflects

towards his left hand.

Ampere’s circuital law :

Statement : The line integral of the magnetic
induction field (B) along any closed path in air
(or) vacuum is equal to 0 times the net current
across the area bounded by this path.
 
 B.dl  0inet
O

B
i7

i5
dl
ii) Ampere’s right hand thumb rule : i6
i2
When a straight conductor carrying current is i1
i4
i3
held in the right hand, such that the thumb is
pointing along the direction of current, then the Consider a closed plane curve as shown in

direction in which fingers curl round it, gives figure. dl is a small length element on the curve.
the direction of magnetic lines of force.

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
  
Let B be the resultant magnetic field at the
   page. Find the  B  dl along the loop.
position of dl . If the scalar product B dl is Sol: According to Ampere’s circuital law (integrating
 in clockwise manner)
integrated by varying dl on the closed curve, it  

is called line integral of B along the curve and it  B.dl   0ienclosed
   
is represented by  B  dl. ;  B.dl  0 i8  i5  i2  i4 
The rule for deciding whether an enclosed
current is positive or negative : The fingers 5
of the right hand are to be taken in the direction 2 4
of integration around the path, keeping thumb 8
1 6
perpendicular to curling fingers. If a current 3
pierces the membrane stretched across the area 7

in the direction of the thumb, then it is positive since, all the wires carry same current of i0 ,
current. If the current pierces the membrane in  
the opposite direction, then it is negative. For we have  B.dl  2  0 i0 .
the above closed path Intensity of magnetic induction (B)
 B.dl   (i  i
0 1 2  i3  i4  i6 ) near a long straight conductor :
Points to remember regarding Ampere’s Consider an infinitely long wire carrying current
Law: i as shown in figure. P is a point at a
a) The line integral does not depend on the shape perpendicular distance r from the conductor.
of the closed path or on the position of the The magnetic induction field produced by the
current carrying wire in the loop. conductor is radially symmetric i.e., magnetic
b) If a conductor carrying current, is outside the lines of force are concentric circles centered at
closed path, the line integral of B due to that the conductor. The tangent drawn to the line
conductor is zero i.e., we need not consider of force at any point gives the direction of
the currents that do not pierce the area of the  
magnetic induction field B at that point. dl is a
closed path.
c) Ampere’s circuital law is always true, no matter small element on the circle of radius r and angle
 
how distorted the path or how complicated may between B and dl is 00 every where on this
be the magnetic field. In most cases even path for anticlockwise integration.
though Ampere’s circuital law is true, it is From Ampere’s circuital law
inconvenient, because it is impossible to perform
the path integral. However in few special

symmetric cases it is easy to perform path dl
integral using Ampere’s law. p
r
d) Ampere’s circuital law is applicable for
conductors carrying steady current. B
e) Ampere’s circuital law is analogous to Gauss  
 B.dl  0i  Bdl cos 0
0
law in electrostatics.  0i
f) Ampere’s circuital law is not independent of
Biot-Savart’s law. It can be derived from Biot- B  dl  0i
Savart’s law. Its relation with Biot-Savart’s Law
is similar to the relation between Gauss Law  0i
B (2 r )  0 i  B 
and Coulomb’s Law in electrostatics. 2 r
Illustration -1: Eight wires cut the page Here r must be much less than the length of
perpendicular to the points shown. Each conductor.
wire carries current i0 . Odd currents are
out of the page and even currents into the

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Magnetic induction at any point along the axis   Bdl cos 0   0 J  r 2

of conductor is zero.
It is applicable for symmetrics current or B  dl   0 J  r 2 (or) B 2 r   0 J  r 2
distribution.
WORKDONE TO MOVE A MAGNETIC 0 J  i 
(or) B  r   0 2  r for r  R ;
POLE AROUND A CONDUCTOR: 2  2 R 
Work done to move a unit north pole through a B r
small distance ‘dl’ along the tangent at a (b) At a point outside the wire (r>R):
distance ‘r’ away from current carrying
conductor
 

 B.dl cos 0 0  0 i ' ,
 dw  F .dl Where i ' = i because due to the Ampere’s law
  
F  mB  B ( m  1) encloses total current or
    B  dl   0 i
but dw  F .dl  dw  B.dl (or) B 2 r   0 i
Total work done in moving it once around the i 1
 B  0 ; r  R ; B
conductor. W   dw 2 r r
  Note: B varies linearly inside the conductor and
W   B.dl
hyperbolically outside the conductor.
But from Ampere’s circuital law
 
 B.dl  0i  W  0i B Br
B
1
If a pole of strength ‘m’ is rotated for ‘n’ times r
around the current carrying conductor, then the
O r=R r
work done is W  0i  nm
Here W  0, the magnetic field produced by Magnetic induction is maximum at the periphery
current carrying conductor is a non- of the wire.

conservative field. ii) The variation of B as the function of radial
Applications of Ampere’s law: distance r due to a hollow cylinder carrying
The magnetic field due to a long a current i0 .
straight current carrying conductor :
i) For a Solid current carrying conductor : i0

Consider a long wire of radius R carrying a

current i r
(a) At a Point in side the wire (r<R):
b
Taking a circular ampere loop centered to the
wire of radius r<R. To find B inside the Taking a circular Amperian loop of radius r(>a)
conductor, using ampere’s circuital law (ACL), and applying ACL,
we have  
   B.dl  0i; B 2 r  0 i,
 B.dl  0i ,
'

i0
i Where i  . (r 2  a 2 )
Here i '  J . r 2 , Where J   (b  a 2 )
2

 R2
i0 (r 2  a 2 )
B

b2  a 2
dl

0i0 (r 2  a 2 )
then B  arb
R 2 (b 2  a 2 )r

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

a) B=0 for r  a (as because ienclosed  0 ) b) is directly proportional to the length ( dl ) of

the element i.e., dB dl  (ii)
i
b) for r  b ; B  0 0 c) is directly proportional to the sine of the angle
2 r
iii) For a thin hollow cylinder ( ) between length of the element and the line
jo ining the element t o the po int P.
 0i
a) Binside  0 b) Bsurface 
2 R
r  R dB sin   (iii )
d) is inversely proportional to the square of the
i distance (r) of the point from the element.
c) Boutside  0 r  R
2 r 1
dB  (iv )
B r2
0i
i)If the conductor is in vacuum (or) air then
2 r 0 idl sin 
dB 
r=R r
4 r2
Magnetic field due to a current element 0
Here is the proportionality constant and 0
- Biot-Savart’s Law : 4
All magnetic fields are due to currents (or is called as permeability of free space or air.
moving charges ) and due to intrinsic magnetic The value of 0 is 4  107 tesla  m / A
moments of particles. Here, the relation The above equation gives the magnitude of the
between current and the magnetic field magnetic field produced due to small current
produced by the current is given by the Biot- element at a distance ‘r’ from it.
Savart’s law. Biot and Savart conducted several In vector form the above equation can be
experiments and established the relation written
 
 
between magnetic induction B and current(i). 
  i dl  r 
dB  0
4 r3
ii) The resultant field at P due to the entire
conductor can be obtained by integrating the
above equation.
 
B

0 i dl  r
B

A
4 r3
iii) If current flows in the direction as shown in
the figure, the direction of dB at P is directed
The above figure shows a finite conductor AB perpendicular to the plane of the paper in the
carrying current ‘i’. Consider an infinitesimal inward direction.
 iv) The magnetic field at points in the direction
element dl of the conductor. The magnetic
 of dl (along the dashed line) is zero.
field dB due to this element is to be determined Magnetic field due to a straight
at point ‘P’ which is at a distance ‘r’ from it. current carrying wire :

Let  be the angle between idl and the radius Consider a straight conductor carrying current
 ‘i’. Let ‘P’ be a point at a perpendicular distance
vector r .
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude ‘d’ from the conductor.
of magnetic induction dB. Let ‘dy’ be a small current element at a distance
a) is directly proportional to the current(i) flowing ‘r’ from ‘P’.
through the element i.e., dB i  (i ) According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic
induction at P due to the small element is

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

 0 idy sin  0i

dB  B cos 1  cos2 
4 r2 4 d
 Special Cases :
As every element of the wire contributes to B
in the same direction, the magnetic induction i) If the point is along the length of the wire (but
 
due to the entire conductor is not on it then as dl and r will be either parallel
0 i dy.sin  (or) antiparallel i.e.   0 (or ) 
B   dB 
4  r 2  B  
 
so dl  r  0 and hence B   dB  0
A

ii) If a point is at a perpendicular distance d from

the wire then the magnetic field B varies
inversely with distance d.
B

tan   y / d 1
B
d
y  d tan   dy  d (sec 2  ) d  d

r iii) If the wire is of finite length ‘L’ and the point is

 sec  r  d sec  on its perpendicular bisector, at a distance ‘d’
d
from the wire, i.e   
 0i d (sec 2  ).d  sin(90 0   )
B  0 2i L
4 d 2 sec 2  B sin  with sin  
4 d L2  4d 2
   (90   )  iv) If wire is of infinite length and the point P lies at
 a distance ‘d’ from the wire which is at a large
 0i d (sec 2  ) d  cos  distance from its ends as shown in figure,
B
4  d 2 sec 2      /2

i
B 0  cos  d 
4 d 

(   is taken because the angle is measured

anti clockwise ) 0 i  2i 0 i
B (2)  0 
0 i 4 d 4 d 2 d
B (sin   sin  ) v) At a point away from the conductor and near
4 d
the edge of conductor
Similarly B is given as

0 i
  900 ,   00 ; B 
4 d i
 = 90
0

d
vi)a) Magnetic induction at the centre of current
carrying wire bent in the form of square of side
‘a’ is
where   90  1 and   90   2
i
Bnet  4 Bside

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MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

0 i Illustration-3: If a straight conductor of length

Bnet  4  (sin 450  sin 450 )
4 a / 2 40cm bent in the form of a square and the
 i  current 2A is allowed to pass through
B 8 2 0  square, then find the magnetic induction
 4 a 
at the centre of the square loop.
b) Magnetic induction at the centroid of current
I
carrying wire bent in the form of equilateral
triangle of side ‘a’ is

450
Sol: Bnet  4 Bside
Bnet  3B eachside
i

0 i 0 I
Bnet  3  (sin 600  sin 60 0 ) Bnet  4  (sin 450  sin 450 )
4 r 4 L / 2
 a 
 where r    4
0

I
( 2) 
0 8 2  2
 2 3 4 L/2 4 1 0 1
0 i 1 0 7  1 6 2
B  18  
4 a 1 0 1
c) Magnetic induction at the centre of current
 16 2T
carrying wire bent in the form of hexagon of
side ‘a’ is given by Illustration-4: If a thin uniform wire of length
1m is bent into an equilateral triangle and
carries a current of 3A in anticlockwise
direction, find the net magnetic induction
at the centroid.
Bnet  6 B eachside  I 0 0
30 30 o oSol: Bnet  3 0  (sin 60  sin 60 )
4 r

 0i
Here     300 ; B4 3
4 a
Illustration -2:Find the magnetic induction
due to a straight conductor of length 16cm
carrying current of 5A at a distance of 6cm
from the midpoint of conductor.
 a  0 I
 I 8 4
Sol: B  0 (sin   sin  ) but sin     r    3 (2 sin 60 0 )
4 r 10 5  2 3 4 r
 I (2 3) 3  I
10cm  3 0 2  18 0
8cm 4 a 2 4 a
6cm 
P 3
 B  18  10 7   54 3  10 7 T
8cm 10cm
1/ 3
Illustration -5: A large straight current
5 4 40 carrying conductor is bent in the form of
B  10 7   2  T 
2 L shape. Find B at P..
6  10 5 3

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
y
0 I  I ln 4 
 ln 2k  0 k
x 2 3 a 4 3a
1
a P
1
Illustration-7: Find the magnetic field at P due
a
2 2 to the arrangement shown
Sol: Let us divide the conductor into two semi infinite
segments 1 and 2. Then, induction at P is
y 900

x
1
a P
d
1
450
a
2 2
P

   0 I   
B  B1  B 2 ..i Sol: Bnet  2   sin  sin 
4 r  2 4
 0i 0 0 
B1  (sin(90  1 )  sin 90 )k ..ii
4 a d I  1 
here r ; Bnet  0 1 
 i 2 
B2  0 (sin(900  2 )  sin 900 )k ..iii 2 d  2
4 a Illustration -8: A pair of stationary and
  i
then B  0
(cos 1  cos  2  2) k , infinitely long bent wires are placed in the
4 a x-y plane as shown in figure. The wires
1 carry current of 10 ampere each as shown.
where cos 1  cos  2 
2 The segment L and M are along the x-axis.
 0ik The segment P and Q are parallel to the Y-
Hence, B  (2  2) axis such that OS=OR=0.02m. Find the
4 a
Illustration -6: Infinite number of straight magnitude and direction of the magnetic
wires each carrying current I are equally induction at the origin O.
Q
placed as shown in the figure. Adjacent
wires have current in opposite direction.
I
Find net magnetic field at point P ?
I R O
 L M
a S I
y I
a 0
30
P 0 x
30 2 3 4 5 P
z Sol: Since point O is along the length of segment L
and M the field at O due to these two segments
will be zero
Sol:  Magnetic field at O is due to QS and RP..
0 I 1 1 1 1 
Bnet  (sin 300  sin 30 0 )k     .....   
4  d 2d 3d 4d 0 I 10
  BSQ    10 7  
 3a  4 OS 0.02
 Where d  a cos 30  
 2  0 I 10
BRP    10 7  
0 I   1 1 1  4 OR 0.02
 Bnet  k 1     ..... 
2 3 a  2 3 4  10
 B0  BSQ  BRP  10 7   2  10 4 T 
0.02

Page 163
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
z
Illustration-9: An equilateral triangle of side y
length l is formed from a piece of wire of
uniform resistance. The current I is as
shown in figure. Find the magnitude of the
magnetic field at its centre O.
x

Sol: The magnetic field at P (a,0,a) due to the loop

is equal to the vector sum of the magnetic fields
produced by loops ABCDA and AFEBA as
shown in the figure.
C k
Sol: The magnetic field induction at O due to current P(a, 0, a) i
through PR is D
B
E
 2I / 3
B1  0 sin 600  sin 600  ;where
4 r
A F
L 2I
r  0  (directed outside) Magnetic field due to ABCDA will be along i
2 3 4 3r
and due to loop AFEBA, along k . Magnitude
of magnetic field due to both the loops will be
equal.
There fore, direction of resultant magnetic field
1  
at P will be (i  k ) .
The magnetic field induction at O due to current 2
through PQR is Magnetic field at the centre of a
0 (I/ 3)
circular coil carrying current :
B2  2  sin 600  sin 600  ; Consider a circular coil of radius R carrying a
4 r 
current i in clockwise direction. Consider any
L small element dl of the wire. The magnetic field
where r 
2 3 at the centre O due to the current element idl is
0 2 I
 B2   (directed inside) dl
4 3r R
  0
90
 Result ant magnetic induct ion at   idl  R O
0
   dB  
O  B1  B2  0 4 R 3

Illustration -10: A non planar loop of  i

Where R is the vector joining the element to
conducting wire carrying a current I is the centre O. The direction of this field is
placed as shown in the figure, each of the perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and
straight sections of the loop is of length is going into it.
2a. Find the direction of magnetic field The magnitude of the magnetic field is
due to this loop at the point P (a,0,a)
0 idl
dB 
4 R 2
As the fields due to all such elements have the

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

same direction, the net field is also in this   idl  r  idl
dB  0  0 2
direction. It can, therefore, be obtained by 4 r 3 4 r
integrating above equation under proper limits. 
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the
 0i
Thus, B   dB   dl
plane formed by r and dl .
4 R 2

If the coil has N turns  dl  2 RN In case of a point P on the axis of circular coil,
for every current element ‘idl’ there is a
i
0 0 i  iN
0 symmetrically situated opposite element. The
 B  4 R 2  dl  4 R 2  2 RN  2 R  component of the field dB perpendicular to the
a) If the current is in clock wise direction, then the axis cancel each other, while components of
magnetic field produced is normally inwards and the field dB along the axis add up and contribute
the face of the coil behaves as south pole. to the net magnetic field.
0 idl
i.e., B   dB sin   sin 
4  r 2
Here r is same for all elements and also
b) If the current is in anti clock wise direction, then sin   ( R / r ) so,
the magnetic field produced is normally
0 idl  idl R
outwards and the face of the coil behaves as B  2
sin   0  2
4 r 4 r r
 iR
 0 3  dl
north pole. 4 r
for a loop  dl  2 R and as
Field at an axial point of a circular
loop: r 3  ( x 2  R 2 )3/ 2 ;
0 2 iR 2 0iR 2
B 
4 ( x 2  R 2 )3 / 2 2( x 2  R 2 )3/ 2
The direction of magnetic field B is along the
axis of the loop.
i) The magnetic field B varies non linearly with
distance x from centre as shown in figure.
Consider a circular poop of radius R, carrying
current in yz plane with centre at origin O. Let
P be a point on the axis of the loop at a distance 0 Ni
‘x’ from the centre ‘O’ of the loop. 2R
Consider a conducting element dl of loop.
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude
of magnetic field due to the current element is
 
0 idl  r
dB  where r  x 2  R 2
4 r 3 For a coil having N turns,  dl  2 RN
Here the element dl is in yz plane where as the
0 NiR 2
position vector r from dl to the point P is in so, B  .
  2( x 2  R 2 )3/2
xy plane. So idl  r  idl  r It is maximum when x 2  0 , i.e., at the centre
of the coil whose value is given by

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

0 2 NI 0 Ni magneton (  ) .
B 
4 R 2R From Bohr’s second postulate, for an electron
revolving in first orbit of hydrogen atom
P P h
me vr  (n  1)
B 2
B
where h = Planck’s constant, me  mass of
 2 NiR 2 0 2 NiA
ii) if x  R ; B  0  evr e h eh
4 x3 4 x 3 electron   2  2 2 m  4 m
e e
Where A   R 2 , area of the coil.
e
(  ) min  h
4 me
Circular current loop as magnetic 1.60  10 19  6.63  10 34
dipole: 
4  3.14  9.11  10 31
0 2 NiA  9.27  1024 Am 2
From the above expression B 
4 x3 This value is called the “Bohr magneton”
i) In cases of charged particle having charge q
o 2M and moving in a circle of radius R with velocity
Comparing with B  (which is the
4 x3 v
magnetic field at an axial point of a short bar v, current i  q f  q
2 R
magnet)  
but M  i A where A   R 2 nˆ
a) Magnetic moment of the circular current
 1
carrying coil is M  Ni A whereA   r 2 nˆ ;  M  qvRnˆ
2
b) M is independent of shape of the coil ii) Angular momentum of the charged particle in
 Current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole 
the above situation is L  mvRnˆ
with poles on either side of its face and it is
known as “magnetic shell”.  q 
M L
SI unit of magnetic moment (M) is A  m 2 and 2m
dimensional formula is [ IL2]. i.e., the magnetic moment of a charged particle
c) Magnetic moment of a current loop is a vector moving in a circle is q/2m times of its angular
perpendicular to the plane of the loop and the momentum.

direction is given by right hand thumb rule. If the charge is negative, M is directed opposite
Magnetic dipole moment of a 
to L
revolving electron :
Consider an electron revolving in a circular path M q
iii)  is a constant which is called
of radius r around a nucleus with uniform speed v. L 2m
The current in the orbit is gyromagnetic ratio
e e ev Special cases :
i   i) For an arc shaped conductor carrying
T 2 r / v 2 r
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron current subtending an angle  at the
centre.
ev evr
is   iA   r2 
2 r 2
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is called Bohr

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

0i
i
B4  
4 r
i       i
R B 0  B net  B1  B 2  B 3  B 4 ;
Bnet  0 

2 R 2 2 r

iv) The upper and lower halves of the ring have
resistances R1 and R2 . Two straight wires are
 Magnet ic induction at the cent re
connected to it as shown. The magnetic
0 i induction at the centre of the ring is
B 
4 R i
B1  B3  0 B2  0 2 
a) For a quadrant circular wire carrying current, 4r
R 1
i
  900 . 2
2

3
r
0 i 1 0i4
Magnetic induction at the centre B   i B4  
8R i4 4 4r
b) Fo r semi circular wire carrying R2
current,   1800 Since R1 and R2 are parallel to each other
i
V1  V2 ; i2 R1  i4 R2 ; i2  R  R  R2 ;
R 1 2
i
i4   R1
0 i R1  R2
Magnetic induction at the centre B      
 0
4R 
ii)To a circular wire, two straight wires are B net  B1  B 2  B 3  B 4 ; Bnet  4r (i2  i4 )
attached as shown. When current is passed v) If B0 is magnetic induction at the centre of a
through it, then the magnetic field at the centre circular current carrying coil of radius R having
is zero.
i/2
N turns and BA is magnetic induction at a point
1
i on the axis of it at a distance x from centre
r
i
i 0   B0
2
3 4 B1     ; BA  3/ 2
i/2 4r then  x2 
2
1  R 2 
i  
0  
B3  B4  0 B   2   0 Ni 0 NiR 2
2
4r B
Proof : 0  and A B 
2R 2( R 2  x 2 )3/2
 Bnet  Zero
iii) To a circular wire, two straight wires are
attached as shown. When current is passed 0 Ni B0
 BA  3/ 2
 BA  3/ 2
through it, the magnetic field at the centre.  x2   x2 
2R 1  2  1  R 2 
 R   
If x  R , by using Binomial expansion
0i
B1    3x2 
4 r BA  B0 1  2 
 2R 
vi) If a particle of charge q moves in a circular
i i path of radius r with a velocity v, then the
0   0   magnetic induction at the centre of circular loop
 2 ; 2
B2   B3     ;
4R 4R

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0 i  0 qv  qv N1and N2 turns respectively, are connected in

B    0 2
2 r 2r 2 r 4 r series, then the ratio of magnetic induction at
0 B1  N1  r2 
If f is the frequency of rotation B   qf their centres is B   N  r 
2r 2  2  1 
If  is the angular velocity, then
e) If the two coils are made up of same wire and
 0 q  0 q connected in parallel, then the ratio of the
B  
2 r 2 4 r magnetic induction at their centres is
vii) A charge ‘q’ is moving with a velocity of ‘v’. 2
Then the expression of magnetic induction due B1  r2 
  .
to this charge at a position vector r from the B2  r1 
charge is, according to Biot - Savart’s Law for ix) A straight current carrying conductor is held
 
  0 i  dl  r  vertically in earth’s magnetic field. It carries a
a current element is d B  3
. If a current in the upward direction, then the
4 r
charged particle of charge q and undergoes a direction of magnetic field (B) due to it
 q a) due north of the conductor is towards west and
displacement dl during a time dt put i  so net magnetic field is Bnet  B 2  BH2 .
dt

  qdl  b) due west of the conductor is towards south and
(or) idl  r  r so net magnetic field is Bnet  B ~ BH
dt
c) due south of the conductor is towards east and
so net magnetic fieid Bnet  B 2  BH2 .
d) due east of the conducter is towards north show
 net magnetic field is Bnet  B  BH
dl   
N
B
Putting  v ; idl  r  q (v  r ) B
H

B
dt
  H B
  q (v  r ) i H B
0
Using the above equations, d B  . W E
4 r 3 H B
viii) a)When a wire of length ‘l’ carrying current ‘i’ is B B

bent in a circular loop of ‘N’ turns then the S

magnetic induction at the centre of the loop is Illustration -11 : A 2A current is flowing
 Ni   N 2i through a circular coil of radius 10cm
B 0  0 ( N  2 r  l ) containing 100 turns. Find the magnetic
2r l flux density at the centre of the coil.
b) The same wire of length ‘l’ carrying current ‘i’
i 2 107  2
is first bent into a circular coil with N1 turns and Sol: B  N 0  100 
2r 10 102
then into another circular coil with N2 turns. If
= 1.26  10 3Wb / m 2
B1 , B2 are magnetic inductions at their centres
Illustration-12: A cell is connected between the
2
B1  N1  points A and C of a circular conductor
in the two cases, then  
B2  N 2  ABCD of centre O with angle
c) If r1 and r2 are radii of turns of the coil in the AOC  60o If B1 and B2 are the magni-
above case, then ratio of magnetic induction is tudes of the magnetic fields at O due to
2 the currents in ABC and ADC respec-
B1  r2 
  B1
B2  r1  tively, then B is
2
d) If two circular coils of radii r1 and r2 , having

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

i1 B 300
o

O o
60

A
i2 C
D
i i

 i1 l2  2  Sol :Magnetic induction at ‘O’ due to 1st loop

 i
Sol: B 0  B  i  but     0i1R 2
4 r  i2 l1 1  B1  to left Magnetic induction
2( R 2  R 2 )3/2
B1 1 i1 B1 1 2 at ‘O’ due to 2nd loop.
  . so B     1 
B2  2 i2 0i2 R 2  
2 2 1 B2  to right B1  B 2  0
Illustration -13: Three rings, each having 2( R 2  x 2 )3/ 2
equal radius R, are placed mutually  i1 
i2
(2 R 2 3/2
) ( R 2
 x 2 )3/2
and i2  8i1  x  7 R
perpendicular to each other and each
having its centre at the origin of Illustration -15: Two wires wrapped over a
coordinate system. If current I is flowing conical frame form the loops I and 2. If
through each ring then find the they produce no net magnetic field at the
magnitude of the magnetic field at the
common centre. i1
apex P, Find the value of i .
Sol: B due to the ring lying in XY-plane is 2
0 I
Bxy  along Z-axis.
2R
y

Z
0 I Sol : Magnetic induction due to a loop at apex,
B due to the ring lying in YZ-plane is B yz 
2R 0ir 2
along X-axis and B due to the ring lying in XZ- B 
2(r 2  x 2 )3/2
I
plane is Bxz  0 along Y-axis. But r 2  x 2  l 2  (r 2  x 2 )3/2  l 3
2R
 where‘ l ’is slant length
I I
 B net  0 i  j  k  Bnet  3 0
  3
2R 2R 0i  r  r
B   . But  sin  where  is
Illustration-14: Two wires are wrapped over a 2r  l  l
wooden cylinder to form two co-axial loops half of the apex angle, same for both the loops
carrying currents i1 and i2 . If i2  8i1 then i r
   B1  B2  1  1
find the value of x for B=0 at the origin O. B1  B 2  0 (given) i r 2 2

Illustration-16: A thin insulated wire forms a

spiral of N=100 turns carrying a current
of i=8mA. The inner and outer radii are

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MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

equal to a=5cm and b=10cm. Find the the other end of the rod with angular
magnetic field at the centre of the coil.
frequency 104  rad/s. Find the magnetic
field at a point on the axis of rotation at a
distance of 0.8m from the centre of the
circular path.
a b
0ir 2 q
Sol: B  2 2 3/2 , i  ;
2(r  x ) 2
 q r 2
Sol: Let n = number of turns per unit length along B 0 2
the radial of spiral. Consider a ring of radius x 4 (r  x 2 )3/2
2
whose thickness is dx. 10 7  1 104     0.6 
B 3/ 2
N  0.6  2   0.8  2 
No.of turns in the ring = ndx. n   
(b  a)
3 2
Magnetic field at the centre due to the ring is 10    36  10 36  105
 
0 (ndx )i 0.36  0.643/ 2 1
dB  ; so net field
2x  36  105 Tesla
b
0 nidx 0 ni b dx Illustration -19: Two circular coils made of
B   dB   
a 2x 2 a x same material having radii 20 cm & 30 cm
have turns 100 & 50 respectively. If they
0 ni b 0 Ni b are connected a) in series b) in parallel
or B  ln or B  ln separately across a source of emf. Find the
2 a 2(b  a ) a ratio of magnetic inductions at the centre
4  10 7  100  8  10 3 10 of circles in each case
 ln ;
2(10  5)  10 2 5  ni
Sol: a) B  0 ; coils are in series  i is same
2r
B  6.9  10 6 T
Illustration-17: A plastic disc of radius ‘R’ has n B1 100 30
in both B ; B  50  20  3 :1
a charge ‘q’ uniformly distributed over its r 2
surface. If the disc is rotated with a b) coils are parallel  potential difference is
frequency ‘f’ about its axis, then the 1  (n 2 r )
magnetic induction at the centre of the disc same i Where R  ; Where A
R A
is given by is area of cross section of wire which is same
 di q for both
Sol: dB  0 , dq  (2 x) dx
2x  R2 1  0 ni n 1 1
 q   R nr ; i butB0   B   B 2
di  (dq ) f   2 x dx  f nr 2r r nr r
2
R  2
B  30  9
  2 qxdx f R
  B  0 2q.dx ( f )  1   
dB  0 2 0 2 R 2 B2  20  4
2 xR
Illustration-20: Two circular coils are made
0 qf  qf
B 2
( R)  B  0 from a uniform wire. The ratio of radii of
R R
circular coils are 2:3 and ratio of number
Illustration-18:A charge of 1C is placed at one of turns is 3:4. If they are connected in
end of a non conducting rod of length parallel across a battery.
0.6m. The rod is rotated in a vertical plane
about a horizontal axis passing through

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

(a) Find ratio of magnetic inductions at  l 2  ml 2 M

their centres L  2(mr 2 )  2  m    ;  q.
(b) Find the ratio magnetic moments of 2  4  2 L 2m
coils. Illustration -23: Find the magnetic dipole
Sol: When connected in parallel moment of the spiral of total number of
turns N, carrying current i having inner
2
1 B1  r2   3 
2
9 and outer radii a and b respectively.
a) B 2 ;    =  
r B2  r1   2  4

V V a b
b) M  ni Acoil but i   Awire
R l
V 2 V
M  ( rcoil ); M  rcoil
 (2 rcoil ) X 2 Sol: Let us take a thin coil of thickness dr. Then the
N
M 1 r1 2 number of turns of the coil is dN  .dr
  ba
M 2 r2 3 .

Illustration-21: Figure shows, a square current r

carrying loop ABCD of side 2m and current
the dipole moment of the coil is
i  A . The magnetic moment 

1
M of the  Ndr  2
2 M   (dN )(i )( A)     (i)( r )
ba
loop is b
Y  Ni 2
 r dr
B b  a a
C  iN 2
1 M ( a  ab  b 2 ) .
i A 3
A 2
30
0 X Illustration -24: Consider a non conducting
plate of radius a and mass m which has a
Z D charge q distributed uniformly over it. The
plate is rotated about its own axis with an
Sol: DA  2cos30 i  2sin30 k  ( 3i  k )
 
0 0
angular speed  . Show that the magnetic
    moment M and the angular momentum L
AB  2 j  M  i ( DA  AB ) M q
of the plate are related as  .
1  L 2m
 (  3i  k )  (2 j )  Sol: If  is the surface charge density, then total
2 
charge q   a 2
  3k  i  (i  3 k ) A  m 2 . The magnetic moment of the elementary ring
Illustration-22: If two charged particles each dM=(idA) where i is current in the elementary
of charge q mass m are connected to the ring i   r dr and A   r 2 .
ends of a rigid massless rod and is rotated
about an axis passing through the centre  dM   r dr   r 2
and  to length. Then find the ratio of a
a4
magnetic moment to the angular M=  r 3 dr 
momentum. 0 4
q l
2
q  l 2 ql 2  a 2 q a 2
Sol: M  NiA  2      2   =(  a 2 ) 
T 2 2 4 4 4 4
The angular momentum of the disc about its

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MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

ma 2 Bend 
1
0 ni
axis L   . The ratio
2 2
The variation of magnetic field with distance
q a 2
along the axis is shown here.
M q
 4 2 
L  ma 2m
2
SOLENOID: -l/2 -x o +x +l/2
A solenoid is a wire wound in the form of a
closely spaced spiral over a hollow cylindrical
non-conducting core. The wire is coated with
an insulating material, so that the adjacent turns
even though physically touch each other, but
they are electrically insulated.
dN  ndx
TOROID OR ANCHOR RING:
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A TOROID
A toroid or a toroidal coil or an anchor ring
consists of a wire uniformly wound on a torus
or a doughnut shaped structure. A toroid can
be considered to be a closed solenoid of small
radius.
This is shown in given Figure.

   Torus L’’
 
r L’ L’’
  Open space
Consider a coil of width dx at a distance x from
the point P on ths axis of the solenoid as shown.   L’
   B
x  R tan   dx  R sec2  d 
(a) (b)

0ndxiR 2 0 nR 2i sec 2  d  Let us consider a toroid with N turns of wire,

dB  3/ 2
 3/ 2 all equally spaced and let I be the electric

2 R 2  x2  
2 R 2  R 2 tan 2   current along them.
0 nR3i sec 2  d  1 (a) Magnetic field at a point inside the
  0 ni cos  d 
2 R3 sec3  2 core of the toroid
  To calculate the field at any point inside the
 1  
B  0 ni  cos   0 ni  sin   sin   toroid, we evaluate the line integral of B.dl
2 
2
over an Amperian loop L of radius r passing
1 through that point. By symmetry, we see that
 0 ni  cos 1  cos  2 
2 the magnetic field is constant in magnitude on
where n is number of turns per unit length this loop and is tangent to it.
1. For long solenoid, at centre, 1  0, 2  0,  
Thus,  B.dl   Bdl  B  dl  B  2 r
Bc  0 ni
2. For long solenoid, at ends,
1 or  2  90o ,1 or  2  0

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

 Current linked with the Amperian loop L = open solenoid. The magnetic field (B) within
total number of turns x current linking each the toroid is tangent to the circular field lines
turn =NI in the torus.
From Ampere law, Uses of Toroids
0 NI (I) Toroids are frequently used for the
B  2 r  0 NI or B  ..........(1) laboratory measurements where a calculable
2 r
Thus, the field inside the toroid varies as 1/r field is desired. (ii) Toroids form the central
and hence is non-uniform. feature of the tokamak,a device showing
 On the other hand, if the cross-sectional area promise for a fusion power reactor.
of the toroid is very-very small compared to Illustration-25: A solenoid of length 8cm has
r, we can neglect any variation in r. 100 turns in it. If radius of coil is 3cm and
Considering 2 r to be the circumference of if it is carrying a current of 2A, find the
magnetic induction at a point 4cm from
N
the toroid, will be a constant and equal the either end on the axis of the solenoid.
2 r
4cm 4cm
to the number of turns per unit length (n). In
3cm
5cm 5cm
this case, eqn. (1) takes the form, B  0 nI
which is the same as for the long solenoid.
(b) Magnetic field at a point in the open  ni
Sol: B  0 (cos 1  cos  2 )
space inside the toroid 2
 Consider the Amperian loop L’ passing
 100 
through any point in the open space inside the 4 10 7   2 
2
  8 10   2  4  800T
toroid. 2 5
Since total current linking the loop L’ is zero, Illustration-26: A toroid of non ferromagnetic
 
 B.dl  0 or B  0 has core of inner radius 25cm and outer
radius 26cm. It has 3500 turns & carries a
(c) Magnetic field at a point outside the
current of 11A, then find the magnetic field
toroid
at a point
 For any point outside the toroid, the net i) In the internal cavity of toroid
current threading the loop L” through that ii) At the midpoint of the windings
point is zero. This is due to the reason that iii) At a point which is at a distance of 30cm from
each turn of the winding passes twice through the centre of toroid
the area bounded by the path, carrying equal Sol: i) B = 0.
currents in opposite directions as shown in  ni 3500  11
Fig.(b). Clearly, ii) B  0  2  10 7  2
2
  2 r 51  10
 B.dl  0 or B  0  30.196  103 T
 Thus, in an ideal toroid (in which the turns of iii) B = 0. Based on magnetism for solenoid and
the wire are very closely spaced), the toroid.
magnetic field is confined entirely within its Illustration-27: A solenoid of 2m long & 3cm
core and is almost uniform. For regions diameter has 5 layers of winding of 500
exterior to the coil, B = 0. In other words, turns per metre length in each layer &
magnetic field does not come out anywhere in carries a current of 5A. Find intensity of
case of a toroid as it does at the ends of an magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid.

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Sol: For long solenoid at the centre B  0 ni 2 r mv 2 m

T but r  Bq T 
v qB
B
H   ni  (5  500)5 Bq
0 Angular frequency of rotation is  
m
 T and  are independent of v and r of a
A charged particle.
 1.25 104 .
m iv) When the particle enters the magnetic field at

Force acting on a charged particle angle  with B , (such that
moving in a uniform magnetic field   00 ,  900 ,   1800 ), then the path

i) If charge +q is moving with velocity v , making followed by the particle will be helical.
an angle  with the direction of field, force a) Radius of circular path of the helix is given by
   mv sin 
acting on the charge is, F  q (v  B ) . r .
qB
Magnitude of force is F=Bqv Sin , direction

of F is perpendicular to plane containing both
 
v and B .
a) If   00 or 1800 , then the force acting on the
particle is zero and the particle keeps moving
in the same path. i.e, undeviated. 2 m
b) Time period of rotation is T
b) If the charged particle enters normal to the qB
magnetic field, the force acting on it is maximum. c) Distance travelled by the particle along magnetic
ie Fmax  Bqv field in one complete rotation or pitch of helix
  2 mv cos 
c) This force acts right angles to B and v . It
is given by P  (v cos  )T ; P 
acts as centripetal force and the path of particle qB
will be circular. v) Work done by the magnetic field on the charged
× × particle is zero. Since F and S always  r .
v v Illustration -28: A magnetic field of
× ×
× × 4.0103 k T
 exerts a force
F
× × 4.0i  3.0j 1010 N on a particle having a
 
× ×
charge 10 9 C and moving in the x-y plane.
× × Find the velocity of the particle.
Then the radius of the circular path is given by 
mv P 2 Sol:Magnetic force Fm  4.0i  3.0 j 10 10 N
 
r r  mv
(from Bqv  ) Let velocity of the particle in x-y plane be
Bq Bq r 
Where p = momentum. v  v x i  v y j .
2mK   
d) r
qB
, where K is kinetic energy of the Then from the relation Fm  q v  B  
particle.
e) If charged particle is accelerated through a 4.0i  3.0 j 1010  109  vx i  vy j   4103 k 
 
potential difference of V volts, before it enters
into the magnetic field normally, then comparing the coefficient of i and j separately,,
2mqV we have
r .
qB 4 1010  4v y 1012
ii) Speed, kinetic energy remains constant, but
velocity, acceleration, momentum and force are  v y  102 m / s  100m / s and
variable since their directions are continuously
changing.
iii) The time period of rotation is

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

3.0  10 10  4vx  10 12

 mv
 vx  75m / s  v  75i  100 j In this case, r . Angle of deviation ‘  ’
Bq
Illustration-29: If a particle of charge 1 C is can be determined by using the formula
projected into a magnetic field x xqB  xqB 
sin      sin 1  
 r mv  mv 
B  2i  y j  zk T with a velocity
  The above relation can be used only when x  r .
 x x x x
   qm
  1
v  4i  2 j  6k ms , then it passes
x x x x
undeviated. If it is now projected with a x x x x
 Case 2: For x > r, v
velocity v  i  j , then find the force qm x x x x
x>r
experienced by it
mv
Sol: Case I: Charged particle moves in a magnetic In this case, r  ,
 Bq
field undeviated when v is parallel or anti In this case, deviation  = 1800.
 Note: If particle moves for a time ‘t’ in the
parallel to B
vx v y v z 4 2 6 Bq
   k;   field, then in such a case,    t .  t
Bx By Bz 2 y z ; m
  Distance between the point and entering into
y1 and z3  B  2i  j  3k
  the magnetic field and leaving point from the
    magnetic field is 2r if   180o
 
Case II: F  q v  B where v  i  j
i j k Illustration-30: An  - particle is accelerated
 by a potential difference of 104 V. Find
F  106 1 1 0
the change in its direction of motion, if it
2 1 3 enters normally in a region of thickness
 0.1 m having transverse magnetic
F  106 i  3  j  3  k  1  induction of 0.1 tesla. ( Given : mass of
 
  -particle 6.4  10 27 kg).
 
F  106 3iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ N  19 N Sol :The situation is shown in Fig. When a charged
particle with charge q is accelerated through a
Deviation of charged particle in potential difference V volt, then
uniform magnetic field : 1 2  2qV 
Case 1: mv  qV .....(i) (or) v    ....(i)
2  m 
B
x x x x
Ox x x x
 R
x x x x 
R
x x x x

x x x x
q v x x x x
l
 - particle in magnetic field moves in a
circle of radius R which is given by
r
Suppose a charged particle enters mv 1  2mV 
perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field. If R or R    ....(ii)
qB B  q 
the magnetic field extends to a distance ‘x’
which is less than or equal to radius of the path.

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MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
O
The change in direction of  -particle ( )
from figure is given by r
l
2 l 4
M N
l  q  l
x x x x x
Sin   lB   2
x x x x x
R  2 mV  (ON ) 2  (OM ) 2  (MN )2 x x x x x
3
x x x x x
1 l
Here l  0.1m, B  0.1 tesla, V  10 volt 4 x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
T S

q  2e  2  1.6 X 1019  3.2  10 19 C 2

2l

 l 5
and m  6.4  10 27
kg r2   r    l2  r  l .
 2  4
 3.2  1019  1 If the particle comes out from face (4),
 sin   0.1  0.1   4 

27
 2  6.4 10 10  2 5 mv 5 5 qBl
r l  l (or) v  .
or   300 . 4 qB 4 4 m
Illustration -31: The magnetic field (B) is 5 qBl
If velocity v  , the particle will come
confined in a square region. A positive 4 m
charged particle of charge q and mass m is out from face (3).
projected as shown in fig. Find the Illustration-32: A particle of mass m and charge
limiting velocities of the particle so that it +q enters a region of magnetic field with a
may come out of face 1,2,3 and 4. velocity v, as shown in fig.
4 B
x x x x x
l/2 x x
x x x x x
m,q F
x x x x x x x
3
v x x x x x
1 l x x
x x x x x
E
x x x x x  x x
2l
Sol: For the positive charge coming out from face
(1), the radius of the path in magnetic field a) Find the angle subtended by the circular
should be less than or equal to l / 4 . For arc described by it in the magnetic field.
l b) How long does the particle stay inside the
limiting case (2 r  ) . magnetic field ?
2
c) If the particle enters at E, what is the
4 B
intercept EF ?
x x x x x
x x x x x Sol:
v x x x x x a) The particle circulates under the influence of
3
x x x x x
1
x x x x x
l magnetic field. As the magnetic field is uniform,
x x x x x the charge comes out symmetrically. The angle
2l subtended at the centre is (180  2 )
l mv qBl b) The length of the arc traced by the particle,
rmax    vmax  . Hence, if the l  R (  2 )
4 qB 4m
qBl l R (  2 )
velocity is  , the charge particle comes Time spent in the field, t   and
v v
4m
out of face (1). mv m
R ; which gives t (  2 )
We can observe from right palm rule, that the Bq Bq
particle cannot come out from face (2). 2 m
For a positive charge coming out of face (4), As time period: T  Bq ,
let particle come out at point N from OMN T
hence t  (  2 )
2

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

 F E
qE  qvB or v 
90   B
R F 
B
 This condition can be used to select charged
O
particles of a particular velocity out of a beam
1802
R FB
containing charges moving with different speeds
90    (irrespective of their charge and mass). The
 E crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a
velocity selector.
We can generalize this result. If  is the angle Cyclotron:
subtended by the arc traced by the charged The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate
particle in the magnetic field, the time spent is positively charged particles or ions to high
   energies using both electric and magnetic fields
t T   in combination.
 2 
 Cyclotron uses the fact that the frequency of
c) Intercept EF = 2R cos  . revolution of the charged particle in a magnetic
Lorentz Force : field is independent of its energy.
When a charge enters a region where both
electric and magnetic fields exist simultaneously,
force acting on it is called ‘Lorentz force’ and
is given by F  F e  F m  q  E  (v  B )  .
Velocity Vector:-
We shall consider the simple case in which
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to each other and also perpendicular to the
velocity of the particle, as shown in Fig. We
have,
y

E
FE  Centripetal force is provided by the magnetic
mv2
x force  Bqv
v r
mv
B  Radius of circular path is r 
Bq
FB
2 r
z  Time period of charged particle is T 
^ ^ ^
v
E  E j , B  B k ,V  v i 2 m 1 Bq
 T ;f    cyclotron
Bq T 2 m
FE  qE  qEj , FB  q v  B  q vi  Bk  qvBj
    frequency.
 K.E of charged particles is
Therefore F  q  E  vB  j 2
Thus, electric and magnetic forces are in 1 2 1  Bqr  B 2q 2 r 2
K.E= mv  m   
opposite directions as shown in the figure. 2 2  m  2m
Suppose, we adjust the value of E and B such Force on a current carrying conductor
that magnitude of the two forces are equal. kept in uniform magnetic field :
Then, total force on the charge is zero and the i) A conductor carrying current i is placed in a
charge will move in the uniform magnetic field of induction B at an
fields undeflected. This happens when angle  with the field direction. The force

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

acting on it is given by F  i (l  B ) ;
F  BilSin

iv) The force on a closed loop of any shape carrying

current in a uniform magnetic field is always
x x x x
ii) If B and l are parallel or anti-parallel F = 0
x x x x
iii) If B and l are perpendicular, then FMax  Bil .
zero. Since leff  0 x x x x
iv) Direction of force can be found using Fleming’s
left hand rule. x x x x
Fleming’s left hand rule : v) The net force experienced by a closed current
Stretch the fore finger, central finger and thumb loop and current completes the loop in a uniform
of left hand in mutually perpendicular directions, field is zero.
x x x x
such that if fore finger indicates direction of i
magnetic field, Central finger indicates direction x x x x
of current, then thumb indicates direction of x x x x
force on conductor. x x x x
Special Cases : vi) In case of a closed loop but current does not
i). The force acting on a curved wire joining points complete the loop the net force is not zero.
a and b as shown in the figure is the same as x x x
C
x B
that on a straight wire joining these points. It is x x x x
  
given by F  iL  B where L  ab x x x x
b A D
x x x x x x x
 
F ACD  F AD
   
i  F loop  F ACD  F AD  2 F AD
x x x B  
L  F loop  2 F AD

x x x vii) A loop of flexible conducting wire of length ' l '

a 
ii) The force experienced by a semi circular wire lies is an external magnetic field of induction B
of radius ‘r’ when it is carrying a current ‘i’ and perpendicular to the plane of the loop. When a
is placed in a uniform external magnetic field of current ‘i’ is passed through the loop it opens
induction B as shown in the figure is given by into a circle. The tension developed in the loop.
F=BI(2r). directed upwards But
Bil
T ; force on the loop will be zero
2
Illustration-33:A solenoid 60cm long and of
radius 4.0cm has 3 layers of windings of
iii) The fo rce on t he wire sho wn
300 turns each. A 2.0cm long wire of mass
 2.5g lies inside the solenoid (near its
F  Bileff  2 Bil sin (towards left).
2 centre) normal to its axis, both the wire
and the axis of the solenoid are in the
horizontal plane. The wire is connected
through two leads parallel to the axis of
the solenoid to an external battery which
supplies a current of 6.0A in the wire. For

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

what value of current (with appropriate x x Cx x

x x x x
sense of circulation) in the windings of the  
solenoid can support the weight of the wire F ACD  F AD x x x x
A D
? g=9.8 ms 2 .  x x  x  x
 F loop  F ACD  F AD  2 F AD
Sol: mg  Biwirel  
 F loop  2 F AD
but B  0nisolenoid cos ;  since cos 1  2ilB sin  (l  2 r  2.0m)=(2)(2)(2)(1)sin 900  8N
 mg  0nisolenoid  iwire  l Illustration -36: A rough inclined plane
inclined at angle of 370 with horizontal
mg has a metallic wire of length 20cm with
isolenoid   108 A its length r to length of inclined plane
0 niwirel
Illustration-34: Find the force experienced by with coefficient of friction   0.1 .When
the wire carrying a current 2A if the ends a current passes through the wire and a
P and Q of the wire have coordinates (1, 2, magnetic field is applied normal to the
-3) m and plane upwards, the wire starts moving up
(-2, -5, 1) m respectively when it is placed with uniform velocity for B = 0.5T. Then
 find the magnitude of current i, (mass of
in a magnetic field B  i  j  k T   the wire = 50g, take g=10 ms 2 )
   B
Sol. The force acting on the wire is F  i r21  B N
( 1, 2, -3) B Bil
B
P B
Sol. mg cos
0
i 37
mg sin
When t he wire is in equilibrium
Q
( -2, -5, 1)
Bil  mg sin   f
   Bil  mg  sin    cos  
 i r2  r1  B  2 3i  7 j  4k  i  j  k
     3 4
5101 i2101 5102 10 0.1 
 2 11i  7 j  4k N
  5 5  
1
10  3.4
Illustration -35: In Fig. a semicircular wire i  3.4 A
loop is placed in uniform magnetic field 101
B=1.0 T. The plane of the loop is Illustration-37: A wire PQ of mass 10g at rest
perpendicular to the magnetic field. on two parallel metal rails. The separation
Current i  2 A flows in the loop in the between the rails is 4.9cm. A magnetic field
of 0.80 tesla is applied perpendicular to the
direction shown. Find the magnitude of plane of the rails, directed in wards. The
the magnetic force in both the cases (a) resistance of the circuit is slowly decreased.
and (b). The radius of the loop is 1m. When the resistance decreases to below 20
x x x x x x x x
i = 2A i = 2A ohm, the wire PQ begins to slide on the rails.
x x x x x x x x Calculate the coefficient of friction between
1m the wire and the rails.
x x x x x x x x
P
x x x x x x x x x i x
(a) (b) x x 6V
Sol: (a) It forms a closed loop and the current 4.9cm
completes the loop. Therefore, net force on x x
the loop in uniform magnetic field should be x x
zero. From the figure, net force on the loop in Q
uniform field should be zero. In case (b) Sol. Wire PQ begins to slide when magnetic force
although it forms a closed loop, but current does is just equal to the force of friction, i.e.
not complete the loop. Hence, net force is not
zero.

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MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

mg  il B sin   90  0

E 6
Here, i    0 .3 A Spring
R 20 balance
ilB  0.3  4.910   0.8
2

   0.12
mg 10103  9.8 Insulating

Illustration-38: A current carrying conductor hanger

of mass m, length l carrying a current i I
hangs by two identical springs each of B
stiffness k. For an outward magnetic
field B find the deformation of the
springs. Put m  50 gm. g=10m/s2, l=1/ Sol: Initially F1  mg  IaB (down wards)
2m, i=1A and B  1T and k  50 N / m when the direction of current is reversed

F2  mg  IaB (downwards)
k B k  F  2IaB
MAGNETIC FIELD OF MOVING CHARGE
A point charge q, at rest in the observer’s inertial
i frame, produces an electric field along the radius
Sol. The forces acting on the rod are ‘mg’
vector and is given by
downwards, Fmag  ilB downwards and
  1  q 
Fspring  2kx upwards E   3r
 4 0 r
If the charge is moving relative to the observer’s
inertial frame, it produces a magnetic field in
kx B kx addition to electric field, the magnitude of which
is proportional to the speed of the charge
B relative to the observer provided  v  c  . The

i B magnetic field vector B at the point P, at

distance r from the charge q moving with
mg 
Under the action of these forces the rod is in velocity v is found to be
equilibrium. Then, Fnet  0 (or)     q  
mg  ilB  
B   0  3 v  r .... 1
 4  r
mg  ilB  2kx (or) x 
2k P

 1  1
  10   1   1 1 r
20
  2 
m  1cm 
2  50 100 q
v B

Illustration-39: A square loop of side a hangs

from an insulating hanger of spring bal- 
ance. The magnetic field of strength B The direction of B is thus perpendicular to the
 
occurs only at the lower edge. It carries a plane of v and r . It is in the direction of
current I. Find the change in the read- advance of a right handed screw rotated from
ing of the spring balance, if the direction  
v to r . Its magnitude is given by
of current is reversed

Page 180
 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

0 q1q2v1v2
  qv sin  Fm 
B 0  ....  2  4 r2
 4  r2
P 0 q1q2 2
for v1  v2 v ; Fm  v .....  i 
r
  4 r 2
B In addition to the magnetic force, there is an
v  electric force between them, whose magnitude
q 0 qv
is given by
r Bmax 
4r 2
B 1 q1q2
Fe  .....  ii 
r 4 0 r 2

This force is of repulsive nature, On dividing
B
The following points should be remembered Fm 2
regarding the magnetic field: equation (i) by (ii), we have F  v 0 0
 e
(i). The magnetic field B is zero at all points on a
line on which charge moves; i.e; when 1 Fm v 2
 As c    .....  3
  00 or  1800, B  0 . 0 0 ; Fe c 2

(ii). It is maximum in the plane perpendicular to v Since v  c, and so Fm  Fe . As Fm  Fe ,
and through the charge, as sin   1, at all so the net force between the charges is of
points in this plane: repulsive nature.

(iii) B remains unaltered in magnitude at all points Force between two parallel current
on the circumference of circle passing through carrying long straight conductors :

P and lying in a plane perpendicular to v with i) Force per unit length on each wire is given by
its centre on the velocity direction.
F  0 i1i2
Force between moving charges:  . If i1  i2  1amp, r  1m, then
l 2 r
The force acting on a charge q2 , moving with
force per unit length of the conductor is
velocity v2 in a magnetic field produced by 2  107 N / m
charge q1 moving with a velocity v1 is ii) If currents in the two wires are in same
   direction, then the force of attraction takes

F21  q2 v2  B1  place between them.
   q    iii) If currents in the two wires are in opposite
 q2  v2  0 13  v1  r  
 4 r  direction, then the force of repulsion takes
0 q1q2      place between them

4 r 3 

v2  v1  r .
  iv) A straight and very long wire carries current i1
v1 v2 and rectangular loop of wire carrying current
i2 is placed nearby it. The force on the loop is
F
Net force
q1 F12 F21
q2
r i1 i2 i2 l
B2 B1  i i l 1 1
F  012    a
The magnitude of force which they exert on 2  a b 
each other is: b

v) A very long horizontal wire carries a current i1 ,

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

is rigidly fixed. Another wire is placed directly currents i1 , i2 (i1  i2 ) in opposite directions,
above and parallel to it carries a current i2 . r is and are separated by a distance r, then the null
the perpendicular distance of separation point is formed out side the conductors, the
between the wires and currents are in opposite distance of the null point from the conductor
directions. For the second wire to remain carrying smaller current is given by
stationary, the condition is
r i1 i2
 ii  x
F  mg  0 1 2  mg i2
2 r 1 x
i1
r
Illustration -40: A long straight conductor
m 0i1i2 carrying a current of 2A is in parallel to
 
 2 rg another conductor of length 5cm and
carrying a current 3A. They are separated
vi) Three long parallel conductors carry currents by a distance of 10cm. Calculate (a) B due
as shown to first conductor at the location of second
a) Resultant force per unit length on the wire conductor (b) the force on the short
conductor.
F 0  i1i2 i2i3 
‘C’ is   Sol. Given i1  2 A; i2  3 A
L 2  a b 
A C B r  10cm  10 102 m; l2  5cm
0i1 2
i1 i2 i3 a) B   2  107   4  106 Tesla
2 r 10  102
a  0i1i2
b b) F   2
2 r
b) If the resultant force on the wire ‘C’ is zero,
7 23 2
i1i2 i2 i3 i1 i3  2  10  2
 5  10  6  10 7 N
   10  10
the condition is
a b a b Illustration -41: Two long straight parallel
 Here, the resultant force per unit length on the current carrying conductors each of
A and B wires can be also determined in the length l and current i are placed at a
similar way. The currents can be along different distance r0 . Show that the total work done
directions. by an external agent in slowly reducing
Null points due to two current r0
their distance of separation to is
carrying parallel wires : 2
0 2
i) Two straight parallel conductors are carrying i l n  2
2
currents i1 , i2  i1  i2  in the same direction,
and are separated by a distance r, the null point
is formed in between them. The distance of the
null point from the conductor carrying smaller Sol. ; The force acting on the
current is

r i1 i2
x 0 i 0 i 2l
i2 x
conductor 2 is F = ilB  il 
1 2 r 2 r
i1 This force does a work dW in displacing the
r
conductor 2 by a distance dr
ii) Two straight parallel conductors are carrying

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

  0 i 2l Force per unit length between top and middle

dW  F .dr   dr    1800  wire is
2 r
Then, the total work done is  1  1  2
2 r0 2 F1 0 2i1i2  2     k
0 i l dr  0i l  . 0  3 4 
W   dW   L 4 r1  4 
2
  ln 2
2 r0 r 2 r1
Illustration -42 : A conductor AB of length Force per unit length between bottom and
10cm at a distance of 10cm from an middle wire
infinitely long parallel conductor carrying  1 1
a current 10A. What work must be done to 2   k2
F2 0  4   5 
move AB to a distance of 20cm if it carries 
L 4 r2
5A?
As the forces per unit length are equal and
Sol. Force on a conductor at a distance X is
F1 F2 r1 5
0i1i2l opposite so L  L  r  3 .
F
2 x 2

Work done to displace it through a small Force between two streams of electric
distance charges :
  i) If two streams of electrons or protons are
dx  dW  F .dx moving with velocity ‘v’ in parallel and same
0.2
0 i1i2 l directions, there will be both electric repulsive
 ii l W dx
dW  0 1 2 dx ;
2 x

0.1 2 x
force and magnetic attractive force. Since
electric force predominates the magnetic force,
0i1i2l 0.2 there will be repulsion.
W  log e x 0.1 ii) If they move parallel and opposite directions,
2
there will be electric repulsive force and
4 107  10  5  10  102
W log e 2 magnetic repulsive force and hence there will
2 be repulsion again.
W  0.693  106 J Torque acting on a current loop
Illustration-43: Three long straight wires are kept in uniform magnetic field :
connected parallel to each other across a i) When a coil carrying current is placed in uniform
battery of negligible internal resistance. magnetic field, the net force on it is zero but it
The ratio of their resistances are 3 : 4 : 5. may experience a torque or couple.
What is the ratio of distances of middle
wire from the others if the net force ex- 
perienced by it is zero 
n

Sol: The wires are in parallel and ratio of their re-

sistances are 3 : 4 : 5, Hence currents in wires
1 1 1 ii) Torque acting on a current carrying coil placed
are in the ratio : :   
3 4 5 in uniform magnetic field is   M  B
i1
iii) Torque acting on the coil is   BiNA sin 
r1
i2 = BiNA cos 
Here
r2
i3 k k k A = Area of coil carrying current i
i i1  , i2  , i3 
3 4 5 N = Number of turns of the coil
B = Magnetic induction of the field

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

  Angle made by the plane of the coil with magnetic field of 2T j . The loop is in xy

B plane with current in clock wise direction.
 Angle made by the normal to the plane of Find the torque on the loop.
     
the coil with B
iv) If the plane of coil is parallel to the direction of
Sol.   M  B 
 ni A  B 
magnetic field    max  BiNA  10  10  k   2 j  2  10 Nm i
4
    3

 
v) If the plane of coil is perpendicular to the
Illustration-45: A metallic wire is folded to form
direction of magnetic field,   0
a square loop of side ‘a’. It carries a current
vi) If current carrying coil is placed in a non- ‘i’ and is kept perpendicular to a uniform
uniform magnetic field it experiences both, force magnetic field. If the shape of the loop is
and torque. changed from square to a circle without
vii) For a given area, torque is independent of shape changing the length of the wire and
of the coil current, the amount of work done in doing
viii) Torque is directly proportional to area of the so is
coil. Sol. W= find P.E - initial P.E
Special cases :
i) When a current carrying coil is placed in uniform W  M f B   Mi B  ; W  iB  Ai  A f 
magnetic field, net force on it
 4
F = 0. But net torque may act. W  iBa 2 1  
ii) When a current carrying coil is placed in non-  
uniform magnetic field, net force, net torque Illustration-46:A flat insulating disc of radius
both act. ‘a’ carries an excess charge on its surface
   
 net  0 and Fnet  0 is of surface charge density  C / m 2 .
  Consider the disc is rotated around the
iii) If the angle made by M of the coil with B in
axis passing through its centre and
uniform magnetic field is ‘  ’, then its potential
perpendicular to its plane with angular
energy 
  speed  rad/s. If magnetic field B is
P.E   M.B ; P.E  MB cos  directed perpendicular to the rotation axis,
iv) If a current carrying coil is rotated in a uniform then find the torque acting on the disc.

magnetic field such that the angle made by M Sol. Suppose the disc is placed in xy-plane and is
 rotated about the z-axis. Consider an annular
wit h B is changed fro m 1 to 2 .
ring of radius r and of thickness dr, the charge
W  MB cos 1  cos 2  on this ring.
v) If an external field is along the direction of M , dq    2 rdr  ; As the ring rotates with
then   0 . angular velocit y  , so t he current
 
  0 and P.E = – MB (min) dq   2 rdr 
This position corresponds to stable equilibrium. i    rdr
 dt 2
vi) If external magnetic field is opposite to M then, 
  180 y
 
  0 and P.E. = + MB (max)
dr
This corresponds to unstable equilibrium.
r x
Illustration-44: A circular loop of area 1cm 2 B

carrying a current of 10A is placed in a

z

Page 184
 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
  
The torque on the current loop   i A  B
 0 i0 i sin  b ii
Hence the torque on this annular ring   dr  0 0  b  a  sin 
   a

d  i d A  B   rdr  r 2 B sin 900 
  Moving coil Galvanometer :
  r 3 Bdr and i) Principle of moving coil galvanometer:
a
When a current carrying coil suspended in a
3  Ba 4 uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque
   B  r dr 
0 4 and hence it rotates.
ii) Poles of magnet are concave in shape, to make
Illustration-47: A loop carrying current ‘i’ is the magnetic field radial, so that at all
lying in the plane of the paper. It is present orientations, the plane of the coil is parallel to
in the field of a long straight wire with the field, and hence torque acting on it is
constant current i0 (inward) as shown in maximum. This makes the relation between
fig. Find the torque acting on the loop. current and deflection as linear.
i
iii) Soft iron cylinder is kept at the center of
magnetic field, to increase the flux.
i 0 iv) Phosphor Bronze material has
2 i i
a a) high Young’s modulus, so that the wire will not
i
b be stretched easily.
b) low rigidity modulus, so that the wire can be
Sol. The field due to current carrying wire is tangential twisted easily.
to every point on the circular portion of the loop c) small elastic after effect, so that it comes back
and hence the forces acting on these segments quickly to original position after withdrawing
are zero. current.
y
v) Small mirror is attached on the phosphor
dr  dF  k Bronze wire, to measure the deflection, using
l
r i l lamp and scale arrangement.
vi) If ' ' is the deflection for passage of current
i 
0

 i i 2 r sin  ‘i’,
a Scale
i
2dr
r
dF  k
B x
Now consider two small elements of length Permanent magnet
dr at a distance r from the axis symmetrically Pointer

as shown in fig.. The magnitude of the force

experienced by each element is Coil

 i 
dF  B i dr   0 0  idr
 2 r  N Sp S
On element 1 it is into the page and on 2 it out Pivot
of the page, d  dF  2r sin 
Soft-iron
 ii  core
  0 0 dr   2 r sin 
 2 r 
Uniform radial
Now total torque magnetic field

Page 185
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

 C  is 45 0 calculate the current passing

then C  BiAN  i    through it
 BAN 
Sol. Given, A  16cm 2  16  104 m 2
 C 
where k    = Galvanometer constant B  0.2T ; N  20, C  106 Nm / degree;
 BNA 
or figure of merit. It is independent of BH .   450 From, C  BiAN
Where ‘C’ is couple per unit twist. C 106  45
vii) a) Current sensitivity of a galvanometer is i 
defined as the deflection produced in the BAN 0.2  16  104  20
galvanometer per unit current flowing through  7.03 103 A  7.03mA
d BAN Illustration-49: A coil area 100cm 2 having 500
it. S I  
di C turns carries a current of 1mA. It is
The best way to increase the current sensivity suspended in a uniform magnetic field of
is  to increase the value of B.
induction 103 Wb/m2. Its plane makes an
b) Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is
defined as the deflection produced in the angle of 600 with the lines of induction.
galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it. Find the torque acting on the coil.
   BAN Sol. Given
SV    
V iG V CG i  1mA  103  103 A;
Where G is resistance of galvanometer. N  500; B  103Wb / m 2
Current or voltage sensitivity can be increased
by   600 ,  ? A  100cm2  100 104 m2
i) Increasing B ii) Increasing A Couple acting on the coil is given by
iii) Increasing N iv) Decreasing C   BiAN sin 
viii) Relation between current sensitivity and
voltage sensitivity current: Where  is angle made by normal to the plane
 of coil with B.   90  60  300
Current sensitivity Si 
i   10 3  10 3  100  104  500  sin 30
  S  250  108 Nm = 2.5  10 6 Nm
Voltage sensitivity Sv   ; Sv  i
V iR R
viii) It is used to measure current upto a minimum Illustration-50: A galvanometer of resistance
of 109 Amp. 95 , shunted by a resistance of 5 ohm
gives a deflection of 50 divisions when
ix) Plane of coil need not be along the magnetic
joined in series with a resistance of 20k
meridian
and a 2 volt accumulator. What is the
x) Galvanometer constant is independent of BH.
current sensitivity of the galvanometer (in
So it can be used to measure currents even at
div/  A )
poles.
xi) External magnetic fields have no effect on 
deflection. So, it can be used to measure current k
even in the environment of stray magnetic fields. G

Illustration-48: The area of the coil in a moving 
V 
coil galvanometer is 16 cm 2 and has 20
Sol: In accordance with given problem, the
turns. The magnetic induction is 0.2T and
the couple per unit twist of the suspended
wire is 10-6 Nm per degree. If the deflection

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

situation is depicted by the circuit diagram in G

fig. As here 20k is much greater than the S
i  G
  1   S 
resistance of shunted galvanometer   5  , n 1
 ig 
the current in the circuit will be
2 i new range old division / amp
I  104 A  100  A and as this Here n  i  old range  new division / amp
20  103 g

current produces deflection of 50 divisions in

GS
 50div 1div iii) Equivalent resistance of ammeter =
the galvanometer CS    GS
I 100  A 2  A iv) The relation between currents is
nearly
iS iG
Conversion of MCG into Ammeter a) i =ig +is b) ig= c)is= G  S
GS
and Voltmeter
ig S i S Is G
Shunt : d)  ; g  ; 
is G i GS I GS
i) A low resistance connected in parallel to
galvanometer to protect it from large current is v) It is a device used to measure current in
known as shunt. electrical circuits.
ii) When shunt is connected, its range increases, vi) Resistance of an ammeter is very small and it is
but sensitivity decreases. zero for an ideal ammeter. Potential drop across
ideal ammeter is zero.
i P Q i
G vii) Ammeter must always be connected in series
ig
to the circuit
is viii) Among low range and high range ammeters,
S low range ammeter has more resistance.
Illustration-51: A galvanometer of resistance
V
20 is shunted by a 2 resistor. What
GS GS part of the main current flows through the
iii) Requivalent  iv) V  iReq  i
GS GS galvanometer?
v) VPQ  ig G  is S ig S
Sol.  . Given G  20; S  2
Ammeter : i GS
i) Galvanometer can be converted into Ammeter ig2 1 1
by connecting low resistance parallel to it.  
 ; th part of current is
i 22 11 11
passing through galvanometer.
i ig Illustration-52: A galvanometer has resistance
G
500 ohm. It is shunted so that its sensitivity
iS decreases by 100 times. Find the shunt
S
resistance.
Ammeter 1
ii) To increase the range by ‘n’ times or to Sol. Sensitivity  range  n  100
decrease the sensitivity by ‘n’ times,
G 500 500
shunt to be connected across Galvanometer is, S     S  5.05
 n  1 100  1 99

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 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Illustration-53: The resistance of galvanometer

V
is 999 . A shunt of 1 is connected to it. 0  V volt is R  i  G
g
If the main current is 102 A, what is the
ix) To increase the range by n times,
current flowing through the galvanometer.
Sol. G  999, S  1 i  102 A; ig  ? new range V2 ig  G  R  R
n   1
old range V1 ig  G  G
 S  2  1  5
ig  i    10     10 A Hence resistance to be connected in series to
 G  S   999  1 
Illustration-54 : A galvanometer has a galvanometer is R = G  n -1
resistance of 98 . If 2% of the main Illustration-55: A maximum current of 0.5mA
current is to be passed through the can be passed through a galvanometer of
galvanometer, what should be the value of resistance 20 , Calculate the resistance
the shunt? to be connected in series to convert it into
ig a voltmeter of range  0  5  V .
Sol: G  98  ;  100  2
i
V
G i 100 98 Sol. R  G  n  1 , where n  V
s ;   50  S   2 g
i  ig 2  50 1
  1
 ig  V  5V ;Vg  ig G  0.5 103  20  10 2V
VOLTMETER  n  500 and R  20  500  1  9980
R G Q
P Illustration-56: A galvanometer has a resistance
ig of 100 . A current of 103 A pass through
V the galvanometer How can it be converted
Voltmeter into (a) ammeter of range 10A and (b)
i) Galvanometer is converted into voltmeter by voltmeter of range 10V
connecting high resistance in series to it.
Sol. G  100; ig  103 A
ii) Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the
conductor [P.D. across which is to be i 4
a) i  10 A; n  i  10
measured) in the circuit. g

iii) P.D. across the ends of voltmeter is, G 100 100

S   
V  ig ( G  R )  n  1 10  1 9999
4

iv) Voltmeter is used to measure P.D across the b) Vg  ig G  10 3 100  101V

conductor in electric circuits.
v) Resistance of a voltmeter is very high and that Note 1: An ammeter can be converted into a volt
of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. Current drawn meter by connecting a high resistance in series
by an ideal voltmeter is zero. to it.
vi) Among low range and high range voltmeters, Note 2: A volt meter can be coverted into an
high range voltmeter has more resistance. ammeter by connecting a very small resistance
vii) Equivalent resistance of voltmeter = G+R in parallel to it
viii) Resistance to be connected in series to
galvanometer to convert into voltmeter of range

Page 188
 MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

and it indicates 0o  0o .
V 10
V  10V  n   1  100 iii) current measured by Tangent galvanometer is
Vg 10
 2rBH 
 R  G  n  1  100 100  1  9900 i   Tan  KTan ; r = radius of
 0 n 
Illustration-57: What is the value of shunt, coil, K = reduction factor; n = number of
which passes 10% of the main current turns of coil
through a galvanometer of resistance 99 iv) SI unit of reduction factor is ampere
ohm? v) Reading is more accurate, when   450 , since
Sol. As shunt is a small resistance S in parallel with di 1
a galvanometer (of resistance G) as shown in relative error  and it is minimum
i sin 2
fig.  I  I G  S  IG G for 450 .
(I  IG) vi) Sensitivity is maximum, when   00 since
d
S  cos 2  , which is maximum for   00 .
di
G vii) Reduction factor K depends on horizontal
I IG component of earth’s magnetic field.
ig S 10 S viii) T.G gives different readings at different places
 ; 
i G  S 100 99  S for same current. Since BH changes from place
to place.
99  S  10S S  11 ix) T.G cannot be used at magnetic poles, since
 TANGENT GALVANOMETER : BH  0 at magnetic poles.
x) T.G is used to measure the current of the order
of 106 A.
WIRE
BH Illustration-58:A magnetic needle is arranged
at the centre of a current carrying coil
 having 50 turns with radius of coil 20cm
arranged along magnetic meridian. When
s B a current of 0.5mA is allowed to pass
Pointer through the coil the deflection is observed
to be 300. Find the horizontal component
of earth’s magnetic field
i) Tangent galvanometer works on the principle 0 ni
of Tangent law i.e., B  BH Tan . Sol: B  BH tan   BH
2r tan 
Here B = Magnetic induction at the centre of 4  10 7  50  5  10 4  3
 ni B 
2  2 10 1  1
H
the current carrying coil  0
2r
ii) It is a moving magnet type galvanometer.  25 3 109 T
iii) During experiment, plane of the coil should be  135.9  109 T
along the magnetic meridian [to fulfill the
 1.36  107 T
requirement of tangent law] or magnetic need
in parallel to the plane of the coil or aluminium
pointer perpendicular to the plane of the coil

Page 189
Page 190
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Magnet: A body which attracts substances poles or between a pole and a piece of
like Iron,Cobalt, Nickel and which exhibits unmagnetized material due to induction.
directive property is called Magnet.
5. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs. If a magnet
Types of Magnet: is broken into number of pieces, each piece
i) Natural magnets: a) The magnet which is becomes a magnet with two equal and opposite
found in nature is called a natural magnet poles. This implies that monopole does not exist.
Eg: magnetite.  Fe3O4  , Hematite and earth 6. The two poles of a magnet are found to be
equal in strength and opposite in nature.
magnetic field
7. Unlike poles attract each other and like poles
b) Generally they are weak magnets. repel each other.
ii) Artificial magnets:The magnets which are  Magnetic axis and magnetic meridian
artificially prepared are known as artificial
magnets. These are generally made of iron, steel The line joining the poles of a magnet is called
and nickel. magnetic axis and the vertical plane passing
through the axis of a freely suspended magnet
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS : is called magnetic meridian.
1) Attractive property : The property of Geometrical length (L) : The actual length of
attracting pieces of iron, steel , cobalt , nickel magnet is called geometric length.
etc by a magnet is called attractive property.

It was found that when a magnet is dipped
into iron filings, the concentrations of iron
 
Magnetic length 2l : The shortest distance
fillings is maximum at ends and minimum at between two poles of a magnet along the axis
centre. The places in a magnet where the is called magnetic length or effective length. As
attracting power is maximum are called poles. the poles are not exactly at the ends, the
2. Directive property : If a magnet is suspended magnetic length is always lesser than geometric
freely, its length becomes parallel to N-S length of a magnet. Effective length depends
direction. This is called directive property. The only on the positions of the poles but not on the
pole at the end, pointing north is called north magnet.
pole while the other pointing south is called south Examples :
pole.
2l
3. Inductive property: When a magnetic
substance such as iron bar is kept very close to S N
S N
a magnet, an opposite pole is induced at the L 2R
nearer end and a similar pole is induced at the
farther end of the magnetic substance.This Magnetic length = 2l Magnetic length = 2R
property is known as inductive property. Geometrical length = L Geometrical
A magnet attracts certain other magnetic length   R
substance through the phenomenon of magnetic Magnetic length is a vector quantity. its direction
induction. Induction precedes attraction. is from south pole to north pole along its axis.
4. Repulsion is a sure test of magnetism.A pole of
5
a magnet, attracts the opposite pole while repels Magnetic length = × Geometrical length
similar pole. However a sure test of magnetism 6
is repulsion but not attraction.Because Pole Strength (m) : The ability of a pole to
attraction can takes place between opposite

Page 191
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

attract or repel another pole of a magnet is N S

called pole strength.
S.I Unit : ampere - meter
Pole strength is a scalar. It depends on the Pole strength of each part =m (  area of cross
area of cross section of the pole. Its dimensional section remains same)
Length of each part  2 / n
formula is  M 0 LT 0 A1  Magnetic moment of each part,
Magnetic dipole: A configuration of two 2 M
magnetic poles of opposite nature and equal M1   m 
n n
strength separated by a finite distance is called iii) When the magnet is cut into ‘x’ equal parts
as magnetic dipole. parallel to its length and ‘y’ equal parts
Magnetic dipole moment (M): perpendicular to its length, then
The product of pole strength (either pole) and
magnetic length of the magnet is called magnetic N S
dipole moment or simply magnetic moment. x parts
If ‘m’ be the pole strength of each pole and
' 2 ' be the magnetic length, then magnetic
moment M is given by M  m  2 y parts
  pole strength of each part = m/x
In vector form, M  2 m
Length of each part = 2 / y
Magnetic moment is a vector whose direction
is along the axis of the magnet from south to 2 m M
Magnetic moment of each part, M1  
north pole. The S.I. unit of magnetic moment y x xy
is ampere-meter2 (A-m2), its dimensional Variation of magnetic moment due to
formula is [AL2] bending of magnets
Variation of magnetic moment due to When a bar magnet is bent, its pole strength
cutting of magnets : remains same but magnetic length decreases.
Consider a bar magnet of length ' 2 ' , pole Therefore magnetic moment decreases.
strength ‘m’ and magnetic moment ‘M’ i) When a thin bar magnet of magnetic
i) When the bar magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal moment M is bent in the form of -shape
parts parallel to its length, then
with the arms of equal length as shown in
N S
figure, then
S N
Pole strength of each part = m/n
(  area of cross section becomes (1/n) times M/3 M/3
of original magnet) N S
Length of each part = 2  (remains same) S N
 Magnet ic moment of each part, M 1 M/3
m M Magnetic moment of each part = M / 3
 2  
n n
Note: If it is cut ‘n’ times , parallel to its length then Net magnetic moment of the combination,
magnetic moment of each part is  M
M 1  2l 
m

M M1 
3
 
ˆj 
M ˆ M ˆ
3
i  
3
j 
3

M ˆ
i 
n 1 n 1
ii) When the magnet is cut into ‘n’ equal parts M
 M1 
perpendicular to its length then 3
ii) When a thin magnetic needle of magnetic
moment M is bent at the middle, so that
the two equal parts are perpendicular as

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

shown in figure, then 

N 2 M sin
M1  4  2 2M
M/2 2 /
   
 
S  2 
N S
M/2 b) If    radians, i.e., if the magnet is bent in
the form of a semi circle, then
M
Magnetic moment of each part =
2 
2 M sin
Net magnetic moment of the combination, M1  2  2M
 M  
M 1  iˆ   ˆj 
M M M
 M 1  2 
2 2 2 2
iii) When a thin bar magnet of magnetic =
moment M is bent into an arc of a circle S N
subtending an angle '  ' radians at the c) If   2 radians, i.e., if the magnet is bent in
centre of the circle, then its new magnetic the form of a circle, then
2 M sin 
  M1  0
2 M sin   2
moment is given by 1  2  ( 
M  iv) When a magnet in the form of an arc of a
 circle making an angle '  'at the centre
must be in radians) having magnetic moment 'M' is
2 2 straightened, then
ie   R effective length of the magnet increases. Hence
R 
Magnetic moment increases
y y New magnet ic moment is given by
S N
M
M1 
/2  
2 sin  
R (  must be in radians)

 2 

 Resultant Magnetic Moment due to
from the figure, Effective length = 2y= 2R sin combination of Magnets :
2
N2
 
 sin   y  y  R sin   
M2

 2 R  2  S2

 New Magnetic Moment, M1
 2   S1 N1
M 1  m  2 y  m 2   sin i) When two bar magnets of moments M1 and M2
   2
are joined so that their like poles touch each other
 and their axes are inclined at an angle '  ' , then
2 M sin  
 2  M  2 m the resultant magnetic moment of the combination
 M1  ‘M1’ is given by

S M1  M12  M 22  2M1M 2 cos 
(   angle between the directions of magnetic
 
a) If   radians, 
2
moments)
2 S2
N
i.e., if the magnet is bent in the form of a N2
quadrant of a circle, then 
ii) M1
0
(180 - ) S N1
1
M2

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

When two bar magnets of moments M1 and M1 and M2 are placed at right angles to each
M2 are joined so that their unlike poles touch other then resultant magnetic moment,
each other and their axes are inclined at an angle M1  M12  M22    90  .
0

‘  ’, then the resultant magnetic moment S N

M
M1
M12M 22  2M1M 2 cos(180 0 ) M M S
N
N S

[  angle between directions of magnetic moments iii) M

M

is (1800 -  )] N S
S N
N
S
S M N M
M  1
M12  M 22  2M1M 2 cos  When identical magnets each of magnetic
M1 M2 moment M are arranged to form a closed
polygon like a triangle (or) square with unlike
a) poles at each corner, then resultant magnetic
S1 N1N2 S2 moment, M1 = 0.
When two bar magnets of moments M1 and In the above point , if one of the magnets is
M2 (M1>M2) are placed coaxially with like reversed pole to pole then resultant magnetic
poles in contact then resultant magnetic moment, moment, M 1  2M
M1=M1–M2
S N
(  angle between the directions of magnetic
0
120
moments, 1800 ) 3M 2M
=
M M

2M 60
0
M
M1 M2 iv)
N S
b) M
S M N
S NS
1 N 1 2 When three bar magnets of equal length but
2

When two bar magnets of moments M1 and moments M, 2M and 3M are arranged to form
M2 (M1>M2) are placed coaxially with unlike an equilateral triangle with unlike poles at each
poles are in contact then resultant magnetic corner, resultant magnetic moment is given by
moment, M1=M1+M2
(  angle between directions of magnetic moments, M  2M   M  2  2M  M  cos120  3M
1 2 2 0

  00 ) v) When four bar magnets of moments M, 2M,

S 2 N 2
3M & 4M are arranged to form a square with
M unlike poles at each corner, then resultant
2
c) M magnetic moment is given by
1
3M
S1 N1 2M
When two bar magnets of magnetic moments S
N
N S

M1 and M2 are placed one over the other with 2M

4M
= 2M
like poles on the same side, then resultant N
S N S

magnetic moment, M1 = M1+M2    0 0  M

M1  2M  2M  22M 2M  cos900  2 2M

2 2
N2 S2
M2
d) vi) When half of the length of a thin bar magnet of
M1
magnetic moment M is bent into a semi circle
S1 N1
When two bar magnets of magnetic moments as shown in figure, then
M1 and M2 are placed one over the other S N
with unlike poles on the same side, then S N
M2
resultant magnetic moment,M1 = M1  M2.
   1800  M1
resultant magnetic moment, M1 = M1+M2
N1 N1 S1 S1 M 
S2 N2 N2 2    2   
 2  M M M  M 
e)
S1 S2 N2 S2 N1      2 
 2  2
When two bar magnets of magnetic moments In the above case if the two parts are arranged

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

perpendicular to each other, then resultant

magnetic moment is
M  M 
2 2

M  M M
1 2 2       N S
1 2     2 
S

M1 (vi) If in any point, in the combined field due to two

M

2
4   2  M2 N magnets, there are no lines of force, it follows
NS that the resultant field at that point is zero. Such
Magnetic field : points are called null or neutral points.
Around a pole there exist a region called (vii) Lines of force in a field represent the strength
magnetic field in which the influence of the pole of the field at a point in the field. Lines of force
is felt. are crowded themselves in regions where the
The space around the magnet is said to be field is strong and they spread themselves apart
associated with a field known as magnetic field, at places where the field is weak.
if another magnet is brought into the space, it is (viii) Lines of force have a tendency to pass through
acted upon by a force due to this energy. magnetic substances. They show maximum
Magnetic induction is the measure of magnetic tendency to pass through ferro magnetic
field both in magnitude and direction. materials.
(ix) When a soft iron ring is placed in magnetic field,
Magnetic Field Lines : then most of lines of force pass through the
The imaginary path in which a free unit north ring and no lines of force pass through the space
pole would tend to move in a magnetic field is inside the ring as shown in figure. The
known as a magnetic line of force (or) simply phenomenon is known as magnetic screening
magnetic “field line”. or shielding.

N S
B=0
Magnetic line of force with magnetic needle
Characteristics of lines of force :
(i) Magnetic lines of force are closed curves. (x) If the magnetic lines of force are straight,
Outside the magnet, their direction is from north parallel, and equally spaced then the magnetic
to south pole, while inside the magnet they are field is said to be uniform.
from south to north pole. Hence they have neither  Magnetic Induction (or) Induction Field
origin nor end. Strength (B)
(ii) Tangent at any point to the line of force gives Magnetic induction field strength at a point
the direction of magnetic field at that point. in the magnetic field is defined as the force
(iii) Two lines of force never intersect each other. If experienced by unit north pole placed at
the two lines of force intersect, at the intersecting that point. It is denoted by ‘B’.
point the field should have two directions, which If a pole of strength ‘m’ placed at a point in a
is not possible. magnetic field experiences a force ‘F’, the
(iv) The lines of force tend to contract longitudinally magnetic induction (B) at that point is given by
or length wise, as shown in figure. Due to this
property the two unlike poles attract each other. F
B i.e., F  mB
m
 B is a vector quantity directed away from N-
N S
pole or towards S-pole.
B
(v) The lines of force tend to repel each other N B S
laterally. Due to this property the two similar Unit North Unit North
Pole Pole
poles repel each other. S.I. Unit of B :

Page 195
 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

N J V s wb direction or both is known as non uniform

(or ) (or ) 2 (or ) 2 ( or )tesla (T ) magnetic field.
A m A  m2 m m
CGS Unit of B : gauss (G) 1G = 10–4 T  It is represented by non-parallel lines of force
Ex: The magnetic field near the pole of any
Dimensions of B : magnet
F [MLT 2 ] Magnetic flux   : It is equal to the total
B   [ML0T 2 A1 ]
m [ AL] number of magnetic lines of force passing
When placed in an external magnetic field, all normal through a given area. Its S.I. unit is
N-poles experience a force (F= mB) in the weber and C.G.S. unit is maxwell
direction of the field and all S-poles experience 1 weber = 108 maxwell
the same force in the direction opposite to the

  B.A  BAcos
field.
Where ‘ ’ is the angle made by magnetic field
F = mB 
N
B
 
B with the area  n̂ 
F = mB

S
A  Anˆ A = area of the coil
It is a scalar. Dimensional formula is
Magnetic induction at a point due to an
isolated magnetic pole :  ML2 T 2 I 1  .
Consider a magnetic pole of strength ‘m’ kept Magnetic Flux Density (B): The number of
at the point ‘O’. Consider a point ‘P’ at a magnetic flux lines passing per unit area of cross
distance ‘r’ from ‘O’. To find the magnetic section normal to the cross section is called
induction at the point ‘P’, imagine a unit north magnetic flux density.
pole at P.
B=  / A
O
m P SI unit is weber metre-2 or tesla or NA–1m–1.
Its C.G.S. unit is gauss
r
1 gauss = 10-4 tesla
 m 1
Force on unit north pole at P  o N  Its dimensional formula is [M1L0T-2A-1]
4 r 2  It is also known as magnetic induction and
Force on unit north pole at ‘P’ gives the magnetic field.
magnetic induction at that point.  The relation between B and H is B0 = H in
 Magnetic induction at P is vacuum and B =  H in a material medium,
where is the absolute permeability of the
o m medium.
B newton/amp–metre (or) tesla (T)
4 r 2 Couple acting on the bar magnet (or)
Types of Magnetic Field Torque on a Magnetic Dipole (  )
i) Uniform magnetic field: The magnetic field,  When a bar magnet of moment M and length
in which the magnetic induction field strength is 2l is placed in a uniform field of induction B,
same both in magnitude and direction at all then each pole experiences a force mB in
points, is known as uniform magnetic field. opposite directions.
 In such a magnetic field the magnetic lines of B
force are equidistant and parallel straight lines.
Ex: Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic N mB
field in a limited region. 2l 
ii) Non uniform magnetic field: The magnetic
field, in which the magnetic induction or field mB S
strength differs either in magnitude or in the
As a result the bar magnet experiences a couple

Page 196
MAGNETISM AND MATTER

and moment of couple is developed.

 Moment of couple acting on the bar magnet is    1   2  M1B sin 1  M2 B sin 2
 = Force x perpendicular distance between  BM1 sin 1  M 2 sin 2 
two forces. B
= mB  2l sin  =  2l  m  B sin  = M B M1

sin N1
S2
Where  is the angle between magnetic moment 
and magnetic field.
 
In vector notation   M  B N2 S1
M2
 When the bar magnet is either along or opposite
to the direction of magnetic field, then moment  A pivoted magnetic needle of length 2l and pole
of couple=0. strength 'm' is at rest in magnetic meridian.
 When the bar magnet is perpendicular to the a) If it is held in equilibrium at an angle '  ' with
direction of applied magnetic field, then the BH, by pulling its north pole towards east by a
string. Then tension in the string is
moment of couple is maximum. i.e.  max = from the figure ,
MB y
 In a uniform magnetic field, a bar magnet cos    y   cos 

experiences only a couple but no net force. BH
Therefore it undergoes only rotatory motion. N
 In a non-uniform magnetic field a bar magnet  F
l  y
experiences a couple and also a net force. So
it undergoes both rotational and translational l
S
motion.
 Two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and M2
are joined in the form of a (+) and this In equilibrium
arrangement is pivoted so that it is free to rotate  tension   BH  F cos   MBH sin 
in a horizontal plane under the influence of
earth's horizontal magnetic field. If '  ' is the (or) F cos   2m BH sin 
angle made by the magnetic meridian with M1  F  2mBH tan 
in equilibrium position, then
b) In the above case, if the magnetic needle is
 1   2  M1BH sin  = M2BH sin 90    held in equilibrium at an angle '  ' to a uniform
M2 magnetic induction field BH by applying a force
 tan   F at a distance 'r' from the pivot along a direction
M1 perpendicular to the field, then
2 BH 1 BH

M2 90– M1 N

N2 N1 
F
r

S
S1 S2
 Two magnets of moments M1 and M2 are joined
as shown in figure and the arrangement is Fr cos   MBH sin
pivoted so that it is free to rotate in a horizontal
plane under the influence of magnetic field B. F
MBH tan  2m BH tan 

Then net torque acting on the system is given by r r
c) In the above case, if the force is applied at
one end which is always perpendicular to length
of the magnetic needle, then
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

BH inclined to the magnetic field (B) ?

N Sol: We know that,  = MB sin 

If  = 90° then  max = MB ..... (1)
l F
 max
l  MBsin  ..... (2)
S 2
From equations (1) and (2)
 tension   BH  F  2m BH sin  2 = sin1  or sin   1 or   30
2
 F  2mBH sin  Illustration-2 : A bar magnet of magnetic
d) In the above case, if the force applied is moment M1 is suspended by a wire in a
always perpendicular to length of the magnetic magnetic field. The upper end of the wire
needle but at a distance 'r' from the pivot, then
B
is rotated through 1800, then the magnet
H

N
rotated through 45 0 . Under similar
 conditions another magnet of magnetic
r
F
moment M2 is rotated through 300. Then
S l find the ratio of M1 & M2 .
Sol: C     MBsin 
Fr sin 90  MB H sin 
0
For first magnet,
MBH sin  2mBH sin  C 180  45  M 1 B sin 450 ----(1)
 F 
r r For second magnet,
 A magnet of moment 'M' is suspended in the
C 180  30  M 2 B sin 300 ----(2)
magnetic meridian with an untwisted wire. The
upper end of the wire is rotated through an angle Diving equation (1) by equation (2)
'  ' to deflect the magnet by an angle '  ' from
135 M 1 M 9
magnetic meridian. Then deflecting couple acting   2  1 
150 M 2 M 2 10 2
on the magnet = MBH sin 
Illustration-3 : A magnetic dipole is under the

influence of two magnetic fields. The angle
N between the two field directions is 600 and

S N one of the fields has a magnitude of 1.2 ×
S
10 –2 T. If the dipole comes to stable
equilibrium at an angle of 150 with this
field, what is the magnitude of the other
Restoring couple developed in suspension wire
field? [sin150=0.2588]
= C   where C is couple per unit twist
Sol. Here B1 = 1.2 × 10–2 T. Inclination of dipole
of suspension wire.
with B1 is 1 = 150. Therefore, inclination of
 In equilibrium position,
MBH sin   C   dipole with B2 is 2  600  150  450 . As the
Illustration-1 : When a bar magnet is placed dipole is in equilibrium, therefore the torque on
o
at 90 to a uniform magnetic field, it is the dipole due to the two fields are equal and
acted upon by a couple which is maximum. opposite. If M is magnetic dipole moment of
For the couple to be half of the maximum the dipole, then
value, at what angle should the magnet be

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER

1 =150
0
When the bar magnet is anti-parallel to the
B1
2
=
45 applied field, then  = 1800 and potential energy
B2 is maximum i.e. U= +MB. It is said to be
unstable equilibrium.
Illustration-5:A magnet is suspended at an angle
600 in an external magnetic field of 5 × 10–4
T. What is the work done by the magnetic field
60
0 in bringing it in its direction ? [The magnetic
MB1 sin 1  MB2 sin 2 moment = 20 A-m2]
Sol. Work done by the magnetic field,
B1 sin 1 1.2 102 sin150
B2   W=MB  cos1  cos 2  Here 1  600 and
 sin 2 sin 450
2  00
1.21020.2588 4.39103 T
  W  20  5104 cos60 0  cos 0 0 
0.707
Illustration-4 : A compass needle of magnetic 1 
 102   1  5  10 3 J .
moment 60A-m 2 , pointing towards 2 
geographical north at a certain place Illustration-6 : A magnetic needle lying
where the horizontal component of earth’s parallel to a magnetic field requires W
magnetic field is 40 wb/m 2 experiences a units of work to turn it through 600. What
torque of 1.2×10 –3 Nm. Find the is the torque needed to maintain the
declination at that place. needle in this position?
Sol. If  is the declination of the place, then the Sol. In case of a dipole in a magnetic field,
torque acting on the needle is   M BH sin  W  MB cos 1  cos 2  and  = MB sin 
 1.2  10 3 1 Here, 1  00 and 2  600
 sin    
M BH 60  40  106 2    30
0


So, W  MB (1 cos  )  2 MB sin
2
Work done in rotating a magnetic dipole in a 2
magnetic field
 
 The work done in deflecting a magnet from and ,   MB sin   2 MB sin cos
2 2
angular position 1 to an angular position 2  
τ
So, W  cot  2 , i.e τ  W cot 30  3W
0
with the field is (equal to the change in PE)
given as W  MB  cos 1  cos 2  Illustration-7 : A bar magnet has a magnetic
 The work done in deflecting a bar magnet moment 2.5 J T –1 and is placed in a
through an angle  from its state of equilibrium magnetic field of 0.2 T. Calculate the work
done in turning the magnet from parallel
position in a uniform magnetic field is given by
to antiparallel position relative to field
W  MB1  cos    here 1  0 0 ,  2    direction.
When it is released, this work done converts Sol. Work done in changing the orientation of a dipole
into rotational KE of moment M in a field B from position 1to 2

MB(1-Cos )= I 2
1 is given by W  MB cos 1  cos 2 
2
 When a bar magnet is held at an angle  with Here, 1  00 and 2  1800
the magnetic field, the potential energy So, W  2 MB  2 2.5 0.2  1 J
possessed by the magnet is U = –MB cos  Illustration-8 : A bar magnet with poles 25 cm
 When the bar magnet is parallel to the applied apart and pole-strength 14.4 A-m rests with
field, then  = 00 and potential energy is its centre on a frictionless pivot. It is held
(-MB).It is said to be stable equilibrium. in equilibrium at 600 to a uniform magnetic
 When the bar magnet is perpendicular to the field of induction 0.25 T by applying a force
applied field, then  = 900 and potential energy F at right angles to its axis, 10cm from its
is zero
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

pivot. Calculate F. What will happen if the   0  M (3cos 2   1)

force is removed? B=  
 4  d3
Sol. The situation is shown in figure. In equilibrium
the torque on M due to B is balanced by torque  = 00 for axial line ;  = 900 for equatorial line
     For a short bar magnet , at two equidistant
due to F, i.e., i.e., M  B  r  F points, one on the axial and the other on
mB
B equatorial line Ba  2 Be
60
0
Force between two magnets :When one
M
magnet is placed in the field of another magnet
0 F it usually experiences a couple or force or both
and has potential energy. Depending on the
mB orientation of the magnets relative to each
 m  2l  B sin  other, the following situations are discussed .
MB sin   Fr sin 900 or F i) When magnets are along the line joining
r
( as M = m x 2l) ; So substituting the given their centers
data, If the opposite poles of two magnets face
each other as shown in Fig.(A), the field due to
F
 
14.4  25  102  0.25 
= 7.8 N
3/2   
M1 at the position of M 2 , i.e., at O2, will be :
2
10  10
     2M
If the force F is removed, the torque M  B B1  0 3 1 with   00
will become unbalanced and under its action 4 r

the magnet will execute oscillatory motion about [ as O2 lies on the axis of M1 ]
the direction of B on its pivot O which will not   
be simple harmonic as sin    So couple on M 2 due to M1 , i.e., B1 is
  
Magnetic Field due to a Bar Magnet τ 2  M 2  B1  0
i) Axial line: The magnetic induction at a point  
2Md [ as M 2 is parallel to B1 , i.e.,   0 ]........(1)
 0 
on the axial line is Ba =  4  d 2  l 2 2
  M1 M2
F1 F2
For a short bar magnet i.e. l  d S O1 N S O2 N
B2 B1
 0  2M
then Ba =   3
 4  d r

 The direction of magnetic induction on the axial Attraction

(A)
line is along the direction of magnetic moment.
(from S to N) M1
F1 F2
M2

ii) Equatorial line: The magnetic induction at S O1 N N O2 S

B2 B1
a point on the equatorial line at a distance d
r
0 M
from the centre is Be  4 (d  l 2 )3/ 2
2
Repulsion
(B)
  
For a short bar magnet i.e. l   d Similarly, τ1  M 1  B 2  0
 0  M  
then Be =   [as M1 is parallel to B2 i.e.,   0 ] ....(2)
 4  d 3
 The direction of magnetic induction on the i.e., the magnets will not exert any couple on
equatorial line is in the direction opposite to each other
 
magnetic moment. And as U = MB, the interaction energy of
iii) At any point in the plane of axial and  
equatorial lines: the system (i.e., P.E. of M 2 in the field of M1
 
or P.E. of M1 in the field of M 2 ) will be

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER

     2M1M2 d  0 M1M 2   3M1M 2

U  M 2 . B1  M1 . B2   0 F1  F2     0 ..............
4 r3 dr  4 r 3  4 r4
  (7)
[as M 2 is parallel to B1 , i.e.,   00 ].........(3) From equation (7) it is clear that interaction
 force varies as (1/r4).
Now as F = - (dU/dr) so force on M1 due to
   Superposition of Magnetic fields
M 2 or force on M 2 due to M1 will be (Neutral points and their location) :
d  0 2M1M 2  In the combined field due to bar magnet and
F1  F2    
dr  4 r 3  horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
0 6M1M 2 (BH):
 ––––––(4) Earth’s magnetic field is present every where
4 r 4
From equation (4) it is clear that interaction and its horizontal component extends from
south to north. When a magnet is placed any
 force between the magnets varies as
where, its field gets superimposed over the
(1/r4).
earth’s field, giving rise to resultant magnetic
When magnets are perpendicular to the
field. In this resultant magnetic field, there are
line joining their centers
certain points where the resultant magnetic
If the similar poles of two magnets face each
 induction field becomes zero. At these points,
other as shown in Fig. (A), the field due to M1 the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
 field exactly balances the field due to the
at the position of M 2 , i.e., at O2 will be
magnet. These points are called null points
N N N S or neutral points.
M1 O1 F1 F2 O2 M 2 M1 O1 F1 F2 O2 M2
S S S N
“The points in the magnetic field where the
resultant magnetic induction field becomes
B2
r
B1 B2
r
B1 zero are called null points”.
Repulsion Attraction (i) North pole of the magnet pointing towards
(A) (B)
geographical north : When a magnet is placed
  M in the magnetic meridian, with its north pole
B1  0 31 with   900 [as O2 lies on the facing geographic north, the combined magnetic
4 r
 field lines due to earth and the bar magnet are
equatorial line of M1 ] as shown in the figure.
  
Now as B1 is antiparallel to M 2 and B2 to

M1 , i.e.,   1800 , so
  
C2  M 2  B1  0 and N1 N2
  
C1  M1  B2  0 ........... (5)
i.e., the magnets will not exert any couple on
each other
 
And as U  M.B , the interaction energy of  Along the axial line, on both sides of the magnet,
  the two fields have same direction. The
the system (i.e.,P.E. of M 2 in the field of M1
  magnitude of resultant magnetic field is the sum
or P.E. of M1 in the field of M 2 ) will be
of the magnitudes of two fields.
     M M
U  M 2 .B1  M1.B2  0 1 3 2 ........... (6)  As we deviate from axial line, the two fields
 4 r differ in direction.
[as M 2 is antiparallel to B1 , i.e.,   1800 ]  On the equatorial line, the direction of the two
 fields are exactly opposite to each other.
Now as F = -(dU/dr), so force on M1 due to
  
M 2 or on M 2 due to M1 will be

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

 At N1 and N2 on the equatorial line, the 0 2Md

magnetic induction field due to the magnet is B  BH
4  d 2  2 2
exactly same as that of earth’s horizontal
component. These points are called null points. (where BH is earth’s horizontal magnetic
If the average distance of N1 and N2 from the induction field)
centre of the magnet is ‘d’ then 0 2M
Bmagnet = BH (horizontal component of earth’s For short magnet,  BH
4 d3
magnetic field) If the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field BH at the given place is known, the
 M
 0  B H  4.16 magnetic moment (M) of the magnet can be
4  d 2  l 2 3 / 2 determined by locating the neutral points.
(iii) Magnet placed perpendicular to the
 M magnetic meridian : When a bar magnet is
For short magnet 0 3  BH  4.17 placed with its axial line perpendicular to the
4 d
magnetic meridian with its north pole facing east
(ii) North pole of the magnet pointing towards of earth, the resultant magnetic field is shown in
geographic south: the figure Along a line making an angle of
When a magnet is placed in the magnetic tan1  2  with east - west line, there are two
meridian with its north pole facing geographic
south, the field lines of the resultant magnetic points (N1 and N2 ) where the resultant
field are shown in the figure. magnetic induction field is zero. Thus N1 (on
the N-W line) and N2 ( on the S-E line) are the
null points.
At the null point,
N1
0 M
N BH  1  3 cos 2  where Tan  2
4 d 3

W E S N

O N1
N
S
N2
W O E

 The directions of the two fields ( horizontal

component of earth’s magnetic field and the
field due to the magnet) are exactly opposite to
each other, on the axial line. N2
 As we deviate from the axial line, the two fields S
differ in direction.
1  B  2 0 M
 The directions of the two fields at all points on  cos  
4 d3
H
the equatorial line is the same. 3
 Along the axial line, the magnetic field due to (iv) If a very long magnet is placed vertically
magnet decreases in magnitude on moving away with its one pole on a horizontal wooden
from the centre of the magnet. There will be table (or) when an isolated magnetic pole
points N1 and N2 situated at equal distances is kept in the earth’s magnetic field, then
from the centre of the magnet, where the fields
are exactly balanced by the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field. These
points are called null points.
At null points,

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

S 0 M
Bnet  B|e  BH   BH  7BH
4  d 3
 
 2 
(iii) At a distance '2d' on equatorial line, the net
N
magnetic induction is given by
 M
Bnet= BH  B||e  BH  0
BH BH 4 2d 3
BH
BH 7BH
n = BH  
B 8 8
N S (iv) At a distance 'd' on axial line of the bar magnet,
B
H the net magnetic induction is given by
Bnet=Ba+BH=2Be + BH = 2BH + BH=3BH.
n
(v) If the axis of the bar magnet is rotated through
B
 A single neutral point will be formed in the 900 clockwise at the same position then the net
combined field on the horizontal table. magnetic induction at the same point 'P' is
If ‘m’ is the pole strength and ‘d’ is the
Bnet= B2a  B2H = 5 BH  Ba 2Be 2BH
distance from the pole of the magnet where the
BH
0  m N Bnet
neutral point is formed, then BH  4 d 2
1 1
 If the north pole is on the table, then the S N
P B a
neutral point is formed towards geographic
S
south side of the pole.
 If the south pole is on the table, then the (vi) If the axis of the magnet is rotated through
neutral point is formed towards geographic 1800 at the same position, then net magnetic
north induction at the same point 'P' is
side of the pole. Bnet = Be + BH = 2BH
Note: A short bar magnet is kept along  A short bar magnet is kept along magnetic
magnetic meridian with its north pole meridian with its south pole pointing north.
pointing north. A neutral point is formed at A neutral point is formed at a point 'P' at a
point 'P' at distance 'd' from the centre of distance 'd' from the centre of the magnet
the magnet then then
(i)at a distance 'd' on axial line of the bar magnet
B a net magnetic induction,
BH BH
BH BH BH BH d n1 P
N Ba
n2 n1 S
d d
d P 2d BH
S 2
Be
Be B1 Be B 11
e
BH
e

N
(i) At a distance 'd' on equatorial line, net magnetic
induction B net = 0  2M
0 M  0 . 3  BH
B = 0 i.e., B = B 4 d
ie Be  BH  .  BH net a H
4 d3 d
(ii) At a distance d/2 from the centre of the (ii) At a distance on axial line of bar magnet,
magnet on equatorial line, the net magnetic 2
induction is given by net magnetic induction is given by
 0 2M
Bnet  B1a  BH  .  BH  7BH
4  d 3
 
 2 

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

(iii)At a distance '2d' on axial line of the bar magnet, At neutral point, B1 = B2
net magnetic induction is given by  m  m2
 0 . 21  0 .
 2M 4 x 4  d  x 2
Bnet  BH  B||a  BH  0
4 2d 3 d
on solving, we get x 
m2
BH 7B H 1
 BH   m1
8 8
(iv) At a distance 'd' on equatorial line of the bar Neutral points in the combined field due to
magnet, net magnetic induction is short bar magnets :
B Two short bar magnets of magnetic moments
Bnet  Be  BH  a  BH M1 and M2 (M1 < M2) are placed at a distance
2 ‘d’ between their centers with their magnetic
B 3 axes oriented as shown in the figure, Then two
 H  BH  B H
2 2 neutral points are formed (i) in between and (ii)
(v) If axis of the magnet is rotated through 900 outside and on the line passing through centers
clockwise at the same position, then net of the magnets. In either case, null point is
magnetic induction at the same point 'P' is always closer to magnet of weaker moment.
given by B1 B2
x S1
M1
N1 x
B1 B2
N2
M2
S2
n2 n1

5  B B 
BH  Be  a  H 
d
Bnet  B2e  B2H 
2 
 2 2  B B
S 1
1 N
1

(vi) If axis of the magnet is rotated through 1800

2

x x
,then magnetic induction at the point 'P' is n 2 n 1

Bnet = Ba + BH = BH + BH = 2BH B N
2B 1 S 2 2

M M
Neutral points in the combined field due to Case i) : If the neutral point is formed in between
1 2

isolated magnetic poles : the magnets, then B1 = B2

(i) When two like magnetic poles of pole strengths  2M  2M2
m1 and m2 (m1 < m2) are separated by a  0 . 31  0 .
4 x 4  d  x 3
distance ‘d’, then neutral point is formed in
between the poles and on the line joining them. d
Let ‘x’ be the distance of neutral point from on solving, we get x  1
 M 2  3
weaker pole of strength m1 .   1 
N X (dX) N  M1 
Case ii) : If the neutral point is formed outside the
m1 B2 n B1 m2 combination, then
At neutral point, B1 = B2
0 2M1 0 2M 2
 m  m2  .  .
 0 . 21  0 . 4 x 3 4 d  x3
4 x 4 d  x2
d
d on solving , we get x 
on solving, we get x  M 
1
3
m2
1  2  1
 M 
m1 1

(ii) When two unlike magnetic poles of strengths Note:No null points are obtained when unlike poles
m1 and m2 (m1 < m2 ) are separated by a of the magnets are placed closer to each other.
distance ‘d’, then neutral point is formed outside Time period of Suspended Magnet in
and on the line passing through the poles. It the Uniform Magnetic Field
always lies closer to weaker pole. Principle : When a bar magnet is suspended
B1 B2 N d S freely in a uniform magnetic field and displaced
n X m1 m2

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

from its equilibrium position, then it starts (iv) The time period of a thin bar magnet is T. It is
executing angular SHM. cut into 'n' equal parts by cutting it normal to its
 Time period of oscillation and frequency of length. The time period of each piece when
magnet is oscillating in the same magnetic field will be
   2 
I   m     
T = 2 and    n 
 n 
T  I 1  
MB H I M
 3 &M1
T|   12 n n 
n  
1 1 MBH  
n 
T 2 I
I1 T
where M magnetic moment, BH Horizontal  T 1  2 
component of earth’s magnetic induction and M 1B n
(v) The time period of a thin bar magnet is T. It is
(l 2  b 2 ) cut into 'n' equal parts by cutting it along its
I moment of inertia, I  m
12 length. The time period of each piece remains
ml 2
unchanged, when oscillating in the same field.
for a thin bar magnet I 
12  m  2
  
where m is mass, l is length and b is breadth  
( M  & I   n   I
| M |
of the magnet. n 12 n
 For small percentage changes in moment of
I| I/n
T 1 I  T|  2  2 T)
inertia  100  100 MB|
M
T 2 I B
n
As I increases , T increases
 For small percentage changes in magnetic (vi) a) Two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and
M2 (M1>M2) are placed one over the other.
T  1 M
moment T  100  2 M  100 If T1 is the time period when like poles touch
As M increases , T decreases each other and T2 is the time period when unlike
Comparison of magnetic moments : poles touch each other, then
(i) If two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and T22 M1  M 2  
  T  1 
M2 of same dimensions and same mass are T12 M1  M 2  M 
oscillating in the same field separately, then
M1 T22 T12
T1 M2  
 M2 T22 T12
T2 M1 (Bar magnets of equal size)
b) If n1 and n2 are the corresponding
 
T  1  M 1 n12  n22
 M  frequencies, then 
M 2 n12  n22
(ii) A magnet is oscillating in a magnetic field B and
its time period is Tsec. If another identical (vii) When same bar magnet is used at two different
magnet is placed over that magnet with similar places 1 and 2, then
poles together, then time period remain  
BH1 T22  T  1 
unchanged.   
( I|  2I and M| = 2M, BH2 T12  BH 
(viii) When two bar magnets of moments M1 and
I| 2I I
T|  2  2  2 T) M2 are placed one over the other such that (i)
M| B 2MB MB like poles together (ii) unlike poles together and
(iii) A magnet is oscillating in a magnetic field B and (iii) their axes are perpendicular to each other.
its time period is T sec. If another identical When vibrated in the same magnetic field, the
magnet is placed over that magnet with unlike ratio of their time periods respectively is
poles together, then time period becomes
1
infinite. i.e., it does not oscillate.  T
  M
 M|  M  M  0; T  2 I 
 
 0 B 

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

1 1 1 magnet is reversed, the combination takes

 T1 : T2 : T3  : :
M1  M 2
 M M 
M1  M 2 2
1
2
2
4 seconds for 1 vibration. Find the ratio of
their magnetic moments.
 If T0 is the time period of oscillation of the Sol. Given that, T1 = 3s and T2 = 4s
experimental magnet oscillating in BH. An M1 T22  T12 4 2  32 16  9 25
external field B is applied due to a bar magnet     or
M 2 T22  T12 4 2  32 16  9 7
in addition to BH at the point where the first
magnet is oscillating. Then its new time period M1
 3.57
is T. M2

T0 Br    Illustration-10: A bar magnet makes 40

Then T  B where Br  B  BH
H oscillations per minute in a uniform
  magnetic field. An identical magnet is
a) If B and BH are along the same direction,
demagnetised completely and is placed
Br  B  BH  T  T0 over the magnet. Calculate the time taken
  for 40 oscillations by this combination.
b) If B and BH are in opposite directions, Ignore induced magnetism.
Br  B  BH  T0  T Sol. In the first case, frequency of oscillation,
c) If B and BH are in opposite directions, and 1 MB
n
2 I
also if B  BH then Br  B  BH  0 In the second case, frequency of oscillation,
 T  (i.e.,

it does not oscillate) 1 MB n1 1 T1
 n1      2
d) If B and BH are perpendicular to each other,, 2 2I n 2 T
(or) T1  2T (or) 40T1  2  40T
Br  B2  B2H  T  T0
(or) t1  2t  2 minute = 1.414 minute
0 2M
Here B  (if the point is on the axial line)
4 d3 Illustration-11:A short magnet oscillates with
 M a time period of 0.1s, where the horizontal
B  0 3 (if the point is on the equatorial line)
4 d component of earth’s magnetic field is
 If n1 and n2 are frequencies of oscillation of the 24 T . An upward current of 18A is
bar magnet in uniform magnetic field when B established in the vertical wire placed 20
supports BH and when B opposes BH cm east of the magnet. Find the new time
n1 B  BH period ?
then n  B  B (let B>BH)
2 H T2 B1
Sol. T  B Where B1 = BH =24 x 10–6T
B n  n2
2 2 1 2
  12 i
BH n1  n 2 2
and B2  BH  B  BH  0
2 r
1
 For a bar magnet , T  B (or ) n  BH
7
4  10  18
 24  10 6   6  106 T
H 2  0.2
If B1 and B2 be the earth’s magnetic induction T 24  10 6
at two different places having angles of dip  2  2  T2  0.2 s
0.1 6  10 6
1 and 2 then Illustration-12:A magnet is suspended so as to
T1 BH B2 Cos 2 swing horizontally makes 50 vibrations/
  2
min at a place where dip is 300, and 40
T2 BH B1Cos1 or
1 vibrations / min where dip is 450. Compare
n1 BH 1 B1Cos1 the earth’s total fields at the two places.
 
n2 BH 2 B2Cos2 Sol. n  BH

Illustration-9 : Two bar magnets when placed

one over the other takes 3 seconds for 1
vibration in uniform magnetic field. If one

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER


n1

B1Cos 1
ie
50

B1 Cos300

 BE  and axial field  BA  of a bar magnet at a
n2 B2Cos  2 40 B2 Cos 450 larger distance r. i.e,r>> l , where 2l is the
25 B1 3 B1 25 length of the magnet
 
16 B2
 (or) B  8 6 Equatorial field
2 2

Illustration-13: Two bar magnets of the same 

 0 M
length and breadth but having magnetic BE  
moments M and 2M are joined with like 4 r 3
poles together and suspended by a string. 
 0 2 M
The time of oscillation of this assembly in Axial field BA  
a magnetic field of strength B is 3 sec. What 4 r 3
will be the period of oscillation, if the The above equations are just in the vector form.
polarity of one of the magnets is changed Table given below sumarizes the analogy
and the combination is again made to between electric and magnetic dipoles
oscillate in the same field ?
Sol. As magnetic moment is a vector, so when
magnets are joined with like poles together
M1  M  2 M  3M , so Equitorial ? eld -P/4πε 0 r 3 -μ 0 M/4πr3

 I1  I 2 
T  2 ........... (1) Axial ?eld 2P/4πε0 r 3 μ 0 2M/4πr 3
3MB
When the polarity of one of the magnets is Torque
reversed, M2 = M ~2M = M; τ=P×E τ=M×B

 I1  I 2  P.E U   P.E U   M .B
so T '  2 ............ (2)
MB
Dividing Eq. (2) by (1), MAGNETISM AND GAUSS’S LAW
T'
The gauss’s law for magnetism is that the net
T
 3, i.e., T '   3 T  3 3 sec magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
ELECTROSTATIC ANALOG TO In electrostatics we studied Gauss’s law. If we
imagine a closed gaussian surface A around an
MAGNETOSTATICS electric dipole, the number of lines leaving the
We know that the magnetic field on the axis of surface is equal to the number of lines entering
0 2 M it. This is consistent with the fact that no net
a solenoid or a dipole is B  charge is enclosed by the surface. How ever, if
4 r 3
we consider a closed surface B in the same
The torque on a dipole in uniform field is
  figure, there is a net outward flux, since it does
  M  B and the potential energy of magnetic include a net(positive) charge
 
dipole in uniform field is U   M .B.
Comparing the above equations with the
corresponding equations for electric dipole
suggests that magnetic field at large distances
due to a bar magnet of magnetic moment M
can be obtained from the equation for electric
field due to an electric dipole of dipole moment
P, by making the following replacements
1 
E  B, p  M ,  0
4 0 4 The situation is quite different for magnetic fields
Now, we can write down the equatorial field which are continous and from closed loops.
Imagine a closed gaussian surface in a magnetic

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

field as shown MAGNETISM)

The branch of physics which deals with earths
magnetism is called as terristrial mangetism or
geomagnetism. The axis of rotation of the earth
iscalled geographic geographic axis. The points
Axis where the axis of rotation cuts the surface of
the earth are called geographic poles
First of all, Dr. William Gilbert towards the
end of sixteenth century suggested that earth
behaves like a huge magnet. They strength of
magnetic field varies from place to place on
the surface of the earth(in the order of 105 T ).
The number of magnetic field lines leaving the
surface is balanced by the number of lines The origin of earth’s magnetism is not yet well
entering it. The net magnetic flux is zero for both understood. The magnetic field was thought of
the surface. This is true for any closed surface. as arising from gaint bar magnet placed
H approximately along the axis of rotationn of the
earth and deep in the interior which is certainly
not correct. The magnetic field is now throught
 B to arise due to electrical currents produced
S by concenctive motion of metallic fluids(iron and
nickel) in the outer core of the earth this is
known as dynamo effect
The magnetic field lines of the earth resembles
Consider a small vector area element dS of a that of a magnetic dipoled located at the centre
closed surface S as in fig. The magnetic flux of the earth. The axis of dipole is does not
  coincide with the axis of rotation. The axis of
through dS is defined as B  B.dS , where
the magnet makes an angle of about 11.300
B is the field at dS. We devide S into many with the earth’s axis of rotation. The magnetic
small area elements and calculate the individual axis cuts the earth’s surface at two points. One
flux through each. Then, the net flux B is point is near the geographic north pole and is
known as geomagnetic north pole. The other
B   B   B.dS  0 point is near the geographic south pole and is
all all
know as geomagnetic south pole
Compare this with the Gauss’s law of There are some confusion in the nomeclature
electrostatics. The flux through a closed surface of the poles. If one looks at the magnetic field
q lines of the earth (fig) , the field lines go into the
in that case is given by  E.dS   , where
0 earth at the north magentic pole ( N m ) and
q is the electric charge enclosed by the surface. come out from the south magetic pole (S m ) .
Note: The difference between the Gauss’s law of The convention arose because the magnetic
magnetism and that for electrostatics is that north was the direction to which the north pole
isolated magnetic poles(also called monopoles) of a magnet was named as it was the north
do not exist. There are no sources or sinks of seeking pole. Thus,in reality, the north magnetic
B. The simplest magnetic element is a dipole or pole behaves like the south pole of a bar
a current loop and all magnetic phenomena mganetic inside the earth and vice versa
can be explained in terms all magnetic
phenomena can be explained in terms of an The axis passing t hrough
arrangement of dipoles and/or current loops geomagnetic south and geomagnetic north is
TERRSESTRIAL MAGNETISM(EARTH’S

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

known as geomagnetic axis Intensity of magnetising field is a vector in the

Ng direction of magnetic field and has unit
Wb / m 2 V s A
  .
Nm
11.3o
H /m  sm m
Magnetic Equator
Its Dimensional formula is  AL1 
Geographic Equator
2) Intensity of magnetisation I : When a
S m
magnetic material is magnetised by placing it in
S g
a magnetising field, the induced dipole-moment
The Earth as a giant magnetic dipole per unit volume in the specimen is called
Magnetic Materials “Intensity of magnetisation”.

 Curie and Faraday discovered that all the  M  
i.e I  but as M  mLn and V = SL
materials in the universe are magnetic to some V
extent. These magnetic substances are Where S is area of cross section.
categorized mainly into two groups.  m
 Weak magnetic materials come under I  n i.e , intensity of magnetisation is
S
diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials. Strong numerically equal to the induced pole-strength
magnetic materials are Ferro-magnetic per unit area of cross -section.It is a vector
materials. quantity. Its direction is in the direction of
 According to the modern electron theory of magnetising field. Its unit is (A/m) and
magnetism, the magnetic response of any
material is due to the circulating electrons in the dimensional formula is  AL1 
atoms. Each circulating charge constitutes a 3) Magnetic Susceptibility  m : The ratio of
magnetic moment in a direction perpendicular magnitude of intensity of magnetisation to that
to the plane of circulation. of magnetising field strength is called magnetic
 In magnetic material all these magnetic moments I
due to the orbital and spin motion of all the susceptibility  m 
electrons in the atoms of the material, H
vectorically add up to a resultant magnetic It is a scalar with no units and dimensions. It
moment. The magnitude and direction of this physically represents the ease with which a
magnetic material can be magnetised.i.e large
resultant magnetic moment is responsible for
the magnetic behaviour of the material. value of  m implies that the material is more
 Magnetic material are studied in terms of the susceptible to the field and hence can be easily
following physical parameters magnetised.
 4) Magnetic permeability    : When a
1) Intensity of Magnetising field( H ) :
Any magnetic field in which a magnetic material magnetic material is placed in a magnetising
is placed for its magnetization is called field, the ratio of magnitude of total field inside
the material to that of intensity of magnetising
magnetising field.
field is called magnetic permeability; i.e.,
In a magnetising field the ratio of magnetising

field Bo to the permeability of free space is   B , i.e., B   H
H
called intensity of magnetising field It measures the degree to which a magnetic

 B   material can be penetrated by the magnetising
o
In air . H  or Bo  o H field or ability of the material to allow magnetic
o lines of force. It is a scalar having unit Hm 1

 B
In a medium H  and dimensions  MLT 2 A2  .

The value of H is independent of medium . 5) Relative permeability  r  :

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

It is the ratio of magnitudes of total field inside Illustration-17:A magnetic field strength (H)
the material to that of magnetising field or it is 3×103 Am–1 produces a magnetic field of
the ratio of permeability of a medium to that of induction (B) of 12T in an iron rod. Find
free space. the relative permeability of iron ?
B H  B 12
r    Sol.     4  10 3
B0 0 H 0 H 3  10 3
It has no units and dimensions.  4  10 3
 r   7
 10 4
Relation between relative permeability and  0 4  10
susceptibility : Illustration-18:An iron bar of length 10 cm and
diameter 2 cm is placed in a magnetic field
We know B  0  H  I  or,, of intensity 1000Am –1 with its length
B  I parallel to the direction of the field.
 0 1  
H  H  Determine the magnetic moment produced
in the bar magnet, if permeability of its
B I material is 6.3 × 10–4 TmA–1.
or,   0 1   [as   and ]
H H Sol. we know that,   0 1   

(or)   1    r  1   

1 
6.3  10 4
 1 = 500.6
0
0 4  10 7
This is the desired result.
Intensity of magnetisation,
Illustration-14: A m agn etising fi eld of
I  H  500.6  1000 = 5 × 105 Am–1
1600Am -1 produces a magnetic flux of
 magnetic moment, M = I x V  I r 
2
2.4 × 10–5 weber in a bar of iron of cross
section 0.2 cm 2 .Calculate permeability 
 5  10 5  3.14  10 2
2
  10  10 
2

and susceptibility of the bar.

Sol: Magnetic induction, =17.70 A-m2
 2.4  10 5 Electron Theory of Magnetism
B  = 1.2 Wb/m2
A 0.2  10 4 i) Molecular theory of magnetism was first given
B 1.2 by Weber and was later developed by Ewing.
i) Permeability,    7.5  104 Hm 1
H 1600
ii) Electron theory of magnetism was proposed
ii) As    0 1    then by Langevin.
Susceptibility, iii) The main reason for the magnetic property of a
 4
magnet is spin motion of electron. The magnetic
  1  7.5  10  1 = 596.1
0 4   10 7 moment is produced due to electron spin. The
Illustration-15:The permeability of substance contribution of the orbital revolution is very
is 6.28×10–4 wb/A-m. Find its relative small.
permeability and susceptibility ? A) Explanation of diamagnetism:
 6.28  10 4 i) Since diamagnetic substance have paired
Sol.     4  10 7  500 electrons, magnetic moments cancel each other
0
and there is no net magnetic moment.
  1         1  500  1  499 ii) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an
Illustration-16: The magnetic moment of a external magnetic field, each electron
magnet of mass 75 gm is 9×10–7 A-m2. If experiences radial force F = Bev either inwards
the density of the material of magnet is or outwards. Due to this the angular velocity,
7.5×103 kg m –3 , then find intensity of current, and magnetic moment of one electron
magnetisation is increases and of the other decreases. This
results in a non-zero magnetic moment in the
M mass  m 
Sol. I  Where volume, V  density    substances in a direction opposite to the field.
V iii) Since the orbital motion of electrons in atoms
M  9  10 7  7.5  10 3 is an universal phenomenon, diamagnetism is
   0.09 A / m
m 75  10 3

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

present in all materials. Hence diamagnetism is

a universal property.
Properties of Dia-magnetic substances x

 The substances which when placed in an

external magnetic field acquire feeble magnetism O T
opposite to the direction of the magnetising field  The relative permeability is less than unity
are known as dia-magnetic substances. because  r  1    and  is negative.
Ex: Bismuth (Bi), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Silver
(Ag), Gold (Au). Salt (Nacl), Water (H2O),  The origin of diamagnetism is the induced dipole
Mercury (Hg), Hydrogen (H2O) etc. moment due to change in orbital motion of
 When a bar of dia-magnetic substance is electrons in atoms by the applied field. Dia-
suspended freely between two magnetic poles magnetism is shown only by those substances
[see figure] , then the axis of the bar becomes which do not have any permanent magnetic
perpendicular to magnetic field.
moment.
 The most exotic diamagnetic materials are
superconductors. These are metals, cooled to
N N S S very low temperatures which exhibits both
perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism.
Here the field lines are completely expelled!
 When a dia-magnetic material is placed inside   1 and  r  0 . A superconductor repels
a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines become
less dense in the material. a magnet and (by Newton’s third law) is
 If one limb of a narrow U-tube containing a repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of
dia-magnetic liquid is placed between the poles perfect diamagnetism in superconductors is
of an electromagnet, then on switching the field, called the Meissner effect, after the name of its
the liquid shows a depression. This is shown in discoverer. Superconducting magnets can be
figure.
gainfully exploited in variety of situations, for
example, for running magnetically levitated
superfast trains
 Shape of diamagnetic liquid a glass crucible and
kept over to magnetic poles.
Diamagnetic Liquid

 When a dia-magnetic substance is placed in a

non-uniform field, then it tends to move towards
the weaker part from the stronger part of the
field.
 Dia magnetic substances acquire feeble
magnetism in a direction opposite to magnetising
field. The intensity of magnetisation I is very N S

small, negative and is directly proportional to

magnetising field H as shown in figure.
B) Explanation of Para-magnetism:
I
i) Paramagnetic materials have a permanent
magnetic moment in them. The moments arise
O H
from both orbital motion of electrons and the
spinning of electrons in certain axis.
I ii) In atoms whose inner shells are not completely
 The magnetic susceptibility  is small and filled, there is a net moment in them since more
negative. This is independent of temperature number of electrons spin in the same direction.
as shown in figure. This permanent magnet behaves like a tiny bar

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

magnet called atomic magnet. (vi) The intensity of magnetisation I is very small and
iii) In absence of external magnetic field atomic compared to one. It follows from the relation
magnets are randomly oriented due to the r  1  m . The variation of r or  with
thermal agitation and the net magnetic moment
of the substance is zero. H is shown in figure. As is clear from the figure,
iv) When it is placed in an external magnetic field, the variation is non-linear. The large value of
the atomic magnets align in the direction of the r is due to the fact that the field B inside the
field and thermal agitation oppose them to do material is much stronger than the magnetising
so. field due to ‘pulling in’ of a large number of
v) At low fields, the total magnetic moment would lines of force by the material.
be directly proportional to the magnetic field B Y
and inversely proportional to temperature T.
Properties of Paramagnetic substances
(i) The substances which when placed in a  or x
r
magnetic field, acquire feeble magnetism in the
direction of magnetising field are known as O H X
paramagnetic substances.
(vii) Shape of paramagnetic liquid in a glass crucible
Ex: Aluminium (Al), Platinum (Pt), Manganese
and kept over two magnetic poles.
(Mn), Copper chloride (CuCl2), Oxygen (O2), Paramagnetic Liquid
solutions of salts of iron etc. are examples of
paramagnetic substances.
(ii) When a bar of paramagnetic substance is placed
in a magnetic field, it tries to concentrate the
lines of force into it as shown in figure
S
N s n S N

This shows that the magnetic induction B in it is

numerically slightly greater than the applied field Curie’s law : The magnetisation of a
H. So the permeability  is greater than one paramagnetic material is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature T.
because   B / H .
CB0 C 0 H C 0
(iii) When the bar of paramagnetic material is I  H  
T T T
suspended freely between two magnetic poles,
where C is constant and is called as Curie
its axis becomes parallel to magnetic field. Move
constant.
over, the poles produced at the ends of the bar
are opposite to nearer magnetic poles. C) Explanation of Ferro-magnetism
(iv) If a paramagnetic solution is poured in a U- In some substances like Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
tube and if one limb is placed between the poles Gadolinium, Dysprosium and some alloys like
of an electromagnet in such a way that liquid
alnico (iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt) possess
level is parallel to field, then on switching the
field, the liquid rises. This is shown in figure. magnetic moment in the atoms. An unpaired
electron in one atom interacts strongly with the
unpaired electron in the adjacent atom.
Consequently, the magnetic moments get
aligned in the same direction. This is called
exchange interaction.

(v) In a non-unifo rm magnetic field, the

paramagnetic substances are attracted towards
the stronger parts of the magnetic field from
the weaker parts of the field.

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Fig-(a) Fig-(b) to crowd into the specimen as shown in the

 The atoms themselves exist together in tiny
figure.
assemblies called domains. All the existing
ferromagnetic materials have a characteristic
“domain structure”. N s n S
 These domains are of the size 10–4 m to 10–
5m and the domain contains about 1011
Fig (d) Lines of force in ferromagnetic substance in
atoms. Initially, the magnetisation varies
external magnetic field
randomly from domain to domain and there is
no bulk magnetisation. This is shown in above v) The relative permeability of a ferromagnetic
Fig (a) . substance is very high.
 When an external field is applied, the domains vi) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a
orient themselves in the direction of magnetic magnetic field, it is strongly magnetised in the
field as shown in above Fig (b). The result is direction of magnetic field and the magnetisation
that the net magnetic moment is in the direction is retained ever after the magnetising field is
of the applied field. Since the degree of removed.
alignment is very large even for a small external vii) The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetics
field, the magnetic field produced in the decreases with the increase of temperature.
ferromagnetic material is often much greater than viii) Ferromagnetics have large susceptibility.
the external field. ix) The intensity of magnetisation has a large
 In some ferromagnetic mat erials t he positive value.
magnetisation persists when the external field is x) When a ferromagnetic liquid contained in a
removed. Such materials are called hard watch glass is placed on two closely placed
magnetic materials or hard ferromagnets. magnetic pole pieces, the liquid rises in the
 Alnico and Naturally occurring lodestone are middle.
the examples for hard ferromagnets. Such
materials form permanent magnets to be used
among other things as a compass needle. On
the other hand, there is a class of ferromagnetic N S
materials in which the magnetisation disappears
Fig (e) Ferromagnetic liquid in a watch glass
on removal of the external field. Soft iron is one xi) The ferromagnetism decreases with the rise of
such material. Such materials are called soft temperature. It is maximum at absolute zero of
ferromagnetic materials. This nature of matter temperature and drops to zero at a temperature
is known as ferromagnetism. called curie temperature. Above the curie
Properties of ferromagnetic substances temperature, the ferromagnetic material
i) A ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted becomes paramagnetic. The curie temperatures
by a magnet. for iron, nickel and cobalt are 7700C, 3650C
ii) When a ferromagnetic rod is freely suspended and 10750C respectively.
in a uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself parallel Curie’s temperature:
to the direction of the magnetic field as shown When a ferromagnetic material is heated, it
in the figure. becomes paramagnetic at a certain temperature.
This temperature is called as Curie temperature
and is denoted by TC. After this temperature,
N N S S the susceptibility varies with temperature as
C|

Fig (c) Freely suspended ferromagnetic rod in the magnetic T  Tc 
fie ld
iii)When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a
1
non-uniform magnetic field, it moves from X
weaker to stronger parts of the magnetic field. T
Tc
iv) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a
where C is another constant. For iron, Tc=
|
magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force tend
1043 K. = 7700 C

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Properties of Dia, Para and Ferror Magnetic materials

DIA PARA FERRO

1. They are feebly repelled 1. They are feebly attracted 1. They are strongly attracted
by a magnet. by a magnet a magnet
2. The net magnet moment 2. The net magnetic moment 2. The net magnetic moment
due to all the electrons in atoms due to all electrons in atoms is very strong.
the atom is zero is not zero.

3. When subjected to the 3. Magnetised feebly in the 3. Magnetized strongly in the

magnetising field they are direction of magnetising direction of magnetising
feebly magnetised in field. field.
opposite direction to the
magnetising field

4. When suspended inside the 4. They align with their 4. They align with their
magnetic field, they align length along the direction length along the direction
their length perpendicular of magnetic field. of magnetic field.
to the magnetic field.

5. Magnetic lines of force 5. Few lines pass through the 5. Almost all lines prefer to
prefer to move out of the specimen. move through the
specimen. specimen.

6. They move from stronger 6. They move from weaker to 6. They move from weaker to
part of the magnetic field stronger part of the stronger part of the
to the weaker part of the magnetic field magnetic field.
magnetic field

7. r < 1 7. r > 1 7. r >>> 1

8. Intensity of magnetization 8. I is small and positive 8. I is high and positive

(I) is small and negative.

9. m is small and negative 9. m is small and positive 9. m is highly positive

10. m is independent of 10. m is dependent on 10. m is dependent on

temperature. temperature. temperature
11. Doesn’t obey Curie law. 11. Obey Curie law 11. Obey Curie law and at
Curie temperature they are
turned to paramagnetic
materials.
12. Substances following 12. Substances following 12. Substances following
Diamagnetism are paramagnetism are ferromagnetism are Iron,
Bismuth, Copper, lead, Aluminum, Platinum, Cobalt, Nickel and alloys
silicon, water, glass etc. Manganese, Chromium, like alnico
Calcium, Oxygen,
Nitrogen (at STP)

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MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Comparative study of magnetic materials

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Property Substances Substances Substances

Cause of Orbital motion of Spin motion of Formation of

magnetism electrons electrons domain

Explanation of On the basis of orbital On the basis of spin On the basis of

magnetism motion of electrons and orbital motion domains formed
of electrons
Behaviour in These are repelled These are feebly These are strongly
a non-uniform in an external magnetic attracted in an attracted in an
magnetic-, field field. have a tendency external magnetic external magnetic
to move from high to field,i.e have a field. i.e they easily
low field region. tendency to move move from low to
from low to high field region
high field region
Pushed up Pulled in Very Strong
Pull
N S N S N S

State of These are weekly These get weekly These get strongly
magnetization magnetised flu a magnetised in the magnetised in the
direction opposite to direction of applied direction of applied
that of applied magnetic field. magnetic field
magnetic field
When the Liquid level in that limb Liquid level in that Liquid level in that
material in the gets depressed limb rises up limb rises up very
form of liquid is much
filled in the N s N s N s
U-tube and
placed between
pole pieces.

Liquid Liquid Liquid

On placing the The gas expands at The gas expands in The gas rapidly
gaseous right angles to the the direction of expands in the
materials magnetic field. magnetic field. direction of
between pole magnetic field
pieces
The value of B < BO (where Bo is the B > Bo B >> Bo
magnetic magnetic induction
induction B in vacuum)
Magnetic Low and negative Low but positive Positive and high
susceptibility χ =1 =1 χ=102

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Dependence of Does not depend on On cooling, these get These get converted
on temperature temperature (except converted to ferro- into paramagnetic
Bi at low temperature) magnetic materials at materials at Curie
Curie temperature temperature

T TC T
T
Relative μr  1 μ r  1
permeabilityμ r  μr  1

Intensity of I is in a direction opposite I is in the direction of I is in the direction

magnetisation (I) to that of H and its value H but value is low of H and value is
is very low very high.

I-H curves +I +I

H H HS
-I H
Magnetic Very low (= 0) Very low Very high
moment (M)
Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Bi, Sb, Al. Mn, Pt, Na, CuCl2, Fe, Co, Ni, Cd,
NaCI, H2O air and O2 and crown glass Fe304 etc.
diamond etc.
PERMANENT MAGNETS AND ELECTRO MAGNETS
The properties of ferromagnetic materrials, sttudied from their hystersis curves, help in the proper
selection of the material for various practical applications. Few applications are described below
a) Pemanent magnets(or) Hard magnetic materials:
The substances which retain their ferromagnetic property for a long period of time are called permanent
magnets. The permanent magnetic material must retain large residual magentism and its magnetism
should not be easily destroyed. Thus it must have large coercivity. So, a permanent magnet should
have both large retentivity and large coerivity along with high permeability.
The best suited materials are cobalt, steel, alnico,ticonol etc. Steel is preferred for making permanant
magnets because its coercivity is large. The very suitable alloy of highest coercity is vicalloy
(vandium+iron+cobalt). Permanent magnets are used in galvanometerrs, voltmeters,ammeters
micropones, loud speakers, telephones, etc
b) Temporary magnets (or) Soft magnetic materials : These have low retentivity ,low coercivity
and small hysteresis loss and are suitable for temporary magnetism. These are used for making
electromagnets, cores of transformers, motors and generators. Soft iron, mu - metal and stalloy are
examples of ferromagnetic materials of this type.
In certain applications, the material goes through an cycle of magentization for a long period. This is the
case in transformer cores and telephone diapragms. The hysteresis curve of such materials must be
narrow. The energy dissipated and the heating will consequently be small. The material must have a

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

high resistivity to lower eddy current losses. Properties of soft iron and steel: For soft
Electromagnets are used in electric bells loud iron, the susceptibility, permeability and
speakers and telephone diaphragms. Giant retentivity are greater while coercivity and
electromagnets are used in cranes to lift hysteresis loss per cycle are smaller than those
machinery, and bulk quantities of iron and steel of steel.
Hysteresis: It is defined as the tendency of I I Hysterisis
demagnetisation to lag behind the change in curve
magnetic field applied to a ferromagnetic Hysterisis H H
material. curve Soft Magnetic Hard Magnetic
Material
 The process of taking a ferromagnet through a Material

cycle of magnetisation, results in loss of energy. Comparision between soft iron and steel
This is called hysteresis loss and it appears in
the form of heat.
 Area of hysteresis loop is equal to the energy
loss per cycle per unit volume.
 When a bar of ferromagnetic material is
magnetized by a varying magnetic field H and
the intensity of magnetization I induced is
measured. The graph of I versus H is as
shown is figure.
I
L A
B
Retentivity
M C
} F K
O H
Coercvity
D E

 When magnetising field is increased from O the

intensity of magnetisation I increases and
becomes maximum i.e at point (A).This
maximum value is called the saturation value.
 When H is reduced, I reduces but is not zero
when H = 0. The remainder value OB of
magnetisation when H = 0 is called the residual
magnetism or retentivity. OB is retentivity.
 For soft iron, area of hysteresis loop is less and
 When magnetic field H is reversed, I reduces
thus low energy loss.
and becomes zero i.e., for H = OC, I = 0. This
value of H is called the coercivity.  For steel, area of hysteresis loop is large and
thus high energy loss.
 When field H is further increased in reverse
direction, the intensity of magnetisation attains  Magnetisation and demagnetisation of soft iron
saturation value in reverse direction (i.e., point are easy, where as difficult for steel.
D). When H is decreased to zero and changed  Permanent magnets are made of steel and
direction in steps, we get the part DFGA cobalt while electromagnets are made of soft
iron.
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

 Diamagnetism is universal. It is present in all Geographical

Geographical
materials. But it is weak and hard to detect if L meridian
north
substance is para or ferromagnetic P
Magnetic 
Shielding from magnetic fields: For shielding O
north BH 
a certain region of space from magnetic field,
we surround the region by soft iron rings. N S
Magnetic
Magnetic field lines will be drawn into the rings meridian BV
M BP
and the space enclosed will be free of magnetic
R
field.  Angle of dip: Dip is the angle that the total
Geographical Meridian: A vertical plane magnetic field B e of the earth makes with the
passing through the axis of rotation of the earth surface of the earth.
is called the geographic meridian.
 =dip (or) inclination ;  = declination
Magnetic Meridian: A vertical plane passing  Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
through the axis of a freely suspended magnet
is called the magnetic meridian. BH  Be cos  ....... 1
Elements of Earth’s Magnetism  Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field
(Terrestrial Magnetism ): There are three
elements of earth’s magnetism BV  Be sin  .......  2 
(i) Angle of declination (ii) Angle of dip
(iii) Horizontal component of earth’s field.
Be  BH2  BV2  
Angle of Declination   : The acute angle  Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we have
between the magnetic meridian and the BV Be sin 
  tan 
geographical meridian is called the ‘angle of BH Be cos 
declination’ at any place. The declination is
greater at high latitudes and smaller near the Magnetic Maps : Usually lines are drawn joining
equator. The value of declination at equator is all places having same value of an element. Such
maps are called magnetic maps. The values of
17 0 .
all the three magnetic elements (a) declination
The declination in India is small, it being 00 411 E (b) dip and (c) Horizontal component are found
at Delhi and 00 581W at Mumbai. Thus at these to be different at different places on the surface
places a magnetic needle shows the true north of earth.
accurately. (i) Isogonic lines : Lines passing through different
 Earth’s Magnetic Field: The earth’s magnetic places having the same declination are called
field Be in the magnetic meridian may be isogonic lines.
The line which passes through places having
resolved into a horizontal component BH and zero declination is called agonic line.
vertical component BV at any place. (2) Isoclinic lines : These are lines passing
through place of equal dip. The line joining
places of zero dip is called aclinic line.
More about angle of dip ( ) :
(i) At a place on poles, earth’s magnetic
field is perpendicular to the surface of

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER

earth, i.e.,   900 tan   

 tan   BV 
or tan 1 
cos   BH  ..... (1)
 Bv  Bsin 90 0  B
Further, BH = B cos 900 = 0 Now suppose, the dip circle is rotated through
So, except at poles, the earth has a horizontal an angle of 900 from this position. It will now
component of magnetic induction field. make an angle 90   with the meridian.
(ii) At a place on equator, earth’s magnetic
field is parallel to the surface of earth, i.e., The effective horizontal component in this plane
  00 is BH  BH sin  . if  2 be the apparent dip,
we shall have
 BH  Bcos 00  B
Further BV = BH sin 00 = 0 BV BV
tan 2  
So, except at equator, the earth has a vertical ''
BH BH sin  or
component of magnetic induction field.
(iii) In a vertical plane at an angle  to magnetic tan 
meridian tan 2  .........(2)
sin 
B'H  BH cos  and B'V  BV
So, the angle of dip   in a vertical plane making From (1) and (2) cot 2 1  cot 2 2  cot 2 
an angle  to magnetic meridian is given by Thus, one can get the true dip  without locating
B|V BV the magnetic meridian.
tan  '    If earth is considered as a short magnet with its
BH BH cos 
|
centre coinciding with the centre of earth, then
tan   BV  the angle of dip  at a place where the magnetic
or tan  '  cos   B  tan  
 H  latitude  is given by
(a) For a vertical plane other than magnetic tan   2 tan  or  tan 1  2 tan  
meridian,   00 and cos   1, i.e., 1   B1
B2
( angle of dip increases )
(b) For a plane perpendicular to magnetic P
R
meridian,   900
tan  
 tan 1    or 1  900
cos 90
This shows that in a plane perpendicular to M sin 
M cos 
magnetic meridian, the dip needle will become M
vertical.
Apparent Dip: If the dip circle is not kept in For M sin  , Point ‘P’ is axial point
the magnetic meridian, the needle will not show  2 M sin 
the correct direction of earth’s magnetic field. Hence B1  0
4 R3
The angle made by the needle with the horizontal For M cos  , point P is equitorial point
is called the apparent dip for this plane. If the
0 M cos 
dip circle is at an angle  to the meridian, the Hence B2 
effective horizontal component in this place is 4 R3
But B1 , B2 represent BV , BH at point ‘P’
BH  BH cos  . The vertical component is still
 Dip at point P,,
Bv . If 1 is the apparent dip and  is the true B B
dip, we have Tan  V  1  2Tan
BH B2
Bv BV
tan 1   Tan  2Tan
BH BH cos 

Page 219
Page 220
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
INTRODUCTION (or)Tesla-m2
For a longtime electricity and magnetism remained  CGS Units of magnetic flux   : maxwell
as independent entities. In 19th century great
1wb = 108 maxwell
scientists like Ampere, Oersted established the
Dimensional formula: ML2T 2 A1
relation between magnetism and electricity.
Nature of Quantity = Scalar
 “The phenomenon in which electric current is
NOTE:-
generated by varying magnetic field is called as
(1) Magnetic field lines may exist but flux linked with
Electromagnetic Induction”.
 For layman’s explanation we can say that by the surface may not exist.In this case   900
taking help of magnetic fields we are converting   BA cos 900  0
mechanical energy in to electrical energy. The (2) If the number of turns increases flux linked with
energy used to vary the magnetic field is the coil also increases by N times
transferred to electrons in the conductor. Hence  
following law of conservation of energy.  
  B. A N  BNA cos 
 We establish this fact by using different laws in (3) Area vector is always taken outward. Due to
this chapter.
this reason, entering flux is negative   180 0  ,
MAGNETIC FLUX
 The total number of magnetic lines of force leaving flux is positive   0  , flux is zero
passing normally through an area placed in a
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux
  90 0

n
linked with that area.
nB 0
ds B
B C

n n
   BA A B   BA
n ||  B n ||  B

1  BA1 cos1800   BA1

n
2  BA2 cos 00  BA2
n
B
B 3  BA3 cos 900  O
B cos 
(4) If the magnetic field is non uniform then  can be
Bsin  calculated using integration.
A  
A A    B.dA
  (5) Due to rotation of coil even though magnetic field
   B  ds and area of the coil are constant, as the angle

between area vector and B changes it causes
A
   B ds cos  the change in flux linked with area vector.
0
 
  BA cos   B. A (1) AVERAGE CHANGE OF FLUX :-
 The change in flux linked over a specific period
 SI units of magnetic flux   : weber

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

of time is defined as average change of flux 

   f  i  
A  4iˆ  3 ˆj m 2 is placed in a magnetic

    field of Induction B  0. 4 ˆj T . Then the
  
Case (1):   B. A2 N  B. A1 N  flux linked with the coil is?
Case (2):   BNA cos  2  BNA cos 1 Solution:
 
(2) INSTANTANEOUS CHANGE IN FLUX:- B  0. 4 ˆj ; A  4iˆ  3 ˆj ; and N=5
 
 The change in flux at a given point of time is   N  B. A
defined as instantaneous change in flux.It is
denoted by d .   
 5 0iˆ  0.4 ˆj . 4iˆ  3 ˆj  5  0  1.2  6.0 wb
  Illustration 4:
 
d  d B. AN  d  NBA cos  
A coil of N turns and area A is placed in a
Here ‘d’ represents derivative of flux. uniform transverse magnetic field B in such
 
Illustration 1: a way that A and B are parallel. If the plate
A square plate of side length 4cm is placed is turned through 1800 about its one of the
in a magnetic field of induction 20 mT in a diameter in 2 seconds then the (i) change of
direction making an angle 300 with the magnetic flux through the coil ? (ii) Rate
plane of coil then the magnetic flux linked of change of flux in the coil is?
with the coil is? Solution:
Solution:
(i)   2  1  NBA  cos  2  cos 1 
Area   4  10    4  10   16  104 m2
2 2

  NBA  cos180 0  cos 0 

0; 3
  90  30  60 B  20 10 T
 NBA 1  1 = - 2NBA
1
  BA cos    20  10 16  10  
3 4

2 (ii) Rate of change of flux is

 10  103  16 10 4  16 106 = 16  wb  2 NBA

   NBA
Illustration 2: t 2

A circular loop of area 20 cm 2 is placed on Illustration 5:

x-y plane. Containing uniform magnetic A rectangular loop of area 0.06 m 2 is placed
 in a uniform magnetic field of 0.3T with its
field of Induction B  0.4iˆ  0.3 ˆj Tesla
plane (i) normal to the field (ii) inclined 300
then the magnetic flux linked with the coil
is? to the field (iii) parallel to the field. Find
the flux linked with the coil in each case.
Solution:
  Solution:
B  0.4iˆ  0.3 ˆj T ; A  20  10 4.kˆ m 2
    NBA cos 
  B. A  0.4 iˆ  
0.3 ˆ
j . 20  10 
4 ˆ
k
i)   1 0.06  0.3  cos 00  0.018 wb
  
 0.4iˆ  0.3 ˆj . 0iˆ  0 ˆj  20  104 kˆ
ii)   1 0.06  0.3  cos 600  0.009 wb
 000= 0
iii)   1 0.06  0.3  cos 900  0
 flux linked with the coil is zero
Illustration 3: Illustration 6:
A wire loop of 5 turns area vector At a certain location in the northern
hemisphere, the earth’s magnetic field has
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 
magnitude of 42T and points downwards Initially angle   00 as A|| B
at 530 to the vertical. Calculate the flux
through a horizontal surface of area Initially flux 0  NAB cos 0o = NAB
2.5m 2 . sin 530  0.8  Final flux
1
  NAB cos   NAB cos 60o  NAB
60o 2
  NAB cos 180o   NAB
180o

(i) 1 = change in flux during rotation for 00

to 60o
530

B A
1 1
Solution:  NAB  NAB   NAB
2 2
B  BA cos   q1  (induced charge in the circuit)
 42  106  2.5  cos530  63Wb  1 NAB
 1 
R 2 R
Illustration 7: 2
1/ 2  200  3010-2  0.02
A uniform magnetic field exists in the space  q1 
 50
ˆ ˆ
B  B1i  B2 j  B3k ˆ . Find the magnetic flux  11.3110 C 3

 
through an area S if the area S is in X-Y (ii) 2  change in the magnitude flux during
plane rotation from   0o to  180o
Solution: = (–NAB) – (NAB) = – 2NAB
Since the field is uniform, we can use formula  q2 = induced charge
 
B  B.S 2NAB
 = = 45.2 × 10–3C
R
Now when area S is in X-Y plane, it means
 FARADAY’S EXPERIMENTS:
S  SKˆ Figure-1

  
Hence B  B1iˆ  B2 ˆj  B3kˆ . Skˆ   B3S
C1
Illustration 8:
A circular coil of 200 turns and mean
radius 30 cm is placed in a uniform
G f
magnetic field of induction 0.02 T and is
free to rotate about an axis coinciding
with its own plane, but perpendicular to Figure-2
the uniform magnetic field. The coil is in
closed circuit having a total resistance of
50  . If the plane of the coil is initially
C1
perpendicular to the field, find the charge C2
flown through the circuit, when the coil is
rotated through (i) 60o (ii) 180o.
Solution: G f

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTRO

d d
MAGNETIC INDUCTION e  N.    N 
dt dt
 Based on his experiments faraday proposed laws
of Electro Magnetic Induction. They are Where ‘ N ’ is total flux linked with the coil of
First Law : Whenever the magnetic flux linked with N turns.
an electric circuit (coil) changes, an emf is induced d d
in the circuit (coil). The induced emf exists as (or) e    N      NBA cos  
dt dt
long as the change in magnetic flux continues. The relative motion between the coils is
Second Law: The magnitude of induced emf responsible for inducing the electric current From
produced in the coil is equal to the rate of change the above it is concluded that
of magnetic flux linked with it. Mathematicaly
i) Higher the relative speed, larger was the de-
d flection
induced emf is given by e  
dt ii) The deflection is found to be larger when the
where   flux through each turn number of turns in the coil is increased
Negative sign is in accordance with Lenz’s law. iii) The deflection is found to be larger when the
The above law is also called Neumann’s law. core is made of ferromagnetic material
 Magnetic flux linked with a coil iv) There must be a change in magnetic flux in
(   NBA cos  ) cna be changed by order to induce the electric current in a
a) Changing the no. of turns (N) coil
b) Varying themagnetic field (B) v) In electromagnetims, a moving electron pro-
c) Pulling or pushing the coil inot magnetic field duces magnetic field. In electromagnetic
(By changing the area of the magnetic filed inducton, a chaning magnetic field causes to move
bundled by coil) electrons
d) Changing the orientation of the coil    in the  d
As   BAN cos  and e  
dt
magnetic field
CHANGE OF FLUX DUE TO ROTATION OF The emf is induced (or) change in flux is caused
THE COIL by changing B (or) A (or) N (or) 
 (i) The average induced emf when only ‘B’ is
When the coil is rotated from an angle of 1 to
an angle 2 (both are measured w.r.t
 B2  B1 
changed is given by e   A N cos 
normal) in a uniform magnetic field than the ini-
 t2  t1 
tial flux through the coil is here B1 & B2 are the magnetic induction fields
i  NBA cos 1 at instances t1 & t2 respectively..
The final flux through the coil after rotation to (ii) If the plane of the coil is perpendicular to
f  NBA cos 2 magnetic induction field then,
The change in the flux associated with the coil is
  00  cos   1, then e   AN
 B2  B1 
  r  i  t2  t1 
  NBA  cos 2  cos 1  (iii) Instantaneous emf in this case is given by
if 1  00 and 2  900 then    NBA dB
e   AN cos 
dt
if 1  900 and 2  180 0 then    NBA
 (i) Average induced emf when only ‘A’ is changed
0 0
if 1  0 and 2  180 then   2NBA is given by
 If the coil contains N turns, an emf appears in  A2  A1 
every turn all these emfs are to be added. Then, e   BN cos 
the induced emf is given by  t2  t1 
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

here A1 & A2 are the areas of the coil at the in-  Induced current is given by
stants t1 & t2 respectively. If the plane of the coil Induced emf N  d 
i   
Re sis tan ce in the circuit R  dt 
is perpendicular to magnetic field   0 0  then
Induced charge:

e   BN
 A2  A1  The amount of charge induced in a conductor is
 t2  t1  given as follows
e 1 d
(ii) Instantaneous emf in this case is given by
We know, I   or  I   
R R  dt 
dA
e   BN cos 
dt dq 1 d 1
   or  dq   d
 (i) Average induced emf when only ' ' is changed dt R dt R
is given by (i.e., when the coil is rotated in uniform 
1 f
q   d
R o
magnetic field)  Induced charge,

e   BAN
 cos  2  cos 1 
 t2  t1  1  
q  f  i   or  q  i f
R R
Where 1 &  2 are the angles made by the nor- We are genrally inserted only in the magnitude of
mal the charge.
drawan to A with B .  In general, induced charge is given by
(ii) Instantaneous emf is given by change of magnetic flux
q
d  cos  resis tan ce
e   BAN For N turns, the idnuced charge is
dt
If the coil is rotated with constant angular veloc- N
q  d 
ity '  ' then   t and R
Conclusions:
d  cos t 
e   BAN  BAN  sin t 1) Induced emf is independent of total resistance
dt of the circuit but depends on time of change of
 e  BAN sin t flux
(iii) If  t  900 , i.e, if the plane is parallel to the 2) Induced current depends on both time of
change of flux and resistance of circuit
magnetic field then induced emf is maximum. Then
3) Induced charge is independent of time but de-
peak emf, e0  BAN  pends on the resistance of circuit
 e  e0 sin  t
LENZ’S LAW:
This is the principle of AC generator  “The direction of the induced emf is always such
 The change in flux by changing the number of that it tends to produce a current which opposes
turns is practically difficult. the change in magnetic flux”
Induced Current:  Induced emf can exist whether the circuit is
If the magnetic flux in a coil of resistance R opened or closed. But induced current can exist
only in the closed circuits.
changes from 1 to  2 in a time ‘dt’, then a
 A metallic ring is held horizontally and a bar
e magnet is dropped through the ring with its length
current ‘i’ is induced in the coil as i  along the axis of the ring, as shown in figure.
R
N  2  1   d 
i  e   N 
Rdt  dt 
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 When north pole of a magnet is moved

perpendicular to the plane of the coil as shown
in figure, then

Induced
Current N N S

A B
Capacitor
a) emf is induced
b) Induced current flows from B to A along the
In both the cases net force on the magnet is coil when A and B are connected through
Fnet  mg  f capacitor.
Hence net acceleration of the fall is c) Electrons flow from A to B along the coil
d) Hence plate A will become positively charged
f
a net  g   a net  g and plate B becomes negatively charged.
m  When the two magnets are moved perpendicular
where f=force exerted by the induced magnetic to plane of coil as shown, then
field of ring on the magnet.
B
 When the magnet is allowed to fall through an
A
open ring (or) cut ring, then S N S N
S
mg a) emf is induced
N
b) Induced current flows from A to B along the
Cut ring coil when A and B are connected through resistor.
c) Electrons flow from B to A along the coil
a) an emf is induced d) Hence plate A will become negatively charged
b) No current is induced (since the ring is not and plate B becomes positively charged.
closed) and hence no induced magnetic field.  The directions of induced current in coil for
c) No opposition to the motion of the magnet. different kinds of motion of magnets
d) Fnet  mg
e) a net  g ,Magnet falls with an acceleration =
Clockwise induced current
g
 When a magnet is allowed to fall through two
identical metal coils at different temperatures then
magnet falls slowly through the coil at low
Clockwise induced current
temperature as its resistance is less more induced
current flows so more is the opposition.
 A magnet allowed to fall through a long cylindrical
pipe then the acceleration of magnet is always
less than ‘g’ and the acceleration continuously No induced current
decreases due to induced currents. But the
velocity increases until the magnet moves with (because there is no change of flux linked with
acceleration. At a particular instant the the coil)
acceleration becomes zero and the magnet  When a current carrying conductor is placed
moves downwards with uniform velocity, called beside a closed loop in its plane then the induced
terminal velocity. current direction for the following are

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

a) Current in conductor is constant. Solution :

Average emf e     1  2
t t
I
Here 1 linked with the loop = B.A. = 0 A
2d

 No induced current 4 10 7 100

  (10 6 )  10 10 Weber
b) Current through the conductor increases as 2  0.2
shown.
2 = (final flux) = 0.
BO CW
1010  0
Ii B i  So, e   108 volt
B BO - Original field 0.01
A
Bi - Induced field Illustration 10:
C I
I= Increasing The magnetic flux linked with the coil
= Increasing varies with time as   3t2  4t  9 . Find
the magnitude of induced e.m.f.When
(B) t=2sec.
 In this case, the flux through the loop due to Solution:
current carrying wire is out of the plane of the
coil.   3t2  4t  9
 As current is increasing, the outward flux through d d
the coil also increases. e  (3t2  4t  9) ; e  6 t  4
dt dt
 Hence to oppose this, an inward flux is created
by the clock wise induced current. At t = 2s; e = 6 × 2 + 4 = 16V.
c) Current through the conductor decreases as Illustration 11:
shown. A magnetic field of induction 2T acts at
right angles to a coil of area 100 cm 2 with
500 turns and having resistance of 10  . If
the coil is removed at a uniform rate from
the field in 0.1 sec, find the
(i) e.m.f. induced (ii) Current induced
(iii) Charge induced in the coil
× ×

× ×
In this case, the flux through the loop due to
current carrying wire is out of the plane of the × ×
coil. Solution:
As current is decreasing, the outward flux d   
through the coil also decreases. (i) Induced e.m.f. E   N  N  1 t 2 
dt
Hence to oppose this, an outward flux is created 1 nBA cos 1  2  500  100  104 cos (0) = 10
by the anti-clock wise induced current. [ 1  0, since area vector and B are in same
Illustration 9: direction]
2 2  BA cos 2  0 ;
A small conducting loop of area 1 mm is
placed in the plane of a long straight wire   2 10  0
E 1 ; E  100
at a distance of 20 cm from it. Current in dt 0.1
the straight wire changes from 100 A to E 100
zero in 0.01 second. Find the average emf (ii) Induced current I    10A
R 10
induced during this period. (iii) Induced charge q  It  10  0.1  1C
Page 227
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 12: according to the relation

A Circular coil is kept on a horizontal plane.
 B   5t 3  4t 2  2t  5  weber. Calculate the
A bar magnet is held vertical with north pole
down, above the coil. induced current through the coil at t  2
S second. The resistance of the coil is 5  .
N Solution:
  5t 3  4t 2  2t  5
Solution: d
e   15t 2  8t  2
Activity Observation dt
1. Magnet is nearer 1. No current in at t  2 sec,  15  4  8  2  2
but not dropped the coil
dropped E 78
2. a. North pole is e  78V ; i  R  5  15.6 A
observed from above
Illustration 15:
2. Magnet is b. South pole from
dropped and below A circular coil of 500 turns of wire has an
approaching the c. a  g
coil
d. Current induced is enclosed area of 0.1m2 per turn. It is kept
anti clock wise perpendicular to a magnetic field of
from top induction 0.2T and rotated by 1800 about a
3.a. South pole is diameter perpendicular to the field in 0.1s.
observed from How much charge will pass when the coil
above
3. Magnet has b. North pole from is connected to a galvanometer with a
crossed the coil below combined resistance of 50  .
and moving down c. accelaration
from it the magnet a is Solution:
less than g a  g
d. current induced i   f NBA    NBA  2 NBA
is anticlockwise q  
from bottom R R R
Illustration 13:
1) When the magnet is allowed to fall through 2  500  0.2  0.1
q  0.4 C .
an open ring (or) cut ring, then 50
S Illustration 16:
mg
N Some magnetic flux is changed from a coil
Cut ring
of resistance 10  . As a result an induced
current is developed in it, which varies with
Solution:
time as shown in figure. What is the
Activity Observation magnitude of change in flux through the
1. Magnet is nearer but 1. No current in the coil ?
not dropped coil
2. Magnet is dropped 2. No current in the
and approaching the coil coil a=g
3. Magnet has crossed
3. No current in the
the coil and moving
coil a=g
down form it
Solution:
Illustration 14:
The magnetic flux through a coil 
The induced charge is q 
perpendicular to its plane is varying R
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

But, Area of i-t curve gives charge

   R  Area of i  t curve ;   qR    0 103
e    1 mV
t t 2  0.7
1
  4  0.1 10    2wb The magnitude of current is
2
Illustration 17: e 103 A
I   2  103 A  2mA
A long solenoid with 1.5 turns per cm has a R 0.5
2
small loop of area 2.0 cm placed inside the Illustration 19:
solenoid normal to its axis. If the current A square loop ACDE of area 20cm 2 and
in the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A resistance 5 is rotated in a magnetic field
to 4.0 A in 1.0s. The emf induced in the loop
is B = 2T through 1800
Solution: a) in 0.01 s and b) in 0.02 s.
The magnetic field along the axis of solenoid is Find the magnitude of e,i and q in both
the cases.
B  0 ni where n is no. of turns per unit length.
flux hrough the smaller loop placed in solenoid is   B
A C
Since current in solenoid is changing, emf induced
d d   
in loop is e    0 niA ;
dt dt
 42 E D
 4107 1.5 102  2 104      
 1 0 
Solution:
 0.75  107V Let us take the area vector S perpendicular to
Illustration 18: plane of loop inwards. So intially dS parallel to
A sqaure loop of side 10cm and resistance B and when it is rotated by 1800 , S is anti
0.5  is placed vertically in the east-west parallel to B. Hence, initial flux passing through
plane. A uniform magnetic field of 0.10T is the loop,
set up across the plane in the north-east i  BS cos 00   2   20 10 4  1
direction. The magnetic field is decreased
to zero in 0.70s at a steady rate. The  4  103 Wb
magnitude of current in this time-interval
is. Flux passing through the loop when it is
0 rotated by 1800 ,  f  BS cos1800
Solution:   45
The initial magnetic flux is given by   2   20  10 4   1  4.0 103Wb
  BA cos  Therefore, change in flux,
Given, B=0.10 T, area of square loop 3
B   f  i ;  8  10 Wb
 10cm  10cm  100cm 2  102 m 2
B
0.1102 (a) Given t  0.01 s, R  5 ; e 
  Wb t
2
8 103 e 0.8
  0.8V ; or i    0.16 A
Final flux, min  0 0.01 R 5
The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s and q  it  0.16  0.01 ;  1.6  103 C
The magnitude of the induced emf is

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

B  fingers, we can find out the direction of induced

b) t  0.02s ;  e   t
current to be clockwise.
8  1 0 3 e 0.4
MOTIONAL EMF
 ; = 0.4V ; i   0.08 A
0 .0 2 R 5
 The motional emf is the emf which results from
and q  it   0.08  0.02  ; relative motion between a conductor and the
source of magnetic field.
 16  104 C  When a condutor of length l is moved with a
Illustration 20: velocity v perpendicular to its length in uniform
A bar magnet is brought near a solenoid magnetic field (B), which is perpendicular to both
as shown in fig. Will the solenoid attract its length and as well as its velocity, the emf
or repel the magnet? induced across its ends e=Blv
 If the rod moved making an angle  with its
S N length, then e  Blv sin 
     
Solution:
 
 In vector form e  B. l  v or l. v  B  
    
When the magnet is near the solenoid, according  
or e  v. B  l or  B l v 
to Lenz’s law, both repel each other. On the   
other hand if the magnet is moved away from  Among B, l and v , if any two are parallel the
the solenoid, it attracts the magnet. When the emf induced across the conductor is zero
  
magnet is brought near the solenoid, the nearer  If B, l and v are mutually perpendicular, emf
side becomes the same pole and when it is induced is maximum
moved away it becomes the opposite pole as FLEMINGS’S RIGHT HAND RULE:
shown in fig. Motion of conductor
Thumb
S N N S
Fore finger
Field
S N S N

Illustration 21: Central finger

A current I from A to B is increasing in Induced Current

magnitudes as shown in figure. What is the  Stretch the first three fingers of right hand such
that they are mutually perpendicular to each
direction of induced current in the loop.
other. If the fore finger represents the direction
Solution: of magnetic field and the thumb represents the
× direction of the motion of the conductor, then
B Bi the central finger indicates the direction of induced
current
A B
RIGHT HAND PALM RULE:
I
Magnetic Field
The current I will produce a magnetic field B in
upward direction in the region in which coil is
placed. Since, the current is increasing in
magnitude, B will also increase with time,
subsequently increasing flux. Motion
To counter the increasing flux, induced field Bi is
produced opposite to direction B. Pointing right Higher
hand thumb in the direction of Bi and curling Potential

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Accroding to this rule, “ If we stretch our right 

perpenicular to both B and ‘ab’
hand palm in such a way that thumb points
along the motion of conducter,fingers towards From right hand rule,
the magnetic field then outward normal to 1) We can see that ‘b’ is at higher potential and
white surface of palm gives the postive terminal ‘a’ is at lower potential.
of battery” Hence, Vba  Vb  Va   ab  v cos   B 
Special Cases 2) The direction of the induced emf is given by
 A rod of length ‘l’ has a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular Lenz’s Law. However it is more convienent to
to its length is a tranverse magnetic field, then apply Fleming’s right hand rule.
the emf induced is given by NOTE:
  BA ;   Blx 1. If the velocity is given along the length of the rod
the area enclosed will be zero. Rate of change of
+A flux is zero. emf induced is also zero.
x x x x x v 2. E.M.F induced across the diameter of a semi cir-
d dx
e   Bl   Bvl x x x x x cular loop is equal to Bv(2R) where ‘2R’ is the
dt dt x x x x x
-B effective length of the wire
3. Any irregular wire which is not closed is moving
 The direction of velocity is making an angle ‘ ’ with a velocity ‘v’normal to the open part in a
with the length of the rod transverse magnetic field, then induced emf is
    
  B. A  B. l  vt   Bv  PQ  . Where P and Q are ends of the wire.
4. A conductor of length l is bent at mid point and is
d    moved along the perpendicular bisector with a
e
dt

  B. l  v   Blv sin  constant speed ‘v’ in a uniform magnetic field of
strength ‘B’ as shown then emf indued is
A
v e  Bv  PQ 

l 
P

 V
B
 e  Bleff v where leff is the shortest distance be-
Q
tween two ends of wire.
b  
c c
b From the diagram PQ  L  sin 
 2
a 
a v1  v cos 

 e   Blv sin
For any two points ‘a’ and ‘b’ the motional emf in 2
the direction from ‘b’ to ‘a’ is 5. A rod of length ‘l’is held horizontal along east-
a    west and is dropped then the instantaneous emf

e   v  B . dl
b
 induced in the rod can be BH vl . Where BH is
In general we can say that, motional emf in wire horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
‘acb’ in a uniform magnetic field is the motional Where v is instantaneous velocity v  gt .
emf in an imaginary wire ‘ab’, Thus
eacb  e ab   length of ab  v   B 
Here V is the component o f velocity

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Bv Application-3 And if the wire is moving in a horizontal

plane in any direction as shown in figure (C),it
BH
will cut flux of Bv (as B H will always be parallel
to area) and so
Here Bv is on the plane of area.
BH is perpendicular to the plane of area.
Application-1: If a conductor is moving vertically
Bv V
downwards with constant velocity v with its ends l
pointing east-west,it will cut the horizontal
component of earth’s field BH as shown in
e=Bvlv
figure(A) and hence the flux linked with the area C
generated by the motion of the conductor,and
induced emf will be. dv  ds 
v  Bvls and e   Bv vl  with v 
dt  dt 
Fn Motional emf induced in a rotating bar:
FH
B A  When a rod of length l fixed at one end is rotating
at a constant rate then the area of the sector
E which is linked with flux also changes at a fixed
W
rate this leads to rate of change of flux and hence
l emf is induced. Let dl is the small length on the
e=BHvyl
(A)
rod on which Lorentz force is considered.
Q
H  BH  ly  and
dl v
d  dy 
e  H  BH v y l  here v y   l
dt  dt 
Application-2 : However in case of vertical motion,
if the ends of the conductor point north- O
south,both BH and Bv will be parallel to the plane l2 l2

of area generated by the motion of the conductor Induced emf e   de   Bvdl   B  l  .dl
l1 l1
as shown figure (B) and hence it doesn’t cut the
magnetic lines. So l2
l2 
 B    1 B  l22  l12 
Fn
N  2  l1 2
W BH
nE When the rod is fixed at one end then l1  0 ,
S
Bv V 1
l2  l ; e Bl 2
2
+
l Q
e
(B)
-
d O
  0 and e  0
dt

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

V
i b
l

x
emf = Bbv   B1  B2  bv
i 0i  0ibv  1 1 
 0   bv ;   ;
 2x 2  x  l   2  x l  x 


0ilbv

2x  x  l 
Illustration 23:
A horizontal magnetic field B is produced
across a narrow gap between the two square
iron pole pieces. A closed square loop of side
a, mass m and resistance R is allowed to fall
with the top of the loop in the field. The
loop attains a terminal velocity equal to :

Sol: Induced emf in the loop, when it is falling with

terminal velocity
e Bva
e = Bva ; i  
R R
Vertically upward force experienced by loop due
to this

 B
 Bva 
a
B2 va 2
F = Bia ;   ;
 R  R
When the loop attains terminal velocity ‘v’

Illustration 22: B2 va 2 v  mgR

mg  ;
A rectangular loop of length ‘l’ and breadth R B 2a 2
‘b’ is placed at a distance of x from an Illustration 24:
infinitely long wire carrying current ‘i’ such A conducting wire of mass m slides down
that the direction of current is parallel to two smooth conducting bars, set at an angle
breadth. If the loop moves away from the  to the horizontal as shown in figure. The
current wire in a direction perpendicular seperation between the bars is l . The system
to it with a velocity ‘v’. Find the magnitude is located in the magnetic field B ,
of the e.m.f induced in the loop : ( 0  perpendicular to the plane of the sliding
permeability of free space) wire and bars. The constant velocity of the
Solution: wire is

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

R
B Illustration 27:
Figure shows a conducting rod PQ in
contact with metal rails RP and SQ, which
are 0.25m apart in a uniform magnetic field

of flux density 0.4T acting perpendicular

to the plane of the paper. Ends R and S are
Solution: connected through a 5  resistance. What
Along inclined plane the force acting downwards is the emf induced when the rod moves to
 mg sin  .......(1) the right with a velocity of 5ms 1 ? What is
magnetic force acting upwards  F  Bil the magnitude and direction of the current
through the 5  resistance? If the rod PQ
2 2
 Blv  B l v moves to the left with the same speed, what
B l ;  ......(2)
 R  R will be the new current and its direction ?
From (1) and (2)
B2l 2 v mgR sin 
 mg sin  ; v
R B 2l 2
Illustration 25: -
A wire of length 2l is bent at mid point so that
the angle between two halves is 600. If it moves Solution:
as shown with a velocity v in a magnetic field e  Blv  0.4  0.25  5  0.5V
B find the induced emf.
e 0.5V
Current, I    0.1A
R 5
o o
Applying Fleming’s right hand rule, the current
30 30 l in the rod shall flow from Q to P.
l
(b) : If the rod PQ moves to the left with the
same speed, then the current of 0.1 A will flow
P Q in the rod PQ from P to Q
l
Solution: Illustration 28:
e=Blv. Here l = Effective length = PQ A loop ABCD containing two resistors as
shown in figure is placed in a uniform
x l magnetic field B directed outwards to the
sin 30   x  l sin 30 
l 2 plane of page. A sliding conductor EF of
length l and of negligible resistance moves
 
leff  2 x  2 l  l ; e  B leff v  Blv
2
to the right with a uniform velocity v as
shown in Fig. Determine the current in
Illustration 26: each branch.
A conductor of length 0.1m is moving with A E B
a velocity of 4m/s in a uniform magnetic field
B
of 2T as shown in the figure. Find the emf R1 l v B R2
induced?
D F C
Solution:
The magnetic field induction B, length l and the
velocity v of the conductor EF are mutually
perpendicular, hence the emf induced in it is
Solution: e=Blv (with end F of the rod at higher potential)
e  Blv  2  0.1 4  0.8v  The effective electric circuit can be redrawn
as shown in Fig.
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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A E B the paper. A capacitor of capacity C  10F

i1 i i2 is connected as shown in the figure. Then
R1 e=Bvl R2 what are the charges on the plates A and B
of the capacitor.
D F C P
The resistance R1 and R2 are in parallel, so the
B
1 1 1 A

equivalent resistance R is given by R R R  v
1 2 B
e
From Ohms law, the total current is i  Q
R
1 1  Solution:
i  Blv    The motional emf is
 R1 R2 
BlV  p.d across the capacitor
Current in AD is 1 i 
R1 ;  Blv  4  1 2  8V
BlV q  CV  10  8  80C
Current in BC is i2  R
2
A is +Ve w.r.t. B (from Fleming right hand rule)
Illustration 29:
A rectangular loop with a slide wire of The charge on plate A is q A  80  C
length l is kept in a uniform magnetic field
as shown in the figure. The resistance of The charge on plate B is qB  80C
slider is R. Neglecting self inductance of Illustration 31:
the loop find the current in the conductor
during its motion with a velocity v. Two parallel rails with negligible resistance
are 10.0 cm apart. They are connected by a
R2 l V R1 5.0  resistor as shown in figure. The
B circuit also contains two metal rods having
Solution: resistances of 10.0  and 15.0  along the
The equivalent circuit is
rails. The rods are pulled away from the
resistor at constant speeds 4.00 m/s and 2.00
R R 1R 2 m/s respectively. A uniform magnetic field
R1  R 2 of magnitude 0.01T is applied perpendicular
Blv to the plane of the rails. Determine the
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is current in the 5.0  resistor..
FR
Bvl 
Bl
e
Hence the current in the conductor is i 
R
Blv  R1  R2 
 i
 RR1  RR2  R1R2  Solution:
Illustration 30: In the figure R  5.0 , r1  10 , r2  15  ,
A conducting rod PQ of length L = 1.0m is
e1  Blv1  0.01  0.1  4  4  103V
moving with a uniform speed v=2.0m/s in a
uniform magnetic field B=4.0T directed into e2  Blv 2  0.01  0.1  2  2  103V

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the left loop : For the rest of sections, the induced emf is in the
10i1  5  i1  i2   4 10 3 same sense, (i.e., from N to M)
 Total emf induced in the conductor is
 15i1  5i2  4  103  (1) b a

3
e   de   Bv dx
Right loop : 15i2  5  i1  i2   2 10 b

i
 20i2  5i1  2  103  (2) Substituting for B  0 , the above equation
2x
Solving (1) and (2) gives : gets changed to
18 10  0iv dx
b a  iv b a
i1   103 A and i2   10 3 A e e  0 ln x b or,,
55 55
b 2 x 2
 iv
 Current through 5   i1  i2 e  0 ln 1  a / b 
2
8 8 From Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, end N is at
  10 3 A  mA low potential
55 55
Illustration 32: Illustration 33:
A conducting rod MN moves with a speed v A square loop of side a is placed in the same
parallel to a long straight wire which carries plane as a l ong str ai ght wi r e car r yi ng a
a constant current i, as shown in Fig. The cur rent i. The centr e of the loop is at a
length of the rod is normal to the wire. Find
the emf induced in the total length of the distance r from the wire, where r  a . The
rod. State which end will be at a lower loop is moved away from the wire with a
potential. constant velocity v. Find the induced e.m.f.
in the loop?

Solution:
The magnetic field induction due to current i is
different at different sections of the rod, because
they are at different distances from the wire. Solution:
Let us, first of all, subdivide the entire length of Magnetic field by the straight wire of current i at
the conductor MN into elementary sections.  0i
Consider a section (shown shaded in the figure a distance r is B 
2r
(b)) of thickness dx at a distance x from the wire.
flux associated with t he loop is
As all the three, v, B and (dx) are mutually
 i
normally to each other, so the emf induced in it is   BA  0 a 2
de=Bvdx. 2 r
(from N to M by Fleming’s right hand rule)
d  0 2 d  1  0 2  1  dr
e   ia   ia  2 
dt 2 dt  r  2  r  dt
dx Hence the induced emf in the loop is
x
 a2  dr 
M N e  0 i 2 v   v 
B 2 r  dt 
de

Page 236
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 34: AD and BC are  to the velocity as well as 

Two conducting rings of radii r and 2r move to field applied. Hence electric field is induced
across the sides AD and BC only.
in apposite directions with velocities 2v emf are induced across AD and BC only and
and v respectively on a conducting surface are equal.
S. There is a uniform magnetic field of b) As there is no change of flux through the entire
magnitude B perpendicular to the plane of coil net emf induced in the coil is zero.
the rings. The potential difference between c)Induced emf across AD is e and induced current
the highest points of the two rings is
e B lv
i 
B 2r R R
2v r x v Where R is the resistance of the coil.
S (Only the side AD cuts the flux)
Solution: Illustration 36:
A copper rod of length 2m is rotated with a
Replace the induced emfs in the rings by cells speed of 10 rps, in a unif orm magnetic f ield
emfs e1  B2 r  2v  =4 Brv of 1 tesla about a pi vot at one end. The
magnetic f ield is perpendicular to the plane
e2  B  4r  v  4 Brv The equivalent circuit is of rotation. F i nd the emf induced across
its ends
1 2 Solution:
e1 - +
e2 1 1
+ - e Bl 2  B  2n  l 2  Bnl 2
2 2
s e  3.14 110  2  2  125.6 volt
Hence the potential difference between the Illustration 37:
highest points of t he t wo rings is A wheel with 10 metallic spokes, each 0.5m
V2  V1  e1  e2  8Brv long, is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/
Illustration 35: minute in a plane normal to the earth’s
magnetic field at the place. If the magnitude
A metallic square loop ABCD is moving in of the field is 0.40 gauss, what is the
its own plane with velocity v in a uniform induced emf between the axle and the rim
magnetic field perpendicular to its plane as of the wheel ?
shown in the figure. Find
a) In which sides of the loop electric field is
induced. Rim
b) Net emf induced in the loop spokes
c)If one ‘BC’ is outside the field while
remaining loop in the field and is being
pulled out with a constant velocity then Solution:
Here each spoke of wheel act as a source of an
induced current in the loop.
induced emf (cell) and emf’s of all spokes are
A B parallel.
v f=120 rev/min = 2 rev/second,
B=0.40 gauss= 0.4 104 T ,
D C Area swept, by each spoke per second,
Solution: A  r 2 f
a) The metallic square loop moves in its own Magnetic flux cut by each spoke per second,
plane with velocity v. d B
A uniform magnetic field is imposed  BA  B r 2 f
perpendicular to the plane of the square loop. dt

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Induced emf, e  B r 2 f (numerically) Solution:

22 1 1
e  0.4 10 4   0.5  0.5  2 e Br 2 ; e  5  2  1 1  5 volt
7 2 2

ENERGY CONSIDERATION

e  6.29  105 volt P

F.v
l R Fm
Induced emf in a wheel is independent of no. of
spokes. Q
Illustration 38:
 A conductor PQ is moved with a constant
A metal rod of resistance 20  is fixed velocity v on parallel sides of a U shaped
along a diameter of a conducting ring of conductor in a magnetic field as shown in figure.
radius 0.1m and lies on x-y plane. There is Let R be the resistance of the closed loop.

a magnetic field B   50T  k . The ring The emf induced in the rod is e=Blv
rotates with an angular velocity e Blv
The current in the circuit is i  
  20 rad / s about its axis. An external R R
As current flows in the conductor PQ from Q to
resistance of 10  is connected across the P of the conductor. So, an equal and opposite
centre of the ring and rim. The current force F has to be applied on the conductor to
through external resistance is move the conductor with a constant velocity v.
Solution:
B2l 2 v
10 Thus, F  Fm 
R
The rate at which work is done by the applied
10 force to move the rod is,
10
B2l 2v 2
The equivalent circuit is Papplied  Fv 
R
10 The rate at which energy is dissipated in the circuit
is,
10 2
2  Bvl  B2l 2 v 2
Pdissipated  i R    R 
10  R  R
This is just equal to the rate at which work is
1 2 1 done by the applied force.
e Bl    50  0.1 0.1 20 ;
2 2 Illustration 40:
 e  5V Hence the current through the A 0.1 m long conductor carrying a current
of 50 A is perpendicular to a magnetic field
e 5 1
external resistance is i  i   A of 1.25 mT. Find the mechanical power to
R 15 3
move the conductor with a speed of 1ms 1
Illustration 39:
Solution:
A copper disc of radius 1m is rotated about
Power P=Fv ; P=Bilv ; l=0.1m ; i=50
its natural axis with an angular velocity 2
rad/sec in a uniform magnetic field of 5 tesla B  1.25  103 ; v=1m/sec ; p  Bilv
with its plane perpendicular to the field.  1.25  103  50  0.1 1 ;  6.25 103 ;
Find the emf induced between the centre of =6.25 mW
the disc and its rim.

Page 238
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 41: B
A short - circuited coil is placed in a time
varying magnetic field. Electrical power is
dissipated due to the current induced in the FM
coil. If the number of turns were to be
quadrupled and the radius of the wire is to T
be halved, then find the electrical power mg
dissipated. i) The terminal velocity achieved by the rod.
Solution: ii) The acceleration of the mass at the instant
Current is induced in the short-circuited coil when the velocity of the rod, is half the terminal
due to the imposed time - varying magnetic velocity.
field.
Solution:
e2 d i) the velocity of rod = V
Power P  ; Here e   where
R dt Intensity of magnetic field = B
  NBA  emf induced in rod (e)=BLV V
l BlV
and R  2 where l and r are length and  current induced in rod (i) 
r R
radius of the wire.
2
B VL2
2
2
r  d  Force on the rod F  BiL 
P   NBA or R
l  dt  Net force on the system = mg - T
r 2 2 2  dB 
2 mg - T = ma
P N A   or
l  dt  B 2VL2
but T F 
N 2r 2 R
P=(constant)
l B 2VL2
Hence, mg   ma
r1 R
when r2  then l2  4l1
2 B 2VL2
2
P  4N   r   l 
2 or a  g  ...............(i)
 2    mR
   
P1 N2  2r   4l  For rod to achieve terminal velocity VT , a  0
2 2
P 16 N  r  l P2 1
 2  2 or P  1 B 2VT L2
P1 N  4r  4l 2
1
 0  g 
mR
 Power dissipated is the same.
Illustration 42: mgR
or Terminal velocity VT   2 2 .........(ii)
A pair of parallel horizontal conducting B L
rails of negligible resistance, shorted at one V
ii) Acceleration of mass when V T
end is fixed on a table. The distance 2
between the rails is L and a rod of resistance mgR
R can slide on the rails frictionlessly. The or V  . Put this value of V in (i)
2 B 2 L2
rod is tied to a massless string which passes
over a pulley fixed to the edge of the table. B 2 L2  mgR  g
a  g    2 2  or a  g 
A mass m, tied to the other end of the string, mR  2 B L  2
hangs vertically. A constant magnetic field g
B exists perpendicular to the table. If the or a  ...............(iii)
2
system is released from rest, calculate :

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 43: 2 2 1 1 
(or) mg  B l V 0     P1  P2
Two parallel vertical metallic bars XX 1 and  R1 R2 
YY 1 , of negligible resistance and separated [From equation (ii) and (iii)]
by a length ‘l ’, are as shown in Fig. The P1  P2
 The terminal velocity is V0 
ends of the bars are joined by resistance R1 mg
and R 2 . A uniform magnetic field of Substituting for V0 in equation (ii),
induction B exists in space normal to the 2 2
plane of the bars. A horizontal metallic rod B2l 2  P1  P2   Bl  P1  P2   1
P1     R1    
PQ of mass m starts falling vertically, R1  mg   mg  P1
making contact with the bars. It is observed Similarly from equation (iii)
2
that in the steady state the powers dissipated  Bl  P1  P2   1
in the resistance R1 and R2 and the terminal R2    
 mg  P2
velocity attained by the rod PQ.
Illustration 44:
R1 The loop ABCD is moving with velocity ‘v’
X Y
towards right. The magnetic field is 4T.
B The loop is connected to a resistance of 8  .
P Q If steady current of 2A flows in the loop
l then find the value of ‘v’ if loop has a
X' Y' resistance of 4  : (Given AB=30cm, AD=30
cm)
R2 C
Solution: D
Let V0 be the terminal velocity attained by the v
rod PQ (in the steady state). If i1 and i2 be the 8
currents flowing through R1 and R2 in this state, A 370 B
then current flowing through the rod PQ is
i  i1  i2 (see the circuit diagram) as shown in
Fig. Solution:
The induced emf in the loop is e  Blv
e  B  AD  sin 370 v  4  0.3sin 370 v
Effective resistance of the circuit is
R   4  8   12  ;
e Blv
Hence i  
R R
 Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, yields. 4  0.3  sin 370 v 100
i1 R1  BV0 l and i2 R2  BV0 l 2 ; v  m/ s
 4  8 3
 1 1 
 i1  i 2  B V 0 l    .....(i) Illustration 45:
 R1 R 2  A square loop of side 12cm with its sides
2 2 2
2 B V 0 l parallel to x and y-axes is moved with a
Given that, P1  i1 R1  R .....(ii)
1 velocity 8 cm/s along positive x-direction
B 2V02 l 2 in an environment containing magnetic
2
P
and 2 2 2 i R  ....(iii) field along +ve z-direction. The field has a
R2
Also in the steady state, the acceleration of PQ=0 gradient of 103 tesla/m along -ve x-direction
 mg  B  i1  i2  l (increasing along -ve x-axis) and also
decreases with time at the rate of 103 tesla/
s. The emf induced in the loop is

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Solution: B 2l 2
 Blv  dv dv
The magnetic field in loop varies with position   lB  m.   dt
‘x’ of loop and also with time simultaneously.  R  dt v mR
The rate of change of flux due to variation of ‘B’ v t
dv B 2l 2 v B 2l 2 t
d dB v v    dt ; ln     t
with time is  A mR 0
dt dt 1  v1  mR T
The rate of change of flux due to variation B with
t
position ‘x’ is mR T
where T  2 2  v  vi e
d
 A
dB dB dx dB
 A   A v
Bl
dt dt dx dt dx The speed of the bar therefore decreases
Since both cause decrease in flux, the two effects exponentially with time under the action of
will add up
magnetic retarding force.
 The net emf induced
t
d dB dB  dB dB  emf  iR  Blv i e T ; current :
e A  A  v  A   v. 
dt dt dx  dt dx 
Blv Bl Tt
4 3
 144  10 10  8  10  3
i  v1e
R R
 144  9  107  129.6  10 6 V Illustration 47:
Illustration 46: Figure shows a square loop of side 5 cm
A bar of mass m and length l moves on two being moved towards right at a constant
frictionless parallel rails in the presence of speed of 1 cm/s. The front edge enters the
a uniform magnetic field directed into the 20 cm wide magnetic field at t = 0. Find
plane of the paper. The bar is given an the emf induced in the loop at (a) t = 2s,
initial velocity vi to the right and released. (b) t = 10 s, (c) t = 22 s and (d) t = 30s.
Find the velocity of bar, induced emf across
the bar and the current in the circuit as a B = 0.6 T
function of time × × ×
v=1cm/s ×
× × × ×
5 cm × × × ×
× × × ×
l R vi × × × ×
20 cm

(a) At t = 2 s, the loop is partly inside the

Solution:
The induced current is in the counter clockwise magnetic field. Hence emf = Bvl = 0.6T ×
direction and the magnetic force on the bar is 0.01 m/s × 0.05 m = 3 × 10–4 volt.
(b) At t = 10 s, the loop is fully inside the
given by FB  ilB . The negative sign indicates
magnetic field. As the field is uniform therefore
that the force is towards the left and retards no emf is generated.
motion. (c) At t = 20 s, the loop just starts coming out
F=ma of the magnetic field. So at t = 22 s, it is partly
dv inside and partly outside the field & also it is
ilB  m.
dt moving. Hence emf = Bvl = 0.6 T × 0.01 m/s ×
Because the force depends on current and the 0.05 m = 3 × 10–4 volt
current depends on the speed, the force is not (d) At t = 30 s, the loop is fully outside the
constant and the acceleration of the bar is not magnetic field. Therefore, no emf is generated.
constant. The induced current is given by It may be noted that the current generated in
Blv dv the loop at t = 2s is anti clock wise, whereas
i ; ilB  m. t = 22 s, the current is clock wise.
R dt

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Illustration 48: force Fm (= BIl) on the frame towards the left.

A right-angled triangle abc, made from a As the loop moves with constant speed, so F
metallic wire, moves at a uniform speed v must equal Fm.
So F = Fm.
in its plane as shown in figure. A uniform

magnetic field B exists in the perpendicular
Bvl B2l 2
direction. Find the emf induced (a) in the F  BIl  B. .l  v
R R
loop abc, (b) in the segment bc, (c) in the
segment ac and (d) in the segment ab. FR 3.2  10 –5  2
 v  = (0.02)2  (0.08)2  25 m / s
Given length of bc = l. B2 l 2
b B (b)Emf induced E = Bvl
v FR FR 3.2 105  2
B .l    0.04 V
 B2 l 2 Bl 0.02  0.08
a c
Solution: FR
(c) E = Bvl  because all the emf is
(a) As the loop moves in a uniform magnetic field, Bl
net emf induced in the loop is zero. produced cross the element ab only.
(b) Part bc of the loop is a straight wire and its However due to current flowing through ab,
length is perpendicular to the velocity. Hence emf. there is a potential drop across ab
Net Vab = E – Ir where r is resistance of part
Vbc = Bvl. Here Vb < Vc, so that end b is
ab.
negative compared to end c i.e. Vb – Vc = –Bvl.
E 0.04 V
(c) Part ac has length parallel to velocity so, net Also I    0.02 A
R 2
emf Vac = 0.
8 cm 8
(d) Part ab moves such that its length makes and r  R.  2  = 0.4 
40 cm 40
angle  with its velocity v.. So Vab = 0.04 – 0.02 × 0.4 = 0.032 volt
So Vab = Bv (l1) sin  (length of ab (l1) = l / sin  ) (d) No emf is generated across cd. However
= Bv (l/sin  ) sin  = Bvl. due to current flow there is potential drop
between c and d.
Here Va > Vb Vcd = IR = 0.02 A × 0.4  = 0.008 volt.
Illustration 49:
A rectangular frame of wire abcd has MOTION OF RECTANGULAR LOOP IN
dimensions 32 cm × 8.0 cm and a total MAGNETIC FIELD:
resistance of 2.0  . It is pulled out of a An external agent pulls the loop to the right at
magnetic field B = 0.020 T by applying a constant speed v by exerting a force F. The
force of 3.2 × 10–5 N. It is found that the uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to the
frame moves with constant speed. Find (a) plane of the loop and directed inwards.
this constant speed, (b) the emf induced in Let us calculate the mechanical power expended
the loop, (c) the potential difference by the external agent.
between the points a and b and (d) the x
potential difference between the points c x

and d. x x F2 x
a b
×b × × × c x x x l v
× × × × F1
× × × × F d I c
x x x
×a × × × d

(a) Due to change in magnetic flux, emf generated

Flux enclosed by the loop at any instant  Bl  x 
is e = Bvl.
e Bvl Here lx is the area of that part of the loop in
I   . This current causes magnetic
R R which B is not zero.

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dB INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS :

Induced emf, e 
dt INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD:-
 An electric field produced by a changing
d  dx 
e  Blx   Bl     Blv magnetic field is defined as induced electric field.
dt  dt  The behaviour of this induced electric field is
Since x is decreasing, therefore, we have set different from regular electric field.
Induced electric
 dx  field field
   equal to the speed v, at which the loop is
 dt  Electric field is This is non
conservative that conservative work
pulled out of the magnetic field, means work done done in a closed
in a closed path is loop is equal to
e Blv zero P.D
Induced current, i  
R R These electric field
These are closed
lines are open  
Where R is the resistance of the loop. From Lenz’s  
loops  Edl.  0
loops  Edl.  0
law, the direction of the induced current must be
Material medium
clockwise. It opposes the decreases in magnetic is required
flux by setting up a field that is parallel to the ex- ( charges are Material medium
is not required
ternal field within the loop required to create
electric field )
The induced current in the loop gives rise mag- Potential can be Potential can’t be
   defined define
netic forces F1 , F2 and F3 that act on the three
conduct ors acco rding to the equatio n; KEY NOTE:-
    Generally one may feel wonder to say induced

F1  i l  B electric fields are non conservative that means
  work done in closed path is non zero
Since F2 and F3 are equal and opposite there-  One may wonder why work done by the magnetic
fore, they cancel each other.   
 force (Amperian force), F  
i 
l  B is also non
The force F1 opposes the effort of the external zero, in case of induced emf. But the fact is work
agent to move the loop. F1  Bil sin 90 0 done by amperian force and work done by
induced emf is zero
The loop shall move with a uniform velocity only  When a conducting loop is placed in a varying
if the external agent that pulls the loop exerts force magnetic field, a varying electric field produced
F equal in magnitude to F1 in the loop, is called induced electric field.
 An electric field is always generated by a
B 2l 2v 2 changing magnetic field, even in free space where
Power of agent, P  F1v or P 
R no charges are present.
This gives us the rate at which work is done by  Consider a conducting loop of radius R, situated
the external agent. Let us now calculate the rate in a uniform magnetic field B that is
at which energy is dissipated in the loop as a re- perpendicular to the plane of the loop as shown
sult of Joule heating by the induced current. in the figure
 Blv 
2
B 2l 2v 2 e 2 E
P  i2 R   R   E

 R  R R r
This result agrees precisely with the rate at which
mechanical work is done on the loop. The work
done by the external agent is eventually dissipated E E
as Joule heat in the loop. Bin

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 If the magnetic field changes with time, then an because this electric field is produced only by
variable magnetic field.
d 
emf e  is induced in the loop. The induced PERIODIC EMI
dt  Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns
current thus produced implies the presence of placed initially in a magnetic field such that
an induced electric field E that must be tangential magnetic field is perpendicular to it’s plane as
to the loop in order to provide an electric force shown.
on the charge around the loop. =2v
 The work done by the electric field on the loop
in moving a test charge q once around the B
loop=qe. Because the magnitude of electric n
force on the charge is qE, the work done by the
electric field can also be expressed as qE  2r  ,
R
where 2r is the circumference of the loop.  : Angular speed
These two expressions for the work must be v : Frequency of rotation of coil
equal; therefore, we see that R : Resistance of coil
e For uniform rotational motion with  , the flux
qe  qE  2r  ; E  linked with coil at any time t
2r
  NBA cos   NBA cos t
 Using this result along with Faraday’s law and
  0 cos t where 0  NBA = maximum flux
the fact that  B  BA  Br 2 for a circular loop,
(1) Induced emf in coil : Induced emf also
the induced electric field can be expressed as changes in periodic manner that’s why this
phenomenon called periodic EMI
1  d B  1 d r dB d
E 
2r  dt 

2r dt
 Br 2   
2 dt
e 
dt
 NBAsin t  e  e0 sint
where e0 = emf amplitude or maximum
 The emf for any closed path can be expressed emf  NBA0 
 
as the line integral of E.dl over that path. Hence, (2) Induced current : At any time t,
the general form of Faraday’s law of induction is e e0
i  sin t i 0 sin t
  d  R R
e   E.dl  B where i0 = current amplitude or maximum current
dt
 It is important to recognize that the induced i0 
e0 NBA 0 
 
electric field E that appears in the equation is a R R R
non-conservative field that is generated by a EDDY CURRENT
changing magnetic field.  When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a
bulk piece of conducting material then circulating
 Points to remember about induced electric field.
currents called eddy currents are induced in
1) The induced electric field is produced only by
the material. Because the resistance of the bulk
changing magnetic field and not by charged
conductor is usually low, eddy currents often
particles. have large magnitudes and heat up the
2) One cannot define potentials w.r.t this induced conductor.
field (a) These are circulating currents like eddies in
3) The lines of induced electric field are closed water.
curves and have no starting and terminating (b) Experimental concept given by Foucault hence
points. also named as “Foucault current”.
4) As long as the magnetic field keeps on (c) The production of eddy currents in a metallic
changing, the induced electric field will be present block leads to the loss of electric energy in the
form of heat.

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(d)By Lamination, slotting processes the shaft of the vehicle and it rotates according to
resistance of the path for circulation of eddy the speed of the vehicle. The magnet is mounted
current increases, resulting into weakening them in an aluminium cylinder with the help of hair
and also reducing energy loss caused by them springs. When the magnet rotates, it produces
Plane metal
eddy currents in the drum and drags it through
plate an angle, which indicates the speed of the
××
vehicle on a calibrated scale.
×× (v) Energy meter : In energy meters, the
×× ×
×× × ×
amature coil carries a metallic aluminium disc
(A) Strong eddies produced which rotates between the poles of a pair of
cause excessive electro permanent horse shoe magnets. As the armature
magnetic damping rotates, the current induced in the disc tends to
Slotted metal oppose the motion of the armature coil. Due to
plate this braking effect, deflection is proportional to
×× the energy consumed.
××
×× ×
×× × × Illustration 50:
(B) Feeble eddies A uniform magnetic field B exists in a
gradual damping cylindrical region of radius 10 cm as shown
B
Strong eddy in figure. A uniform conducting wire of
currents length 80 cm and resistance 4.0  is bent
(C) Solid metallic core into a square frame abcd and is placed
Feeble eddy currents with one side along a diameter of the
cylindrical region. If the magnetic field
increases at a constant rate of 0.010 T/s,
(D) Laminated core find the current induced in the frame.
(e)Application of eddy currents : Though a d
most of the times eddy currents are undesirable
but they find some useful applications as × ×
enumerated below:
× × ××
(i) Dead-beat galvanometer : A dead beat
× × ××
galvanometer means one whose pointer comes × ×
to resting the final equilibrium position b c
immediately without any oscillation about the Solution:
equilibrium position when a current is passed Flux linked with the square loop is only due to
in its coils. flux change in one half of the circular area. so
This is achieved by winding the coil on a   2
  B.A (where A =  r /2)
metallic frame the large eddy currents induced
in the frame provide electromagnetic damping. = BA cos 0º = BA
(ii) Electric-brakes : When the train is running d
its wheel is moving in air and when the train is In the loop, emf E  – d = – (BA)
dt dt
to be stopped by electric breaks the wheel is
made to move in a field created by dB r 2 dB 
 E  –A   =  (0.1)2 (0.01)
electromagnet. Eddy currents induced in the dt 2 dt 2
wheels due to the changing flux oppose the = – 1.57 × 10–4 volt
cause and stop the train.
(iii) Induction furnace : Joule’s heat causes E 1.57  10–4
Current in the loop I =  Amp.
the melting of a metal piece placed in a rapidly R 4
changing magnetic field. = 3.9 × 10–5 Amp.
(iv) Speedometer : In the speedometer of an
automobile, a magnet is geared to the main

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Current in the loop will be from a to b, so that SELF INDUCTANCE ‘L’:-

it can create a magnetic field opposite to the Self inductance of a coil is magnetic flux linked
existing magnetic field because the magnetic with the coil when unit current flows through it
field is increasing. Had the magnetic field been (or) emf induced in the coil when current changes
decreasing, the current would be from b to a. in it at the rate of 1 A/sec.
Illustration 51:  S.I Units henry
A square loop of edge a having n turns is Other units Wb/amp, V  S A1 , JA m2
rotated with a uniform angular velocity  SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SELF INDUCTION IN
about one of its diagonals which is kept ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS:-
fixed in a horizontal position as shown in  Self induction oppose the rate of change of
fig. A uniform magnetic field B exists in current in a circuit but it does not opposes the
the vertical direction. Find the e.m.f. current it gives inertia to the circuit ‘L’ is
induced in the coil. synonymans to mass in mechanics the induction
×× ×××× is ideal then resistance is zero
××× ××× SELF INDUCTANCE OF A FLAT
××× ××× CIRCULAR COIL :
×××××× Let us consider a circular coil of radius r and
× ×× × × × containing N-turns. Suppose it carries a current
‘i ’. The magnetic field at the centre due to this
×× ××××
0 Ni
Solution : current B  and t otal flux
The area of the square frame is A = a2. if the 2r
normal to the frame makes an angle   0   Ni   N 2 ri
 NBA  N  0  r 2  0
with the magnetic field at t = 0, this angle will  2r  2
become   t at time t. The flux of the Now comparing with N  B  Li we get
magnetic field at this time is 0 N 2 r
  nBA cos   nBa 2 cos t
L 
2
The induced e.m.f. is SELF INDUCTANCE OF A SOLENOID :
d Consider a long solenoid of length l, area of cross
  nBa 2 sin  t section A and number of turns per unit length n
dt and length is very large when compared with
Thus, an alternating e.m.f. is induced in the radius of cross section.
coil. Let I be the current flowing through the solenoid.
SELF INDUCTION : The magnetic field inside the long solenoid is
coil
uniform and is given by B   0 nI
Total number of turns in the solenoid of length l
T is N=nl.
k Now, the magnetic flux linked with each turn of
 E.M.F induced in the coil due to rate of change the solenoid B  A  0 nIA
of current in the same coil is defined as self
l
induction
If ‘  ’ is the flux linked with each turn of the coil
I
of ‘N’ turns. then
N i  N  Li  Total magnetic flux linked with the whole
solenoid,  =magnetic flux with each turn 
d
From faraday’s law of emi e    N  number of turns in the solenoid.
dt
   0 nIA  nl   0 n 2 IAl ............(1)
d di
   Li    L
dt dt

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

But   LI  LI   0 n 2 IAl from (1) & (2) c) Breaking of circuit of decreasing of current
Circuit is made off
2
N N2 or I decreasing
 L   0 n Al Since n  , L   0 A
l l
 Self inductance of coil depends on
i) Geometry of the coil e
di
e  L
i.e., a) Number of turns of the coil - + dt
b) The length (l ) of the solenoid,
c) The area of cross-section (A) of the solenoid, (B)
ii) Medium inside the coil (permeability) MUTUAL INDUCTION
iii) Nature of the material of the core of the solenoid.  When current in one coil changes, magnetic flux
 More is the permeability of the medium, more is linked with the second coil placed near by it also
the self inductance changes. The emf induced in secondary is called
mutually induced emf and the phenomenon is
 An inductor will have large inductance and low
called mutual induction.
resistance.
 Resistor opposes the current, inductor opposes
the change of current S P
 One can have resistance without inductance
 One cannot have inductance without resistance.
 An ideal inductor has inductance and no
resistance. G E K
 When the current in the coil either increases or
decreases at a rate, then the coil can be imagined  If ‘ i p ’ is current flowing in the primary coil, ‘  S ’
di is magnetic flux linked with secondary coil, then
to be a cell of emf e  L. S  i p
dt
 One can have self inductance without mutual 
 S  Mi p , M  S
inductance. ip
 One cannot have mutual inductance without self Here ‘M’ is called coefficient of mutual induction
inductance. or mutual inductance.
The direction of induced emf for different  Induced emf in secondary coil is
states of current in a coil :
a) Steady current d   di  e
e   M  p  (or) M 
di dt  dt  di p / dt
0
i dt i  Mutual inductance between two coils is equal to
the magnetic flux linked in the secondary coil
when unit current passes through the primary coil
e = 0 no opposition
b) Make of circuit or increasing current (or) emf induced in one coil when current in the
Circuit is made on other coil changes at the rate of 1 Amp/second.
or I increasing  S.I. units : henry or H
 Dimensional formula of self inductance or mutual
inductance is ML2T 2 A2
e
eL
di  The value of mutual inductance depends on
+ - dt 1) Distance between the two coils
(A) 2) Number of turns of coils

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3) Geometrical shape of the coil But 2  M 12 I1 ................ (ii)

4) Material of the core medium between the coils Where M12 is the mutual inductance when current
5) Orientation of the coils i.e., angle between varies in solenoid S1 and makes magnetic flux
the axes of the coils. linked with solenoid S2,
If the axes of the coils are parallel, then M is from (i) and (ii) we get
maximum
 0 N1 N 2 I1 A
If the axes of the coils are perpendicular then M M 12 I1 
is minimum l
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG  0 N1 N 2 A
COAXIAL SOLENOIDS :  M 12 
l
 Consider two solenoids S1 and S2 such that the
solenoid S2 completely surrounds the solenoid  0 N1 N 2 A
Similarly, M 21  ,
S1 . l
l where M21 is the mutual inductance when current
I1 I1 varies in solenoid S2 and makes magnetic flux
S1 linked with solenoid S1.
It can be proved that
S2 M 12  M 21  M
The above equation is treated as a general result,
Let l be length of each solenoid (or length of
if the two solenoids are wound on a magnetic
primary coil) and of nearly same area of cross-
section A. N1 and N2 are the total number of substance of relative permeability  r , then the
turns of solenoid S1 and S2 respectively. mutual inductance is given by
 Number of turns per unit length of solenoid S1
 0  r N1 N 2 A
N M   0  r n1n2 Al
is, n1  1 l
l
TOTAL INDUCED emf IN A COIL:-
Number of turns per unit length of solenoid S2
 Two coils were placed coaxially and through one
N2 coil current is changing then the emf induced in
is, n2 
l the other coil due to both self and mutual
Magnetic field inside the solenoid S1 is given by induction is given by
N1 di1 di
B1   0 n1 I1   0 I1 e  L  M 12 2
l dt dt
 Magnetic flux linked with each turn of solenoid
 Orientation of the coils will decide the sign before
N M.
S2  B1 A   0 1 I1 A
l
 Total magnetic flux linked with N2 turns of the
solenoid S2 is
N1
2  N 2  B1 A    0 I1 A  N 2
l
 0 N 1 N 2 I1 A
2  .............. (i)
l

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, E+e=0

i is the current dI
passing through
inner solenoid in
E  e ; E  L dt
Two long coaxial side S, B   0 n1 i out
solenoid system side S 1 B  0
Let an infinitesimal charge dq be driven through
?ux through each the inductor in time dt. So, the rate of work
S 1  i n n e r s o le no id
r1  r a d iu s o f it
turn of S 2   B . r12 done by the external voltage is given by
N 2   n 2 l .
n 1  N 1 / l1
 n2l . Br12 dW dI dI
S 2  O u ter s o l en o id  EI  L  I  LI
 n 2 l   0 n1 i   r1 2 dt dt dt
r 2  ra d iu s
n 2  N 2 / l2    0 n1 n2 l  r12  The total work done in establishing a current
N 2
i
  0 n1 n2 r12 l =M through the inductor from 0 to I is given by
Let i2 is the current I
passing through
Bigger ring ?ux
W   dW   LI dI ;
linked with inner coil 0
Two c o ncentric rings is  1 then

r2 
 1   B 2  . A1   I2  1
i2
W  L    LI 2
r1   i
  0  .  r12   2 2
 2 r2 
 0 r12
  . i 1 2
2 r2 W LI
M 


 0 l 2 2
i 2 r2
N  Mi The work done in maintaining the current through
 
M  N 
 B. A 

the inductor is stored as the potential energy (U)
A small square loop  i 
in a large sequare 2
in its magnetic field. Hence energy stored in the
A l ; r l/2
loop of side length ‘L’ inductor is given by
L 0 i
B   sin45  sin45   4
l 4 r
l

 0 i 2   2 
.4 1 2
4  L  2  U LI
Here L  l so that  2
 0 2 2
?eld is uniform L
throughout the small  1 2
M  0 2 2 l   The equation U  LI is similar to the
2

loop L
2 2 0 l2
2

 L 1 2
expression for kinetic energy E  mv .
ENERGY STORED IN THE INDUCTOR:- 2
 Consider an ideal inductor of inductance ‘L’ It shows that L is analogous to mass ‘m’ and self
connected with a battery. Let I be the current in inductance is called electrical inertia.
the circuit at any instant ‘t ’  The self inductance of a coil is numerically equal
to twice the energy stored in it when unit current
di
e  L
dt
flows through it.
i.e., When i=1A, L=2U
VL  di 
E  Induced power P  e  i  Li   .
 dt 
+ -+ -
 In case of solenoid L   0 n 2 Al
This induced emf is given by
 Magnetic energy stored per unit volume
dI
e  L 1 2
dt Li
1
-ve sign shows that ‘e’ opposes the change of UB  2  U B  0n2i 2
current I in the inductor. Al 2
To drive the current through the inductor against B2
the induced emf ‘e’, the external voltage is Hence U B 
applied. Here external voltage is emf of the 20
battery = E

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 The magnetic energy stored per unit volume

similar to electrostatic energy stored per unit N   LI  102  4  103  4  105 Wb
1 2 4 105
volume in a parallel plate capacitor UB  0 E  Flux per turn,    2 107 Wb
2 200
In both cases the energy is proportional to the Illustration 55:
square of field strength. A coil of inductance 0.2 henry is connected
Illustration 52:
to 600 volt battery. At what rate, will the
Two different coils have self inductance
current in the coil grow when circuit is
L1  8mH and L2  2mH . The currents completed ?
in both are increasing at the same Solution:
constant rate. At a certain instant of time, As the battery and inductor are in parallel, at
the power given to the two coils is the
same. At this moment the current, the any instant, emf of the battery and self emf in the
induced voltage and energy stored in the inductor are equal
first coil are i1, V1 and U1 respectively. dI dI e 600V
The corresponding values in the second e L or    3000 A s 1
dt dt L 0.2 H
coil are i2, V2 and U2 respectively. Then
Illustration 56:
i1 V1 U1
the values of i , V and U are An inductor of 5H inductance carries a
2 2 2 steady current of 2A. How can a 50V self-
respectively induced emf be made to appear in the
Solution: inductor
i1 L2 2 1 V1 L1 8 Solution:
     4
i2 L1 8 4 ; V2 L2 2 L  5H ; e  50 V ; Let us produce the
U1 L2 2 1 required emf by reducing current to zero
  
U 2 L1 8 4 dI LdI 5  2
Now, e  L or dt  e  50 s
Illustration 53: dt
Two coaxial solenoids are made by winding 10
thin insulated wire over a pipe of cross- s  0.2 s
50
sectional area A  10cm 2 and length = So, the desired emf can be produced by reducing
20cm. If one of the solenoids has 300 turns the given current to zero in 0.2 second
and the other 400 turns, their mutual Illustration 57:
inductance is   0  4  10 7 TmA1  Two different coils have self-inductances
 0 N1 N 2 A L1  16 mH and L2  12 mH . At a certain
Solution: M instant, the current in the two coils is
L
increasing at the same rate of power
410  3 10  4  102  103
7 
M supplied to the two coils is the same.Find
2 101 the ratio of
 2.4 104 H i) induced voltage ii) current iii) energy
Illustration 54: stored in the two coils at that instant.
The self-inductance of a coil having 200 Solution:
turns is 10 milli henry. Calculate the
dI dI
magnetic flux through the cross-section of i) V1  L1 ;V2  L2 ;
the coil corresponding to current of 4 dt dt
milliampere. Also determine the total flux V1 L1 16 
  
linked with each turn. V2 L2 12 3
Solution:
Total magnetic flux linked with the coil, I1 V1 3
ii) P  V1 I1  V2 I 2  I  V  4
2 2

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1 2
 If the flux linkage is maximum, then
U1 2 L1 I1  L1   I1  4  3 
2 2
3 N 2 2 N11

iii) U 2 1
        M 12  M 21  M ; M 12  M 21  i  i
L2 I 22  L2   I 2  3  4  4 1 2

2 M 2  L1 L2 ;  M  L1 L2
Illustration 58:  This is the maximum mutual inductance when all
The network shown is a part of the closed the flux linked with one coil is also completely
circuit in which the current is changing. linked with the other.
At an instant, current in it is 5A. Potential  In general, only a fraction of the total flux will be
difference between the points A and B if the linked with the coil due to the flux leakage.
current is
 M  K L1L2
A B
5A 1 5H Where K-coefficient of coupling  K  1
15V
1) Increasing at 1A/sec  For tight coupling (or) if the coils are closely
2) Decreasing at 1A/sec wound, then K=1.
Solution:  M max  L1 L2
1) The coil can be imagined as a cell of emf
 di  INDUCTORS IN SERIES :
e  L    5  1  5V ;  Equivalent circuit is
 dt   If two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are
A B connected in series then the potential divides.
5A 1
15V 5V L1 L2
VA  5 1  15  5  VB  VA  VB  25V
 di 
e  L    5  1  5V ;  Equivalent circuit is
e1 e2
 dt 
A B
5A 1 5V
15V
VA  5(1)  15  5  VB e
Hence VA  VB  5  15  5  15V di di di
i.e., e  e1  e2 (or) LS  L1  L2
RELATION BETWEEN L1, L2 AND M : dt dt dt
1 2 di
Since in series, is same for all coils
dt
 LS  L1  L2
N1 N2  If n coils of inductances L1 , L2 , L3 ..........Ln are
connected in series then effective inductance of
the arrangement,
L1 L2 L  L1  L2  L3  ..........  Ln
 The flux linked with coil 1 is (when coils are far away)
N INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL :
N11  L1i1  L1  1 1
i1  If two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are
The flux linked with coil 2 is connected in parallel then the current divides.
N L1
N 2 2  L2i2  L2  2 2 i1
i2
N11
M on 1 because of 2 ; M 12  i
2 i i2 L2
N 2 2
M on 2 because of 1 ; M 21  i e
1

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

di di1 di2 dI
i.e., i  i1  i2 (or)   Solution: e  M
dt dt dt dt
e e e
  1 2
20 10 3  M
6  2
LP L1 L2 (or) M = 10mH
2
However in parallel as potential difference Illustration 60:
remains same i.e, e  e1  e2 , so If the coefficient of mutual induction of the
primary and secondary coils of an induction
1 1 1 L1L2 coil is 6H and a current of 5A is cut off in
  (or) LP 
LP L1 L2  L1  L2  1/5000 second, calculate the emf induced in
the secondary coil.
 If n coil of inductances L1 , L2 , L3 .........Ln are Solution:
connected in parallel then effetive inductance of dI 5
the arrangement, e M ; e  6 V  15 10 4 V
dt 1/ 000
1 1 1 1 Illustration 61:
   ......... 
LP L1 L2 Ln A solenoid is of length 50 cm and has a
(when coils are far away) radius of 2cm. It has 500 turns. Around its
 Let two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are central section a coil of 50 turns is wound.
connected in series and M is their mutual Calculate the mutual inductance of the
inductance. The flux linked with one coil will be system.
the sum of two fluxes which exist independently. Solution:
When the flux in the two coils support each other N P  500, N S  50 ; A   0.02  0.02m 2
N11  L1i1  M 12i2  0  4  107 Hm 1 ,1  50 cm  0.5 m
di1 di 0 N P N S A
From Faraday’s law, e1   L1  M 12 2 Now, M 
dt dt l
2
Similarly N 22  L2i2  M 21i1 4 10 7  500  50    0.02 
 H
di di 0.5
e2   L2 2  M 21 1
dt dt  789.8  107 H  78.98 H
di di di di Illustration 62:
e  e1  e2   L1 1  M 12 2  L2 2  M 21 1
dt dt dt dt A solenoidal coil has 50 turns per
centimeter along its length and a cross-
In series the current i and the change in current sectional area of 4  104 m 2 . 200 turns of
di another wire is wound round the first
di is same e    L1  M 21  L2  M 12  solenoid co-axially. The two coils are
dt
electrically insulated from each other.
L   L1  M 21  L2  M12   L1  L2  2 M Calculate the mutual inductance between
If the two coils oppose each other, then the two coils.
Solution:
n1  50 turns per cm= 5000 turns per metre
n2l  200, A  4  10 4 m 2 ; M  0 n1  n2l  A
L   L1  M    L2  M   L1  L2  2 M
Illustration 59:  4107 5000200 4104 H  5.03 104 H
Illustration 63:
Calculate the mutual inductance between
Two circular coils, one of smaller radius r1
two coils when a current of 2A changes to
and the other of very large radius r2 are
6A in 2 seconds and induces an emf of 20 placed co-axially with centers coinciding.
mV in the secondary coil Obtain the mutual inductance of the
arrangement.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Solution: 0 8 2
Suppose a current I2 flows through the outer i.e., B1  I
4 L
circular coil. The field at the centre of the coil is
So the flux linked with smaller loop
 0 8 21 2
 I 2  B1 S 2  l
B2  0 2 4 L
2r2
2  l2 l2
The second co-axially placed coil has very small and hence, M  2 2 0 M 
I  L L
radius. So B2 may be considered constant over
Illustration 65:
its cross-sectional area.
(a) A toroidal solenoid with an air core has
2 2   I
0 2
 an average radius of 0.15m, area of cross
Now, 1  r1 B2  r1  2r  or section 12  104 m 2 and 1200 turns. Obtain
 2 
the self inductance of the toroid. Ignore
0 r12 field variation across the cross section of the
1  I2 toroid. (b) A second coil of 300 turns is
2r2
wound closely on the toroid above. If the
Comparing wit h 1  M 12 I 2 , we get ; current in the primary coil is increased from
2 zero to 2.0 A in 0.05s, obtain the induced
0 r1
M 12  emf in the secondary coil.
2r2 Solution:
 0 r12 r12  NI  NI
M  M   M  (a) B  0 n1 I  0 1  0 1
Also, 21 12 l 2r
2r
2 r2
It would have been difficult to calculate the flux 0 N12 IA
Total magnetic flux,  B  N1 BA 
through the bigger coil of the non-uniform field 2r
due to the current in the smaller coil and hence
0 N12 A
the mutual inductance M12. The equality But  B  LI L 
2r
M 12  M 21 is helpful. Note also that mutual
inductance depends solely on the geometry. 4107  1200  1200  12  104
L H
Illustration 64: 2  0.15
A small square loop of wire of side l is placed  2.3  103 H  2.3mH
inside a large square loop of wire of side d
(b) e   2  , where 2 is the total magnetic
L   l  . The loops are coplanar and their dt
centers coincide. What is the mutual flux linked with the second coil.
inductance of the system ? d d   NI 
e   N 2 BA    N 2 0 1 A
Solution: dt dt  2r 
Considering the large loop to be made up of four
 N N A dI
rod each of length L, the field at the centre, i.e., or e  0 1 2
at a distance (L/2) from each rod, will be 2r dt
0 I 410 1200  300  12 104  2
7

B  4 sin   sin  or e  V
4 d 2  0.15  0.05
=0.023 V
0 I Illustration 66:
i.e., B  4  4  L / 2   2sin 45 Two solenoid A and B have same area of
cross-section. The ratio of lengths of two is
l 1 : 2 and the ratio of number of turns is 2 :
L 1. Find the ratio of self inductance of A to
that of B.

Page 253
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Solution : = 7.58 × 10–4 H

Given l1  1 and N1 2 emf induced
l2 2 N2 di
|e|  L  7.58  10–4 H  0.8 A/s =6.06×10–4volt
0 N 2 A dt
Self inductance of solenoid is L  l
... (i) Illustration 70:
From (i) we can say The coefficient of mutual inductance
2
between the primary and secondary of a
L1  N1   l2  2 transformer is 5 H. Calculate the induced
  .    (2) . (2)  8.
L2  N 2   l1  emf in the secondary when 3 A current in
Illustration 67: the primary is cut off to zero in 25 × 10–6
Calculate the coefficient of self induction sec.
of a solenoid coil of 2000 turns, length 0.5 Solution:
m and radius 5 cm, when the core is filled e2 = (induced emf in the secondary) =
with
(i) air di  3 
– M 1   5  6 
 6 105V
(ii) soft iron (  r  for soft iron = 1000) dt  25 10 
AC GENERATOR
N = 2000 turns, l = 0.5 m, A =  5 10-2 
2

Solution:  The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction

(i) For air core  r  1 has been technologically exploited in many
ways. An exceptionally important application is
Lair   0  n 2  A l 
2
the generation of alternating currents (ac). The
 7  2000 
2
  4  10        5  10   0.5 
-2 modern ac generator with a typical output
 0.5  capacity of 100 MW is a highly evolved
= 78.9 mH
(ii) For soft iron core machine. In this section, we shall describe the
  1000  0 , Therefore
basic principles behind this machine. The
Yugoslav inventor Nicola Tesla is credited with
Lsoft iron  1000   Lair  = 78.9 H
the development of the machine. The method
Illustration 68: to induce an emf or current in a loop is through
An average emf of 20 V is induced in an a change in the loop’s orientation or a change
inductor when the current in it is changed
in its effective area. As the coil rotates in a
from 2.5 A in one direction to the same
magnetic field B, the effective area of the loop
value in the opposite direction in 0.1 s.
Find the self-inductance of the inductor. (the face perpendicular to the field) is A cos  ,
Solution : where  is the angle between A and B. This
Here,  I = I2 – I1 = 2.5 – (–2.5) = 5.0 A method of producing a flux change is the
 t = 0.1 second principle of operation of a simple ac generator.
I An ac generator converts mechanical energy
Average emf = L
t into electrical energy.
e avg . t 20 volt  0.1 sec Coil Axle
 L=   0.4 henry
I 5.0 A
Illustration 69:
The current in a solenoid of 240 turns,
having a length of 12 cm and a radius of
2 cm, changes at a rate of 0.8 A/s. Find N S
the emf induced in it. Slip
Solution: rings Alternating emf
N = 240, l = 0.12 m, A r 2   (0.02)2
0 N 2 A 410 –7  (240) 2  (0.02) 2 Carbon
L  brushes
l 0.12
Fig. AC Generator
Page 254
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 The basic elements of an ac generator are

shown in Fig. It consists of a coil mounted on e
a rotor shaft. The axis of rotation of the coil is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field. The coil (called armature) is mechanically
rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some t
external means. The rotation of the coil causes
the magnetic flux through it to change, so an Illustration 71:
emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil An AC generator consists of a coil of 100
are connected to an external circuit by means turns and area 5 m2 rotating at an angular
speed of 60 rad/s in a uniform magnetic
of slip rings and brushes.
field B = 0.5 T between two fixed pole
 When the coil is rotated with a constant angular pieces. Find the peak value of voltage
speed  , the angle  between the magnetic drawn from generator.
field vector B and the area vector A of the coil Solution:
at any instant t is   t (assuming  = 0º at The peak value of voltage drawn from generator
t = 0). As a result, the effective area of the coil = NAB  =100  5  0.5  60 =1500 Volt
exposed to the magnetic field lines changes Illustration 72:
with time, and the flux at any time t is A boy pedals a stationary bicycle at one
 B  BA cos   BA cos t revolution per second. The pedals are
attached to 100 turns coil of are 0.1m 2 and
 From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the
placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.1T.
rotating coil of N turns is then, What is the maximum voltage generated in
dB d the coil ?
  N   NBA  cos t 
dt dt Solution:
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is 0  NBA  NBA 2 f   f  1
  NBA sin t ........(i)
where NBA is the maximum value of the
 0  100  0.1 0.1 2  3.14 1 V  6.28V
emf, which occurs when sin t  1 . If we Illustration 73:
denote then NAB as 0 ,then A coil of 800 turns and 50 cm 2 area makes
10 rps about an axis in its own plane in a
  0 sin t .........(ii) magnetic field of 100 gauss perpendicular
 Since the value of the sine function varies to this axis. What is the instantaneous
between +1 and –1, the sign, or polarity of the induced emf in the coil?
emf changes with time. The emf has its maximum Solution:
value when   90o or   270o , as the change A  50cm 2  50 10 4 m 2
of flux is greatest at these points. n  10 rps, N  800
 The direction of the current changes periodically B  100 gauss  100 104 T  102 T
and therefore the current is called alternating
Now,
current (ac). Since   2  , Eq (ii) can be
written as  800 102  50 104  2 10sin  20 t 
  0 sin 2 t ........(iii)    0 sin t  NBA sin t
where n is the frequency of revolution of the
generator’s coil. Note that eq. (ii)and (iii) give or   2.5sin  20 t  volt
the instantaneous value of the emf and e varies Illustration 74:
between 0 and 0 periodically.. A person peddles a stationary bicycle the
 A graph plotted between  and t , is a sine pedals of the bicycle are attached to a 100
curve as shown in Fig. turn coil of area 0.10 m2. The coil rotates at

Page 255
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

half a revolution per second and it is placed E

in a uniform magnetic field of 0.01 T  i0 
R
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the II. Decay of Current
coil, What is the maximum voltage generated a) When circuit is disconnected from the battery
in the coil ? and switch ‘s’ is connected to point ‘b’, the
Solution: current now beings to fall. But inductor opposes
2
Here f  0.5 Hz : N  100, A  0.1 m and di
B  0.01T from the equation decay of current   L  Ri
dt
   0 sin  t  NBA  sin t t
Where i is the current at any instant and i  i0e 
maximum emf  0  NBA   NBA  2 f 
L
where t   
 0  100  0.01 0.1 2  3.14  0.5  0.314V R
D.C. CIRCUITS (ADDITIONAL) i
i0
Growth and decay of current in an inductor
Resistor (L - R) circuit 0.37 i0
I. Growth of current
Consider a circuit shown in the diagram t= t
i0
b) At t   , i   0.37 i0
e
c) The inductive time constant (  ) can also be
defined as the time interval during which the
current decays to 37% of the maximum current.
a) When a switch S is connected to ‘a’ , the d) For small value of ‘L’, rate of decay of current
current in the circuit beings to increase from zero will be large.
to a maximum value ‘ i0 ’. The Inductor opposes e) Current becomes zero after infinite time.
Illustration 75:
the growth of the current. In the given circuit, current through the 5
di mH inductor in steady state is
 E  L  Ri
dt 5 mH
Where ‘i ’ is the current in the circuit at any instant
t
 

‘t ’ and i  i0 1  e  10 mH
 
5 20 V
Where i0 is the maximum current.
L Sol: 5mH, 10mH are connected in parallel
Here   called Inductive time constant  Equivalent inductance
R
5  10 50 10
 1 Leq   ;  mH
b) At t   , i  i0  1  e   0.63 i0 5  10 15 3
c) Thus the inductive time constant of a circuit is 20
Current at steady state ; I   4A
defined as the time in which the current rises from 5
zero to 63% of its final value. As L1 and L2 are in parallel
d) Greater the value of ‘  ’ smaller will be the
 L2   10 
rate of growth of current. I1   I ;   4
e) Current reaches i0 after infinite time.  L1  L2   10  5 
f) When current attains maximum value, Inductor 10 8
; 4;  Amp
doesn’t work. 15 3

Page 256
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 76: Illustration 79:

In the given circuit diagram, key K is
A coil having resistance 15 and
switched on at t  0 . The ratio of current
i through the cell at t  0 to that at t   inductance 10H is connected across a 90
will be Volt dc supply. Determine the value of
L 3R
C R current after 2sec. What is the energy stored
in the magnetic field at that instant.
6R
Sol: Give that ; R  15 , L  10 H , E  90Volt
E K
Sol: At t = 0, the branch containing L will offer infinite Peak value of current
resistance while the branch containing the
capacitor will be effectively a short circuit. E 90
I0   A  6 A also,
Hence, R 15
E
(i )t 0  L 10
R L    0.67sec
Similarly, at t   , L will offer zero, resistance, R 15
where as ‘c’ will be an open circuit.  Rt
Hence, effective resistance  L

Now, I  I 0 1  e  , After 2sec,
6 R  3R e  
 R  3R ; (i )t  
6 R  3R 3R
e 3R I  6 1  e2 / 0.67   6 1  0.05  5.7 A
The required ratio   =3:1
R e Energy stored in the magnetic field
Illustration 77:
An inductor of 3H is connected to a battery 1 1 2
U  LI 2   10   5.7  J  162.45 J .
of emf 6V through a resistance of 100  . 2 2
Calculate the time constant. What will be Illustration 80:
the maximum value of current in the circuit
? Calculate the back e.m.f of a 10H, 200 
Sol: Give that L  3H , E  6V , R  100  coil 100 ms after a 100V d.c supply is
L 3 connected to it.
Time constant  L  R  100  0.03sec
E 6 Sol: The value of current at 100ms after the switch is
Maximum Current I0  R  100 amp  0.06amp closed is
Illustration 78: t
A cell of 1.5V is connected across an  
I  I 0 1  e  , Here, I 0  100  0.5 amp;
T0

inductor of 2mH in series with a 2    200

resistor. What is the rate of growth of L 10
current immediately after the cell is 0    0.05sec; t  0.1sec
switched on. R 200
dI dI E   IR I  0.5 1  e0.1/ 0.05   0.5 1  e 2   0.4325 A
Sol: E  L  IR , therefore, 
dt dt L dI
3 Now, E  IR  L , or
E  1.5Volt , R  2 , L  2mH  2  10 H dt
When the cell is switched on, I = 0 dI
100  0.4325  200  L
dI E 1.5 dt
Hence   3
As 1  750 As 1
dt L 2  10 dI
Back e.m.f  L  100  0.4325  200  13.5V
dt

Page 257
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Illustration 81:  t


and q  q0 1  e 
A coil of resistance 20  and inductance
 
0.5 henry is switched to dc 200 volt supply. where q0 is the maximum charge.
Calculate the rate of increase of current:
Where   CR , called capacitive time
a) At the instant of closing the switch and constant
b) After one time constant
 1
c) Find the steady state current in the c) When t   . q  q0  1    0.63 q0
 e
circuit. d) Thus the capacitive time constant is the time
Sol: a) This is the case of growth of current in an in which the charge on the plates of the capacitor
L - R circuit. Hence, current at time t is given by
t becomes 0.63 q0
 L

i  i0  l  e  e) Smaller the value of CR, more rapid is the
  Rate of increase of current, growth of charge on the condenser.
 
t f) Charge on the capacitor becomes maximum
di i0 L
 e ; after infinite time and it is q0  EC . Then current
dt  L
in the circuit becomes zero.
di i0 E / R E II. Decay of charge :
At t  0, dt    L / R  L a) When the capacitor is fully charged the key is
L

di 200 connected to point ‘b’.

  400 A / s b) Charge slowly reduces to zero after infinite
dt 0.5 time.
b)At t   L ,
q q dq t
di   Ri (or) R and q  q e 
  400  e 1   0.37  400   148 A / s C C dt 0
dt q
c) The steady state current in the circuit, is
E 200 q0
i0    10 A
R 20 0.37 q0
GROWTH AND DECAY OF CHARGE IN
A CAPACITOR - RESISTOR (C - R) t= t
CIRCUIT q0
I. Growth of Charge : Consider a circuit shown c) At t   , q  0.37 q0
e
in the diagram
q
d) Thus capacitive time constant can also be
q0 defined as the time interval in which the charge
R C b decreases to 37% of the maximum charge
K 0.63q0
a e) Smaller the time constant, quicker is the
t= t
discharge of the condenser.
E Illustration 82:
a) When the key’s is connected to point ‘a’, the In the circuit shown in figure switch S is
charging of capacitor takes place until the closed at time t = 0. Find the current through
potential difference across the plates of the different wires and charge stored on the
condenser becomes E. capacitor at any time t.
b) But charge attained already on the plates 6R
opposes further introduction of charge
S R 3R
q q dq V C
E   Ri (or) E   R
C C dt Sol: Calculation of equivalent time constant
Where ‘q’ is the instantaneous charge, i is the 6R
instantaneous current in the circuit. R 3R

Page 258
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

In the circuit shown in figure, after short circuiting Sol: When slab is removed, the potential difference
the battery 3R and 6R are parallel, so their across capacitor increases to kV0
 6R  3R   2R 1
combined resistance is . Now CV  kCV e  as q  KCV
6 R  3R 0 0 0 0
this 2R is in series with the remaining R. 1 
t t
t
Hence,  e   k  e ;  ln   t   ln k
k 
Rnet  2 R  R  3R ; c   Rnet  C  3RC Illustration 84:
Calculation of steady state charge q0 : 4 F capacitor and a resistance 2.5M 
At t   , capacitor is fully charged and no are in series with 12V battery. Find the time
current flows through it. after which the potential difference across
P.D across capacitor = P.D across 3R the capacitor is 3 times the potential
difference across the resistor. [Given
V  V CV
  
3 R  , q0  ln(2)=0.693]
 9R  3 3 1
Now, let charge on the capacitor at any time t Sol: a) Charging current i  V0 e RC
be q and current through it is i1 . Then R
 Potential difference across R is
t
  
1
q  q0 1  e  i.e., 0  3 RC
 t / c q  q  1  e  VR  iR  V0 e RC

1
 Potential difference across ‘C’ is
dq q0  t / c q0 3 RC 1 1
and i1   e  e ...(1) 
RC
 
RC

dt c 3RC VC  V0  VR ;V0  V0e  V0  1  e 
 
but given VC  3VR , we get
t

q0  3e t / RC or 4e  t / RC
1 e RC

t

RC
t
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law in loop e 4  ln 4  t  2 RC ln 2
RC
ACDFA, we have 6iR  3i2 R  V  0 t  2.5  106  4  106  2  0.693
V or t = 13.86 sec
2i  i2  ...(ii) Illustration 85:
3R In a circuit inductance L and capacitance
Applying Kirchhoff’s junction law at B, we have C are connected as shown in f igure and A 1
i  i1  i2 ...(iii) and A2 are ammeters. When key k is pressed
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we have to complete the circuit, then just after
V 2 V 2q0  t / c closing key k, the reading of A1 and A2 will
i2   i1   e be :
9R 3 9 R 3c
A c R 1 1
t
CV V 2q0 3 RC
where 0q  i
i.e., 2   e A2
3 9 R 3RC L
t
V q0 t / c V q0 3RC R2
i  e   e k E
9 R 3c 9 R 3RC
Illustration 83: Battery
A parallel - plate capacitor, filled with a Sol: At t = 0 capacitor offers zero resistance and acts
dielectric of dielectric constant k, is charged like a short circuit. While inductor offers infinite
to a potential V0. It is now disconnected resistance and it acts like an open circuit.
from the cell and the slab is removed. If it Therefore no current flow through inductor
now discharges, with time constant  , branch and maximum current flows through
through a resistance, then find time after capacitor branch.
which the potential difference across it will Hence reading of A2 is zero and reading A1 is
be V0? E
given by R
1

Page 259
Page 260
ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT
INTRODUCTION +
 When a resistor is connected across the
I = I0 cost
terminals of a battery, a current is established
in the circuit. The current has a unique direction, + +
I or V t
it goes from the positive terminal to the negative O –
terminal via the external resistor. The magnitude
of the current also remains almost constant. V = V0 cost
This is called direct current (dc). –
+ (b)
I or V  The symbol used to represent the ac source in
t a given circuit is as shown in figure.

– ac source
 If the direction of the current in a resistor or in
any other element changes alternately, the current Note: Other forms of ac
is called an alternating current (ac). Saw-tooth form of ac
(OR)
If the current in a circuit changes its direction in
T + + +
every sec ,then current is called an alternating e or i –
2 V or I – –
current(ac) t
sinusoidal form of a.c
+ T
Square form of ac
2
T t
I or V +
T
– 4
3T
e or i
4 V or I t
ALTERNATING CURRENT AND
VOLTAGE: –
 Alternating current is that current whose
magnitude changes with time and direction Peak value or crest value or amplitude of
reverses for every half cycle.
current or voltage  I0 or V0  :
 Similarly, the voltage whose magnitude and
direction change with time and attains the same  The maximum value of current or voltage in an
magnitude and direction after definite time intervals ac circuit is called its peak value or crest value
is called alternating voltage.
 If the current or voltage varies periodically as or amplitude.
‘sine’ or ‘cos’ function of time, the current or Instantaneous value of current or emf( I or E)
voltage is said to be sinusoidal  The value of current or emf in an ac circuit at
I = I0sin t any instant of time is called its instantaneous value.
+
I or V + + Instantaneous current,
O t I  I 0 sin t (or) I  I 0 sin(t  )
–
– Instantaneous emf
V = V0sin t E  E 0 sin  t (or) E  E 0 sin( t  )
(a) Where ( t   ) is called phase

Page 261
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Illustration 1: of alternating voltage over one complete cycle
Write the general equation for the is also zero.
instantaneous e.m.f. of a 50 Hz generator  The reason is that alternating current or voltage
whose peak voltage is 250 V. during first half cycle ( 0 to T/2) is positive and
Solution: Here E0  250V and v  50 Hz during other half cycle (T/2 to T) is negative.
Therefore, we find the mean or average value of
  2 v  2  50  100 alternating current or voltage only over any half
cycle.
and E  E0 sin  t  250 sin100 t
Mean (or) Average Value Of ac For Half Cycle
Note : Since alternating current varies continuously  It is an arithmetic average of all the values of
with time , its effect is measured by defining either current in a sine wave for half cycle. (or) The
the mean value (Average value ) of ac or by
value of steady current which sends the same
defining root mean square value or virtual
value of ac amount of charge through a circuit in a certain
Note:Average value of a function f(t) from t1 to t2 is time interval as sent by an alternating current
t2 t2 through the same circuit in the same time interval
 f .dt  f .dt (half the time period or half cycle) is known as
mean or average value of alternating current over
t1 t1
f av   half cycle. (either positive half cycle or negative
defined as
t2 t2  t1 .
half cycle)
 dt
 The value of current at any instant ‘t’ is given by
t1
t2 I  I0 sin t .
We can also find the value of  fdt graphically..  Hence the mean or average value for half cycle
t1
is given by
nT T /2 T /2

Note: I    sin k t  or  cos k t  dt  0  I .dt  I 0 .sin t.dt

0
I av  0
T /2
 0
T /2
where n=1, 2, 3, 4,..........
and k= 1, 2, 3,...........  dt  dt
Mean (or) Average Value of AC During 0 0
T/2
Complete Cycle: 2   cos  t 
 .I 0  
 The value of current at any instant ‘t’ is given T   0
by I  I0 sin t . T/2
 The average value of a sinusoidal wave over 2I 0 T  2 
   cos t 
one complete cycle is given by T 2  T 0
T
I0 2I
 Idt   cos   cos 0  0
T  
I0  2 
I av  0
 cos t 2I
T T  T 0  I av  0  0.637 I 0  63.7% of I 0

 dt  Thus, the mean or average value of ac over
0
I 0 I positive half cycle is + 0.637 I0 and that over
 cos 2  cos 0  0 (1 1)  0 negative half cycle is – 0.637 I0.
T T
area of i - t graph for t = 0 to t = T  Similarly, for alternating voltage or emf over
Note: I av  half cycle also, the same relation holds good.
T
 Thus, we see that the average value of ac over 2
one complete cycle is zero. i.e., Eav  E0  0.637 E0  63.7% of E0

 Similarly, we can prove that the average value

Page 262
ALTERNATING CURRENT

Note : effective value (Ieff) or virtual value (Iv).

+  Let us now calculate the value of average of I2.
T T
I or E
I  I 0 .sin
2 2 2
.dt t.dt
a) A B 2
t I av  0
T
 0
– T
between A and B, Iave  0, E ave  0  dt
+ A 0
2
I or E Ir.m.s  Iav
b)
T T
t I2 1 cos2t  I20  sin 2t  I2
– B  0
T  
 2
 dt 

t 
2T 
 0
2 0 2
between A and B, Iave  0, E ave  0 0
I0
+  I r .m.s   0.707 I 0
2
I or E
c) A C B 2 Area of i 2 - t for t =o to t = T
Note: I av
t T
–
 Clearly r.m.s. value of an alternating current is
between A and C or C and B, Iave  0, E ave  0 70.7% of its peak value.
Note:  Similarly, r.m.s. or virtual or effective value of
nT alternating emf is given as
n
  sin   
2
I k t or cos 2 k t dt  T E0
0
2 Er .m.s.   0.707 E0
2
where n=1, 2, 3, 4,.......... Illustration 2:
and k= 1, 2, 3,...........
The peak value of an alternating current
Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Value (or)
is 5A and its frequency is 60 Hz. Find its
Effective Value (or) Virtual Value of
rms value. How long will the current take
Alternating Current  Irms  : to reach the peak value starting from zero?
 The instantaneous current I may be positive or Solution:
negative at a given instant but the quantity I2 is i0 5A
always positive. So, its average is always The rms current is irms    3.5 A
2 2
positive. Therefore, we calculate the average of
I2 over a complete period and then take the 1 1
The time period is T   s
square root of it. This gives the root mean square  60
(or) r.m.s. current. The current takes one fourth of the time period
 It is the square root of the average of squares of to reach the peak value starting from zero.
all the instantaneous values of current over one Thus, the time required is
complete cycle. (or)
 Root mean square value of ac is defined as that T 1
t  s
direct current which produces the same 4 240
amount of heat in a conductor in a certain time Illustration 3:
interval as is produced by the ac in the same The electric current in a circuit is given
conductor during the same time. It is represented by i  i0 (t2 / ) for some time. Calculate
by Irms. the rms current for the period t  0 to
 Root mean square value of ac is also known as
t  .
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 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Solution: POWER IN AC CIRCUITS:


 In dc circuits power is given by P = VI. But in
1 2 2 i02  4 i02 5 ac circuits, since there is some phase angle
i2  i (t / )2
dt  t dt 
 0 3 0
0
3 5 between voltage and current, therefore power is
Thus, the rms current is defined as the product of voltage (or emf) and
that component of the current which is in phase
i0 with the voltage (or emf)
i rms  i2  
5 Thus P = EI cos , where E and I are r.m.s.
Illustration 4: values of emf and current.
An alternating emf is represented by POWER FACTOR:
E = 100 sin 120 t   / 4 volt. Calculate  The quantity cos is called power factor as it
(i) Average or mean value of emf determines the power consumed inthe circuit
(ii) RMS value of emf a) Instantaneous power : Suppose in a circuit
(iii) Frequency of alternating emf
(iv) the shortest time interval after start at E = E0 sin t and I  I 0 sin t   then
which emf is zero.
Solution : Pinstantaneous = EI = E0I0 sin t sin t  
2E 0 b) Average power (True power) : The
(i) E av  = 0.636 E0 average of instantaneous power in an ac circuit

= 0.6365 × 100 volt = 63.65 volt over a full cycle is called average power. Its
E0 100 unit is watt i.e.
(ii) E rms   = 70.7 volt
2 2 E0 I0
(iii) On comparing with E = E0 sin (t  ) , Pav  Erms I rms cos   . cos 
2 2
we get   120, 1
 2f  120  f  60 Hz  E0 I 0 cos 
2
(iv) Substituting zero for instantaneous value Illustration 5:
of emf
The rms value of voltage of an alternator
0 = 100 sin (120 t   / 4) is 200 V and the rms current delivered by
  it to a load is 3A. If the phase angle
 sin 120 t    0
 4 between the current and voltage is  / 6 ,
 find the power.
For value of t to be positive, 120 t   
4 Solution : The power in ac circuits is given by
3 1 P  Erms I rms cos 
 t  sec = 6.25 × 10–3 sec.
4 120
Form Factor And Peak Factor of AC : Here Erms  200V , I rms  3 A and    / 6  30 o
 It is defined as the ratio of r.m.s. value to the
average value during half cycle of alternating  P  200  3  3  300 3  519.6W
current or emf 2
I rms Erms Illustration 6:
i.e., Form factor  I  E The equation of an alternating current is
av av
I0 2 I0 I  20sin 300 t . Calculate the frequency
 We know that rms I  and avI  and rms value of current.
2 
I   Solution : Here I  20sin 300 t
 Form factor  0    1.11 1. Compare it with standard equation
2 2I0 2 2
 Peak Factor : It is the ratio of peak value to the I  I 0 sin t  I 0 sin 2 vt
rms value of alternating current or emf we get I 0  20 A and
I0 E0
i.e., peak factor  I  E  1.414 2 vt  300 t or v  150 Hz
rms rms

Page 264
ALTERNATING CURRENT

I0 Illustration 10:
2. We know, I rms  An alternating current is given by
2
i   3sin t  4 cos t  A . Find rms current.
20
 I rms   14.14 A Solution: i  3sin t  4cos t
2 t T
Illustration 7: 2 2

(a) The peak voltage of ac supply is 600 V. 2

 i .dt
0
  3sin t  4 cos t 
0
dt
What is its rms voltage? irms  t

T
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit  dt
is 20A. What is its peak current? 0
T
Solution: (a) Here E0  600V 1

T 0
 9sin 2 t  16cos2 t  12sin 2t  dt
600 E0
 Erms   424.3V 
2 2 25 5
 irms  A 
(b) Here I rms  20 A 2 2
Illustration 11:
I0 A vertical circular coil of radius 8 cm and
We know I rms   I 0  2 I rms
20 turns is rotated about its vertical
2
diameter with angular velocity 50 rev/s in
or I 0  2  20  1.414  20  28.28 A a uniform horizontal magnetic field of
Illustration 8: 3  102 T . If the coil forms a closed loop of
A current is made of two components a dc resistance, the average power loss due to
component i1  3 A and an ac component joule’s heating effect is
Solution: emf induced in coil is
i2  4 2 sin t . Find the reading of hot
E  NBA .sin t 
wire ammeter.
Solution: i  i1  i2  3  4 2 sin t Max emf E0  NBA  NB  r 2  
T T
2
E0  20  3 102    64 104  2  50 
 
2
 i .dt 3  4 2 sin t dt
2 0 0
irms  T

T = 60  102   2  64 104 100  3.84V
 dt E
0
Max current i0  0  0.384 A
T R
1 Average power loss
  9  24 
2
irms  2 sin t  32 sin 2 t dt
T 0 1 1 E 02
 Erms  irms  E0  i0   0.737W
 irms  5 A 2 2 R
Illustration 9:
c) Apparent or virtual power : The product
The electric current in a circuit is given by
i = 3t. Find the rms current for the period t of apparent voltage and apparent current in an
= 0 to t = 1 sec. electric circuit is called apparent power. This is
Solution: i = 3t; i2=9t2 always positive.
EI
t 1 Papp  E rms I rms  0 0
2 2 2
2
 i .dt  9t dt  Resistance (R): It is the opposition offered by
i
rms  0
t
 0
1
 3; I rms  3 A a conductor to the flow of direct current.
 IMPEDANCE (Z): It is the opposition offered
 dt
0
 dt
0 by a conductor to the flow of alternating current.
| alternating emf |
Z = | alternating current |

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT

peak value of alternating voltage  BOA   represents the phase angle by which
= peak value of AC current I0 leads the alternating emf E0.
RMS value of alternating voltage  The phasor diagram, in a simple representation
= RMS value of AC is
 ADMITTANCE(Y): Reciprocal of impedance
of a circuit is called admittance of the circuit. Y Y
1
admittance (Y) = I
Z
S.I. Units ohm-1 i.e. mho or siemen. E I
 PHASE: The physical quantity which represents 
t 
both the instantaneous value and direction of O X O X
E
A.C. at any instant is called its phase.
Y
 It is dimensionless quantity and its unit is radian
 Phase Difference: The difference between the
phases of current and voltage is called Phase I
difference.
 If alternat ing emf and current are 
X
E  E0 sin  t  1  and i  i0 sin  t  2  O

then phase difference is   1  2 Note:If e.m.f (or voltage) in A.C. is E = E 0 sin t and
 The quantity varies sinusoidally with time and can
be represented as projection of a rotating vector, the current I = I0sin  ωt+φ  ,
is called as phasor. Where phase difference φ is Positive if current
 A diagram, representing alternating emf and
current (of same frequency) as rotating vectors leads,Negative if current lags and zero if current
(Phasors) with phase angle between then is called is in phase with the emf (or voltage).
as phasor diagram. I,E E.m.f
Current

3
2
 t
O  2
2

 Instantaneous emf is E=E 0 sin t

 Instantaneous current I  I 0 sin  t   
 In the above figure , OA and OB represent 
 
two rotating vectors having magnitudes E0 and where    ; Current leads emf by
 2 2
I0 in anti clock wise direction with same angular
velocity ‘  ’. I, E
E.m.f
Current
 OM and ON are the projections of OA and

OB on Y-axis respectively.. 2
3
2 2
t
 OM = E and ON = I, represent t he O 
instantaneous values of alternating emf and
current.

Page 266
ALTERNATING CURRENT

; R=constt. f =constt
E=E 0 sin t I  I 0 sin t    slope
I0 1
 I
where   2
Irms R
2
 Current lags emf by  /2 or emf leads current by Irms  or f R
 /2
A.C THROUGH A RESISTOR  power factor cos   cos 0  1
 A pure resistor of resistance R is connected  Instantaneous power P  E I sin 2  t
i o o
across an alternating source of emf
 Average power over time ' T ' sec =
R
E2
Pavg  Erms I rms cos   Erms . I rms  rms
R
A.C THROUGH AN INDUCTOR
 A pure inductor of inductance L is connected
~
across an alternating source of emf E
E=E0 sin t L
 The instantaneous value of alternating emf is
E = E0 sin t
 The instantaneous value of alternating current
E E0
is I    sint   I 0 sin t ~
R R E=E0 sin t
 The instantaneous value of alternating emf is
E0
 Peak value of current, I 0  E = E0 sin t ...........(1)
R
dI
Graphical representation of A C  The induced emf across the inductor =  L.
dt
I,E E.m.f which opposes the growth of current in the
Current circuit. As there is no potential drop across the
circuit, so
 2
t  dI  dI
O
 3 E    L.   0 or L.  E
2 2  dt  dt
dI E0
 sin t ;
dt L
 Phasor diagram: On integrating
Y
E0  
I  cos t  I 0 sin  t   ..........  2 
L  2
 The instantaneous value of alternating current
is
 
O X
 I  I0 sin  t  
 2
I E
Where Peak value of current,
 emf and current will be in phase    0 
E E
 emf and current have same frequency I0  0  0
L X L
 Peak emf is more than peak current  From equation 1 & 2
 The value of impedance (Z) is equal to R and Phase difference between alternating voltage and
reactance (X) is zero

 Apart from instantaneous value, current in the current is
circuit is independent of frequency and decreases  2
The alternating current lags behind the emf
with increase in R (similar to that in dc circuits).

by a phase angle of
2

Page 267
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Graphical representation of A C
Y
I, E
E.m.f
Current

slope = tan = 2f

 3 XL
2 2 2 
t X
O 
L

 For dc, f  0  X L  0
 Phasor diagram For ac, high frequencies, X L  
VL  dc can flow easily through inductor..
 Inductive reactance in terms of RMS value
E
is X L   L  rms
 Irms
2
LL Power supplied to inductor
 The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor
Inductive Reactance (XL) is
 The opposition offered by an inductor to the flow
of ac is called an inductive reactance.  
PL  iv  i0 sin   t    v0 sin  t 
 The quantity  L is analogous to resistance and is  2
called reactance of Inductor represented by XL .  i0v0 cos t  sin t 
 It allows D.C. but offers finite impedance to the
flow of A.C. i0 v0
 sin  2 t 
 Its value depends on L and f. 2
 Inductance not only causes the current to lag So, the average power over a complete
behind emf but it also limits the magnitude of cycle is
current in the circuit.

I0 
E0 E
 L  0  X L , Pavg  Erms . I rms cos   0   90
 L I0
i0 v0
 sin  2 t   0
 X L   L  2 fL  X L f ; 2
X L  L curve Since the average of sin  2t  over a
Y complete cycle is zero.
Thus, the average power supplied to an
inductor over one complete cycle is zero.
slope = tan = 2L
XL

X
f
N S
X L  f curve
A B

Page 268
ALTERNATING CURRENT

Current i through the coil entering at A increase to the source.

from zero to a maximum value. Flux lines are set Illustration 12:
up.i.e. the core gets magnetised with the polarity A 100 Hz ac is flowing ina coil of
shown voltage and current are both positive. inductance 10 mH. What is the reactance
So their product P is positive energy is of the coil?
absorbed from the source. Solution : Here
L  10 mH  10  10 3 H  102 H , v  100 Hz
Using X L  L   L  2 v, we get
N S X L  102  2  3.14  100  6.28
A B Illustration 13: A 44 mH inductor is connected
to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the
rms value of the current in the circuit.
Current in the colil is still positive but is decreas- Solution :
ing . The core gets demagnetised and the net Here L = 44 mH,
flux becomes zero at the end of a half cycle. The L  44  10 3 H , v  50 Hz ,
voltage  is negative (since di/dt is negative)The Erms  220V
product of voltage and current is negative and
Reactance of inductor
energy is being returned to source
0 1 2 3 4 X L  L   L  2 v
Flux  44 10 3  2  3.14  50  13.82
i Current (rms) through the circuit
E 220
I rms  rms   15.9 A
X L 13.82
Illustration 14: Find the maximum value of
current when a coil of inductance 2H is
connected to 150 V, 50 cycles/sec supply.
Solution: Here L  2 H , Erms  150V , v  50 Hz
N S
A
X L  L   L  2 v
B
 2  2  3.14  50  628 
RMS value of current through the inductor
Current i becomes negative i.e., it enters at B
E 150
and comes out of A.Since the direction of current I rms  rms   0.24 A
has changed. the polarity of the magnet changes. X L 628
The current and voltage are both negative so their Maximum value (or peak value) of current
product p is positive energy is absorbed is given by
I0
I rms  or I 0  2 I rms
2
 1.414  0.24  0.339 A
S N
Illustration 15: The voltage applied to a purely
B
A
inductive coil of self inductance 15.9 mH is
given by the equation V = 100 sin 314t + 75
sin 942t + 50 sin 1570t. Find the equation
Current i decreases and reaches its zero value at of the resulting wave.
4 when core is demagnetised and flux is zero. Solution: The standard equation of the voltage
The voltage is positive but the current is negative. can be written as
The power is therefore, negative, energy
absorbed during the 1/4 Cycle 2-3 is returned V  V01 sin 1t  Vo 2 sin 2 t  V03 sin 3t

Page 269
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

On comparing this with the given equation, q

we have E  0  q  CE0 sin t
C
rad
1  314 , X L1  1 L q=CE=CE0 sin t
s
dq  
 314 15.9 103  5 I  C E0 cos t  I 0 sin  t   ...............  2 
dt  2
rad  The instantaneous value of alternating current
2  942 , X L 2  2 L
s and is
 942  15.9 10 3  15  
I  I 0 sin  t   ...............(2)
rad  2
3  1570 , X L 3  3 L
s where peak value of current, E0
I0 
 1570 15.9 103  25  1 
 
 C 
V01 100
Hence, i01  X  5  20 A  From equations 1 & 2
L1

V 75 V 50 .
current leads the emf by an angle
i02  02   5 A and i03  03   2A 2
X L 2 15 X L 3 25 Graphical representation of AC
i  i01 sin  1t     i02 sin  2t    I,E E.m.f
Thus Current
i03 sin 3t   
3
    2
 20sin  314t    5sin  942t    t
2 2 O 2
  
2
 
2 sin 1570t  
 2
A.C THROUGH A CAPACITOR Phasor diagram
 When an alternating emf is applied to a IC
capacitor, then alternating current is constituted
in the circuit. Due to this, charge on the plates
and electric field between the plates of capacitor /2
vary sinusoidally with time.
 At any instant the potential difference between
the plates of a capacitor is equal to applied VC
emf at that time. Capacitive Reactance (XC)
C
 The resistance offered by a capacitor to the flow
of ac is called capacitive reactance.
1
~  The quantity is analogous to resistance and
C
E=E0 sin t
 A capacitor of capacity C is connected across is called reactance of capacitor represented by
an alternating source of emf XC
 The instantaneous value of alternating emf is
E = E0 sin t ...................(1) E0 1 1 E E
I0   XC    0  rms
 1   C 2 fC I 0 I rms
 Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any  
 C 
instant.
According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule  It is the part of impedance in which A.C. leads

Page 270
ALTERNATING CURRENT

 1
the A.V. by a phase angle of . XC  5
 63.69
2 5  10  2  3.14  50
1 1 Erms 100
 Its value is Xc   . Step 2: I rms  X  63.69  1.57 A
C 2fC C

 Its value depends on C and f. A.C THROUGH LR SERIES CIRCUIT

 It bypasses A.C. but blocks D.C.  LR circuit consists of a resistor of resistance
 It is produced due to pure capacitor or induced R and an inductor of inductance L in series
charge. with a source of alternating emf
 The instantaneous value of alternating emf is
 X C  f curve
E  E 0 sin t
X C  C curve
C = const  = const L R

XC XC
VL VR

E
 or f C
Note: Resistance, Impedance and Reactance have the ~
same units and Dimensional Formulae.
i.e. SI unit is ohm; Dimensional Formula is  The potential difference across the inductor is
 ML T
2 3 2
A  given by, VL  IXL .....(1)
Power supplied to capacitor:  The potential difference across the resistor,
 The instantaneous power supplied to the VR  IR .....(2)
capacitor is 
current I lags the Voltage VL by an angle of ,
2
Pc  iv  i0 cos t  v0 sin t  Therefore, the resultant of VL and VR is
2 2
i0 v0
sin  2 t 
OC  OA 2  OB2 or E  VR  VL
 i0 v0 cos t  sin t  ;  y
2
C
So, the average power over a complete cycle is B

zero
XL
since  sin  2t   0 over a complete cycle. (or) E
VL
Pavg  Vrms . I rms cos   Vrms . I rms cos 90  0
 no power is consumed in a purely 
capacitive circuit. x
VR (or) R A
I
Illustration 16: A 50  F capacitor is connected Using equations ( 1 ) and (2), we get
to a 100 V, 50Hz ac supply. Determine the 2 2
rms value of the current in the circuit. E  I2R 2  I2 X L  I R 2  X L
Solution : Here where X L  L is the inductive reactance.
E
C  50 F  50 10 6 F or I 
2 .....(3)
 5  105 F R2  XL
E
I 2 2 2 2 2
Erms  100V , v  50 Hz Z LR ; Z LR  R  X L  R  L 
Step 1: Capacitive reactance The effective opposition offered by LR circuit to
1 1 ac is called the impedance of LR circuit.
XC  
C C  2 v
Page 271
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Let  be the angle made by the resultant of VL 

2
500    250 
2
2 187500
and VR with the X-axis, then from figure, we get L  2 2

AC OB VL IX L 4   3.14    50  98596
tan     
OA OA VR IR  1.9 or L  1.38 H
X L L Illustration 18: A series combination of a coil
or tan   
R R of inductance L and a resistor of resistance
Note: In series LR circuit, emf leads the current or 12 is connected across a 12 V, 50 Hz
the current is said to lag behind the emf by an supply. Calculate L if the circuit is 0.5 A.
angle  E 12
 Current in L-R series circuit is given by Solution : Impedance, Z    24
I 0.5
E E
I  0 sin(  t   ) and Z  R 2   2 L2
Z LR Z LR
2 2 2 2 2 Z 2  R2
(or) I  I 0 sin(  t   ) or Z  R   L or L 
2
Note: 22 1
 Z LR  R 2  L2  2  R 2  L2  4  2 f 2 . Here   2 v  2   50  314rads
7
Thus Z LR increases with the frequency of ac,
so ZLR is low for lower frequency of ac and high and R  12
2 2
for higher frequency of ac
L2 
 24   12  or L  12 3  0.066 H
 The phase angle between voltage and current  314 
2
314
increases with the increase in the frequency of Illustration 19: A coil of inductance 0.50 H
ac and resistance 100 ohm is connected to 240
Illustration 17: A 50V, 10W lamp is run on 100V, V, 50 Hz ac supply.
50Hz ac mains. Calculate the inductance (a) What is the peak current in the coil?
of the choke coil required. (b) What is the expression for the time lag
Solution : Voltage marked on lamp, V = 50 V between the peak voltage and the peak
Power, P = 10 W current?
Resistance of lamp, Solution: Here L  0.50 H , R  100 ohm
V 2 50  50 Erms  240V , v  50 Hz
R   250
P 10 Step 1: We know
Current rating of lamp
E0 2 Erms  1.414  240  339.4V
P 10 1
I rms    A Impedance of LR circuit is
V 50 5
The given circuit is equivalent to LR Z L  R 2   2 L2  R 2  4 v 2 L2
circuit. 2 2 2 2
Here Erms  100V , v  50 Hz  100   4   3.14    50    0.50 
When the lamp is worked on a.c., the  186.1
impedance of the circuit is
E0 339.4
Erms 100 Peak current, I 0  Z  186.1  1.82 A
ZL    500 L
I rms 1
In LR circuit the phase difference between
5 current and voltage  which is given by
Z L2  R 2   2 L2  OR  Z L2  R 2  4 2v 2 L2 L L  2 v
2 2
tan   
Z R R R
 4 2 v 2 L2  Z L2  R 2 or L2  L
4 2 v 2 0.50  2  3.14  50
tan    1.57
100

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ALTERNATING CURRENT

  tan 1 1.57   57o30 '  57.5o  The resultant potential difference of VC and VR is
57.5   represented by OC.
  0.3194  radians  Also, the emf and current are in phase when ac
180
 Time lag between E0 and I0 is given by flows through the resistor. So, VR is represented
by OA along X-axis.
  0.3194
t    3.194  103 s  Therefore, the resultant potential difference of
 2 v 2  50
VC and VR is represented by OC and is given
C-R SERIES CIRCUIT WITH
by
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
2 2
 Let an alternating source of emf E =E0 sin  t is OC  OA 2  OB2 or E  VR  VC
connected to a series combination of a pure Using equations (i) and (ii), we get
capacitor of capacitance (C) and a resistor of 2 2
E  I2R 2  I2XC  I R 2  XC
resistance (R) as shown in figure (a)
C R E E
or I  
2 2
R  XC Z CR
VC VR From the above equations of I and E, we have
 1 
2
2
Z CR  R  X C 2  R 2
 
 
~  C 
E
 Let I be the r.m.s value of current flowing through Where Z CR is the effective opposition offered
the circuit. The potential difference across the
capacitor, by the CR circuit to ac, which is the impedance
of CR circuit.
VC  IX C .....(i)
Let  be the angle made by E with X-axis
 AC VC IX C
 The current leads emf by an angle when ac tan    
2 OA VR IR
flows through capacitor. X 1
 The potential difference across the resistor, or tan   C 
R C R
VR = IR .....(ii)
In series CR circuit, emf lags behind the current
 The emf and current are in phase when ac flows
or in other words, the current is said to lead the
through resistor.
emf by an angle  given by the above equation.
Phasor diagram.
I  Current in C-R series circuit is given by
V (or) R A E E
I  0 sin( t   )
O R
X
 Z CR Z CR
(or) I  I0 .sin(t   )
V E
C
(or) Note:
XC
 The resultant potential difference of VC and VR is
B represented by OC.
C
-Y
Impedance of CR circuit.
 In figure VC is represented by OB along negative 2 1
Z CR  R 2  X C  R 2 
Y - axis and the current I is represented along C 2
2

1
X - axis.  R2 
4 f 2C 2
2

 VR is represented by OA along X - axis. 1

Thus Z C R 
f

Page 273
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

 The resultant potential difference of VC and VR is Erms 220

(iii) Current I rms  Z  322.4  0.68 A
represented by OC. For very high frequency (f) CR

of ac. Z  R and for very low frequency of ac, L - C SERIES CIRCUIT WITH
Z ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
 Phase angle between voltage and current is given  Let an alternating source of emf is connected to
by the series combination of a pure capacitor of
1 1 capacitance (C) and an inductor of inductance
tan   
C  R 2  fC R (L) is shown in fig.
As f increases, phase angle  decreases.
L C
Illustration 20: A series circuit contains a
resistor of 20 , a capacitor and an ammeter
of negligible resistance. It is connected to a V LV C

source of 200V, 50Hz. If the reading of

ammeter is 2.5A, calculate the reactance of
~
the capacitor.
E
Solution : Here R  20, Erms  200V
 Let I be the rms value of current flowing in the
v  50 Hz , I rms  2.5 A
circuit
The circuit is CR circuit.
Impedance of circuit,  The P.D across ‘L’ is VL  I . X L
E 200
Z CR  rms   80  The current I lags VL by an angle  / 2 .
I rms 2.5
2  The P.D across capacitance is VC  I . X C .
But Z CR  R 2  X C2 or Z CR  R 2  X C2
or X 2  Z 2  R 2  The current I leads VC by an angle  / 2 .
C CR

2
X C  ZCR  R2  The voltage VL and VC are represented by OB
or 2 2 and OC respectively.
 80    20   77.46
Y
Illustration 21: A 10 F capacitor is in sereis
with a 50 resistance and the combination B

is connected to a 220V, 50Hz line. Calculate VL

(i) the capacitive reactance, (ii) the
impedance of the circuit and (iii) the current
in the circuit O X
I
Solution : Here C  10  F  10 106  105 F
C
R  50 , Erms  220V , v  50 Hz VC
(i) Capacitive reactance -Y
1 1
XC   The resultant P.D of VL and VC is
C 2 v C
1 V  VL  VC  I  X L  X C 
  318.5
2  3.14  50  10 5
 1 
(ii) Impedance of CR circuit  I L    IZ LC
 C 
2 2
ZCR  R2  XC2   50   318.5  From the above equations, Impedance of
 322.4 L -C circuit is

Page 274
ALTERNATING CURRENT

 circuit decreases the impedance Z of the

1 
Z LC  L   circuit and hence increases current I in the
 C  cirucit as
1 V
 If  L  i.e, X L  X C then I
C Z
VL  VC potential difference V  VL  VC . where Z  R 2  X L2 without capacitor
 Now current lags behind voltage by  / 2 . 2
and new Z  R2   X L  X C  with
1
 If  L  then VL  VC capacitance
C Illustration 23: A sinusoidal voltage of peak
Resultant potential difference V   VC  VL value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied
Now current leads emf by  / 2 . to a series LCR circuit in which R = 3  , L
= 25.48 mH and C = 796  F. Find
1 1 (a) the impedance of the cirucit; (b) the
If  L  then Z   L  0
C C phase difference between the voltage across
E the source and the cicrcuit; (c) the power
Current I    dissipated in the circuit; and (d) the power
Z
In L - C, circuit, the phase difference between factor
voltage and current is always  / 2 . Solution : (a) To find the impedance of the
circuit, we first calculate XL and XC.
Power factor cos   cos  / 2  0 .
So, power consumed in L - C circuit is X L  2 vL
P  Vrms  I rms  cos   0  2  3.14  50  25.48  103   8
 In L - C circuit no power is consumed. 1
Note: XC 
2 v C
1
 In L - C, circuit, the impendence Z   L  1
C   4
6
E 2  3.14  50  796  10
Current I  . 2
Z Therefore, Z  R 2   X L  X C 
So, the impedance and current varies with
frequency. 2
1
 32   8  4   5
 At a particular angular frequency,  L  (b) Phase difference
C
E X  XL 4 8
and current I  becomes maximum  I 0  and   tan 1 C  tan 1    53.1
o

Z R  3 
resonance occurs.
Since  is negative, the current in the
E0
At resonance Z  0 and I 0   . circuit lags the voltage across the source.
Z (c) The power dissipated in the circuit is
1
Resonant angular frequency 0  P  I 2R
LC im 1  283 
1 Now, I      40 A
Resonant frequecny f 0  . 2 2 5 
2 LC 2
Illustration 22: When a capacitor of small Therefore, P   40 A   3  4800W
capacitance is connected in sereis with
series L-R circuit. The alternating current (d) Power factor = cos   cos 53.1o  0.6
in the circuit increases. Explain why? A.C THROUGH LCR SERIES CIRCUIT
Solution : Addition of capacitor in the given  A circuit containing pure inductor of inductance
(L),pure capacitor of capacitance (C) and

Page 275
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

resistor of resistance (R), all joined in series, is

E
shown in figure. E 
 Let E be the r.m.s value of the applied alternating  I  1 
2

R  X L X C 
2 2 2
R   L 
emf to the LCR circuit.  C 

 Let  be the phase angle between E and I, then

from Phasor diagram
I
VL  VC IX L  IX C X  XC
tan     L
VR IR R
 The potential difference across L,
VL  IX L .....(i)  1 
 L  C 
 The potential difference across C,
tan    
VC  IX C .....(ii) R
 The potential difference across R,  Current in L-C- R series circuit is given by
VR  IR .....(iii) E E0
I  sin(  t   )
PHASOR DIAGRAM Z Z
Y (or) I  I0 .sin(t   )
B  If XL and XC are equal then Z = R i.e.,
D L expression for pure resistance circuit.
VL
(VL-VC)
2
or E If XL = 0 then Z  R 2  X C i.e., expression
(XL-XC) 
X
O
VR or R A I
for series RC circuit.
VC
C Similarly if XC = 0 then Z  R 2  X L 2 i.e.

expression for series RL circuit.
-Y
R
 Since VL and VC are in opposite phase, so Also, cos  
Z
their resultant (VL –VC) is represented by OD
Case (i) : If X L  X C then  is -ve. In this case
(Here VL > VC)
 The resultant of VR and (VL–VC) is given by the current lags behind the emf by a phase
OL. 1  X  X 
angle   Tan  L R C 
The magnitude of OL is given by  

; Case (ii) : If X L  X C then  is +ve. In this case

2 2
OL   OA    AL 
the current leads the emf by a phase angle
2 2
 VR   VL  VC   X  XL 
  Tan 1  C 
 R 
2
 I R2   XL  XC  Case (iii): If X L  X C then  is 0. In this case the
E 2 current and emf are in phase.
Z  R2   X L  XC 
I  If X L  X C , then the circuit will be inductive
 Impedance (Z) of LCR circuit is given by
 If X L  X C , then the circuit will be
2
Z  R  XL  XC 
2
capacitive
 If X L  X C , then the circuit will be purely
resistive.
 The LCR circuit can be inductive or capacitive
Page 276
ALTERNATING CURRENT

or purely resistive depending on 1

the value of frequency of alternating source of X  X L  X C where X L   L , X C  .
C
emf.  Resistance offered by all the circuited elements
 At some frequency of alternating source, to the flow of ac is impedance ( Z )
X L  X C and for some other frequency,,
 Z  R 2  X 2  R 2  X L  X C 
2
X L  X C . There exists a particular value of
frequency where X L  X C (This situation is E0
 The peak value of current is I0 
explained under resonance of LCR series Z
circuit )  The phase difference between emf & current can
Note:Relation between applied pd & potential be known by constructing an ac triangle as
differences across
the components in L - C - R circuit tan  
X
L C R Z R

X X
sin  
Z
R
VL VC VR cos  
Z
 
R
V Illustration 24:
L C R A pure inductor of 50.0 mH is connected
to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive
reactance and rms current in the circuit if
VL VC VR the frequency of the source is 50 Hz.
Solution:
The inductive reactance.
~
X L  2fL  2  3.14  50  50  103 
E
For ‘dc’  15.7 
The rms current in the circuit is
V = VR + VL + VC V  IZ
Vrms 220V
(only before steady state) I rms    14.01A .
X L 15.7
For ‘ac’
Illustration 25:
2
V  I R2   X L  X C  ; If an input of 50 mV is applied as Vin then
Vout at 100 kHz will be
2
  IR  2   IX L  IX C  1k

V 2 = VR 2 + VL - VC 
2
10 nF Vout
2
V  VR2   VL  VC 
Solution:
where VL  IX L  I  L and
1 1 10 3
I XC   8   159 
VC  IX C  Cω 10  2 π  10 5 2 π
C
and VR = IR Vin 50  159
Note: Rules to be followed for various combinations V0  XC   7.9 mV
|Z| 10002  1592
of ac circuits
 Compute effective resistance of the circuit as R
 Calculate the net reactance of the circuit as
1592 is neglected

Page 277
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Illustration 26: Illustration 28:
30.0 F capacitor is connected to a 220 V,, An LCR circuit contains resistance of 100
50 Hz AC source. Find the capacitive  and supply of 200 V at 300 rad/sec. If
reactance and the current (rms and peak) only capacitance is taken out from the
in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, circuit and the rest of the circuit is joined,
what happens to the capacitive reactance current lags behind the voltage by 60°. If
and the current. on the other hand, only inductor is taken
Solution: out, the current leads by 60° with applied
The capacitive reactance is voltage. Find the current flowing in the
1 circuit.
XC   106
2fC Solution : Resistance R = 100 
The rms current is Applied voltage V0  200 volt
Vrms
I rms   2.08A When the capacitance is taken out, only inductor
XC
and resistor will remain in circuit.
The peak current is
XL
Im  2I rms  2.96A The phase tan ( ) 
R
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive
reactance is halved and consequently, the XL
tan (60o )  X L  3R
current is doubled. R
Illustration 27: When the inductor is taken out, only capacitor
When an AC source of e.m.f. E = E0 sin and resistance will remain in circuit.
(100t) is connected across a circuit, the XC
phase difference between the e.m.f. E and Then phase tan ( ) 
R
the current I in the circuit is observed to
be  / 4 , as shown in the figure. If the XC
tan (60o )  XC  3 R
circuit consists possibly only of R-C in R
series. What will be the relation between Impedance
the two elements of the circuit ?
Z  R 2  ( X C  X L ) 2  R  100
I E
[since X C  X L  3 R ]
V0 200
t Current in the circuit I 0    2 A.
Z 100
Illustration 29:
Solution: In a series resonant circuit. the ac voltage
Given E = E0 sin (100 t). Comparing this with across resistance R, inductance L and
1
E = E0 sin t , we have   100 rad s . It capacitance C are VR = 4V, VL = 10V and
follows from the figure that the current leads VC = 7V respectively. Find the voltage
the e.m.f. which is true only for R-C circuit. applied to the circuit.
1 Solution:
tan   ..... (1)
RC Voltage applied across circuit
Given    / 4 . Also   100 rad s 1 . Using
2 2
these values in (1), we get V  VR2   VC  VL   42  10  7  = 5V
 1 1
tan    or RC 
 4  100 RC 100

Page 278
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Y
RESONANT FREQUENCY
Electrical resonance is said to take place in a R3>R2>R1
series LCR circuit, when the circuit allows I0
maximum current for a given frequency of
R1
alternating supply, at which capacitive reactance
R2
becomes equal to the inductive reactance. I
The current (I) in a series LCR circuit is given by R3

E E O X
I  f0
Z  1 
2
f
R 2   L  .....(i)
 C  Note: Series LCR circuit at resonance admit
maximum current at particular frequencies, so
From the above equation (i), it is clear that they can be used to tune the desired frequency
current I will be maximum if the impedance (Z)
or filter unwanted frequencies. They are used
of the circuit is minimum.
in transmitters and receivers of radio, television
At low frequencies, L   L  2  f is very small and telephone carrier equipment etc.
1 1
and C   C  2  f is very large. RESONANCE IN L - C CIRCUIT :
At resonance ,
At high frequencies, L is very large and a) Net reactance X = 0
1
is very small. b) X L  XC
C
1 c) Impedance Z = 0
For a particular frequency (f0), L   i.e. E0
C d) peak value of current I0  
X L  X C and the impedance (Z) of LCR Z
1
circuit is minimum and is given by Z = R. e) Resonant frequency f 0 
2 LC
Therefore, at the particular frequency ( f0 ), the 
f) Voltage and current differ in phase by
current in LCR circuit becomes maximum. The 2
frequency ( f0 ) is known as the resonant g) Power factor cos   0
RESONANCE IN L - C - R CIRCUIT :
frequency and the phenomenon is called
At resonance,
electrical resonance.
a) Net reactance X = 0
Again, for electrical resonance (XL–Xc) = 0. b) X  X
L C
i.e. XL = XC c) Impedance Z = R ( minimum )
1 1 E E
or L   2  d) peak value of current I0  0  0 ( maximum
C LC Z R
1 1 but not infinity )
or     2f 0   1
LC LC e) Resonant frequency f 0 
1 2 LC
or 0 f  .....(ii) f) Voltage and current will be in phase
2  LC g) power factor cos   1
This is the value of resonant frequency. h) Resonant frequency is independent of value of R.
The resonant frequency is independent of the i) A series L - C - R circuit behaves like a pure
resistance R in the circuit. However, the resistive circuit at resonance.
sharpness of resonance decreases with the
HALF POWER FREQUENCIES AND
increase in R.
BAND WIDTH.
Series LCR circuit is more selective when
 The frequencies at which the power in the circuit
resistance of this circuit is small.

Page 279
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
is half of the maximum power (The power at 1
resonance) are called half power frequencies. But at resonance, 0 
Pmax LC
1 L 1 L
Q  
LC R R C
P Pmax
P= I0
2

R = very low
1 2 3 V Q - Factor = Large
 The current in the circuit at half power R = low
Q - Factor = Normal
1 R = High
frequencies (HPF) is or 0.707 or 70.7% Q - Factor = Low
2 V0 V
of maximum current (current at resonance). Resonance curve
 There are two half power frequencies
1  called lower half power frequency. At (iv) Q - Factor tells the relation between voltage
this frequency the circuit is capacitive. across the inductor or capacitor and peak value
3  called upper half power frequency. It is of voltage.
greater than  2 . At this frequency the circuit is The sharpness or selectivity of a resonance
circuit is measured by Q-factor, called quality
inductive.
factor.
 Band width    : The difference of half The Q-factor of series resonance circuit is
power frequencies 1 and 3 is called band defined as the ratio of voltage developed across
the inductance or capacitance at resonance to
width    and   3  1 .
the applied voltage (which is the voltage across
 For series resonant circuit it can be proved R).
   R / L  Q
voltage across L or C
QUALITY FACTOR (Q) OF SERIES Applied Voltage(  voltage acrossR)
RESONANT CIRCUIT : IX L X L  L 1 L
(i) The characteristic of a series resonant circuit Q   
IR R R LC R
is determined by the quality factor (Q - factor)
of the circuit. 1 L
(ii) It defines sharpness of i - v curve at Q=
R C
resonance. When Q - factor is large, the
sharpness of resonance curve is more and VL VC 0 L 1
viceversa. Q - factor  V or V  R or  CR
R R 0
Re sonant frequency 
(iii) Q   0 (v) The quality factor (Q) is also defined as 2
Band width  times the ratio of the energy stored in L (or C)
For series resonant circuit, it can be proved to the average energy loss per period.
R  max imum energy stored in circuit 
that,    Q  2  
L  energy loss per period 
0 L The maximum energy stored in inductor,
Q = 0 
 R

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ALTERNATING CURRENT

1 Illustration 30: In series L-C-R circuit

U  LI20
2 L  2.0 H , C  32  F and R  10
The energy dissipated per second, find Q-factor of resonance circuit.
I 20 R WL 1 L 1 L
U R  I2rms .R  Solution : Q-factor    
2 R LC R R C
Energy dissipated per time period, 1 2 1 103
    25
I 20 R 10 32 106 10 4
UR  .T
2 POWER IN LCR CIRCUIT
Substituting these values, we get Instantaneous power, P = EI
 E0 sin t I0 sin t  
 
 1 2   E0 I0 sin t sin  t   
 LI 0  2 L
Q  2  22    E0 I0 sin t  sin t cos   cos t sin  
 I 0 R   T R
  
  2  T   E0 I0 cos  sin2 t+E 0 I0 sin  sin t cos t
  If the instantaneous power is assumed to remain
L 1 L 1 L constant for a small time dt, then work done
 0    
R LC R R C over a complete cycle is given by
Different forms of Q factor T
W   P.dt
0 1 L
a) Q  0
 R C T
 E I 
maximum P.D across C W    E 0 I 0 cos  sin 2 t  0 0 sin   2sin t cos t   dt
b) Q 0  2 
maximum P.D across R T T
E I
V X 1 WE0 I0 cos  sin  t dt  0 0 sin  sin 2 t dt
2
 C C 2
VR R 0 CR 0 0
T
maximum P.D across L  W  E 0 I 0 cos 
c) Q 2
maximum P.D across R Average power over complete cycle,
VL X L 0 L W E0 I0
   Pave   cos
VR R R T 2
2maximum energy stored E I
d) Q  0  0 cosE rms I rms cos
loss of energy in one time period 2 2
2maximum energy stored
e) Q  E I
T average energy exp ended  Pave  0 0 cos   E rms .I rms cos 
Note: 2
R
a) Q is just a number Also, Pave  E rms I rms or
2
b) Q factor is also called voltage  1 
R 2  L  
amplification factor or efficiency of the  C 
circuit. E rms R
c) Q factor wil be large i.e., the circuit will Pave  E rms  2

2
 1   1 
have more sharpness if R is low or L is R 2  L   R 2  L  
 C   C 
large or C is low.
d) Q factor of L-C circuit at resonance is
infinity.

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT
E2rms R E 2rms R
 
 1 
2
R 2 L2  2
2 
R  L  
 C  Case V : If the ac circuit contains C and R,
then
Average power is also known as true power.
The quantity E rms I rms is called the apparent R R 2
Erms R
cos   Pav 
power or virtual power. Z 1 1
R2  2 2 , R2  2 2 .
It is customary to express true power in kW C  C
and apparent power in kVA.
Wattless current or idle current
cos is called the power factor of LCR circuit.
If the voltage and current differ in phase by
Its value varies from zero to 1.
 / 2 , then Power factor,, cos   cos90 0  0 .
Power factor is defined as the ratio of true In this case, as there is no resistance to the flow
power to apparent power. of current, the average power consumed by the
In L – C – R series circuit, current is zero. Such a current is, therefore,
R R called wattless current. Since this current does
Power factorcos 
Z  1 
2 not perform any work, therefore, this current
R 2 L  
 C  may also be called idle current. Such a current
flows only in purely inductive, purely capacitive
POWER FACTOR :
or L–C circuits.
(a) It may be defined as cosine of the angle of
The average power consumed per cycle in a
lag or lead (i.e. cos ) pure inductive or capacitive or L - C circuit is
(b) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance zero.
R Such current for zero power consumption is
and impedance (i.e. )
Z called Wattless current.
c) The ratio CHOKE COIL:
True power W kW  Choke coil (or ballast) is a device having high
   cos  inductance and negligible resistance.
Apparent power VA kVA
 It is used to control current in ac circuits and is
Special Cases : used in fluorescent tubes.
Case I : If the ac circuit contains only pure resistance,  The power loss in a circuit containing choke
then   0 0 . coil is least.
E2  In a dc circuit current is reduced by means of a
Pave E rms I rms cos 00 E rms I rms  rms rheostat.This results in a loss of electrical energy
R
Case II : If the ac circuit contains only pure I 2 R per sec.
inductance, then   90 0 Iron core
 Pave  E rms .I rms cos 90  0
Starter
Case III : If the ac circuit contains only pure Choke
Coil of Cu wire ~
capacitance, then   90 .  Pave  0
0
~
coil
L, R
Application of choke coil
Case IV : If the ac circuit contains L and R, then Choke coil
R R  It consists of a copper coil wound over a soft
cos 
Z R 2 L2  2 iron laminated core. This coil is put in series
with the circuit in which current is to be reduced.
R  Soft iron is used to improve inductance (L) of
Pave E rms I rms
R L 
2 2 2
the circuit.
 The inductive reactance or effective opposition
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ALTERNATING CURRENT
Illustration 31:
of the choke coil is given by X L   L  2 vL A 750 Hz., 20 V source is connected to a
 For an ideal choke coil r  0 , no electric energy resistance of 100 ohm, an inductance of
0.1803 henry and a capacitance of 10
is wasted, i.e., average power P = 0.
microfarad all in series. Calculate the
 In actual practice choke coil is equivalent to a time in which the resistance (thermal
RL circuit. capacity 2 J/0C) will get heated by 100C.
 Choke coil for different frequencies are made TC  mc  thermal capcity 
by using different substances in their core. Solution:
 For low frequency L should be large thus iron
X L   L  2 fL  2  750  0.1803  849.2
core choke coil is used. For high frequency ac
and,
circuit, L Should be small, so air cored choke
1 1 1
coil is used. XC    5
 21.2
 The choke coil can be used only in ac circuits  C 2 fC 2  750  10
not in dc circuits, because for dc frequency So, X  X L  X C  849.2  21.2  828
and hence,
v  0 . Hence X L  2 vL  0.
Z  R 2  X 2  (100) 2  (828) 2  834
 Choke coil is based on the principle of Wattless
current. But as in case of ac,
V R
E Pav  Vrms I rms cos   Vrms  rms 
 The current in the circuit I  Z Z
Z i.e.,
with 2 2
 Vrms   20 
2 2
Pav    R     100  0.0575W
Z   R  r    L  .  Z   834 
and as,
 The power loss in the choke U  P  t  mc  (TC) 
pav  Vrms I rms cos   0 (TC)   2  10
t   348s
r r r P 0.0575
as cos   Z  2 2 2

L
0 Illustration 32:
r  L
In the LCR series circuit find the voltmeter
Note: and ammeter reading in the figure shown
below. Also find the quality factor of
circuit.(Given R=50  )
400 V 400 V
V VL VC

A

Pavg  Erms irms cos  100V, 500 Hz
Solution :
Pavg  is due to irms cos  , and there is no In the figure voltages across source, inductor
contribution of current com ponent and capacitor are given as V = 100 V, VL =
irms sin  400 V and VC = 400 V respectively.

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT

From the formula V  VR2  (VC  V L ) 2 ... (i) (E V ) 2 2002

Average power = = = 800watt
R 50
Substituting value in (i)
(ii) Peak power =
100  VR2  (400  400) 2  VR  100 V
E 20 ( 200 2 ) 2
 1600 watt
So reading of voltmeter (reading across R) is R 50
100 V. (iii)Energy spent is based on rms power.
Reading of ammeter (i.e., current passing So energy spent
through it). = P × t = 800 watt × 60 sec
= 48000 Joule.
V
I [since the circuit is in resonance, so Illustration 35:
Z
An L-C-R series circuit is connected to
Z = R = 50 
an external emf E= 200 sin (100  t). The
100
I  2A values of the capacitance and resistance
50
Voltage across inductor (VL ) in the circuit are 1µF and 100  respec-
Quality factor= tively. Find the inductance for which
Applied voltage (V)
400 current in the circuit is maximum.
  4.
100 Solution:
Illustration 33: Current in circuit
An inductance of 2.0 H, a capacitance of
18 F and a resistance of 10 k are V0
I0  where Z  R 2   X C  X L 2
connected to an ac source of 20 V with Z
adjustable frequency. For current I0 to be maximum, impedance Z
(i) At what frequency, will the current be must be minimum Z will be minimum, when
maximum in the circuit ? XC = XL i.e.
(ii) What is this maximum current.
1
Solution:  L
C
(i) Current will be maximum at resonant
frequency fr. 1
L
r 1 1 2 C
fr     26.5Hz
2 2 LC 2 218106
(  =100  from E = 200 sin (100  t)
(ii) At resonance R = Z.
At resonant frequency, 1 1 100
L 2
 2
 H 10H
E E 20 2 100 106 100 106 2
I max  max  max   2.83mA
Z R 10000 
Illustration 34: Illustration 36:
A 0  electric iron is connected to an ac The potential difference V and the
supply of 200 V, 50 Hz. Calculate (i) current I flowing through an instrument
average power delivered to iron (ii) peak in an ac circuit are given by V= 5 cos
power and (iii) energy spent in one minute. ( ω t)volts and I = 2sin( ω t) Amp. Find
Solution: the power dissipated in the instrument.
(i) Average power is based on rms value of Solution:
emf.
Current I = 2 sin ( ω t)
Root mean square value of current

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
i
I0 2
I rms    2
2 2
+ +
π C L
Voltage V  2cos  ωt   2sin  ωt   – –
 2

Root mean square value of voltage

V0 2 Q2
Vrms    2  Energy stored in the capacitor U E 
2 2 2C
 The energy stored in the inductor, UB = 0.
The capacitor now begins to discharge through
Power dissipated P  Vrms I rms cos  = 0
the inductor and current begins to flow in the
   circuit. As the charge on the capacitor
(since   and cos   =0 decreases, U E decreases but the energy
2 2
1 2
Illustration 37: UB  LI in the magnetic field of the inductor
2
A capacitor, an inductor and an electric increases. Energy is thus transferred from
bulb are connected in series to an AC capacitor to inductor. When the whole of the
charge on the capacitor disappears, the total
supply of variable frequency. If the energy stored in the electric field in the capacitor
frequency of the supply is increased gets converted into magnetic field energy in the
gradually, what will happen to brightness inductor. At this stage, there is maximum current
in the inductor.
of bulb.  Energy now flows from inductor to the
Solution: capacitor except that the capacitor is charged
The brightness of bulb is proportional to oppositely. This process of energy transfer
continues at a definite frequency (v). Energy is
square of current passing through bulb. continuously shuttled back and forth between
Current through the bulb or circuit the electric field in the capacitor and the
magnetic field in the inductor.
V0 2 If no resistance is present in the LC circuit, the
1
I where Z  R 2   
 L  LC oscillation will continue infinitely as shown.
Z  C 

As frequency is increased. Impedance Z will + q0

t
first decrease, reaches minimum value of R at – q0
resonance and will again increase.
Correspondingly, the current will first increase  However in an actual LC circuit, some
resistance is always present due to which energy
 1 is dissipated in the form of heat. So LC
 I   , reaches maximum value of I0 = V0/
 Z oscillation will not continue infinitely with same
R at resonance and will then decrease amplitude as shown.
So the intensity of bulb will first increase,
reaches a maximum and then decreases. + q0
LC OSCILLATIONS
t
 A capacitor (C) and an inductor (L) are
connected as shown in the figure. Initially the
charge on the capacitor is Q – q0

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any oscillations
 In L - C oscillations energy stored in inductor
di
time t and be the rate of change of current. is analogous to kinetic energy of the mass in
dt mechanical oscillations
Since no battery is connected in the circuit,  In L - C oscillations maximum charge on ca-
q di pacitor q0 is analogous to amplitude in mechani-
 L.  0
c dt cal oscillations
dq   As Vmax = A  in mechanical oscillations,
but i   I 0  q0 0 in L- C oscillations
dt
from the above equations, we get ENERGY OF LC OSCILLATIONS:
q d2q
L 2 0  Let q0 be the initial charge on a capacitor. Let
C dt
2
the charged capacitor be connected to an
dq 1 inductor of inductance L. LC circuit will sustain
 q  0 The above equation is
dt 2 LC an oscillations with frequency At an instant t,
analogous to charge q on the capacitor and the current i are
d2 r given by; q(t )  q0 cos t ; i   q0 sin t
2
 2 r=0 (differential equation of S.H.M)
dt Energy stored in the capacitor at time t is
Hence on comparing
1 1 q 2 q02
1 1 U E  CV 2   cos2 (t )
2  ;  2 2 C 2C
LC LC Energy stored in the inductor at time t is
1 1 1
2  ;  U M  Li 2
LC 2 LC 2
2
The charge therefore oscillates with a frequency 1 q 1
 Lq02 2 sin 2 t   0 sin 2 (t )(  2  )
1 2 2 C LC
 and varies sinusoidally with time. Sum of energies
2 LC
COMPARISION OF L - C q02 2 2 q02
OSCILLATIONS WITH SHM : U E  U M  (cos  t  sin  t )  \
2C 2C
 The L - C oscillations can be compared to
S.H.M of a block attached to a spring  As q0 and C, both are time independent, this
1 sum of energies stored in capacitor and inductor
 In L - C oscillations  0  is constant in time. Note that it is equal to the
LC
K initial energy of the capacitor.
 In Mechanical oscillations  0  where K i i m i
m ++++ + + + + ––––
is the spring constant C L
–––– – – – – ++++
1  V
 In L - C oscillations    tells us the 2 1 Li 2

C q U=
q U =0 E
m
B U =0 U =
2c
E B
m

2c
potential difference required to store a unit
charge
 F 1 1
 In a mechanical oscillation K    tells us the U = kA , K= 0 2
U  0, K  0 1
U = 0, K = mv U  0, K  0
2
2
U = kA , K= 0
x 2 2
max 2
external force required to produce a unit dis- (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
placement of mass  Fig : The oscillations in an LC circuit are
 In L - C oscillations current is the analogous analogous to the oscillation of a block at the
quantity for velocity of the mass in mechanical end of a spring. The figure depicts one-half of
oscillations a cycle.
 In L - C oscillations energy stored in capacitor  At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capaci-
is analogous to potential energy in mechanical tor starts to discharge. As the current in-

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ALTERNATING CURRENT
creases, it sets up a magnetic field in the  d2 x 
 dv 
inductor and thereby, some energy gets F  ma  m    m  2 
stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic  dt   dt 
energy: UB = (1/2) Li2. As the current reaches di d 2q
its maximum value im, (at t = T/4) as in Fig. For an electrical system, e   L   L
dt dt 2
(c), all the energy is stored in the magnetic  Comparing these two equations, we see that
field: UB = (1/2) Li2m. L is analogous to mass m: L is a measure of
You can easily check that the maximum resistance to change in current.
electrical energy equals the maximum mag- 1
netic energy. The capacitor now has no In case of LC circuit, 0  and for
charge and hence no energy. The current now LC
starts charging the capacitor, as in Fig. (d). mass on a spring, 0  k / m . So, 1/C is
This process continues till the capacitor is analogous to k. The constant k (=F/x) tells us
fully charged (at t = T/2) Fig. (e). But it is the (external) force required to produce a unit
charged with a polarity opposite to its initial displacement whereas 1/C (=V/q) tells us the
state in Fig. (a). The whole process just potential difference required to store a unit
described will now repeat itself till the system charge. Table gives the analogy between
reverts to its original state. Thus, the energy in mechanical and electrical quantities.
the system oscillates between the capacitor ANALOGIES BETWEEN MECHANICAL AND
and the inductor. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
 The LC oscillation is similar to the mechanical
oscillation of a block attached to a spring. Mechanical System Electrical System
The lower part of each figure depicts the
corresponding stage of a mechanical system Mass m Inductance L
(a block attached to a spring). As noted Force constant k Reciprocal
earlier, for a block of a mass m oscillating capacitance l/C
with frequency 0 , the equation is Displacement x Charge q
Velocity v = dx/dt Current I = dq/dt
d2 x Mechanical energy Electromagnetic
 20 x  0
dt 2 energy
1 1 2
 Here, 0  k / m , and k is the spring E  kx 2  mv 2 U  1 q  1 L 2
constant. So, x corresponds to q. In case of 2 2 2C 2
a mechanical system

Table for values of different parameters for different components applied to ac

Parameter R-L circuit R-C circuit L-C circuit L-C-R circuit

1) Input E  E0 sin t E  E0 sin t E  E0 sin t E  E0 sin  t
emf
2) I  I 0 sin t    I  I0 sin  t      I  I 0 sin t   
Resulting I  I0 sin  t  
 2
current
3) R R 0 R
Resistance
4) Net X  XL  L 1 1 1
reactance X  XC  X  L  X  L 
C C C
5) 2 2 2 2
Z  R 2   L   1   1   1 
Impedance Z  R2    Z  L  Z  R2    L 
 C   C   C 

Page 287
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

6) Peak E0 E0 E0 E0
I0  I0  I0  I0 
value of Z Z Z Z
current
7) Phase  L   1    90o  X  XC 
diff.   tan 1     tan 1     tan 1  L 
 R    RC   R 
between E
&I
8) Lead / I lags E by φ I leads E by φ If X L  X C , I lags E by 90o If X L  X C , I lags E by 
lag o If X L  X C , I leads E by 
If X L  X C , I leads E by 90
If X L  X C , E and I are in phase If X L  X C , no phase difference between E and I

TRANSFORMER
Step up transformer Step down transformer
 It is a device which raises or lowers the
voltage in ac circuits through mutual induc- It increases voltage It decreases voltage
tion. and decreases current and increases current
 It consists of two coils wound on the same
P S P S
core. The alternating current passing through
the primary creates a continuously changing
VS > VP VS < VP
flux through the core. This changing flux
induces an alternating emf in the secondary. NS > NP NS < NP
(a) Transformer works on ac only and never on ES > EP ES < EP
dc. iS > iP iS < iP
(b) It can increase or decrease either voltage or RS > RP RS < RP
current but not both simultaneously.
tS > tP tS < tP
(c) Transformer does not change the frequency of
input ac. k>l k<l
(d) There is no electrical connection between the (h) Efficiency of transformer (  ) : Efficiency
winding but they are linked magnetically. is defined as the ratio of output power and
(e) Effective resistance between primary and input power
secondary winding is infinite.
(f) The flux per turn of each coil must be same out P S S Vi
i.e. %  P  100  V i  100
dS d in P P
i.e. S  P :   P For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin so
dt dt
(g) If NP = Number of turns in primary, NS =  =100% (But efficiency of practical trans-
number of turns in secondary, VP = applied former lies between 70%–90%)
(input) voltage to primary, VS = Voltage For practical transformer Pin = Pout + Plosses
across secondary (load voltage or output), eP Pout Pout P  P 
= induced emf in primary; eS = induced emf in so  100  100  in L 100
Pin Pout  PL  Pin
secondary,  = flux linked with primary as
(i) Losses in transformer : In transformers
well as secondary, iP = current in primary; iS = some power is always lost due to heating
current in secondary (or load current) effect, flux leakage, eddy currents, hysteresis
As in an ideal transformer there is no loss of and humming.
power i.e. Pout = Pin so VSiS - VPiP and VP  (i) Cu loss (i2R) : When current flows through
eP and VS  eS. Hence
the transformer windings some power is wasted
eS NS VS i P in the form of heat (H = i2Rt). To minimize this
    k; [k
e P N P VP iS loss windings are made of thick Cu wires (To
= Transformation ratio (or turn ratio)] reduce resistance)

Page 288
ALTERNATING CURRENT
(ii) Eddy current loss : Some electrical (viii) Transformers are also used in impedance
power is wasted in the form of heat due to matching.
Illustration 38: A transformer has 400 primary
eddy currents, induced in core. To minimize
turns and 300 secondary turns. If the
this loss transformers core are laminated and
operating voltage for the load connected
silicon is added to the core material as it to the secondary is measured to be 300V,
increases the resistivity. The material of the what is the voltage supplied to the
core is then called silicon-iron (steel). primary?
(iii) Hysteresis loss : The alternating current
Solution : Here, N P  400, N S  300
flowing through the coils magnetises and
demagnetises the iron core again and again. ES  300, EP  ?
Therefore, during each cycle of
magnetisation, some energy is lost due to ES N S
hysteresis. However, the loss of energy can Using E  N
P P
be minimised by selecting the material of we get
core, which has a narrow hysteresis loop.
Therefore core of transformer is made of soft N 400  300
EP  P  ES   400V
iron. Now a days it is made of “Permalloy” NS 300
(Fe-22%, Ni-78%) Illustration 39: A step up transformer operates
(iv) Magnetic flux leakage : Magnetic flux on a 230 V line and a load current of 2
produced in the primary winding is not ampere. The ratio of the primary and
completely linked with secondary because secondary windings is 1 : 25. What is the
few magnetic lines of force complete their current in the primary?
path in air only. To minimize this loss second-
Solution : Using the relation
ary winding is kept inside the primary wind-
ing. NP IS N I
 ; IP  S S
(v) Humming losses : When alternating NS I P NP
current passes, the core of transformer starts
vibrating and produces humming. Thus, some Here N P / N S  1 / 25 (or )
part (may be very small) of the electrical N S / N P  25 / 1  25 and I S  2 A
energy is wasted in the form of humming
sounds produced by the vibrating core of the Current in primary, I P  25  2  50 A
transformer. Illustration 40: A step down transformer
(j) Uses of transformer : A transformer is converts a voltage of 2200 V into 220 V in
used in almost all ac operations e.g. the transmission line. Number of turns in
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator, primary coil is 5000. Efficiency of
computer, air conditioner etc. trnasfromer is 90% and its output power
(ii) In the induction furnaces. is 8kW. Calculate (i) number of turns in
(iii) Step down transformer is used for
secondary coil and (ii) input power.
welding purposes.
(iv) In the transmission of ac over long Output power
distance. Solution: Efficiency   Input power
Transmission lines
Output power
or Input power 
G  Low
V
High
V
High
V
Low
V
House or
Load factory 
8
Power Step up Step down   8.9kW
Station Transformer Transformer 90 / 100
(v) Step down and step up transformers are
used in electrical power distribution. N S ES ES
(vi) Audio frequency transformers are used in Again N  E or N S  E  N P
P P P
radiography, television, radio, telephone etc.
(vii)Radio frequency transformers are used in Here, N P  5000, ES  220V , EP  2200V
radio communication.  N S  500 turns

Page 289
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Illustration 41: A trnasformer having efficiency P 800  1000
90% is working on 100 V and at 2.0 kW I   200 A
power. If the current in the secondary coil E 4000
is 5A, calculate (i) the current in the (i) Line power loss =
2
primary coil and (ii) voltage across the I 2 R   200    2 15  0.5 
secondary coil.
Solution: Here  600, 000W  600kW
(ii) Total power delivered by power plant
9
  90%  , I S  5 A, E P  100V  800  600  1400 kW
10 (iii) Voltage at sending end of line =
(i) EP I P  2kW  2000W Receiving end line voltage + voltage drop
2000 2000 in line
IP  or I P   20 A
EP 100  400   IR   4000  200  2 15  0.5
Output power ES I S  4000  3000  7000V
(ii)   Input power

EP I P 7000 V
 Step up transformer of
or ES I S    EP I P 440V is required.
SKIN EFFECT:
9  A direct current flows uniformly throughout the
  2000  1800W
10 cross section of the conductor.
1800 1800  An alternating current, on the other hand, flows
 ES    360 volt mainly along the surface of the conductor. This
IS 5 effect is known as skin effect.
Illustration 42: A small town with a demand  When alternating current flows through a
of 800 kW of electric power at 220 V is conductor, the flux changes in the inner part of
situated 15 km away from an electric plant the conductor are higher.
generating power at 440 V. The resistance  Therefore, the inductance of the inner part is
of the two line wires carrying power is 0.5 higher than that of the outer part. Higher the
frequency of alternating current, more is the skin
 / km . The town gets power from the lines effect.
through a 4000-220V step down
 The depth upto which ac current flows through
transformer at a substation in the town.
a) Estimate the line power loss in the form a wire is called skin depth.  
of heat
VR2
b) How much power must the plant supply, R  RVR2
assuming there is negligible power loss due PR
to leakage? ( VR  Rated voltage, PR  Rated power)
c) Characterize the step up trnasformer at
the plant.
The working principle of metal
Solution: detector
4000/220 Metal detector works on the principle of
440V 220V resonance in ac circuits. When a person walks
R through a metal detector, in fact he walks
Town through a coil of many turns connected to a
capacitor tuned suitably. If he carries some
metal, impedance of the circuit changes, bringing
Power requirement of the town is given by significant changes in the current. This change
EI, where E is the voltage at the receiving in current is detected and the electronic circuit
end of the line and I is the line current causes the alarm.
Here P  800  1000 W , E  4000 V then

Page 290
ALTERNATING CURRENT
IIllustration 43: Solution:
A power transformer is used to step up an To prevent sparking, the capacitor must be
alternating emf of 200 V to 4 KV and to such that, it can hold all the energy contained
transmits 5 KW power. If the primary is by the inductor
of 1000 turns, calculate, assuming the
1
transformer to be ideal. Energy stored in capacitor U C  CV 2
2
(i) The number of turns in the secondary (where V is voltage of capacitor)
(ii) The current rating of the secondary
1
Solution: Energy stored in inductor U L  LI 2
2
e2 N2
(i) For an ideal transformer  1 1 LI2 2  22
e1 N 1 CV 2  LI2  V   = 1414 V
2 2 C 4 106
4000 Ns ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
  N s  2  104 turns
200 1000
(I) PARALLEL LCR CIRCUIT
(ii) P = (power to be transferred) = e1i1 In this case
P 5 103 L
 i1   = 25 A
e1 200

i2 N1 103 1
then i  N  2104  20 C
1 2

R
 1  25
 i 2  i1   20   20 1.25A or
 
Alternatively, e2i 2  5103 W
5103
 i 2  4103 1.25A
Illustration 44: V = V0 sint
A 1µF condenser is charged to 50V. The   LI L ,
charging battery is then disconnected
and a 10 mH coil is connected across d 1 d
E  IRR ,  IRR  IR 
capacitor so that the LC oscillations dt R dt
occur. Find the maximum current in the dq
coil? q  CV ; I C 
dt
Solution:
 d  d  1 d
Maximum charge stored on capacitor I  I L  IC  I R   C 
L dt  dt  R dt
q0 = CV = 1 × 10–6 × 50 = 5 × 10–5C
Maximum current in the inductor d 2 1 d 1 V
 2
    0 sin t
dt RC dt LC ZC
q0 5  105
I0    0.5A (ii)Parallel LC circut ( Rejector Circuit)
LC 10  103  106
A reads iRMS through mains.
Illustration 45:
AC read iC and AL reads iL
An inductor of 2H inductance carries a
current of 2A. To prevent sparking when Erms E
the circuit is broke capacitor of 4 µF is iC  , iL  rms
XC XL
connected across inductor. Find the
voltage rating of capacitor.

Page 291
 ALTERNATING CURRENT

IL i |Z|
AL

IC
AC
I  
1
A ωr =
LC -1
ωr =
LC
A.C measurement:
1) All ac meters read r.m.s value
E = E0 sint 2) All ac meters are based on heating effect
Phase relationship is as follows. current
  900 , cos   0 ; iRMS  iC  iL 3) Deflection in hot wire meters   i 2rms
D.C measurement
 1 1 
 iRMS  ERMS    1) All dc meters read average value
 XC XL  2) All dc meters are based on magnetic effect of
ic current
3) Deflection in dc meters   i

Let ic > iL

iL
1 1 1
 Admittance Z  X  X
C L

( Admittance

1 1
= ,Suscep tan ce  )
Im pedance Re ac tan ce
1
When XC = XL i.e.,   ( resonance)
LC
Z  , iRMS  0
Thus an alternating signal or current of
1
frequency   can not flow t hrough
LC
the parallel LC circuit so this circuit is also called
rejector circuit. It is used to filter out some
frequencies.

Page 292
Page 293
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION

AND MATTER
INTRODUCTION
(ii) Field emission:
 Various phenomena associated with light like The process of emission of free electrons
interference, diffraction, polarization etc can only when a strong electric field (  108V/m) is
be explained on the basis of wave nature of light. applied across the metal surface is known as
However, there are certain phenomena like field emission. Field emission is also known as
photoelectric effect, electron emission etc which cold emission or cold cathode emission. One
can only be explained if the radiant energy (e.g., of the examples of cold emission is spark plug.
light, X- rays) is supposed to behave like (iii) Photoelectric emission:
particles (Quantum theory of radiation). The process of emission of electrons when
Therefore, scientists have concluded that light of suitable frequency is incident on a
radiation has dual nature. metal surface is known as photoelectric
ELECTRON EMISSION emission. These photons (light) – generated
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from electrons are called photo electrons. The
the metal surface is called electron emission. number of photo electrons emitted depends
In metal, electrons are quite free to move on the intensity of the incident light.
easily within the metal. These electrons are
WORK FUNCTION
responsible for the conductivity of metals.
These electrons in the outer shell (called To pull out electron from the surface of the
valence electrons) of the atoms are loosely metal, a certain minimum amount of energy is
bound. These loosely bound electrons are required. This minimum energy required by
called free electrons. the electron is called the work function of the
However, the free electrons cannot normally metal.
leave the surface. When an electron try to  Work function is generally denoted by W and
come out of the metal, the metal surface it depends on the properties of the metal and
acquires a positive charge and attract the nature of its surface. It is very sensitive to
electron. The free electron is thus held inside surface impurities.
the metal. If it has got sufficient energy to Work function is measured in eV (electron
overcome the attractive pull then only the volt). One electron volt is the energy acquired
electron can come out of the metal surface.
by an electron, when it has been accelerated
(i) Thermonic emission:
by 1 volt potential difference. (1 eV=
The process of emission of electrons when a
1.602x10-19 J)
metal is heated is known as thermionic
emission. Sufficient thermal energy can be  Work function for cesium (W=2.14eV) is the
given to the free electrons of metal to enable lowest and highest (W=5.65eV) for platinum.
them to come out of the metal by suitably  The required minimum energy for the electron
heating the metal. The emitted electrons are emission from the metal surface can be
called thermions. Emitted number of thermions supplied to the free electrons by the following
depends on the temperature of the metal physical processes
surface.
Metal Work function Work function
 Work function , W=h 0 where 0 is Threshold
Metal
0 (eV) 0 (eV)
Cs 2.14 Al 4.28 frequency.
K 2.30 Hg 4.49
hc
Work function W   , where  0 is Threshold
Na 2.75 Cu 4.65
Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70

0
MO 4.17 Ni 5.15

Pb 4.25 Pt 5.56
wavelength.

Page 294
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT electrons that is emitted from the cathode will

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from be able to reach the anode. The current then
metal surface exposed to light energy of becomes constant even though voltage is
suitable frequency is known as photoelectric increased and this current is called saturation
effect. The emitted electrons are called photo photocurrent.
electrons and the current so produced is called Quartz S
photoelectric current. Alkali metals : lithium, Evacuated
window
glass tube
Photosensitive
sodium, potassium, cesium etc., show plate Electrons
photoelectric effect with visible light, whereas C A
the metal like : zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc.
Commutator
are sensitive only to ultraviolet light.
A
HERTZ OBSERVATION V

He that when suitable radiation falls on a metal +-

surface, some electrons near the surface absorb  When anode is given negative potential w.r.t
enough energy from the incident radiation to the cathode, the photo electrons will be repelled
overcome the attraction of the positive ions in by the anode and some electrons will go back
the material of surface. to cathode so current decreases. At some
negative potential anode current becomes
HALLWACHS AND LENARDS
zero. This potential is called stopping potential.
EXPEMENTAL STUDY OF  The minimum negative potential of (V0) given
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT to the collector with respect to the emitter for
The apparatus used for experimental study of which photocurrent’ becomes zero is called
‘stopping potential’. Stopping potential is related
photoelectric effect are a metal plate C called to maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons,
cathode (emitter) and a metal plate A called because at this potential even the most
anode (collector) are sealed in a vacuum energetic electrons just fails to reach the anode.
chamber.  So work done by the stopping potential is
 A beam of monochromatic light enters the equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the
window of a vacuum chamber and falls on electrons.
cathode C. The photoelectrons emitted are 1
(-e)(-V0) = mv2max – 0;
collected by the anode A. 2
 When monochromatic light is made incident on 1
eV0 = m v2max
the cathode, then current is measured by the 2
ammeter. i.e., even though applied voltage is A graph is plotted with current on y-axis and
zero current flows in the circuit. applid voltage on x-axis. it is as shown in
 These photoelectrons emitted from the cathode figure.
y
C moves towards anode A. But less energetic
photoelectric

electrons comes to rest before reaching the

anode. V0
effect

 When anode is given positive potential w.r.t the

slope=hc
cathode, electrons in the space charge are
v0
attracted towards the anode so photocurrent -x x
(-V0) O Anode
increases. If potential of the anode is increased stopping potential (V)
gradually the effect of space charge becomes potential
negligible at some potential and then every

Page 295
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

EFFECT OF INTESITY OF INCIDENT of the cathode constant, for different frequencies

RADIATION ON PHOTO ELECTRIC of incident light, photo current is measured.
CURRENT
 When a graph is plotted with photocurrent on
Keeping the frequency of incident light,
y-axis and applied voltage on x-axis. It is as
accelerating potential and nature of the cathode
shown in figure.
constant, for different intensities of incident light
saturation photo current is measured.

current
 When a graph is plotted with saturation photo

photo
current on y-axis and intensity of incident light
v3v2v1
on x-axis, it is as shown in figure.
v3 v saturation
i 2 v
1 current
photoelectric
Saturation

-V03 -V02 -V01 O V

Collector plate
current

retarding
potential
potential
I Observations:
O intensity a) Larger the frequency of incident radiation, larger
of light is the stopping potential. So the maximum
Observations: It is observed that saturation kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depends
photocurrent is proportional to the intensity (I) on the frequency of incident light and nature of
of incident light at a given frequency
the metal plate.
EFFECT OF INTENSITY ON STOPPING
b) Maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons is
POTENTIAL AND SATURATION CURRENT
Keeping the frequency of incident light and independent of the intensity of incident light.
nature of the cathode constant, for different The saturation photocurrent is independent of
intensities of incident light photo current is the frequency of incident radiation.
measured. When a graph is plotted with VARIATION OF STOPPING POTENTIAL
photocurrent on y-axis and applied voltage on WITH FREQUENCY
x-axis. It is as shown in figure. When a graph is plotted with stopping potential
Observations: on y-axis and frequency of incident radiation
1) The value of stopping potential is independent on x-axis, keeping the metal constant, then it is
shown in the figure,stopping potential varies
of the intensity of incident light, if frequency is
linearly with frequence of incident light.
constant.
Observations:
2) The magnitude of saturation current depends on
1) Threshold frequency ( ) is a characteristic of
the intensity of light . Higher the intensity, larger 0

the saturation current. the metal plate and at this frequency, kinetic
energy of the photo electron is zero.
2) Above threshold frequency, kinetic energy of
current

I3L2I1 I photo electrons range from zero to a maximum

photo

3
I2 value.
I1 3) Maximum kinetic energy and stopping potential
stopping increases linearly with increasing frequency as
potential
shown in the figure
-V0 O V
anode
retarding
potential
potential
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT
RADIATION ON STOPPING POTENTIAL
Keeping the intensity of incident light and nature
Page 296
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

h = Plank’s constant = 6.6x10-34 J-sec,

v = Frequency in Hz,
(Vs) hc
tan    = Wave length of light.
e hc
 In electron volt E(eV) = =
e
O 1 1 12375 12400
hc  
0  
 0e  ( )  ( )
Energy of photon is not continuous but is in
discrete from as hv0 , 2 hv0 , 3 hv0 …
(2) Mass of Photon: Actually rest mass of the
LAWS OF PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT
1) If the frequency of incident radiation is less photon is zero. But its effective mass is given
than a certain value called threshold frequency, 2 E hv h
electrons are not emitted from a given metal as E  mc  hv  m  2  2  . This
c c c
surface, whatever be the intensity of the incidentmass is also known as kinetic mass of photon
radiation.
2) The stopping potential and maximum kinetic (3) Momentum of the photon
energy of photo electrons depends on the E hv h
frequency of the incident radiation, but it is Momentum p  mc    .
c c 
independent of the intensity of the radiation.The
(4) Number of emitted photons : The number of
maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons is a photons emitted per second from a source of
leanear function of the incident radiation.
3) The photo current increases with intensity of monochromatic radiation of wavelength  and
incident radiation, but it is independent of the P P p
Power is given as n   ;
frequency of incident radiation. E hv hc
4) There is no time lag between the incidence of Where E = energy of each photon
the incident radiation and emission of
(5) Intensity of light (I) : Energy crossing per
photoelectrons. It is an instantaneous process
(10-10 sec or less). unit area normally per second is called intensity
FAILURE OF WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT or energy flux.
(i) Wave theory of light could not explain the laws E P E 
of photoelectric effect. I    p  radiation power 
(ii) According to wave theory, the kinetic energy At A  t 
of the emitted electron should increase with the The intensity at a point which is at a distance r
increase of intensity of incident radiation. from a line source of length ' l ' and power P is
(iii) Kinetic energy of the emitted electron does not P 1
depend on the frequency of incident radiation given by I  I
according to wave theory. 2 rl r
(iv) Wave theory failed to explain the existence of The intensity at a point which is at a distance r
threshold frequency. from a point source of power P is given by
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: THE P 1
PHOTON I 2
I  2
4 r r
According to Einstein’s quantum theory light Illustration -1.
propagates in the form of bundles (packets or
If wavelength of radiation is
quanta ) of energy, each bundle is called a
photon. 4000 A0  400nm then the energy of the
(1) Energy of photon : Energy of photon is given photon is
Sol.
hc
by E = hv = ;

Where c = speed of light,
Page 297
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

hC 12400eVA0 1240eVnm 5
E  0
  3.1eV   100  5 J
 4000 A 400nm 100
Illustration 2  Number of visible photons emitted per second
While working with light and X-rays, there 5
is a useful relation between the energy of   1.41 1019
3.549  1019
a photon in electron volts (eV) and the
Illustration -5:
wavelength of the photon in angstom (A0).
Monochromatic light of wavelength 632.8nm
Suppose the wavelength of a photon is
is produced by helium-neon laser.The
 A0 . Then energy of the photon is power emitted is 9.42mW.
hc (a)Find the energy and momentum of each
Sol. E  hv  ; Here wavelength = photon in the light beam.

(b)Howmany photons per second on the average
 1010 m; h  6.62 1034 Js, c  3108 ms 1
,arrive at a target irradiated by this

E 
 6.62 10    3 10 
34 8
beam?(Assume the beam to have uniform
cross section which is less than the target
  1010
area),and


 6.62  10 34
 
 3  10 8
 eV  12400 eV (c)How fast does a hydrogen atom have to
travel in order to have the same momentum
   1010   1.6  1019  
as that of photon?
Note : (  is taken in A and E in ev )
0
Sol. Here   632.8nm  632.8  109 m
Illustration -3:
P=9.42mW =9.42 10 3 W
A monochromatic source of light operating
(a)Energy of each photon in the light beam is
at 200 W emits 4  1020 photons per second.
Find the wavelength of the light. hc 6.625  1034  3  108
E  9  3.14  109
N  632.8  10
Sol. Power P  E ; 200= 4  1020 E Momentum of each photon in the light beam is
t
h 6.625  1034
hc hc 6.62 1034  3 108 P   1.05  1027 kgms 1
E ;   632.8 10 9
 E 5 1019
(b)Number of photons falling per second on the
 3.972  107 m  3972 A0 target is
Illustration -4:
P 9.42  103
If 5% of the energy supplied to an incandescent n   19
 3  1016 photons / sec
light bulb is radiated as visible light,how E 3.14  10
many visible light photons are emitted by (c)Momentum of hydrogen atom is equal to the
a 100 W bulb? Assume the average momentum of a photon.Therefore ,required
wavelength of all visible photons to be speed(v)of the hydrogen atom is
5600A.Given h=6.625* 10^-34 Js. Momentum of photon
v
Sol. Here   5600 A0 mH

h  6.625  10 34 Js 1.05 1027

 27
 0.63ms 1
hc 6.625  1034  3  108 1.66  10
E  Illustration -6:
 5600  1010
Radiations of wavelength 200nm
 3.549  1019 J propagating in the form of a parallel beam,
Visible energy radiated by bulb per second fall normally on a plane metallic surface.
The intensity of the beam is 5nW and its

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 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

cross sectional area 1.0mm 2. Find the 1 2

pressure exerted by the radiation on the  h  h0  mVmax  (3)
2
metallic surface, if the radiation is The above relation is called Einstein’s
completely reflected. photoelectric equation
12400 12400
 6.2eV  1018 J
 Photoelectric emission is possible only if hv >
Sol.  E  
 2000 W because K max must be non-negative.
Number of photons passing a point
W W0
P 5109 h  W ;  h  v  v0 ; Where 0  h
per second is n   18  5109 .
E 10 v0 is threshold frequency. No photoelectric
momentum of each photon emission is possible below v0, even if the
E incident radiation of high intensity and long
p  3.31027 J / s . duration falls on the surface.
C
 Further, intensity of radiation is proportional to
Change in momentum after each strike
the number of energy quanta per unit area per
= 2p = 6.6x 10–27 J/s time. More intensity means, more number of
Total momentum change per second is energy quanta therefore, is the number of
dp n  2 p electrons coming out of the metal (for v > v0).
F   5109  6.6 1027
dt t This is the reason , for v > v0 , photoelectric
current is proportional to intensity.
 331018 N  In photoelectric effect the elementary process
F is involved in absorption of light quantum by an
 pressure  331012 N / m2
A electron. This process is instantaneous and
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC independent of intensity. Photoelectric current
EQUATION: will depend on intensity.
 To explain photoelectric effect in 1905, Albert According to einstein,thebasic process in
Einstein (1879-1955) proposed completely photoelectric emission is absorption of a photon
different picture of electromagnetic radiation. of light by an electron .So as the photon is
In this picture radiation energy is built up of absorbed, emission of electron takes place
discrete units and photoelectric emission does instantaneously irrespective of intensity.
not takes place by continuous absorption of
energy from radiation.
 These discrete units are called as quanta of
energy of radiation. Each quantum of energy is
potential (V0)

hv , where v is the frequency of light and h is Cs K Al Cu

stopping

Na
Plank’s constant.
 In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a V0 V0| V0| V0| V0|
quantum of energy ( hv ) of radiation. If this O
frequency of incident (v)
absorbed energy exceeds the minimum energy radiation
(work function W of the metal), the most
loosely bound electron will emerge with According to photoelectric equation
maximum kinetic energy, more tightly bound h W
electron will emerge with kinetic energies less eV0  h  W0 V0  v  0
e e
than the maximum value. 1) Slope of stopping potential, frequency of
Einstein’s photoelectric equation, h
1 light graph is
 mVmax 2
 h  W  (1) e
2 W
1 2) The y-intercept is 0
h  W  mVmax 2
 (2) e
2 3) The x-intercept is 0
Millikan proved Einstein’s photoelectronic
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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

equation experimentally by showing that the

6.631034  61014
slope of stopping potential and frequency of  eV = 2.49 eV
incident light graph is (h/e) which is same for all 1.61019
metals. Thus, Kmax = (2.49 – 2.14)eV
Note: Einstein’s photo electric equation can be Kmax. = 0.35 eV = 0.56 × 10–19 J
written as follows:
K max. 0.35 eV
c c (2) Stopping potential V0  
KEmax  h  h0 ; KEmax  h  h e e
 0 V0 = 0.35 volt
c c (3) Maximum speed of electron (Vmax.)
eV0  h  h
 0 1
me Vm2 = Kmax.
2
where 0 is threshold frequency.. 1
9.11031  Vm2 = 0.56 × 10–19
2
5
V0  Vm = 3.5 × 10 m/s
Illustration-7:
slope=hc A monochromatic light of wavelength  is
v0 incident on an isolated metallic sphere of
radius a. The threshold wavelength is  0
v>v0 which is larger than  . Find the number of
W0 photoelectrons emitted before the emission
e
of photo electrons stops.
Illustration 5: Sol. As the metallic sphere is isolated, it becomes
A metal of work function 4eV is exposed to positively charged when electrons are ejected
–9
a radiation of wavelength 140×10 m. Find from it. There is an extra attractive force on the
the stopping potential. photoelectrons. If the potential of the sphere is
raised to V, the electron should have a minimum
hc 6.62 1034  3108
Sol. E  E  eV = 8.86eV energy W + eV to be able to come out. Thus,
 140 109 1.6 1019
emission of photoelectrons will stop when
work function W0 = 4eV
eV0 = E –W0 = 8.86 –4 = 4.86eV hc hc
 W  eV =  eV or,
 0
 Stopping potential V0
=4.86V
Illustration-6 hc  1 1 
V     .
The work function of cesium metal is 2.14 e   0 
14
eV, when light of frequency 6 × 10 Hz is The charge on the sphere needed to take its
incident on the metal surface, photo
emission of electrons occurs what is potential to V is Q   40 a V
(1) Maximum kinetic energy The number of electrons emitted is, therefore,
(2) Stopping potential
(3)Maximum speed of the emitted Q 40 aV  40 ahc  1  1 
n  
photoelectrons. e e e 2  0 
Sol. Given 0  2.14eV Illustration-8
(1) According to photo electric equation, the A small metal plate (work function W) is
maximum kinetic energy of electron. kept at a distance d from a singly ionized,
Kmax. = hv – 0 fixed ion. A monochromatic light beam is
Energy of incident photon E = hv incident on the m etal plate and
photoelectrons are emitted. Find the

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 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

maximum wavelength of the light beam so (i) Light meters in photographic cameras make
that some of the photoelectrons may go use of photocells to measure the intensity of
round the ion along a circle. light.
Sol. Electron is moving around the ion in a (ii) Photocells inserted in the street electric circuit,
are used to switch on and off automatically.
1 e2 mV 2 (iii) Photocells help in counting the persons entering
Circle of radius ‘d’. 4 2  ,
0 d d an auditorium.
1 e2 (iv) They are used for detection of traffic law
 mV 2 
40 d defaulters.
1 e 2 (v) It is used for giving theft warning in banks,
 K .E  ----------(1) ; But treasuries etc. Hence it is called an electric eye
80 d
also.
hc (vi) Photocells are used in the reproduction of
K .Emax   W ----------(2)
 sound in cinema and photo telegraphy.
hc 80 d (vii) They are used to control temperature of furnaces
  2
e  80 dW and chemical reactions.
PHOTO ELECTRIC CELLS : Illustration-9:
 A device which converts light energy into In a photocell bi chromatic light of wave
electrical energy is known as photoelectric cell. length 2480 A0 and 6000A0are incident on
It consists of a semi cylindrical photosensitive a cathode whose work function is 4.8eV. If
a uniform magnetic field of 3x10-5 T exists
metal plate (Cathode) and a wire loop (Anode)
parallel to the plate, find the radius of the
supported in an evacuated glass or quartz bulb. circular path described by the
 The cathode acts as an emitter and the anode photoelectron. (mass of electron is
acts as a collector of photo electrons. It is 9 x1031 kg )
connected to an external circuit containing a high- 12400 12400
tension battery (B) and a micrometer (  A) as Sol. E1  1  2480  5 eV
shown in figure. E2 
12400 12400
  2.06 eV
2 6000
Incident light As E 2 < W0 and E 1 > W0, photo electric
C emission is possible only with 1 .
A Collector
Emitter Maximum K.E of emitted photo electrons
K = E1 – W0 = 0.2 eV.
Photo electrons experience magnetic force and
move along a circular path of radius
m 2 mK
r 
- B + A Bq Bq  r  5cm

A photo cel WAVE NATURE OF MATTER AND DE-

 When light of suitable wavelength falls on the BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These Photoelectric effect and Compton effect proves
photo-electrons are drawn to the collector that radiation behaves like particles (photons),
(anode) by the electric field between the where as Interference and Diffraction proves
cathode and the anode. The resulting
photocurrent is measured by the sensitive that radiation behaves like waves. So, ‘radiation
micrometer. This current is of the order of has dual nature’ i.e., radiation behaves like
microampere. particles when interacting with matter and
Uses of Photocells radiation behaves like waves when propagating
The photo current can be used to operate in a medium.
control systems and in light measuring devices.
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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

Matter Waves: Light possesses dual nature i.e.

it behaves both as a wave and as a particle. In For a photon Energy, E = hC = mC2 ;
same phenomena (eg., interference, diffraction 
Where, m = effective mass.
and polarization) light behaves as waves became
they are explained on the basis of wave theory h h
while in same other pheno mena (eg., Then wavelength  = =
mC p
photoelectric effect, Compton effect) light  Where p = momentum of the photon de
behaves as particle (Photons). Broglie extended the same for particles also.
Since nature demands symmetry, de-Broglie So if a particle of mass ‘m’ is moving with
thought that material particles like electrons, velocity ‘v’ then its momentum p= mv, hence
protons, neutrons etc. should also behave like de Broglie wavelength of the matter wave
waves of a definite wave length under suitable associated with is given by
conditions. Thus particles may also behave as h h
waves. This called dual nature of matter. The  = p = mv
waves which are associated with matter are  Davisson and Germer studied the scattering of
called matter waves or de-Broglie waves electrons by a nickel target. The wavelength of
Characteristics of Matter Waves: diffracted electrons was determined by Davisson
a) Matter wave represents the and Germer. The experimental values of
probability of finding a particles in space. wavelength were found to agree with the
b) Matter waves are not electromagnetic in nature. theoretical value
c) de-Broglie or matter wave is independent of the  Hence it is concluded that electrons behaves
charge on the material particle. It means, matter like waves and undergo diffraction.
wave of de-Broglie wave is associated with every  For definite sized objects like a car the
corresponding wavelength is very small to detect
moving particle (whether charged or uncharged).
the wave properties. But the de Broglie wave
d) Practical observation of matter waves is possible length of the electron is larger enough to be
only when the de-Broglie wavelength is of the observed. Because of their small mass, electrons
order of the size of the particles. have a small momentum and hence large
e) Electron microscope works on the basis of de- wavelength = h/p.
Broglie waves. Note:
f) The phase velocity of the matter waves can be h h
greater than the speed of the light. a) de Broglie wavelength  = =
p mv
g) Matter waves can propagate in where momentum p = mv ; m = mass, v =
vacuum, hence they are not velocity
mechanical waves. h
de Broglie Hypothesis b) de Broglie wavelength  =
2 mK
1) The universe consists of matter and
p2
radiation only. where kinetic energy, K =
2m
2) Nature loves symmetry
3) If radiation has dual nature then matter also  p = 2mK
c) If a particle having charge q starting from
should have dual nature.
rest is accelerated through a potential
According to de Broglie particle like electron, difference V: So, de Broglie wavelength  =
proton and neutron, also have both wave and
h
particle properties. The waves associated with
2mqV
moving particle are called matter waves and the
wavelength is called the de Broglie wavelength 12.27  150
d) For electron  = =
of a particle. V  V

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 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

0.286  ( h  6.61034 Js , me  9.11031 Kg )

e) For proton  =
V  h 6.6 1034
Sol. mv  v  1450 m / s
0.202 0  9.11031  5000 1010
f) For deuteron  = A
E Illustration-13: Photons of energies 4.25eV and
0.101  4.7eV are incident on two metal surfaces
g) For  particle  = A and B respectively. The maximum KE of
V 
emitted electrons are respectively TA eV
0.286 
h) For neutron  = and TB =( TA -1.5)eV. The ratio de-Broglie
E 
wavelengths of photo electrons from them
is A : B =1:2, then find the work function
of A and B
Sol. De broglie wavelength
h 1  T
   (k = k.E  T);   T
B A

Where E = kinetic energy in electron volts 2km k A B

i) When material particles like neutrons are in TA

thermal equilibrium at absolute temperature T, 2  TA  2eV
TA 1.5
3 1
then E = KT = mv2,  WA  4.25  TA  2.25 eV
2 2
-23  TB  TA  1.5  2 1.5  0.5eV
K is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10 J/K,
h  WB  4.7  TB  4.7  0.5  4.2 eV
Hence  = Illustration-14:
3mKT
30.8  A particle of mass ‘m’ projected
j) For neutron  = horizontally with velocity u. If it makes an
T 
angle  , with the horizontal after some
Illustration-10: Electrons are accelerated time, then at that instant, its de Broglie
through a potential difference of 150V. wavelength is
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength. Sol. For a projectile horizontal component of
Sol. V=150V; h=6.62x10–34Js, velocity is constant.
u
m=9.1x10–31kg, e = 1.6 x 10–19C 
h 6.62 1034 0
 
 31  19
1A  v x  u x ; V cos   u
2Vem 2  9.110 1.6 10 150 v
gt
Illustration-11: Find the ratio of de Broglie
wavelength of molecules of hydrogen and h h cos 
 de Broglie wavelength,   
helium which are at temperatures 27°C mv mu
and 127°C respectively Note(i): The de Broglie wavelength of particle is
h h independent of nature of the particle and these
Sol. Since,   m  ; waves are not electromagnetic. Diffraction
3mkT
effects have been obtained with streams of
H m He THe 8 electrons, protons, neutrons and alpha particles.
 
 He m H TH 3 HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Illustration-12: With what velocity must an (1) According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
electron travel so that its momentum is it is impossible to measure simultaneously both
equal to that of a photon with a wavelength the position and the momentum of the
0 microscopic particle.
of 5000 A
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DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

(2) Let  x and  p be the uncertainty in the is 6  108 m , then the minimum
simultaneous measurement of the position and uncertainty in its speed is
momentum of the particle, then 
Sol: p  mv 
h x
 x  p =  ; where  = and
2  1.054  1034
h = 6.63 x 10-34 J-s is the or v    1ms 1
mx 1.67 10 27  6  108
h Illustration-16:
Planck’s constant. ( = 1.05x10-34 J-s)
2 The correctness of velocity of an electron
A more rigorous treatment gives  x.  p  moving with velocity 50 ms-1 is 0.005%. The
accuracy with which its position can be
 h measured will be
( or ).
2 4
0.005  50
(3) If  x = 0, then p   and if p  0 then Sol: Here, v   0.0025ms 1
100
x    1.054 1034
i.e., if we are able to measure the exact position of x   31
 4634 105 m
the particle (say an electron) then the uncertainty mv 9.110  0.0025
in the measurement of the linear momentum of DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
the particle is infinite. Similarly, if we are able to  The wave nature of electrons was first
measure the exact linear momentum of the experimentally verified independently by C.J.
particle i.e., p  0 , then we cannot measure the Davisson and L.H.Germer in 1927 and by
exact position of the particle at that time. G.P.Thomson in 1928 while observing diffraction
effect with beam of electrons scattered by
crystals. Davisson and Thomson shared the
noble prize in 1937 for same.
 The experimental arrangement is schematically
shown in figure.
– +
(a) H.T

F A Electron Beam Nickel

Target

Electron
L.T gun
Diffracted Vacuum
 Movable electron
collector Chamber
To galvanometer bam
(b)
Figure (a) the wave packet description of an DAVISSON GERMER ELECTRON
electron. The wave packet corresponds to a DIFFRACTION EXPERIMENT
spread of wavelength around some central It has an electron gun made up of a tungsten
wavelength (and hence by de Broglie relation, a
filament F, heated by a low voltage (L.T)
spread in momentum). Consequently, it is
battery and the filament is coated with a barium
associated with an uncertainty in position  x  oxide. Emitted electrons from filament are
and an uncertainty in momentum  p  . accelerated to a desired velocity by applying
(b) the matter wave corresponding to a definite required voltage from a high-voltage power
momentum of an electron extends all over space. supply (H.T.) battery. C is a hollow metallic
cylinder with a hole along the axis and is kept
In this case, p  0 and x   .
at negative potential to get a convergent beam
Illustration-15:
If the uncertainty in the position of proton of electrons emitted from filament. It acts as a

Page 304
 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

cathode. A is a cylinder with fine hole along its  According to de Broglie hypothesis, the wave
axis acting as an anode. N is a nickel crystal length of the wave associated with electron is
cut along cubical diagonal, D is an electron given by
detector which can be rotated on a circular 12.27 12.27 0
scale and is connected to a sensitive  = V
=
54  1.66 A
galvanometer which records the current.
 Thus there is an excellent agreement between
Working: From electron gun a fine beam of
the theoretical value and experimentally obtained
accelerated electrons is made to fall normally
value of de-Broglie
on the surface of nickel crystal. The atoms of
wavelength.
the crystal scatter the incident electrons in
Thus this experiment confirms the wave nature
different directions. The detector detects the
of electron.
intensity of the electron beam scattered in
particular direction by rotating the electron COMPTON EFFECT:
detector on circular scale at different positions. (1) The scattering of a photon by electron is called
 The accelerating voltage varied from 44 V to Compton effect.
68 V and found that at accelerating voltage 54 (2) The energy and momentum is conserved.
v variation of intensity (l) and scattering angle (3) Scattered photon will have less energy (more
wavelength) as compared to incident photon
(  ), (The angle between the incident and the
(less wavelength).
scattered beam) is of the type as shown in (4) The energy lost by the photon is taken by
figure. electron as kinetic energy.
I (5) The change in wavelength due to Compton
54V effect is called Compton shift. Compton shift
h
 f - i =  =
m0 c (1-cos  )

o  If  = 00,  = 0
50
 Due to constructive interference of electrons h
scattered from different layers of regularly  = 900,  = m c = 0.24nm  = 1800,
0
spaced atoms of the crystal, peak appears in a  = 0.48nm (called Compton wave length)
particular direction i.e., diffraction of electrons
takes place. This establishes the wave nature
Compton scattering Recoil
of electron. electron
 For the scattering angle  = 500, the angle of Target
Incident electron
glancing  photon 
at rest
0
2 +  = 180

1 i Scattered
0 0
or  = (180 -  ) = 65 photon
2 h
 For the nickel crystal the inter atomic separation f – i = = m c(1–cos)
0
is d =0.91 A (6) Compton shift depends only on the scattering
 According to Bragg’s law for first order angle. It does not depend on the incident
diffraction maxima (n = 1) wavelength or on the scattering material.
We have, 2d sin  = 1 x 
0 0
 = 2 x 0.91 x sin 65 =  1.65A

Page 305
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 ATOMS

ATOMS
INTRODUCTION (1906), proposed a classical experiment of
scattering of  - particles by atoms. This
 The structure of matter that shapes the world
experiment was later performed (1911) by Hans
around us has been a subject of study since
Geiger and Ernst Marsden.
long. The first contribution in this regard came
 The results of the experiment led to the birth of
from Dalton, who postulated that matter is
Rutherford’s planetary model of an atom (nuclear
made of atoms, which are indivisible. J.J.
model of an atom)
Thomson proposed a structure for the atom,
 According to this model, the entire positive
which was modified by Rutherford and later by
charge and most of the mass of the atom is
Niels Bohr. In this unit, we shall discuss these
concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus
models of atoms in some detail. We shall also
with electrons revolving around the nucleus just
study some fundamental information about the
as planets revolve around the sun.
atomic nuclei.
ALPHA – PARTICLE SCATTERING
 J.J .Thomson experiment on electric discharge
AND RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR
through gases (1897), revealed that “atoms of
MODEL OF ATOM
different elements contain negatively charged
Vaccum
constituents’(electrons) that are identical for all
atoms”
Regarding the structure of atom, the first model
was proposed by J.J.Thomson called as Gold foil

Thomson atomic model.

PLUM PUDDING MODEL OR
THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL Screen

 J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding

structure of atom.
According to this model Source of  particles
 An atom is a solid sphere in which entire positive
charge and its mass is uniformly distributed and
θ
in which negative charge (i.e., electrons) are
embedded like seeds in watermelon.
Positively charged r0
sphere Nucleus

Electron
α-particle
(energy E)
 This model explained successfully the  A beam of  - particles of energy 5.5 Mev,,
phenomenon of t hermionic emission, emitted from 83214
Bi radioactive source was
photoelectric emission and ionization.
direct ed at a thin foil of gold.
 This model fails to explain the scattering of  -
particles and the origin of spectral lines observed (thickness 2.1107 m )[z=79]
in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.
 Johann Jokob Balmer (1885) obtained a simple
empirical formula which gave the wavelengths
of a group of lines emitted by atomic hydrogen
 To investigate atomic structure, Ernst Rutherford

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 ATOMS

 The number of  -particles scattered at an angle 

Gold foil target
Vaccum 0
above 10 m thick is given by
Lead bricks
Most pass Q n t Z2 e 4
Beam of through N=
θ where
-particles (8πε 0 ) 2 r 2 E 2 sin 4  
Source of  2
-particles
Q  Total number of  particles striking the foil
ZnS screen n  number of atoms per unit volume of the foil
Some are r  distance of screen from the foil
deviated through
About 1 in 8000 a large angle  Detector t  thickness of the foil
is reflected back (Microscope) Z  Atomic number of atoms of the metal foil
 The  - particles were collimated into a narrow   angle of scattering
E  kinetic energy of  particles
beam by their passage through lead bricks.
 The scattered  - particles were observed 1
N
through a rotatable detector consisting of Zinc  
N  t; N  Z2; sin 4  
sulphide screen and a microscope 2
 On striking the screen they produced brief light
flashes or scintillations and they can be viewed 1 1 1
N ; N 2 or N  ;
through a microscope. r2 E 4
 The distribution of the number of scattered 1 2
particles were studied as a function of angle of E  mv  E  v 2
scattering, as in the following fig 2
where v is the velocity of  particles falling on
the foil.
N

i. N(1800)

If t’ is the thickness of the foil and N’ is the number
of  -particles scattered in a particular direction
 The graph shows the total number of  - (i.e., θ = constant), it was observed that
particles scattered at different angles, in a given
interval of time. N N t
 constant  1  1
 The dots represent the data points t N2 t 2
 The solid curve is the theoretical prediction. Distance of closest approach(Nuclear
(based on the assumption that the target atom dimension):
has a small, dense , positively charged nucleus)
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to
 Many of the  - particles pass through the foil
(They do not suffer any collisions) which the  - particle approach, is called the
 Only about 0.14% of the incident  - particles distance of closest approach (r0). At this distance
scattered by more than 10 . the entire initial kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy, so
 About 1 in 8000 deflected by more than 900
 To deflect the  - particle backwards, it must
experience a large repulsive force and this force
could be provided if “ greater part of the mass
of ato m and it s po sitive charge were
concentrated tightly at the centre.”
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 ATOMS

distance of the initial velocity vector of an  -

1 1  Ze  2e
mv 2  . particle from the centre of the nucleus(when the
2 40 r0
 -particle is far away from the atom).
Ze 2 4kZe2  1  Angle of scattering is defined as the angle
 r0  2
 2 
k 
mv 0 mv  40  between the direction of approach and the
 Then the incoming  - particle could get very direction of the receding  -particle.
close to the positive charge without penetrating It is denoted by  . Rutherford calculated that
it, and such a close encounter would result in a 2b
large deflection. This is in agreement with cot  / 2  
r0 .............(1)
hypothesis of the nuclear atom.
 Rutherford is credited with the discovery of the 2 Ze2
nucleus. where r0  ke
K
 Size of the nucleus is about 1015 m to 1014 m .
 From kinetic theory , the size of an atom was 2b 4 0 K
cot  / 2   2
 b
about 1010 m . Thus, 2Ze Ze2 ...(2)
ke
 Size of an atom is about 10,000 to 1,00,000 K
times larger than the size of the nucleus.
 Thus, most of an atom is empty space.
 When an  - particle happens to come near a
nucleus, the intense electric field there, scatters particles
 Velocity vector
it through a large angle. b Target nucleus
 The atomic electrons, being so light, do not Interaction
appreciably affect the  - particles. cross-section
 As the gold foil is very thin, it can be assumed  b 2
that  - particles will suffer not more than one
scattering during their passage through it. For a given nucleus (constant Z e ) and an  -
 The nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier particle of given energy K, cot  / 2   b. As
than an  - particle, it is assumed that, the gold
nucleus remains stationary throughout the such, a graph between b and cot  / 2  is
scattering process. sraight line. Thus,it is clear that  increases as b
 The magnitude of force between  - particle and decreases. It implies that only an  -particle
gold nucleus is passing close to the nucleus suffers large angle
1  2e  Ze  of deflection.
F  If a given beam of  - particles, possess a
4 0 r2
distribution of impact parameters (b), the beam
Where r  distance between the  - particle and
is scattered in various directions with different
gold nucleus.
 The magnitude and the direction of the above probabilities.
force on an  - particle continuously changes as (In the fig, all particles have nearly same K.E)
it approaches the nucleus and recedes away from  An  - particle, incident close to the nucleus
it. posses small impact parameter and suffer large
ALPHA – PARTICLE TRAJECTORY scattering.
Impact Parameter And Angle Of Scattering:  In case of head on collision, the impact
The trajectory traced by an  -particle depends parameter is minimum and particle rebounds
upon the impact parameter of collision.
Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular [Angle of deviation    rad ]
 For large impact parameter, the  - particle goes

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 ATOMS

nearly undeviated and has a small deflection 2 Ze 2 1  b2 

or k e  mv 2  1  2 
  0  s 2  s 
 Only a small fraction of the number of incident  b2  1
particles rebound .  K  1  2  (as  as mv 2  K 
 s   2 
 The mass of the atom is concentrated in a
small volume. 2 Ze 2  b2 
or ke  K  1  2  .....  3
i.e no. of  - particles undergoing head on
s  s 
collision is small.  In case of a head-on collision, b  0
 Rutherford’s scattering is a powerful way to Thus, from equation (3)
determine an upper limit to the size of the nucleus. 2Ze 2
s  ke  r0 (the distance of closest
RELATION BETWEEN MINIMUM K
approach)
DISTANCE OF   PARTICLE FROM
Illustration 1:   particles of energy 400KeV
NUCLEUS AND IMPACT PARAMETER
In figure the nucleus N (having charge Ze) scatters are bombarded on nucleus of 82 Pb. In
an   particle (of mass m and charge 2e) in the scattering of   particles, its minimum
direction shown. distance from nucleus will be
 
 Let v and v ' be velocities of the   particle Solution: Suppose closest distance is r, according
to conservation of energy.
before and after scattering.
Applying the law of conservation of angualr 400  103  1.6  1019  9  109
 ze  2e 
momentum, r
 mv  b   mv ' s or mvb  mv ' s .......(1)  6.4  1014
 Here, b=perpendicualr distance of N from v 9 109   82 1.6 1019    2 1.6 10 19 

=impact parameter and r
s=perpendicular distance of N from v'  r  5.9 1013 m  0.59pm
=minimum distance of   particle from the Illustration 2: If in Rutherford’s experiment, the
nucleus. number of particles scattered at 900 angle are
Applying the law of conservation of energy 28 per min, then number of scattered
particles at an angle 600 and 1200 will be
Solution:
1 2 1
mv  mv '  ke 2  Ze  2e 
2 2 s  1  1
N 4   N1  7   112
o 4

1 2Ze2
 sin  / 2   sin30 
2
= mv '  ke .........  2 
2 s 1
N2  7   12.5
and o 4
(as KE of the   particle after scattering + PE  sin 60 
of the   particle and the nucleus at a distance
s equals initial kinetic energy of the   particle ) RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL
From equation (1) and (2) After  -particles scattering experiment,
1 2 1  v 2b 2  2 Ze 2  vb  following conclusions were made by Rutherford
mv  m  2   ke ;  asv'   about atomic structure:
2 2  s  s  s

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 ATOMS

Atom nucleus.
-15
10 m
Nucleus

e-

10-10m
Size of the nucleus =1 fermi =10-15 m
Size of the atom=1A0 =10-10 m
1) Most of the mass (at least 99.95%) and all of
Instability of atom
the positive charge of an atom is concentrated in (iv) According to this model the spectrum of atom
a very small region called atomic nucleus.
2) Nucleus is positively charged and it’s size is of must be continuous where as practically it is a
line spectrum.
the order of 1015 m  1 fermi .
(v) It did not explain the distribution of electrons
3) In an atom there is maximum empty space and
the electrons revolve around the nucleus in the outside the nucleus.
same way as the planets revolve around the sun. BOHR MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM
ELECTRON ORBITS The atom consists of central nucleus, containing
 Rutherford’s Nuclear model of atom, involves the entire positive charge and almost all mass of
classical concepts. the atom. The electrons revolve around the
 An atom is an electrically neutral sphere
consisting of a very small, massive and positively nucleus in certain discrete circular orbits. The
charged nucleus at the centre surrounded by necessary centripetal force for circular orbit is
revolving electrons in their respective provided by Coulomb’s attraction between the
dynamically stable orbits electron and nucleus. So,
 The electro stat ic force of attraction
 Fe  between the revolving electrons and the mv 2 1 Ze e 

nucleus provides the requisite centripetal r 40 r 2
force  Fc  to keep them in their orbits. where, m = mass of electron,
 For a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom r = radius of circular orbit,v = speed of electron
the co ndit ion to be satisfied is in circular orbit,Ze = charge on nucleus,Z =
2 2
mv 1 e atomic number,e = charge on electron = –1.6 ×

r 4 0 r 2 10–19 C
 The relation between orbit radius and electron STATIONARY ORBITS
e2 The allowed orbits for electrons are those in
velocity is r  which the electron does not radiate energy. These
4 0 mv 2
orbits are also called stationary orbits.
FAILURE OF RUTHERFORD’S MODEL
The stationary orbits are those in which angular
Rutherford’s model failed to explain
(i) why atoms emit light of only discrete momentum of electron is an integral multiple of
wavelengths. h  h 
(ii) How could an atom like hydrogen, emit a ; L= mvr  n  , where ‘n’ being integer or
2  2 
complex spectrum of specific Wavelengths?
(iii) Stability of atom: It could not explain stability the principle quantum number.
of atom because according to classical This postulate account for the stability of the
electrodynamics theory, an accelerated charged atom. This equation is known as the quantum
particle should continuously radiate energy. Thus condition and it limits the number of permessible
an electron moving in a circular path around the orbits.
nucleus should also radiate energy. As a result  The nucleus is so heavy, that its motion may be
the electron should move into orbits of gradually neglected.
decreasing radius and should ultimately fall into
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 ATOMS

 The mass of the electron in motion is assumed to Velocity of an electron in the first orbit of
be constant. hydrogen atom V0  2.2  10 6 ms 1
BOHR’S TRANSITION RULE
z
When an electron jumps from one stationary v n  2.2  10 6  m /s
orbit to another, a photon is emitted or absorbed n
having energy equal to the difference of energies  e2   cZ  Z
between initial and final states and being given
v 
 n     v n 
 2h0c   n  n
Ei  E f
by Ei  E f  hv  v e2 1
h where  is the ‘fine structure
2h 0 c 137
Radius of orbit : For an electron around a stationary
constant’
nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction
provides the necessary centripetal force  1  cZ
 vn   137  n i.e. velocity of electron in
L
c
r Bohr’s First Orbit is ,
137
 Velocity of revolving electron is independent of
m, -e U mass of electron.
Force on the electron in an orbit:
1  Ze  e mv2
i.e.,  .........(i)
40 r 2 r mv 2 m  z 2e 4  me 2 z  m 2 e 6 z 3
F  2 2 2  2 2  4 4 4 and
nh r 4h  0 n n h  0 4h  0 n
also mvr  ............(ii)
2 z3
nh F
From (ii), Vn  ; Putting in (i), we get n4
2mr Acceleration of the electron in an orbit:
n 2 h2 0  n2  n2 F  me z
6 3 3
rn 
me 2 Z
 r0   r
 n  (0.53) Å  4 4 4 a  z4
a
Z Z m 4h  0 n n
r0  0.53 A radius of first orbit of hydrogen Angular velocity, Time period and frequency of
0

an electron in an orbit (T):

atom.
a) Angular velocity of electron in n th orbit
 This value is called Bohr’s radius and the orbit is
called Bohr’s orbit. Vn 8 3 K 2 e  m  Z 2  0 Z 2 Z2
n      
; 
n2 rn h3 3
n  n3 n n 3
For any hydrogen like atoms rn 
Z
8 3 k 2 e 4 m
 The force acting on the electron in a hydrogen where 0  is the angular velocity
h3
atom depends on the principal quantum number
of electron in first Bohr’s orbit.
as
b) The time period of revolution of electron in nth
2
mv 1 1
F But v  and r  n 2  F  4 2 n3 n3
r n n orbit T   i.e., T 
n 20 Z 2 Z2
Velocity of Electron in the n-th Orbit
The time period of revolution is independent of
2 2
nh n h 0 the mass of the electron.
Since vn  and rn 
2mr  me 2 Z c) Frequency of revolution
 e2  Z Z
 vn   2h  n  v0  n  ;
 0   
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 ATOMS

1 mZ 2 e 4 2  Z2 
 f   3 3 2 ; f  z3 En    2  where n  1, 2,3,.....
T 4n h  0 n  n 
Angular momentum of an electron in an  For n  1, E n   13.6 eV is the total energy of
orbit. the electron in the ground state of a hydrogen
nh atom
L  mv n rn  ; L  n (Independent of Z)
2 1
 From the above KE   PE and TE   KE
Equivalent electric current by an electron 2
revolving in an orbit:  PE : KE : TE  2 :1: 1
2 4
q emz e 2
 me 4  Z 2 Z2
in   en  3 3 2 ; i n  z 3  Also, E   ch  E   Rch 
t 4n h  0 3 
n 2
 8 0 ch  n
2
n2
Magnetic moment caused by an electron Rydberg’s constant
revolving in an orbit:
me 4
R  1.097  107 m 1
neh 8 02 ch 3
M n  i n A n  i n r 2 
4m and Ry = Rydberg’s Energy
M n  0 n ; M n  n if n=1 then Bohr magneton  2.17 10 18 J 13.6 eV 1Rydberg is the
eh electron energy in first orbit of H atom.
Mn  0  Ionisation energy and potential:
4m
The energy required to ionise an atom is called
Magnetic field caused by an electron ionisatio energy. It is the energy required to make
revolving in an orbit: the electron jump from the present orbit to the
infinite orbit.
0 i n n 2 z 3e 7 0 z3
Bn   ; B   Z2 
2rn 803 n 5h 5 n
n5 0
Hence Eionisation  E  En   13.6 
 n2 
Kinetic Energy of Electron (EK)
13.6 Z 2
mv 2
1 Zee 
n2
eV
Since, we have r  4
0 r2  For H-atom in the ground state
2
1 2 Ze 2 1 2 Ze 2 13.61
2 mv  E  mv  Eionisation  13.6eV  n 1
8 0 r  K 2 8 0 r n2
Potential Energy (U) of Electron: The potential through which an electron needs
to be accelerated so that it acquires energy
1  Ze  e  Ze2 equal to the ionisation energy is called
U   U  
40 r 4 0 r Eionisation
ionisation potential. Vionisation 
Total Energy (E) of electron: e
Total Energy = K.E. + P.E. Excitation energy and potential:
When energy is given to an electron from
Ze 2 Ze 2 Ze2 external source, it jumps to higher energy level.
 E  8 r  4 r  E  8 r
0 0 0 This phenomenon is called excitation.
The minimum energy required to excite an
n 2 h 2 0 atom is called excitation energy of the
Further, since r  particular excited state and corresponding
me 2 Z
potential is called exciting potential.
 me 4  Z 2 Z2 Eexcitation
 E    E   13.6  eV EExcitation  E Final  E Initial and VExcitation 
 8h 2  2  n 2 
 0  n2 e

Page 313
 ATOMS

Binding energy or Separation Energy (B.E or  De-excitation of electrons from excited

S.E):
Binding energy of a system is defined as the states causes emisson spectra.
energy released when its constituents are brought b) The second type of mechanism for excitation
from infinity to form the system. It may also be of atoms is by collision. For atomic excitation,
defined as the energy needed to separate its
constituents to large distances. If an electron and collision has to be inelastic and kinetic energy
a proton are initially at rest and brought from lost in the process is utilised for atomic excitation.
large distances to form a hydrogen form, 13.6 Numerical problems based on atomic excitation
eV energy will be released. The binding energy
of a hydrogen atom is therefore 13.6 eV. by collision are worked out using following
The binding energy is negative of ionization principles:
energy.
(i) Conservation of linear momentum (COLM)
Ebinding  En . Energy required to move an
(ii) Conservation of energy (COE).
electron from any slate to n   is called
binding energy of that state.
Photon of Absorption spectrum
Energy of emitted Radiation wave length 
+
If electron jumps from initial state ‘ni’ to a final
state nf, then frequency of emitted or absorbed Photon of Emission spectrum
wave length 
radiation ‘v’ is given by Ei – Ef = hv +

1 1
 Ei – E f  13.6 Z2  2  2  Ef
 nf ni 
f

Frequency of emitted Radiation

I Ei
If c is the speed of light and  the wavelength of ATOMIC SPECTRA:
emitted or absorbed radiation, then  The branch of physics that deals with the
investigation of the wavelengths and intensities
c Ei  E f  1 1  of e.m radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms
v   Z 2 Rc  2  2 
 h  n f ni  is called atomic spectra.
 
 Each element has a characteristic spectrum of
Wave number of emitted Radiation: radiation, which it emits.
 When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low
1  1 1 pressure, the emitted radiation has a spectrum
v   Z 2 R 2  2 
   which contains certain specific wavelengths only.
 n f ni 
A spectrum of this kind is called as emission line
ATOMIC EXCITATION Spectrum.
An atom can be excited to an energy level  It consists of bright lines on a dark background .
 The spectrum emitted by atomic hydrogen is as
above its ground state by following two ways:
shown in the following fig
a. By photon absorption, and Wavelength  
b. By collision
1875 mm
656 mm
820 mm
365 mm
122 mm
91 mm

a) When an atom absorbs photon, it becomes

excited and returns to its ground state in an
average of
10-6s by emitting one or more photons. :

 Absorbption of photons by atoms causes

Lyman Balmar Paschen series
by absorbption spectra. series series
Page 314
 ATOMS

 Study of emission line spectra of a material serve 1 1 1 

as a type of “finger print” for identification of  R  2  2  , n =2,3,4...
the gas  1 n 
 When white light passes through a gas and if we  The limit of Lyman series is
analyse the transmitted light using a spectrometer   91.1 nm for n  
we find some dark lines correspond precisely to Paschen series (near I.R)
the wavelengths which were found in the emission 1 1 1 
 R  2  2  , n=4,5,6... The limit of
line spectrum of the gas. (Absorption spectrum  3 n 
of the material of the gas ) Paschen series is   820.4 nm for n  
Hydrogen Spectrum Spectral Series: Brackett series (middle I.R)
In hydrogen spectrum, the spacing between the 1 1 1 
lines within certain sets decreases in a regular  R  2  2  ,n=5,6,7...
 4 n 
way.
 Each of these sets is called a “ Spectral series” The limit of Brackett series is
One such series is Balmer series in visible region   1458.5 nm for n  
Pfund series (far I.R )
364.6 nm

410.2 nm

434.1 nm

486.1 nm

458.3 nm
1 1 1 
 R  2  2  , n= 6,7,8...
 5 n 
The limit of Pfund series is
  2279 nm for n  
 The elements whose spectra can be represented
H H H H H by the above equations are hydrogen, singly
H α  656.3nm  Red region ionised helium, doubly ionised lithium.
 The above relations are empirical and do not
H   486.1nm  blue  green
give any reasoning why only certain frequencies
H   434.1nm  Violet are observed in the hydrogen spectrum.
 As the wavelength decreases, the lines appear Lym
an Bal
m
closer together and are weaker in Intensity Serie
s ser er
ies
 The results obtained by Balmer were
expressed by J.R Rydberg in the following
1 1 1
Pasc
 R 2  2  serie
mathematical form
 2 n  hen
s

R  Rydberg constant 1.097  107 m 1  1

seri ett

2
Br

 Balmer formula in terms of frequency 4

3
a
es

5
ck

6
 1 1  n=7
v  Rc  2  2 
se un

2 n 
ri d
Pf
es

 The limit of Balmer series is

  364.6 nm for n  
It is shortest wavelength in Balmer series.
 Beyond this limit, no further distinct lines appear
and a faint continuous spectrum is seen. NUMBER OF EMISSION LINES
 Other series of spectra of hydrogen In an atom emission transition may start
Lyman series (ultraviolet region) from any higher energy level and end at
any energy level below of it. Hence in
emission spectrum the total possible num
ber of emission lines from some excited
Page 315
 ATOMS

state n2 to another energy state n1 is given on it own axis.

5) It could not explain the fine structure of line
 n2  n1  n2  n1  1 spectrum.
by N= 6) It does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting
2 up of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark
For ground state effect (splitting up in electric field).
n1  1, n2  n  excited state  7) It does not explain the doublets in the spectrum
of some of the atoms like sodium (5890 Å &
 n  1 n 5896 Å)
Number of lines N  DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF
2
BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE OF
Recoiling of an atom: QUANTISATION
Due to the transition of electron, photon is 1. The electron in its circular orbit, as proposed by
emitted and the atom is recoiled. Bohr, must be seen as a particle wave.
Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of 2. In a string, standing waves are formed when
h 2  1  the total distance travelled by a wave down the
photon,  mv     hRZ  n2  n 2 
 1 2 string and back is one wavelength, two
Recoil velocity of atom = wavelengths, or any integral number of
hRZ 2  1  wavelengths.
v     3. For an electron moving in ‘n’th circular orbit of
m  n12  n22 
p2 h2 radius rn , the total distance is the circumference
Also recoil energy of atom  E   
2m 2m 2 of the o rbit , 2 rn Thus
where m= mass of recoil atom.
LINE SPECTRA OF H-ATOM 2 rn  n , n  1, 2,3...
Total energy E(eV)
4. If the speed of the electron is much less than
n=5
Ionised atom
the speed of light, the momentum is m n
n=4
0
h
Thus,   m we have
Excited

-0.85
states

n=3 Brackett n
-1.5 Paschen series
n=2 series 2 rn  nh / m n or m n rn  nh / 2
-3.40
Balmer 5. Energy states are due to the wave nature of the
series electron and only resonant standing waves can
persist

n=1
Ground state Nucleus
-13.6
Binding energy of ground state of H atom = 13.6 r
eV.
DRAWBACKS OF BOHR’S ATOMIC
MODEL
1) It is valid only for one electron atoms,
e.g.: H, He , Li2 , Na 10 etc.
Illustration 3:
2) Orbits were taken as circular but according to
Sommerfied these are elliptical. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a
3) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained. transition n1  n2 where n1 & n2 are the
4) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates principal quantum numbers of the two
states. Assume the Bohr model to be valid.
Page 316
 ATOMS

The time period of the electron in the initial  1

state is eight times that in the final state. 1
we have E  13.6Z2  2  2  eV
What are the possible values of n1 & n2 ?  n1 n 2 
Solution :  1 1
T1 n13  47.2  13.6Z2  2  2   Z = 5
2 3 
Since T  n3 ;  3
T2 n2 (b) transition is n1 = 3  n2 = 4; E = ?
3
 n1   
As T1  8T2     8 ;  n1  2n2 we have E  13.6Z2  12  12  eV
 n2   n1 n2 
Thus the possible values of n1 & n2 are  1 1
E  13.6  (52 )  2  2   16.53 eV..
3 4 
n2  1, n1  2 ; n2  2, n1  4 Illustration 7:
n2  3, n1  6 ......... (a) Find the maximum wavelength  0 of
light which can ionize a hydrogen atom in
Illustration 4: its ground state.
++
Find the radius of Li ions in its ground (b) Light of wavelength  0 is incident on a
state assuming Bohr’s model to be valid. hydrogen atom which is in its first excited
Solution : state. Find the kinetic energy of the electron
For hydrogen-like ions, the radius of the n th coming out.
2
n r Solution :
orbit is rn  0
Z hc
For Li++, Z = 3 and in ground state n = 1 (a)   13.6eV ; 0  910 Å
0
12  53  10 12 (b) Energy of light photon with wavelength
The radius is r1  m
3
0  13.6eV
r1 = 18×10–12 m
Energy of electron in hydrogen atom in first
Illustration 5:
excited state  3.4eV
Find the ratio of magnetic moment of an from law of conservation of energy
electron to its angular momentum in an
 KE of electron coming out = 13.6 - 3.4 =
atomic orbit. 10.2 eV
Solution: Illustration 8:
M eVr M e
(a) Find the wavelength of the radiation
 ;  required to excite the electron in Li++
L 2  mVr L 2m from the first to the third Bohr orbit.
Illustration 6: (b) How many spectral lines are observed in
A single electron orbits around a stationary the emission spectrum of the above excited
nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a system?
constant and e is the magnitude of the Solution :
electronic charge. It requires 47.2 eV to (a) The energy in the first orbit E1 = Z2 E0
excite the electron from second Bohr orbit where E0 = –13.6eV is the energy of a
to the third Bohr orbit. Find: hydrogen atom in ground state. Thus for Li++,
(a) the value of Z, Z=3
E1 = 9E0 = 9 × (–13.6eV)
(b) the energy required to excite the electron The energy in the third orbit is
from n = 3 to n = 4,
E1 E1
Solution : E3   = –13.6eV
n2 9
(a) transition is n1 = 2  n2 = 3 ; E = 47.2eV Thus, E3 – E1 = 8 × 13.6eV = 108.8eV
The wavelength of radiation required to excite

Page 317
 ATOMS

Li++ from the first orbit to the third orbit is 1 3646  10 10
given by or (Z  1)2    911.5
R 4  1  10 10
hc hc
 E 3  E1 or   E  E  (Z  1)  911.5 or Z  30.2  31
 30.2
 3 1
Thus the atomic number of the element
12375
 Å  or   114Å concerned is 31.
108.8eV The element having atomic number Z = 31 is
(b) The spectral lines emitted are due to the transition Gallium.
n = 3  n = 2, n = 3  n = 1 and n = 2 
n = 1, thus there will be three spectral lines. Illustration 11:An energy of 24.6eV is required
Illustration 9: to remove one of the electrons from a
First excitation potential of a hypothetical
hydrogen like atom is 15 volt. Find third neutral helium atom. The energy (in eV)
excitation potential of the atom. required to remove both the electrons from
Solution:
Let energy of ground state = E0 a neutral helium atom is
E0 Solution.After the removal of first electron
E0 = – 13.6 Z2 eV and En 
n2
E0 E0 3E 0
remaining atom toll be hydrogen like atom.
n = 2, E 2  given E 0   15   15
4 4 4
So energy required to remove second electron
 E0  20eV
E 22
for n = 4, E4  0 from the atom E  13.6   54.4  79eV
16 1
Third excitation energy =
 Total energy required 24.6 + 54.4 = 79 eV
E 15E 0 15  20 75
E0  0    eV Illustration 12:A double charged lithium atom
16 16 16 4
is equivalent to hydrogen whose atomic
75
Third excitation potential is eV number is 3. The wavelength of required
4
radiation for emitting electron from first
Illustration 10: to third Bohr orbit in L++ will be
If the short series limit of the Balmer series (Ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is
for hydrogen is 3646 Å, calculate the atomic
13.6eV)
no. of the element which gives X-ray
wavelength down to 1.0 A. Identify the Z2
Solution. En  13.6 2 eV , Required energy for
element. n
Solution : said transition,
The short limit of the Balmer series is given by 1 1 
E  E 3  E1  13.6Z2  2  2 
1  1 1 1 3 
  R 2  2  R /4
 2 n  8 
 E  13.6  32    108.8eV
10 1
 R  4 /   (4 / 3646)  10 m 9 
Further the wavelengths of the K series are E  108.8  1.6  10 19 J
given by the relation hc
Now E   108.8 1.6 1019 J
1 1 1 
   R(Z  1) 2  2  2 
 1 n 
Illustration 13:Imagine an atom made up of a
The maximum wave number correspondence to proton and a hypothetical particle of double
n   and, t herefore, we must have the mass of the electron but having the same
1 charge as the electron. Apply the Bohr’s
  R(Z  1)2
 atom model and consider all possible
Page 318
 ATOMS

transitions of this hypothetical panicle to the r

first excited level. The longest wavelength Solution.Potential energy U  eV  eV0 ln r
0
photon that will be emitted has wavelength
dU 0 eV
 (given in terms of the Rydberg constant R Force F   dr  r
for the hydrogen atom) equal to
Therefore the force will provide the necessary
Rhc
Solution.In hydrogen atom E n  2 centripetal force, Hence,
n
Also E n  m , where m is the mass of the mv 2 eV0 eV0
 v .... 1
electron. Hem the electron has been replaced r r m
by a panicle whose mass is double of an electron. nh
And mvr  ….(ii); From equation (i) and
Therefore, for this hypothetical atom energy in 2
2Rhc  nh  m
nth orbit will be given by E n   (ii), mr   2  eV or r  n
n2   0
The longest wavelength  max (or minimum Illustration 16:Excitation energy of a
energy) photon will correspond to the transition hydrogen like ion in its first excitation
of particle from n = 3 to n = 2 state is 40.8 eV. Energy needed to remove
hc 1 1 the electron from the ion in ground state
  E 3  E 2  Rhc  2  2 
max 2 3  is
 1 1 94  Solution. Excitation energy
 2Rhc     36 
4 9 36  1 1 
E  E 2  E1  13.6Z2  2  2 
18 1 2 
This gives max  3
5R  40.8  13.6   Z 2  Z  z
4
6.6 1034  3 108 Now required energy ro remove the electron

108.8  1.6  1019 from grow state
0
7
 0.11374  10 m  113.74 A 13.6Z 2 2
 2
 13.6  Z   54.4eV
Illustration 14:The transition from the state n = 1
4 to n =3, in a hydrogen-like atom results Illustration 17:
in ultraviolet radiation. Infrared radiation A hydrogen like atom of atomic number Z
will be obtained in the transition is in an excited state of quantum number
Solution. As the transition n = 4 and n = 3 results in 2n. It can emit a maximum, photon of 204
UV radiation and infrared radiation involves cV. If it makes a transition to quantum st n,
smaller amounts of energy UV. So we require a a photon of energy 40.8 eV is emitted. The
transition involving initial values of n greater than 4 value 0 will be
Illustration 15: Solution. Let ground state energy (in eV) be E1
The electric potential between a proton and
Then from the given condition
an electron is given by V  V0 ln , wherer
E1
r0 E 2n  E1  204eV or  E1  204eV
4n 2
ro is a constant. Assuming Bohr’s model to
 1 
be applicable, write the variation of rn with  E1  2  1  204eV and
 4n 
n, n being the principal quantum number
E 2n  E n  40.8 eV From equation (i) and (ii)

Page 319
 ATOMS

1 Z2
1 Therefore 54.4   13.6 Z2
4n 2  5  n  2 11
3
4n 2 2
0.53 1
Illustration 18:  rn   0.265 A
Consider a hydrogen like atom whose energy 2
in n th excited state is given by Illustration 20:
13.6Z2 . How much work must be done to pull apart
En   when this excited makes a the electron and the proton that make up
n2
transition from excited state to ground state the Hydrogen atom, if the atom is initially
m energetic photons have energy E max = in the state with n = 2?
52.224 eV and energetic photons have Solution.The electrostatic RE is zero when the
energy Emin = 1.224 ev. The atom number of electron and proton are far apart from each other.
atom is Work done in pulling electron and proton far
Solution.Maximum energy is liberated for away from each other
transition E n  1 and maximum energy for  13.6 
W  E f  E i  0  E i     2 eV 
 n 
E n  E n 1 …..(i)
13.6
E1 W 2
 1.6  1019 J  3.4  1.6  1019 J
Hence 2  E1  52.224eV and  2
n
Illustration 21: Consider a hypothetical
E1 E1
  1.224eV ….. (ii) annihilation of a stationary electron with
n 2  n  1 2
a stationary positron. What is the
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get wavelength of resulting radiation?
E1  54.4eV and n = 5 Solution.From conservation of momentum, two
identical photons must travel in opposite
13.6Z2
Now E1   54.4eV . Hence Z = 2 directions with equal magnitude of momentum
12
Illustration 19:The energy level diagram for an hc
and energy
hydrogen like atom is in the figure. The 
radius of its first Bohr orbit is From conservation of energy:

0 eV hc hc h
n=4   m0c 2  m0c 2   
  m 0c
-6.04eV n=3
(h = Planck’s constant. c = speed of light, m0=
-13.6 eV n=2 rest mass)
Illustration 22:
-54.4eV n=1 . A hydrogen atom emits a photon corresponding
Z2 to an electron transition from n = 5 to n =1. The
Solution.We know that En  13.6 2 eV and recoil speed of hydrogen atom is almost (mass
n
2
of proton 1.6 x 10-27 kg).
n  o
rn  0.53  A  Solution.The Hydrogen atom before the transition
Z  was at rest. Therefore from conservation of
Here for n  1, E1  54.4eV momentum

Page 320
 ATOMS

C
 1 1  1
13.6  2  2  eV
mv  p photon 
E radiated
  n1 n 2  B
c c 2 3
1 1
13.6  2  2  1.6 1019 A
1.6 1027  v  1 5  Solution.Let the energy in A, B and C state be EA.
3  108 EB and EC then from the figure
 v  4.352m / s  4m / s C
Illustration 23: 1
. The following diagram indicates the energy B
levels of a certain atom when the system 2 3
moves from 4E level to E. A photon of
A
wavelength 1 , is emitted. The wavelength
of photon produced during it’s transition  EC  EB    EB  EA    EC  EA  or
7 1 hc hc hc 
from E level to E is 2 . The ratio  will    3  1 2
3 2 1  2  3 1   2
be Illustration 25:
4E . In hydrogen atom, if the deference in the
7
E
energy of the electron in n = 2 and n = 3
3 orbits is E, the ionization energy of
hydrogen atom is
E 1 1
Solution.Transition from 4E to E Solution.Energy, E=K E  K  n 2  n 2 
hc hc  1 2
 4E  E    1  ......  i 
1 3E (K = constant) n1  2 and n 2  3 . So E = K
7
Transition from E to E 1 1 5
3  22  32   K  36 
   
 7  hc 3hc
 E  E   1  ……. (ii) For removing an electron n1 = 1 to n2 = 
3  l 3E
36
l 4 Energy E1  K 1  E  7.2E
From equation (i) and (ii) :   9 5
2 Illustration 26:
Illustration 24: When the hydrogen atom emits a photon in
. Energy levels A, B, C of a certain atom going from n = 5 to n = 1 state, its recoil speed
corresponding to increasing values of is nearly
energy i.e. EA < EB < EC. If  l ,  2 ,  3 are the Solution: Photon energy
wavelengths of radiations corresponding to
 1
the transitions C to B. B to A and C to A,  hf  13.6 1   eV  13eV
 25 
respectively, which of the following
Photon momentum = momentum of hydrogen atom
statements is correct
hf 13  1.6  1019
p  27 8
 4ms 1
mc 1.67  10  3  10
Illustration 27:In Fig., E, to E6 represent some

Page 321
 ATOMS

of the energy levels of an electron in the 2e 2 2e2

hydrogen atom Solution. v n  k  v1 
nh h
E6 -0.38eV
E5 -0.54eV v1 2e 2
E4 -0.85eV so 
c ch
E3 -1.5eV Illustration 30:
. Suppose two deuterons must get as close as
E2 -3.4eV
10-14 m in order for the nuclear force to
overcome the repulsive electrostatic force.
E1 -13.6eV The height of the electrostatic barrier is
Which one of the following transitions produces nearest to
a photon of wavelength in the ultraviolet region Solution. Barrier height
of the electromagnetic spectrum?
Solution.The wavelengths of the hydrogen spectrum 1 e2 1 e
 J eV
could in a formula or series named after its 4  0 re 4  0 re

discoverer. For spectrum the series is called

9 109 1.6 1019
Lyman series, for visible series, and for infrared  14
eV  1.44 105 eV
10
region we have the series.
The ultraviolet series is obtained when the atom Illustration 31: An electron is H atom makes a
falls from higher states to the energy level transition from n = 3 to n = 1. The recoil
corresponding to n = 1. Thus, ultraviolet radiation momentum of H atom will be
can only be possible transition from E2 to E1 out
Solution.The recoil momentum of atom is same as
of the given transitions. that of photon but in opposite direction.
Illustration 28: Given: mass number of gold = Hence, recoil momentum:
197, density of gold = g 19.7cm-3, Avogadro’s Note that almost whole of the energy will be
number = 6 x 1023. The radius of the gold carried away by the photon because it is very
atom is approximately light in comparison to H atom.
Illustration 32:
Solution.Volume occupied by one mole of gold
. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a
197g transition from n=n1 to n = n2 state. The time
 3
10cm3
19.7gm period of the electron in the initial state is
Volume of one atom eight times that in the final state. The
10 5 possible values of n1 and n2 are
 23
  1023 cm3
6 10 3 Solution. T 2  r 3 and r  n 2  T 2  n 6  T  n 3
Let r be the radius of the atom. Therefore, 3 3
T1  n1   n1  n1
4 3 5 23     8    or 2
r   10 or r  1.5  10 m  10
T n n n
3 3 2  2   2  2

Illustration 29: Only a, satisfies the above, hence this is right choice
. The ratio of the speed of the electron in the Illustration 33:The wavelength of radiation
first Bohr orbit of hydrogen and the speed required to excite the electron from the first
of light is equal to (where e, h, and c have orbit to the third orbit in a doubly ionized
their usual meanings in cgs system) lithium atom will be
Solution. Required energy

Page 322
 ATOMS

The decrease in kinetic energy must be equal to

 13.6   13.6  
      9 ionization energy. Therefore,
 9   1  
 mH 
 13.6  E1  E 0  E    E0
 13.6  9  8  13.6eV  m  mH
 9  

12375 o E1 1
Wavelength   113.7 A 
8  13.6 i.e., E 0 1  m
Illustration 34: mH
. An electron with kinetic energy E eV Illustration 36:
collides with . a hydrogen atom in the . A hydrogen atom is in an excited state of
ground state. The collision is observed to principal quantum number n. It emits a
be elastic for photon of wavelength when it returns to
Solution.For an elastic collision to take place, there the ground state. The value of n is
must be no loss in the energy of electron. The
hc R
hydrogen atom will absorb energy from the Solution.  Rhc 1  1/ n 2  or n 
colliding electron only if it can go from ground  R  1
state to first excited state, i.e., from
n = 1 to n = 2 state. For this, hydrogen atom
Illustration 37: A neutron moving with a speed
must absorb energy
v makes a head on collision with a hydrogen
E2 – El = -3.4 - (-13.6) = 10.2 eV
atom in ground State kept it rest. The
So, if the electron possesses energy less than
minimum kinetic energy of the neutron for
10.2 eV, it would never lose it and hence collision
with inelastic collision will take place is
would be elastic.
(assume that mass of proton is nearly equal
Illustration 35:The minimum kinetic energy
to the mass of neutron)
required for ionization of a hydrogen atom
Solution. Let v = speed of neutron before collision,
is E1 in case electron is collided as hydrogen
v1= speed of neutron after collision,
atom. It is E2 if the hydrogen ion is collided
v2 = speed of proton or hydrogen atom after
and E3 when helium ion is collided. Then
collision, and  E = energy of excitation
Solution.Assuming that ionization occurs as a result
From conservation of linear momentum, Inv = mv1
of a completely inelastic collision, we can write
+ mv2
mv  0   m  mH  u From conservation of energy,
where m is the mass of incident particle, mH the 1 1 1
mass of hydrogen atom, vo the initial velocity of mv 2  mv12  mv 22  E
2 2 2
incident particle, and it the final common velocity From eq (i)
of the particle after collision. Prior to collision,
v 2  v12  v 22  2v1v 2
the ICE of the incident particle was
From eq (ii)
mv 20
E0  2 E
2 v 2  v12  v 22 
m
The total kinetic energy after collision
2 E
2  2v1v 2 
E
 m  mH  u 
2
mv 2
0 m
2 2  m  mH 
Page 323
 ATOMS

2 2 the energy of incident electron. The energy of

  v1  v 2    v1  v 2   4v1 v 2
electron can be controlled by applied potential
2 E difference. Thus penetrating power of X-ray
  v1  v 2   v 2  4
m depend on applied potential difference. Thus
As v1  v 2 must be real therefore the intensity of X-ray depend on current
flowing through filament while penetrating
E power depend on applied potential difference
v2  4 0
m X-RAY SPECTRUM
X-rays : i) Continuous X-ray spectrum:
Roentgen discovered the X-rays. a) It is produced when high speed electrons are
i) Most commonly x-rays are produced by the suddenly stopped by a metal target.
deceleratio n of high energy electro ns b) It contains all wave lengths above a minimum
bombarding a hard metal target. wavelength  m . ( continuous spectrum )
ii) The target should have
For a given accelerating potential,  m is called
a) high atomic weight
b) high melting point cut off wavelength.
c) high thermal conductivity c) Properties of continuous x - rays spectra are
iii) They are electromagnetic waves of very short independent of nature of target metal and they
wavelength. i.e., order of wavelength 0.1A° to depend only on accelerating potential.
100A° , order of frequency 10 16Hz to 10 19
Hz, order of energy 124eV to 124keV
12
iv) Most of the kinetic energy of electrons is
10 50KV
converted into heat and only a fraction is used 40KV
8
in producing x-rays (less than 1% x - rays and
Intensity

6
more than 99% heat). 30KV
4
v) Intensity of x-rays depends on the number of
2 20KV
electrons striking the target which inturn depends
on filament current. o -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10
vi) Quality of x - rays (hard /soft) depends on P.D Wave length in A
0

applied to x - rays tube.

vii) high frequency x-rays are called hard x-rays hc 12400 0
viii) low frequency x-rays are called soft x-rays  min   A
d) eV V
ix) Penetrating power of x-rays is a function of
potential difference between cathode and target. 1 it is Duane and Hunt’s law
x) Production of x-rays is converse of photoelectric  min
V
effect. e) Maximum frequency of emitted x - ray photon

CONTROL ON X-RAY eV
is  max 
There are two types of control on X-ray h
i) Intensity control f) In this spectrum intensity first increases, reaches
The intensity of X-ray depend on number of a maximum value I and then decreases.
max
electrons striking the target and number of g) Every spectrum starts with certian minimum
electron depend on temperature of filament wavelength called limiting wavelength or cut
which can be controlled by filament current. off wavelength min .
Thus intensity of X-ray depend on current
flowing through filament. h) With the increase in target potential, min and
(ii) Penetrating Power control wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity
The Penetrating power of X-ray depend on
Page 324
 ATOMS

 0 shifts towards minimum wavelength side. L is

i) At a given potential the range of wavelength of 1 1 1
k  k  L   
continous x - rays produced is min to  .  K K L
j) Efficiency of x - ray tube hc
h) EK  E L  h K  
out put power K 
 100
input power he
EK  EM  h K  
input power P = VI. Where V is P.D applied to K 
x - ray tube I = anode current he
ii) Characterstic X-ray spectrum: EL  EM  h L 
K 
12 iii) Intensity and wavelength      graph
10 K K
35KV
Intensity

8 
6 
4
2
min I
o -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10
0
min 0 k k
Wave length in A 
As target potential V is increased
a) Produced due to transition of electrons from a)   0   m in  decreases
higher energy level to lower energy level in
b) Wavelength of k  remains constant.
target atoms.
b) Wavelengths of these x-rays depend only on c) diffrence between  and  increases
k min
atomic number of the target element and
d) diffrence between  k line and  k line remains
independent of target potential. 
c) Characteristic x-rays of an element consists of constant.
K, L,M and N series. e) Difference between  k   0 increases.
d) K-series of lines are obtained when transition MOSLEY’S LAW
takes place from higher levels to k shell i) “The square root of frequency ( v ) of the spectral
line of the characteristic x-rays spectrum is
K L
L 
directly proportional to the atomic number(z) of
K M M the target element.


  Z or  =a(Z-b)
+
K   aZ  ab  y  mX  c 
L
M For   0, aZ  ab  Z  b
N
O
e) This spectrum is useful in identifying the elements

by which they are produced. v

f) Relation among the energies Ek  Ek  Ek , 

Ek  EL 0 b=1 Z
g) Intensity of x - rays Ik  Ik  Ik ii) The slope(a) of  -Z curve varies from series
h) Relation among frequences k , k and to series and also from line to line of a given series.

Page 325
 ATOMS

Let d  distance between the cleavage planes

1  Z1 1 
  X and Y
For K series
 2  Z 2 1
  glancing angle
The path difference between the aves BC and
2  Z1 1 
  
1  Z 2 1 EF  PE  EQ
Draw BP and BQ perpendiculars to DE and
iii) ak  ak  ak EF respectively.
iv) The intercept on ‘Z’ axis gives the screening From BPE , as
constant ‘b’ and it is constant for all spectral PE PE
lines in given series but varies with the series. sin    , PE  d sin 
BE d
b = 1 for k series ( k  , k  , k  ) From BEQ, as
b = 7.4 for L series
EQ EQ
v) The wavelength of characteristic X-rays is sin    , EQ  d sin 
1
BE d
1
1  From equation (1), (2) & (3).
given by =R(Z-b)2  n12 n22 
 path difference between BC and EF, i.e.
vi) Ratio of wavelengths k  and k  lines from a PE  EQ  d sin   d sin   2d sin 
If the path difference is an integral multiple of
 k 32 wavelength, then constructive interference
given target is   27 .
k occurs between reflected beams and these will
vii) Significance : reinforce each other.
a) The elements must be arranged in the periodic For reflected beams to have maximum intensity
table as per their atomic numbers but not on 2d sin   n
their atomic weights. where n  1, 2,3......
b) Helped to discover new elements like masurium The above equation is called Bragg’s law or
(43) and illinium (61) etc. Bragg’s equation
c) Decided the positions and atomic numbers of If n  1 , we get the first order spectrum, if
rare earth metals.
n  2 , we get the second order spectrum and
DIFFRACTION OF X-RAY so on.
 W.L. Bragg (1890-1971) discovered that X- For Maximum Wavelength
rays can be reflected by the cleavage planes sin   1, n  1
of the crystals when they are incident on their
 max  2d
surfaces nearly at glancing angle. Consider a
so if   2d diffraction is not possible i.e.
monochromatic beam of X-rays of wavelength
solution of Bragg’s equation is not possible.
 incident on crystal and after reflection from
the cleavage planes X and Y travel along BC PROPERTIES AND USES OF X-RAY
and EF, repspectively as shown in figure.  X-ray always travel with the velocity of light in
A C straight line because their wavelength is very
D F small.
Cleavage  X-ray is electromagnetic radiation it show both

B  planes particle and wave nature.
 d  In reflection, diffraction, interference, refraction
P EQ X-ray shows wave nature while in
photoelectric effect: shows particle nature.

Page 326
 ATOMS

 There is no charge on X-ray thus these are not

deflected by electric field and magnetic field. 4 1216 0
k  2 ;
k  2
A
 X-ray are invisible. 3R  Z  1  Z  1
 X-ray affect the photographic plate
 When X-ray incident on the surface of Illustration 40: For tungsten, atomic energy
substance it exert force and pressure and level of K, L & M are given 69.5 keV, 11.3
transfer energy and momentum keV and 2.30 keV respectively. For obtain-
 Characteristic X-ray can not obtained from
hydrogen because the difference of energy ing charcteristic K  & K lines for tung-
level in hydrogen is very small. sten, what should be the required mini-
Uses
mum accelerating potential and min ?
(a) In study of crystal structure
(b) In surgery Also  and 
(c) In radiography
(d) In Engineering Solution : Required minimum accelerating
Illustration 38:
ionisation energy
Find the maximum frequency of the X-rays potential =  69.5 kV
emitted by an X-ray tube operating at 30 kV. e
Solution: eV  hv For this accelerating potential
eV 1.6 1019  30 103 hc 12400
v  min   A0  0.178 A0
h 6.6 10 34 eVmax 69.5 103
 7.2  1018 Hz wavelength for
Illustration 39:
12400
K ,   3
A0  0.213 A0
Find out wave length of K X-ray  69.5  11.3 10
wavelength for
Solution :
12400
K means transition from n2  2 to n1  1 K  ,   3
A0  0.184 A0
 69.5  2.30  10
and b  1 for K series
Illustration 41:The electron current in an X-
ray tube operating at 40 kV is 10 mA.
1 2  1 1
 R  Z  1  2  2  Assume that on an average 1% of the total
k  n1 n2 
kinetic energy of electrons hitting the
target is converted into X-rays.
1 2 1 1
 R  Z  1  2  2  (a) What is total power carried by X-rays?
k 1 2 
(b) How much heat is produced at the
target per second?
2
1 3R  z  1 Solution.

k 4 Power drawn by X-ray tube is
P  i  V  10  103  40 103  400W
1 0
R  1.097  107 m 1 and R  912A 1
(a) PX ray  1% of 400W  400   4W
100

Page 327
 ATOMS

(b) Remaining 99% power is converted into

heat at target
Heat produced = 400 - 4 = 396W
Illustration 42: In the experiment of Coolidge
tube, wavelength of electron striking at
the target is 0.01 nm. What will be value
of minimum wavelength of X-rays ob-
tained from the tube?
Solution: Wavelength of a moving electron

12.27 0
e  A
Va

or Va  accelerating potential of electron

150 150
 2
 2
 15000 volt
e  0.1
Minimum wavelength of X-rays

6.62  1034  3  108

min  19
 0.826 A0
1.6 10  15000

Page 328
Page 329
 NUCLEI

NUCLEI
INTRODUCTION COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS:
 We have learnt that in every atom the positive Nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons.
charge and almost the entire mass are densely
 The number of protons inside the nucleus is called
concentrated at the centre of the atom forming
its nucleus. the atomic number (Z). The total number of
 The overall dimension of a nucleus is much nucleons (sum of protons and neutrons) is called
smaller than that of an atom. Experiments on the mass number (A). The number of neutrons
scattering of  - particles demonstrated that in a nucleus is given by A-Z. The stability of a
the radius of nucleus is smaller than the radius nucleus depends on the relative number of
of an atom by a factor of about 104
protons and neutrons.
 This means the volume of a nucleus is about
 Nucleus is represented by the symbol ZxA. This
10 12 times the volume of the atom. In other symbol clearly explains the composition of the
words, an atom is almost empty.
nucleus.
 The nucleus contains most (more than 99.9%)
of the mass of an atom. PROTON:
ATOMIC MASSES AND COMPOSITION The nucleus of hydrogen atom is called proton.
OF NUCLEUS It is an essential constituent of all nuclei.
ATOMIC MASS UNIT: It carries positive charge = 1.6  10-19 C and
mass = 1836 times the mass of an electron
The masses of atoms, nuclei, sub atomic
= 1.0072766 u
particles are very small. Hence, a small unit is  Due to its positive charge, proton is not used as
used to express these masses. This unit is called projectile in nuclear fission.
atomic mass unit (amu). 1 amu is equal to one It is stable even outside the nucleus.
twelth part of the mass of carbon (6 C12 )
NEUTRON:
isotope.
Mass of 6C12 is exactly 12 amu Neutron was discovered in 1932 by James
 Now, the mass of 1 gm -mole of carbon is 12 Chadwick.
 It has no charge, hence it is a neutral particle.
gm and according to Avogadro’s Hypothesis it
Its mass = 1.6749  10-27 kg i.e.nearly equal to
has N A (Avogadro’s Number) atoms. Thus, that of proton.
mass of neuton = 1839 times the mass of an
the mass of one atom of carbon is (12/ N A )
electron = 1.008664 u
gm. According to the definition. Illustration1: How many electrons, protons and
1 neutrons are three in 12g of 6 C 12 and in
1amu  1u   mass of one carbon atom
12 14g of C14 ? (Take Avogadro number
6

1 12 1 1 N  6  1033 )
   gm  gm
12 N N 6.0231023 Solution: The number of atoms in 12g of 6 C12 
 1.6603021024 gm Avogadro number  6  1023
The number of elect rons in 12g of
 1.6603021027 Kg C12  6  6 1023  36  1023
6
The number of pro tons in 12g of

Page 330
 NUCLEI

C12  36  1023 assuming that the neutral radiation consists of

6
a new type of neutral particles called neutrons.
The number of neutrons in 12g of 6 C 12 He was able to determine the mass of this new
  A  Z   6 1023  6  6 1023  36 1023 particle from conservation of energy and
momentum as very nearly the same as mass of
Similarly number of electrons in 14g of
proton.
6 C14  36  1023 Now the mass of neutron is known to a high
12 23
Number of protons in 14g of 6 C  36  10 degree of accuracy and is equal to
Number of neut rons in 14g of mn = 1.00866 u
14 = 1.6749  10-27 kg
6C   A  Z   6 1023
= 1.6749  10-24 g
 14  6   6 1023  48 1023 PROPERTIES OF NEUTRONS:
i) It is an uncharged particle and hence the
ARTIFICIAL TRANSMUTATION OF
electric and magnetic fields have no effect on
ELEMENTS: it.
The conversion of one element into another by ii) Being neutral particle, it posses very high
artificial means is called artificial transmutation penetrating power and has very low ionizing
of the element. power.
14 4 17 1
Ex: 7 N  stable  2 He  8O stable   1 H  proton  iii) It is stable inside the nucleus and it’s
average life period is about 1000sec
 It was discovered by Rutherford. iv) A free neutron outside the nucleus is
 Artificial transmutation of elements was possible unstable and decays into proton and elec-
for elements with atomic number less than 20. tron.
SIGNIFICANCE
i) It leads to the discovery of proton and neutron. 0 n1  1 H 1  1   0

Proton Electron Antinutrino
ii) It helps to produce radio isotopes. v) It’s spin angular momentum :
iii) It helps to produce transuranic elements. 1  h 
 J-s
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON: 2  2 
27
Neutron was discovered experimentally by vi) It’s magnetic moment : 9.57  10 J/
Chadwick in the year 1932 and was awarded Tesla
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935 for his discovery. vii) It’s half life : 12 minutes
 A neutron is a neutral particle carrying no charge viii) Neutrons are diffracted by crystals
and having mass roughly equal to the mass of a
ix) Types: Neutrons are of two types slow
proton.
neutron and fast neutron. Both are fully
 Chadwick observed emission of neutral
capable of penetrating a nucleus and causing
radiation when beryllium nuclei were bombarded
artifical disintegration.
with alpha-particles (-particles are helium
nuclei) which could knock out protons from light TYPES OF NUCLEI:
nuclei like beryllium, carbon and nitrogen. ISOTOPES:
9
Be  42 He   13  12 1 Atomic nuclei having same atomic number but
4 6 C  6 C 0 n  Q
different mass numbers are known as isotopes.
 Application of principles of conservation of
They occupy same position in the periodic table
energy and momentum showed that if the neutral
radiation consist of photons, the energy of and possess identical chemical properties.
photons would have to be much higher than these They have same proton number.
neutral radiations. Ex: 1) 3Li6, 3Li7 2) 1H1,1 H2,1 H3
 Chadwick satisfactorily solved this puzzle
ISOTONES :

Page 331
 NUCLEI
Atomic nuclei having same number of neutrons measured in fermi (or) femtometer. 1
are called isotones. fermi=10-15m
 The actual size of nucleus has to be less than
Ex.: 1) 17 Cl37,19 K39 , 2) 7 N17 ,8 O18 ,9 F19 4.0 x 10-14 m.
For isotones both atomic number (Z) and mass  Radius of the nucleus is in the order of 10-15 m.
 Size of an atom is in the order of 10-10m.
number (A) are different but the value of Note-1: If R, S and V be the radius, surface
difference (A-Z) is same. area and volume of a nucleus with mass number
ISOBARS: A then
Atomic nuclei having same mass number but 1
1
different atomic numbers are called Isobars.  A 3
 1   1  ;
R
1) R  A3
They have same number of nucleons. R 2  A 2 
Ex.:1) 18Ar40,20 Ca40 , 2) 3 2 G e 7 6 , 3 4 S e 7 6 2
2
ISOMERS:  A 3
 1   1 
2 S
2) S  R  A3
Atomic nuclei having same mass number and S 2  A 2 
same atomic number but different nuclear
properties are called isomers. 3 V1 A1
3) V  R  A  V  A
Ex:- m 35 Br 80 metastable Bromine and 2 2
Note-2: If a stationary nucleus splits into two
g35 Br 80 ground state Bromine are two lighter nuclei with mass numbers A1 and A2 then
isomers with different half lives according to law of conservation of linear
ISODIAPHERS: momentum, the two lighter nuclei move in
Nuclei having different Atomic number (Z) and opposite directions with equal momenta hence
mass number (A) but with same excess number
m1v1 = m2v2
of neutrons over protons (A-2Z) are called
Ratio of velocities of the two nuclei
isodiaphers. Ex:- 11 Na 23 , 13 Al 27
v1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3
NUCLEAR CHARGE
Nucleus is positively charged due to the v2

m1
  
A1  R 1 
 m  A  R 3 
presence of protons in it. Ratio of kinetic energy of the two nuclei
 Charge of nucleus = Ze  2 
 Where Z=number of proton and e=charge of KE  p & KE  1 when pis constant 
 2m m 
each proton = 1.6  1019 C
NUCLEAR SIZE
KE1 m 2 A 2  R 2 
3

   
A1  R 1 
The scattering experiments conducting by
KE 2 m1
Rutherford and his co-workers gave the first
DENSITY OF THE NUCLEUS
evidence of the nuclear size.
Density stands for mass per unit volume.
 The scattering experiment of Rutherford has
 Consider nucleus of mass M and radius R,
shown that the estimated volume (V) of the assuming that it is almost spherical distribution.
nucleus is proportional to mass number (A). If  Taking mass of each nucleon = 1 amu.
R is t he radius o f nucleus then
 M=mass of A nucleons = A  1.66  1027 kg
4
V  A   R3  A
3 M A  1.66  1027
 
1
 Density V 4 3
1
 R  A  R  A ;  R  R0 A3
3 3
3
1.2  1015  A
( Ro = 1.2 x 10-15 m)
 Nuclear sizes are very small and are   2.3  1017 kg / m3
 Density of nucleus is independent of mass

Page 332
 NUCLEI

number of the atom. E = (1.660565x10–27) x9x1016 J= 931.5

Density of the nucleus is 2.3 x 1017 Kgm-3. MeV
 The density is maximum at the centre and  Hence 1 amu of mass is equivalent to 931.5
gradually falls to zero as we move radially MeV of energy
outwards.  1 amu = 931.5 MeV/C 2
 Radius of the nucleus is taken as the distance
The masses of electron, proton and neutron in
between the centre and the point where the
terms of various units are :
density falls to half of its value at the centre.
Mass of the electron = me =9.1095×10-31 kg
Density of nucleus is of the order of
= 0.000549 u = 0.511 MeV/C2
1014 gm / cc  1017 kg / m3 Mass of the proton = mp =1.6726×10-27 kg
= 1.007276 u = 938.28 MeV/C2
 Average density of Nuclear matter is the same
Mass of the neutron = mn = 1.6750 × 10-27
for all nuclei. kg = 1.008665 u = 939.573 MeV/C2 .
Illustration-2: MASS DEFECT, NUCLEAR BINDING
Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass ENEGRY:
numbers 27 and 64.
Solution: The ratio of the radii of the nuclei is MASS DEFECT  m  :
1 1 The difference between the total mass of all
R1  A1  3  27  3 3 the nucleons of the nucleus and the actual mass

R2 =  A2   64  ( R = R0A ) = 4
1/3
of a nucleus is called mass defect.
 Consider a nucleus having atomic number Z
Illustration-3: and mass number A. It consists of Z protons
The radius of the oxygen nucleus 168O is and (A-Z) neutrons. If m p and mn are the
2.8 x 10-15m. Find the radius of lead nucleus masses of proton and a neutron respectively.
205
82 Pb . Then mass o f co nstituent nucleo ns
Hint: log10 16  1.2041 , log10 205  1.3111 and  Zm p   A  Z  mn
log 1  0.37   2.344  If M is the mass of nucleus X Z A then mass
Solution: R0 = 2.8 x 10-15 m, A0 = 16, APb =205 defect of nucleus of an atom is

We know that R  A1/3 m  Zm p   A  Z  mn  M

1/3 1/3 Z = Atomic number; Mp= Mass of proton
R0  A0  2.8 1015  16  Mn = Mass of neutron; A=Mass number
    
RPb  APb  RPb  205  M = Mass of nucleus.
RPb = 6.55 x 10-15m.  Atomic mass is always less than the sum of
MASS - ENERGY EQUIVALENCE : the masses of constituent particles.
According to Einst ein’s mass-energy BINDING ENERGY (B.E):
equivalence principle, mass is another form of The energy released during the formation of
energy. Mass can be converted into energy & the Nucleus by bringing the nucleons from
infinity distances is called Binding Energy. (or )
energy can be converted into mass according
It is the energy required to split a nucleus into
to the equation E= mC2 nucleons.
Here m is the mass that disappears and E is the It is energy equivalent of mass defect
energy liberated. C is the velocity of light in  BE= [  m] C2
vacuum.  BE = mass defect x 931.5 MeV if mass is
 When 1 amu of mass is converted into energy expressed in a.m.u.
Energy liberated is given by

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AVERGE BINDING ENERGY OR BINDING FRACTION: Illustration-5 :
It is the Binding energy per nucleon (or) Let m p be the mass of a proton, mn the mass
B.E. per nucleon = Binding fraction of a neutron, M 1 the mass of a 20
10 Ne
m x 931 Mev 40
Binding Energy nucleus and M 2 the mass of a 20 Ca
= = A nucleus. Then
Mass Number
Binding energy is not a measure of stability of i) M 2  2 M 1 ii) M 2  2 M 1
a nucleus. iii) M 2  2 M 1
 Binding fraction gives the stability of nucleus
 If binding fraction is more, then nucleus is stable iv) M 2  10(mn  m p )
 If binding fraction is less, then nucleus is less A) i, iv B) ii, iv
stable C) ii, iii D) iii, iv
PACKING FRACTION OF A NUCLEUS Solution: M 1  10( m p  mn ) M 2  20(m p  mn )
It is defined as the mass defect per nucleon.
m M  A Heavier the nucleus, more is mass defect
Packing fraction = 
A A [20(m p  mn )  M 2 ]  [10(m p  mn )  M 1 ]
 Packing fraction measures the stability of a
nucleus. Smaller the value of packing fraction, M 2  [ M 1  10( m p  mn )] ; M 2  2 M 1
large is the stability of the nucleus. Illustration-6 :
 The packing fraction maybe negative, zero or The binding energies per nucleon for
positive. deuterium and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0
 If the packing fraction is negative then the
MeV respectively. What energy in joules
nucleus is more stable.
 If the packing fraction is positive then the will be liberated when 2 deuterons take part
nucleus is unstable. in the reaction.
 Packing fraction is zero for 6 C 12 Solution: 12 H  12 H  24 He  Q
 Transition elements or iron have lowest value Binding energy per nucleon of helium ( 24 He )
of packing fraction which shows maximum
=7 MeV
stability.
Binding energy = 4 x7 = 28 MeV
Illustration-4 :
Binding energy per nucleon of deuterium
Find the binding energy of 2656 Fe . Atomic
( 12 H )=1.1MeV
mass of Fe is 55.9349u and that of
Binding energy = 2 x 1.1 = 2.2 MeV
Hydrogen is 1.00783u and mass of neutron
Energy liberated (Q) = (28 -(2.2)2] = 23.6
is 1.00876u
Mev. i.e.,
Solution: Mass of the hydrogen atom mH =
1.00783u; Mass of neutron mn = 1.00867 u; Q=23.6x106x1.6x10-19; Q  37.76  1013 J
Atomic number of iron Z = 26; mass number Illustration-7: Calculate the mass defect,
of iron A = 56; Mass of iron atom Ma = binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon of an alpha particle? (An
55.9349u
  particle is nothing but helium nucleus.
Mass defect  m = [ZmH+(A-Z)mn] - Ma
Hence its symbol is 2 He 4 . It contains 2
= [26 x 1.00783+(56-26)×1.00867]u-
55.93493u protons, 2 neutrons with a mass number 4.
= 0.5287 u. Mass of hydrogen atom mH  1.007825u; ,

 Binding energy = (m)c 2 = (0.52878)c2 Mass of neutron mn  1.008665u , Atomic

= (0.52878)(931.5MeV) = 492.55 MeV number of helium Z=2, Mass number of
helium A=4, Mass of helium atom

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ma  4.00260u )
Solution: Mass defect,
m  ZmH   A  Z  mn  ma
 21.007825   4  21.008665  4.00260 u

  2 1.007825  2 11.008665  4.00260 u

Mass defect, m  0.03038u
 Binding energy of t he nucleus
2 2
 The main features of binding energy curve
  m  C   0.03038  u  C shown in figure are :
 0.03038  931.5MeV The minimum value of binding energy per
nucleon is in the case of deuteron (1.11MeV).
1u  C 2
 931.5 MeV   28.3MeV
BE
28.3  The maximum value of is 8.75 MeV for
Binding Energy per nucleon  MeV A
4
the nucleus 28Fe56 (iron) which is the most
Binding Energy per nucleon  7.075MeV
stable.
Illustration 8: Calculate the average energy re-
 Binding energy is high in the range 30<A<170.
quired to extract a nucleon from the
nucleus of an   particle in MeV? It is The binding energy of these nuclei is very close
given that the masses of   prticle, proton to 8.75 MeV.
and neutron are 4.00150 amu, 1.00728 amu  Further increase in the mass number, binding
and 1.00867 amu respectilvey. energy per nucleon decreases and consequently
for the heavy nuclei like uranium it is 7.6 MeV.
Solution: Mass defect,  m   Z  m p  mn   mN  In the region of smaller mass numbers, the
 4.0319  4.00150  0.0304amu binding energy per nucleon curve shows the
Binding energy   particle characteristic minima and maxima. Minima are
 m  931.5MeV associated with nuclei containing an odd
 0.034  931.5  28.3MeV number of protons and neutrons such as
Average energy required to extract nucleon. 6
Li,10 14
3 5 B,7 N and the maxima are associated
28.3 with nuclei having an even number of protons
  7.07 MeV
4
and neutrons such as 42 He,12 16
6 C,8 O .
Illustration9: The atomic mass of an alpha par-
ticle is 4.002603 amu and that of oxygen is  Nuclei with A> 240 are distinctly unstable. That
15.994915 amu. Find the energy requried means from A>240single heavy nucleus breaks
to split up the oxygen -16 nucleus into 4 into two nearly equal nuclei with mass number
alpha particles. A=120 and so which are most stable. This
Solution: m  m  4 He24   m  O816  process takes at right of the BE curve as shown
in figure . This process explains the nuclear
 4  4.002603  15.994915 fission.
 0.015497amu  Light nuclei such as hydrogen combine to form
Hence BE  m  931.5MeV  14.435MeV heavy nucleus to form helium for greater
VARIATION OF B.E. PER NUCLEON stability. This process takes at left of the BE
WITH MASS NUMBER curve as shown in figure. This process explains
BINDING ENERGY CURVE: the nuclear fusion.
 The curve obtained on plotting the binding energy
per nucleon versus the mass number is known Note : Iron  28 Fe56  whose binding energy per
as binding energy curve.

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nucleon stands maximum at 8.75 MeV is most 1. Conservation of mass number A.
stable and will undergo neither fission nor fusion. 2. Conservation of charge.
EXO-ERGIC REACTION : 3. Conservation of energy, linear momentum and
 The reaction in which energy will be released angular momentum.
is called exo-ergic Reaction. Illustration-10: Find the Q value of the reac-
A B  C  D Q tion H 1  Li 7  He 4 . . Determine whether
Here A and B are called Reactants the reaction is exothermic or endothermic?
C and D are called Products The atomic mass of H 1 , He 4 and Li 7 are
Q is the amount of energy released
1.007825u, 4.002603u and 7.016004u re-
In an Exo - ergic Reaction
spectively.
Mass of reactants > Mass of products
Solution: The total mass of the initial particles
m  MR  MP mi = 1.007825 + 7.016004 = 8.023829 u and
  M A  M B   M C  M D  the total mass of the final particles.
mf = 2x4.002603 = 8.005206 u
Energy Released Difference between initial and final mass of par-
Q  m C2 joule [ m is in kg] ticles m  mi  m f  8.023829  8.00506
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu)  0.018623u
If Binding energies are given then for Exo-ergic This mass is converted into energy and the re-
reactions. action is exothermic. The Q value is positive and
(B.E) Products > (B.E) Reactants . given by
Energy released Q = (B.E)P – (B.E)R Q   m  c 2  0.018623  931.5  17.35MeV
= [(B.E)C + (B.E)D] – [(B.E)A + (B.E)B] NUCLEAR FORCE:
ENDO-ERGIC REACTION : The attractive force which holds the nucleons
 The reaction in which energy will be absorbed together in the nucleus is called nuclear force.
is called Endo-ergic Reaction. Properties of nuclear forces :
A B  C  D Q 1) Nuclear forces are strongest among all the
Here A and B are called Reactants forces in nature. Nuclear forces are about 1038
C and D are called Products times as strong as gravitational forces. The
Q is the amount of energy absorbed relative strengths of the gravitational, Coulomb's
In an Endo - ergic Reaction and nuclear forces are
mass of reactants < Mass of products Fg : Fe : Fn  1:1036 :1038
m  M P  MR   MC  MD   MA  MB  2) Nuclear forces are short range forces .
Nuclear forces between two nucleons becomes
Energy absorbed Q  m C2 joule [ m is
negligible when the distance between them is >2
in kg] fermi (or ) 2  1015 m . However, the range of
m931.5 MeV (  m is in amu) nuclear force is taken as 1.5 fermi, where the
 If Binding energies are given then for magnitude of nuclear force becomes maximum
Endo-ergic reaction. value.
3) Nuclear forces are basically strong
(B.E) Products < (B.E) Reactants
attractive forces, but contain a small
Energy absorbed Q = (B.E)R – (B.E)P
component of repulsive forces.
= [(B.E)A + (B.E)B] – [(B.E)C + (B.E)D]
The nuclear force is an attractive force, when
Note: A nuclear reaction can occur only if
certain conservation laws are followed. These two nucleons are at a distance of about
are : 1014 m (size of nucleus). As the distance is

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decreased, the attractive force increases rapidly because coulombic repulsive force is also
and becomes maximum at a distance of about present between two protons.
6) Nuclear forces are spin-dependent.
1.5  1015 m . The force between two nucleons having parallel
4) Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
spins is greater the force between two nucleons
A nucleon inside the nucleus doesn’t experience
having anti parallel spins and hence nuclear
a nuclear force due to all the other nucleons. It
forces are spin dependant and these forces are
experiences force only due to its nearest
called tensor forces.
neighboring nucleon.
7) Nuclear forces are exchange forces.
A rough plot of the potential energy between
two nucleons as a function of distance is shown The nuclear force between two nucleons is the
in the figure. The potential energy is minimum at result o f the exchange of  meso ns
a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm. This means that  0 ,   &    between them.  mesons alo
the force is attractive for distances larger than called pions.
0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by
 0 0
distance less than 0.8 fm. 
P   
  n, p 

 p , n 
 
n

8) Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
The force between two nucleons doesn’t solely
depend on the distance between them and
Potential energy (MeV)

doesn’t at along the line joining the two nucleons.

Hence the nuclear force is not completely central.
100
Hardcore Repulsive Forces:
0
If the distance between two nucleons becomes
less than 0.5 fm. There exists a force of repulsion
instead of attraction. These forces are called hard
core repulsive forces.
-100
r0 1 2 3 Atraction
r(fm)
5) Nuclear forces are charge independent.
Inside the nucleus the attractive forces between 0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 r (fm)
two nucleons are of three types i.e., force
between a neutron and a proton (Fn-p), between
two neutrons (Fn-n) and between two protons Repulsion
(Fp-p). RADIO ACTIVITY :
Experiments indicate that the above three types  Spontaneous decay of naturally occurring
of forces have same magnitude i.e., unstable nuclei by emission of certain sub
Fn  p  Fn  n  Fp  p particles (like  ,  , and  radiation) is called
natural radio activity.
Thus, inside the nucleus the force between
 The emission of these rays takes place because
nucleons is not affcted by the charge of the of the instability of the nucleus. In the process of
proton and this property is known as charge emitting these rays a nucleus tries to attain the
independence property of the nuclear force. stability.
 If Fp  p , Fn  n and Fp n be the net force between  In general natural radioactivity takes place in
heavy nuclei beyond lead in the periodic table.
two protons, two neutrons and between a
There are also naturally radioactive light nuclei,
proton and neutron then Fp  p  Fn  n  Fp  n
such as potassium isotope 19K40 , the carbon

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isotope 6 C14 and the rubidium isotope 37 Rb87 . Py  P

 Radioactivity is completely uneffected by the The energy released ‘Q’ is in the form of K.E of
physical and chemical conditions to which the daughter nucleus ‘Y’ and ‘  ’ particle.
nucleus is subjected i.e we cannot change the
radio activity by applying high temperature, Q  KEY  KE
high pressure and strong electric field etc.
 The nucleus can disintegrate immediately (or) M KE y
it may take infinite time. Ratio of kinetic energies KE  M
 y
 The energy liberated during the radioactive
decay comes from individual nuclei.
P2 1
MODES OF DECAY: (  KE  and KE  when ‘P’ is same)
 The radioactive nucleus before decay is called 2m m
a parent nucleus, the nucleus resulting from its KE y M
decay of particles (Radiation) by emission is 1  1
KE My ;
called daughter nuclei.
 This daughter nuclei may be stable (or) KE  KE y M y  M
unstable. 
KE My
X 
 Y  R  Q
Parent Daughter Radiation Energy  M y 
KE   Q  
Here R may be either  particle (or)  particle  M   M y 
;
(or)  radiation. Q is the energy of the emitted
 M 
particles (or radiation). KE y  Q   
 -DECAY :  M  M y 
When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating  -
rays, it is said to undergo  -decay.. An  - Notice that KE is very close to (but smaller
particle is a helium nucleus. Thus a nucleus than) Q.
emitting an  particle loses two protons and Illustration-11:
two neutrons, as a result its atomic number Z The kinetic energy of  -particles emitted
decreases by 2, the mass number A decreases in the decay of 88 Ra 226 into 86 Rn 222 is
by 4 and the neutron number N decreases by measured to be 4.78 MeV. What is the total
2. disintegration energy or the ‘Q-value of
this process’ ?
zX
A
 z  2 Y A  4  2 He 4  Q Solution: The standard relation between the kinetic
Ex: energy of the  -particle (KE) and the Q-value
226 (or total disintegration energy) is
88 Ra  86 Rn 222  2 He 4  4.87MeV
 A - 4   A 
Both electric charge and nucleon number are KEa = 
 A 
.Q ; Q   A  4 .KE
conserved in the process of  decay..
Application : When a stationary radio active  226  226
  4.78MeV   4.78MeV
nucleus X decays into another nucleus Y by  226  4  222
emitting an  -particle. Q  4.865MeV  4.87MeV
X  Y   particle Q  -DECAY :
Applying LCLM if  particle moves forward  When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating
with a momentum ‘P’ then daughter nucleus y
  rays, it is said to undergo   decay..
recoils with same momentum ‘P’ so that total
momentum of the system is zero. Hence when a nucleus emits a  particle, the atomic

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number (Z) increases by 1 unit, but the mass one of its own orbital atomic electron and emits
number does not change. a positron with neutrino.
TYPES OF  -DECAY: Hence, Z X A  1e0  Z 1Y A  1e 0    Q
 It is of three types. Ex: 4 Be7  1e0  3 Li 7  1e 0    Q
1) Negative  -deacay      This is similar to   decay..

2) Postive  -deacay      It is given by 1 p1  1e 0  0 n1 

 -DECAY:
3) Electron capture
 When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating
NEGATIVE  -DECAY:   rays, it is said to undergo   decay..
 The basic nuclear process underlying  -decay Gamma rays are nothing but electromagnetic
is the conversion of neutron to proton. radiations of short wavelengths (not
exceeding 10–10m.)
n  p  e   The emission of   rays from the nucleus does
 e  electron  not alter either atomic number Z or mass
  number A. It just results in the change of the
  antineutrino  energy state of a nucleus.
Its decay equation  When a parent nucleus emits an  or a
A
X A
Y  10    particle, the daughter nucleus may be formed
Z Z 1
in one of excited states. Such a nucleus will
 After   decay, n/p ratio decreases.   always eventually comes to the ground state. In this
comes out from the nucleus along with process   radiation will be emitted.
antineutrino.Negative decay occurs only when
n/p is too large, for stability. Z X A*  Z X A   Photon ( s )
87*
POSITIVE  -DECAY: Example: 38 Sr  38Sr 87   .
The basic nuclear process underlying  +-decay *
38 Sr is isomer of 38 Sr .
is the conversion of proton into neutron.
 When a Radio active nucleus emits an  -
 e   positron  particle followed by two  - particles, its
p  n  e     neutrino  isotope is formed.
 
Its decay equation  2 
ZX
A
 Z2Y A4  
  Z X A4
A
X  Z A1Y  10  
Z
 When a Radio active nucleus emits a  -
 After   decay, n/p ratio increases.   comes particle its isobar is formed.
out from the nucleus along with neutrino.Positive
A 
decay occurs only when n/p is too small, for ZX  Z1Y A
 When a Radio active nucleus emits a  -
stability. Both electric charge and nucleon
number are conserved in  decay also.
particle its isomer is formed


Z X A   Z 1Y A  1 e 0  v  Q X A



X A
Z* Z


Ex: 7 N 13   6C 13  1 e 0    Q PROPERTIES OF  ,  &   rays   RAYS
ELECTRON CAPTURE 1) They are Helium nuclei or doubly ionized
 In this decay mode, the parent nucleus caputres Helium atoms
2) They are deflected by electric and magnetic

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fields through small angles. Deflection of Radioactive radiations in
3) They can penetrate through matter. They electric and magnetic fields :
th  
1  B
penetrating power is of   rays and E
100  



 


th
1
of   rays.
10000
4)   particles from a source are emitted with Ra
Ra
different velocities. Lead block
5) The velocity of   particles ranges between
1.5  107 to 2.25  107 m/s. x B x x x
6) The ionising power of   rays is 100 times
that due to   rays and 10,000 times that
due to   rays.
x x x x
7) They effect photographic plate.
 
  RAYS x x x
1) They are fast moving electrons coming from x
the nucleus.
2) They in deflected and magnetic fields direction
opposite to that of   rays but in large
angles. Lead block
3) They can ionize the gas through which they
1 Illustration-12:
pass. Their ionizing power is of   rays
100 A radioactive element 90 X 238 decays into
1 Y 222 . The number of   particles emitted
but of   rays. 83
100
are
4) The velocity of  - particles emitted from a Solution: Number of   particles emitted
source is not constant.
238  222
5) The velocity of  - particles ranges from   4 . This decreases atomic
4
0.36 to 0.98 times of velocity of light
number to 90  4  2  82 . Since atomic
6) The penetrating power of   rays are about
100 times more penetrating than   rays and number of 83 Y 222 is 83, this is possible if
100 times lessthan   rays.
one   particle is emitted.
7) They effect photographic plate.
  RAYS Illustration-13:
1)   rays are electromagnetic radiations of very A nucleus with Z=92 emits the following
short wavelength of the order of 1012 m . in a sequence:
2) They are not deflected by electric and mag- ,   ,   , , , , , ,  ,  , ,   ,  , . .
netic fields. The Z of the resulting nucleus is
3)   rays possess no mass and carry no
Solution:
charge.
4) They travel with the velocity of light. Z Re sulting nucleus  92  8  2  4  1  2  1  78
5) They can ionize the gas through which they Illustration-14:
pass but with much lower ionizing power.
A radioactive decay chain starts
6) These are photons.
7) They effect photographic plate . from 93 Np 237 and produces 90 Th 229 by

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 NUCLEI
successive emissions. The emitted external physical conditions like temperature,
particles can be pressure etc.
Let ‘N’ be the number of radioactive atoms
A  A|
Solution: By using n   and present at a time ‘t’and N0 is the initial number
4
of radio active nuclei. Let dN atoms disintegrate
n   2n   Z  Z| in time ‘dt’. According to the law of radioactive
Illustration-15: decay
The nucleus 2310Ne decays by   emission.  dN   dN 
Write down the  -decay equation and  dt   N ;  dt  = – N ....... (1)
determine the maximum kinetic energy of  The proportionality constant is called decay

the electrons emitted. Given that :
m (2310Ne) = 22.994466u; constant (or) disintegration constant. The
m(2311Na)=22.989770 u negative sign indicates that as time increases N
Solution: decreases.
_ _ dN
23
Ne  23
Na  e  v  Q From eqn (1)   dt .......(2)
10 11 N
For   - decay, Q = [M(x) - M(y)]C2 dN
Integrating eq (2) on both sides    dt
= [22.994466-22.989770]931.5 MeV N
= 0.004696 x 931.5 MeV = 4.37 MeV log e N   t  C ..... 
3
Illustration-16: How m any  and  - Here C is the constant of integration
At t = O, N= N0 Substituting in eqn (3),
particles are emitted when uranium nucleus
we get, log e N 0  C
214
(92 U238 ) decay to 82 Pb ?
 log e N  t  loge N 0 ;
Solution: Let n be the number of  - particles
 log e N  loge N 0  t
and m be the number of  - particles emitted.
 N 
   t ; N  e  t
U 238
 Pb214
 n ( He 4
)  m (1 e0
) log e ;
92 82 2
N  N
As mass is conserved, 238 = 214 + 4n + m (0)  0 0
= 214 + 4n ; 4n = 24; n = 6 N  N 0 et .... (4)
As charge is conserved , 92= 82+ 2n + m (-1)
 This shows that the number of radioactive nuclei
10 = 2(6) - m n  6 ; m = 2. decreases exponentially with time.Above
 6 - particles and 2  - particles are emitted equation is known as the decay law (or) the law
LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY: of radio-active decay. It is an exponential law.
 Based on their experimental observations and Taking logarithm on both sides for the above
analysis of certain radioactive materials N
equation, loge N = loge No - t ; t loge 0
Rutherford and Soddy formulated a theory of N
radioactive decay. According to them, after 1 N 
 t  ln  0 
decay of a nucleus the new product (daughter)   N 
of nucleus has totally different physical as well
as chemical properties.
 The rate of radioactive decay (or) the number
of nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant is
directly proportional to the number of nuclei (N)
present at that instant and is independent of the

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 NUCLEI
N (remaining) 1 Rd = 106 decays per second.
1
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays per second.

T   Note : Curie is approximately equal to the
N0  
activity of one gram of pure radium.
0.368N0 DECAY CONSTANT (  ) :
 It gives the ability of a nucleus to decay. The
decay constant  for a given radio active
sample is defined as the reciprocal of the time
T 2T 3T 4T 5T
N during which the number of nuclei decreases to
(delayed) (1/e) times their original value.
N
N0
N0
N0
0.368N0 e
0 t
1
t
T ST 
ln(N0)  Larger value of  corresponding to decay in
smaller time and vice versa.  = 0 for stable
nuclei. Decay constant is the characteristic of
ln(N)

the sample taken and does not vary with time.

 If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by more
Time than one process (say n), which have decay
ACTIVITY (R) : constants 1,  2 ......and  n , then the effective
The number of decays per unit time (or) decay decay constant is
rate is called activity (R)
  1   2  ......   n . This is called
dN d
| R |
dt

dt

N 0e t
 
(or) R  N0e   N
t parallel decay.
HALF LIFE (T) :
(or)  As the name suggests, the half life of a radioactive
t
R  R 0e , where R 0  N 0 is the decay sample is defined as “The time interval during
which the activity of a radio active sample falls
rate at t = 0, called initial activity.
to half of its value, (or) The time interval during
R
which the number of radio active nuclei of a
R0 sample disintegrate to half of its original number
of nuclei” Half lives vary from isotope to
isotope. While T may be as small as 10-16 s, its
largest value may be as big as 109 years.
 If a nucleus can decay simultaneously by n
processes, which have activities R1, R2, ........... Eg: Half-life of uranium 
238
92 
U is 4.47 x 109 years
and Rn. Then the resultant activity R = R1 + R2
+............... + R n . If nucleus decays 
89

half-life of krypton 36 Kr is 3.16 minutes.
simultaneously more than one process is called RELATION BETWEEN DECAY CONSTANT ( ) AND

parallel decay. The S.I unit of activity is
HALF LIFE PERIOD (T).
Becquerel (Bq) and other units are curie (Ci)
and Rutherford (Rd). N
F rom Law of Radioactive decay  e t
1 Bq = 1 decay per second, N0

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 NUCLEI

N0 1 70.7% of nuclei remain and 29.3% of nuclei

when N = , t T   eT or 2  eT decayed.
2 2
taking logarithms on both sides ln 2  T (N/ N0)
(or) loge 2  T 1
2.303log10 2 0.693 T Half life
T   0.5
  0.25
0.125
ln 2 2.303log 2 0.693 0.0625
 T=   

 0 time
T 2T 3T 4T
The above relation establishes that the half - life AVERAGE LIFE (OR) MEAN LIFE:
(T) depends upon the decay constant  of the  The average life is defined as the total life time
radioactive substance. The value of  is different of all the nuclei divided by the total number of
for different radioactive substances. original nuclei. i.e
 Half life is the characteristic property of the

 life span of individual nucleus  t
sample and T can not be changed by any known Totalnumber of original nuclei N0
method.
Let N0 be the radio active nuclei that are present
At any given instant whatever be the amount of
at t = 0 in the radioactive sample.
the undecayed sample, it will be reduced to
The number of nuclei which decay between t
exactly half of its value after a time equal to the
and (t + dt) is dN i.e the life time of these nuclei
half life of the sample.
is ‘t’.
In parallel decay   1   2  ........ n hence The total life time of these dN nuclei is (t dN)
1 1 1 1  The total life time of all the nuclei present
   ........ , where T is t he t 
T T1 T2 Tn
equivalent half-life and T1, T2 ...........Tn are initially in the sample =  tdN [ N = 0 at
t 0
the half-lives in individual decay.
Application : infinity]
In a radioactive sample the number of nuclides
undecayed after n-half lives (i.e., t = nT) is Average life time  =
 tdN But dN  N
 N 0  N0 dt
1 
t = nT 
 N 
ln  or
 dN = Ndt  N 0 e t dt ( N  N 0 e t )
n  ln 2 1  N 0 
 ln  

N0et 1
   N      N dt ;   
t
0 0

N0  1 n
or 2 
n
; or N  N  
0
The mean life (or) average life of a radio active
N  2  sample is reciprocal to decay constant.
 The number of nuclei remain in the sample after We know that N  N 0 et ; When t   ,
half of half life period (t=1/2T) is given by
1
1 n 1  x 0
1  1 2 N  N0 e    0.37N0  37% of N0
N  N 0   here n  then N  N 0   e
 2  2  2 
Hence average life period of a radio active sample
N0 can also be defined as “The time interval during
 N taking N0 = 100, N = 50 2 = which 63% of sample decays or sample reduces
2
to 37% of its original amount”.
70.7

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NUCLEI

RELATION BETWEEN HALF LIFE    2.303 tan 

PERIOD AND AVERAGE LIFE:
2.303 log 2
0.693 1 Half life period T 
We know that T  &  
 
2.303 log 2
Hence T  0.693 (or) T  T  log 2 cot 
2.303 tan 
T Note : In radioactive sample decay
  1.443T 1) The probability survival of nucleus after time ‘t’
0.693
From the above equation it is clear that average N
is Ps   e t .
life period is 44.3% greater than half life period. N0
R 2) The probability of nucleus to disintegrate in time
R0 t is Pd  1  Ps  1  e t .
RADIOACTIVE EQUILIBRIUM
Suppose a parent nuclide A with disintegration
R0
constant  A decay into daughter nuclides B with
2 R0
e disintegration constant B which charnges into
0 T  t nuclide as follows
Let at t  0 , the number of atoms of A are N 0
Determination of decay constant   and
and that of B are zero. After time t, there are
half life period (T) of a radioactive sample
graphically N A atoms of A and N B atoms of B.
At any time t, the net rate of formation of
B=nite of disintegratio n of A-rate of
disintegration of B.
dN B
Thus   A N A  B N B
dt
As N A  N 0 e  At
dN 
  A N 0 e  At  B N B
dt
If N0 and N be the number of atoms present
undecayed initially and after a time t, then or dN B  B N B dt   A N 0 e  At dt

We know that N=N0 e   t taking log on both Multiplying the equation by eBt we have
 
sides eBt  dN B  B N B dt   e Bt A N 0 e At

loge N  loge N0 t

eAt dN B  e B t B N B dt  A N 0e B A t
t
 log N  log N 0  or d  N B eB    A N 0 e B A  dt
  t
2.303
After integration we get
  
log N    t  log N 0  A 
 2.303 N B .et    N 0e
 B   A  t
 C .....  i 
 B   A 

Slope of the graph m   tan    A 
2.303 At t  0, N B  0, C        N 0
 B A 
Substituting the value of C in equation (i) we get

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 NUCLEI

B
  N 
N B   A 0   e At  e  Bt  ....... 1
B
 B   A  A
C ;  A  B  C
Special case: If parent nuclide A is of long life C
than B, then  A  B and from equation (1), Illustration-17:
we have A radioactive sample has an activity of 5.13
x107 Ci. Express its activity in ‘becquerel’
A N 0 and ‘rutherford’.
NB 
0
1  e  Bt  ....  2 
Solution: Since 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays per
After time t which is longer than half-life B but second, activity = 5.13 x 107 Ci
shorter than half life of A, then e a t  1 and =5.13 x 107 x 3.7 x 1010 Bq = 1.9 x 1018 Bq
A N A Since , 1 x 106 decay per second = 1Rd
N A  N 0 and so N B   1.9 1018
0 Activity =1.9 x 1018 Bq = Rd
1106
or  A N A  B N B .....  2  = 1.9 x 1012 Rd.
Successive Disintegration Illustration-18:
Let a parent radioactive nucleus A (decay A radioactive substance has 6.0 1018 uired
constant 1 ) has number of atoms N 0 at tiem for the active nuclei of the same substance
to become 1.0 1018 if its half-life is 40 s.
t  0 . After disintegration it converts into a Solution: The number of active nuclei at any instant
nucleus B (decay constant 2 ) which is N0 t N 
radioactive. of time t, N  e ; loge  N0   t
At t  0 ,    
N N
loge  0  2.303 log10  0 
N B  0, N A  N1 and N B  N 2  N   N 
t  
 
N0 0 0 t 0
In this problem, the initial number of active nuclei,
1 gl2
 B  C  stable 
A  N0 = 6.0  1018 ;
N  1.01018 , T  40s,
N1 N2 0 N3 t t
0.693 0.693
dN1    1.733 102 s1 .
 1 N1  N1  N 0 e  t T 40
dt
 6.0 1018 
dN2 N
 1N1  2 N2  N2  1  e1t  e2t  2.303 log10  
 1.0 1018 
dt   1 t
1.733102
dN 2
 2 N 2 2.303 log10 6  2.303 0.7782
dt =   103.4 s.
2
1.73310 1.733102
1. If  t1/2 1   t1/2  2 or 1  2
Illustration-19:
1 N1  2 N 2 (secular equilibrium) A radioactive sample can decay by two
different processes. The half-life for the first
2. If  t1/2 t   t1/2  or1  2
process is T1 and that for the second process
1 N1   2  1  N 2  transient equilibrium  is T2. Find the effective half-life T of the
radioactive sample.
Parallel Radioactive Disintegration
Solution: Let N be the total number of atoms of
dN1
the radioactive sample initially. Let and
dt

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 NUCLEI

dN 2 t t 25
be the initial rates of disintegrations of the  n   t1/ 2  
dt t1/ 2 n 5 ; t1/2  5 days
radioactive sample by the two processes Illustration-22:
dN1 dN 2 The half -life period of a radioactive
respectively. Then  1 N and  2 N
dt dt substance is 20 days. What is the time taken
Where 1 and  2 are the decay constants for for 7/8th of its original mass to disintegrate?
the first and second processes respectively. Solution:
The initial rate of disintegrations of the radioactive Let the initial mass be one unit.
sample by both the processes. 7 1
Mass remaining = 1  
dN dN 8 8
= 1  2  1 N  2 N  1  2  N . 1
dt dt
A mass of 1 unit becomes unit in 1 half life
If  is the effective decay constant of the 2
radioactive sample , its initial rate of 1 1
unit becomes unit in 2nd half life
disintegration. 2 4
dN dN dN1 dN 2 1 1
 N But   unit becomes unit in 3rd half life
dt dt dt dt 4 8
 N  1   N ;       Time taken = 3 half lifes = 3x20 = 60 days
0.693 0.693 0.693
Illustration-23:
  How many disintegrations per second will
T1 T2 T

1 1 1 TT
occur in one gram of 238 U , if its half-life
92
  ;T  1 2 .
T T1 T2 T1  T2 against  -decay is 1.42 x 1017s?
Illustration-20: Solution: Given Half -life period (T)
Plutonium decays with a half life of 24,000 0.693
=  1.42  1017 s
years. If plutonium is stored for 72,000 
years, what fraction of it remains? 0.693
 17
 4.88  1018
Solution: T1/2 = 24,000 years 1.42  10
Duration of time (t) = 72,000 years Avogadro number (N) = 6.023  1023 atoms
n = Number of atoms present in 1 g of
t
Number of half lifes (n) = T 238 N
1/2 92 U 
A
72000
 3 6.023  10 23
24000   25.30  10 20
238
1 1 2 1 3 1 dN
 1g   g   g   g  n
2 4 8 Number of disintegrations =
dt
1 = 4.88 x10-18 x 25.30 x 1020
 Fraction of plutonium remains = g = 1.2346 x 104 disintegrates/sec
8
Illustration-21: Illustration-24:
A certain substance decays to 1/32 of its Two radioactive nuclei A and B have
initial activity in 25 days. Calculate its half disintegration constants  A and  B and
-life. initially N A and N B number of nuclei of
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
them are taken, then the time after which
1 2 3 4 5
1g  g   g   g   g   g their undisintegrated nuclei are same is
2 4 8 16 32
n  5 Solution: N Ae  At  N B e  Bt

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 NUCLEI

( B   A )t N Since, 1106 decay per second = 1Rd

 e  B
NA Activity
1.9  1018
1 N   1.9 1018 Bq  Rd  1.9  1012 Rd
t  ln  B  110 6
B   A  N A 
Illustration-28: Find the probability that a cer-
Illustration-25: tain radioactive atom would get disinte-
The half-life of a radioactive substance is grated in a time equal to the mean life of
5000 years . In how many years, its activity the radioactive sample.
will decay to 0.2 times of its initial value? Solution: Since, the probability P(t) that a particu-
Given log10 5 = 0.6990. lar, radioactive atom gets disintegrated in a time
Solution: T = 5000 years, t (from Eq) is given by
N 2 1
 P  t   1  e  t
N 0 = 0.2 = 10 5
0.693 0.693 1 1
   here t  t   P t   1 
T 5000  e
N  1  0.37  0.63
 e  t ; 1 = 1  5  e t
N0 5 et Illustration-29: The radioactivity of given
loge5 = t sample of whisky due to tritium (Half
life=12 yrs) was found to be only 3.125% of
2.303  0.6990 = t that measured in a recently purchased
2.303  0.6990  5000 bottle marked “10 years old”. By how many
t
0.693 years ago the sample must have been pre-
t = 11614.6years  1.1615104 years pared?
Illustration-26: m 1 3.125 1 1
Two identical samples (same material and Solution: m  2n  100  2n n  5  T
0
same amount) P and Q of a radioactive
t  5T  5  12  60 years
substance having mean life T are observed
 Total age of sample  60  10  70 years
to have activities Ap and Aq respectively
Illustration-30: The half life of s a substance
at the time of observation. If P is older than is 20 minutes. The time interval between
Q, then the difference in their age is 33% decay and 67% decay.
Ap A0 e t1 Aq N 1 67 1
Solution: A   e ( t1 t2 )  Solution: N  2n1  100  2n1 .... 1
q A0 e t2 ; Ap 0

t1
t1  t2 A A  n1  ; For 67% decay,,
  ln q  (t1  t2 )  T ln  q  T
T Ap A  N 1 33 1
 p
 n2   n2 ....  2 
Illustration-27: A radioactive sample has an N0 2 100 2
acticity of 5.13  107 Ci . Express its activity t  2   33  1
n2  2 ;  n n 
in ‘becqueral’ and ‘rutherford’. T 1 67 2 2 1
Solution: Since 1Ci  3.7  1010 decays per 1 1 t t
 1  2 1 1
second, activity 2 t  t 
2 2 1
T
 5.13  107 Ci  5.13 107  3.7 1010 Bq T
t2  t1  T  20 minutes
 1.9  1018 Bq

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 NUCLEI
Illustration-31: Find the number of half lives  Total decay constant,     
elapsed before which, 93.75% of a radioac-
tive sample has decayed. 1 1 1
or     per year
Solution: Fraction of atoms left undecayed is 1620 405 324
100  93.75% = 6.25% We know that N  N 0 e  t
N 6.25 1 3
i.e., N  100  16 When th part of the sample has sisintegrated,
0 4
4 4
N 1 1 N0 N0
or    or, N  N 0   N ;  N 0 e  t or e t  4
N0  2  2 4 4
n Taking logarithm on both side, we get
1
Comapring with N  N 0   , yields n  4 1 2
2  t  log e 4 or, t  log e 22  log e 2
Illustration-32: Calculate the number of half  
lives elapsed, at the end of which, the ac-  2  324  0.693  449 year
tivity of a radioactive sample decrease by Illustration-34: Two radioactive substnaces X
90%. and Y initially contain equal number of at-
Solution: The change in activity with time follows oms. Their half-lives are 1 hour and 2 hours
the same law as that of number of radioactive respectively. Calculate the ratio of their
atoms rates of disintegration after four hours.
 Percentage of radioactive atoms left Solution: Rate of disintegration
undecayed 100  90%  10% dN 0.693
R   N  N 
N 1  N  1
n dt T
i.e., N  10 from  N    2   The ratio of rates of disintegration
0  0  
R1  N1  T2
[where n=no. of half lives elapsed]  
R2  N 2  T1
n
1 1
   or, 2n  10 Here, T1  1 hour, T2  2 hours
 2  10
N 0 is same for the the radio active substances.
1
or, n log 2  log10 or, n   3.3 In four hours, X completes 4 half-lives as its
0.3010 half-life is 1 hour. The remaining number of at-
Thus, at the end of 3.3 half lives, the activity oms of ,
(and hence the number of atoms) would have
N0 N 0 N0
decreased by 90%. N1   4  . Y completes 2 half-lives
Illustration-33: The mean lives of a radioac- 2n 2 16
tive substance are 1620 years and 405 year in four hours as its half-life is 2 hours.
for   emission and   emission respec- The number of atoms of Y remaining
tively. Find the time during whihc three- N0 N0
N2  
forth of a sample will decay if it is decayed 22 4
both by   emission and   emission si- R1 N0 4  2  1
   
multaneously. R2 16 N 0  1  2
Solution: The decay constnat  is the reciprocal
of the mean life  .
NUCLEAR FISSION:
 The process of nuclear fission first discovered
1 1 by German Scientists Otoo Hahn and Strassman
Thus,   per year and   per
1620 405 in 1939.
year
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 NUCLEI
 Nuclear Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a CHAIN REACTION:
heavy atomic nucleus like U235 splits into two  If the mass of fissionable material exceeds a
approximately equal parts, emitting neutrons and critical value, chain reaction or self propagating
liberating large amount of energy. Bohr and fission reaction takes place.
Wheeler proposed liquid drop model to explain The rate of reaction increases in geometric
this fission process. Nucleus of U235 undergoes progression during uncontrolled chain reaction.
fission when it is struck by slow neutrons. This The process of continuation of nuclear fission
fission is not due to the impact of neutron. Energy which when once started continues
spontaneously without the supply of additional
of about 200 MeV is released during one fission
235 neutrons from outside is defined as chain
reaction of 92U . The most probable nuclear reaction.
fission reaction is  In the fission reaction
235 1 141 92 1
U + n  Ba + Kr +3 n +200 MeV
92 0 56 36 0
0 n1  92U 235  56 Ba141  36 Kr 92  30 n1  Q
235
 There is no guarantee that U always breaks here, three more neutrons are produced. These
into Barium and Krypton. On an average,in the three neutrons may then bombarded with three
fission of U235, 2.5 neutrons are emitted per more U 235 , giving rise to 3  3  9 neutrons.
fission when fission occurs due to slow Again these 9 neutrons with fission gives
neutrons. U235 undergoes fission with fast 9  3  27 neutrons and so on. Thus the number
neutrons also. But this probability is minimum. of neutrons increase in geometric progression.
 Fission fragments are unstable and emit Soon a stage is reached when a very large
neutrons. More than 99% of the neutrons number of nuclei are split releasing large energy
produced in the fission process are released in short time. An atom bomb is an example for
within 10 18 s to 10 15 s . They are called prompt this type of fission process.
neutrons. A small number of around 1% or less Ba
n
are emitted over a period of time after the fission n
U235
process has taken place. They are called delayed n
neutrons and will play an important role in teh Ba O Kr
n Ba
running of a nuclear reactor. n
 In the fission of uranium about 0.1% of mass of U
235
U
235 n
n n
rectants is converted into energy. Mass defect Kr
n
in the fission reaction is nearly equal to 0.214 O n
Kr Ba
amu. n
U
235 n
Energy released per fission of 92 U 235 nucleus n
Kr
 0.214  931  200 MeV The chain reaction can be controlled by slowing
 U underoges fission with fast neutrons whose
238
down the neutrons and by absorbing neutrons.
kinetic energies are greater than 1 MeV, whereas Neutrons are slowed down using graphite,
235
U undergoes fission when bombarded with ordinary water or heavy water. These
slow neutrons (or) thermal neutrons whose substances are called moderators. For
kinetic energies are nearly 0.025 eV. absorbing neutrons boron (or) cadmium rods
 The projectile that can be used to bombard a are used.
heavy nucleus need not be a neutron alone. It Reproduction factor (K): “It is the ratio of number
can be a proton or a deuteron or an   particle. of neutrons in any particular generation to the
Hence fission of uranium and thorium is also number of neutrons in the preceding generation.
possible with the high speed prootons of energy Case(i): K<1, the number of neutrons in successive
6.9 MeV (or) by deuterons of energy 8 MeV generations decreases and the chain reaction
(or)   particles of can’t continue (Sub critical state)
32 MeV energy.
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 NUCLEI
Case (ii): K=1, the chain reaction will proceed at a fission. The commonly used moderators in the
steady rate and the chain reaction can be order of efficiency are (i) Heavy water (ii)
graphite, (iii) Berillium and Berillium Oxide
controlled (critical state). e.g: nuclear reactor.
Case (iii): K>1, the number of neutrons increases  Heavy water is a best moderator A good
and the reaction is said to be uncontrolled chainmoderator should have
reaction (super critical state). e.g: atom bomb. (1) low atomic mass
Critical mass: To sustain the chain reaction the mass(2) poor absorption of neutrons
of uranium should be equal (or) more than a (3) good scattering property.
particular amount of mass called ‘critical mass’.
(4) The size of moderator atom should be nearly
1 of same size as that of the size of a prompt
Critical size: The value of is said to be critical
k neutron.
size of the substance. If the size of substanc eis
CONTROL RODS:
even slightly less than the critical size the chain
 The function of a control rod is to absorb
reaction will stop. (capture) the neutrons. Cadmium, Boron and
Chain reactions are of two types. steel rods are used as control rods in a nuclear
a) Uncontrolled Chain-Reactions: In this reactor. Cadmium rods are best control rods.
chain reaction, more than one of the neutrons They regulate the net rate of neutron production
produced in a particular fission cause further and hence they control the intensity of fission
fissions so that the number of fissions increasesprocess.
very rapdily. Thus it is a very fast reaction and
COOLANT:
the whole substance is fissioned within a fraction
 The function of a coolant is to keep the reactor
of a second. This is actually what happens in an temperature at a low value so that there may
Atom Bomb. not be any danger of heat damage to the reactor.
b) Controlled Chain-reaction: If only one of Air and CO2 are used as gaseous coolants.
the neutrons produced in each fission is able to Water, Organic liquids, Helium, Liquid Sodium
cause further fission, then the process is slow are used as liquid coolants. Liquid sodium is best
and the energy is released steadily. Such a chaincoolant.
reaction is called as controlled chain-reaction.
PROTECTIVE SHIELD:
The energy released in this process can be  The process of preventing radioactive effect
utilized for peaceful purposes. this is actually what
around nuclear reactor is called Protective
happens in Nuclear-Reactors. Shield. During the working of a nuclear reactor
NUCLEAR REACTOR OR ATOMICPILE: dangerous radiations such as high energy
 Nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear neutrons, gamma rays and thermal radiations
fission is produced by controlled self sustainingare produced. To protect the persons working
chain reaction. And is used for the production there, the reactor is thoroughly shielded with
of nuclear power (energy). The essential parts concrete wall of several feet thick and lined with
of a nuclear reactor are (i) the fuel, (ii) moderator,
metals like lead.
(iii) control rods, (iv) coolant, (v) radiation
Thermal Neutrons
shields.
Fast neutrons can be converted into slow
THE FUEL:
neutrons by certain materials called moderator’s
The common fuels used are uranium U  , 238
(Paraffin wax, heavy water, graphite) when fast
235 moving neutrons pass through a moderator, they
enriched uranium (U ) and plutonium collide with the molecules of the moderator, as
 Pu  and T h .
236 23 2 a result of this, the energy of moving neutron
decreases while that of the molecules of the
MODERATOR: moderator increases. After sometime they both
 The function of a moderator is to slow down attains same energy. The neutrons are then in
the fast moving neutrons to increase the rate of thermal equilibrium with the molecules of the
moderator and are called thermal neutrons.
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 NUCLEI
Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV (Pu239) is produced along with energy.
and speed is about 2.2 km/s. Fuel: Natural Uranium.During fission of U235,
POWER OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR: energy and secondary neutrons are produced.
 In the nuclear reactor, large amount of heat will These secondary neutrons are absorbed by U238
be generated in the core. These reactors have and U239 is formed. This U239 coverts into Pu239
elaborate cooling systems that needs water. This after two beta decay. This Pu 239 can be
water absorbs the heat and produces steam. separated, its half life is 2400 years.
This steam in turn is used to run the steam turbines 
2
which ultimately generate electric power. Such U 238  0 n1  92U 239 
92  94 Pu 239
reactors are called power reactors. (best fuel of fission)
The power generated by a nuclear reactor is This Pu239 can be used in nuclear weapons
nE n because of its small critical size than U235)
P here be the number of fissions per
t t USES OF ATOMIC ENERGY :
second and E be the energy released in each Generation of electric power : The coolant in a
fission nuclear reactor absorbs the heat generated as a
E = 200 MeV  200106 1.61019 J result of the chain reaction and it releases the
heat to the water which is converted into high
= 3.2 x 10-11J
Note : Number of fissions per sec in a reactor pressure steam. This steam is used to drive
n P turbine and operate the electric generator.
of power 1 W is given by  Production of radio isotopes : A small amount of
t E
the pure element is placed in an aluminium
1
 =3.125x1010 fissions per sec container and the container is placed in the
3.21011 reactor for a few days. The element absorbs
Note : If only x% of energy released in fission
is converted into electrical energy then out put neutrons and the element becomes radioactive
isotope.
x  n E 
 
1 0 0  t 
power of reactor is 127
 0 n1 53 I128*   . Radio iodine
53 I
obtained in this way can be used to treat the
Note: If ‘x’gm of fuel with mass number ‘A’ thyroid gland. These radio isotopes have a
completely undergo nuclear fission in time t sec number of applications in the field of medicine ,
in a reactor then its power is given by
agriculture, industry and basic research.
x Source of neutrons : A large number of neutrons
Number of moles in x gm of fuel =
A are produced in a reactor. They are used in
Number of atoms (nuclei) present in x gm of research . The effect of neutrons on biological
x
fuel n    N A . Where NA is Avogadro
tissues is studied. A new branch of physics called
A Neutron Physics has come up. At o mic
number energy is used to create artificial lakes, to divert
xN A E the course of a river , to make tunnels for laying
nE
 power P   P new railway tracks etc. Atomic energy is used
t At
for driving automobiles, submarines and war -
USES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS: planes. Atomic energy is used in war - fare for
 To generate electric power. creating destructive atom bombs and hydrogen
To produce nuclear fuel plutonium -239 and bombs.
other radioactive materials which have a wide NUCLEAR FUSION:
variety of applications in the fields of medicine,  The phenomenon in which two lighter nuclei
industry and research.
combine to form a heavier nucleus of mass
BREADER REACTOR:
less than the total mass of the combining nuclei
 The atomic reactor in which fresh fissionable fuel
is called nuclear fusion. This mass defect

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 NUCLEI
appears as energy. On adding all these 6 equations, we get
1 4 0
 Simple exampe for nuclear fusion reaction is 4 H  He + 2( e )+ Q
1 2 +1
formation of a helium nucleus by fusing of four Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3 Q4Q5Q6 The value of
hydrogen nuclei and releasing 25.7 MeV of
energy. Q as calculated from mass defect is 26.7 Mev..
1 4 0
41 H 2 He  21 e  25.7 MeV In the sun both proton - proton cycle and
 At temperatures of about 10 K, light nuclei7 carbon- nitrogen cycles occur with equal
combine to give heavier nuclei. Hence, fusion pro babilities. In st ars, who se interior
reactions are called thermo nuclear reactions. temperatures are less than that of the sun, proton
Nuclear fusion takes place in the sun and other -proton cycle dominates the energy generation.
stars. Energy produced in a single fission of Again in stars, whose interior temperatures are
235
92
U is larger than that in a single fusion of more than that of the sun, the energy generation
Hydrogen into Helium. But fusion produces more is mainly due to carbon- nitrogen cycle.
energy than fission per nucleon. In fission, 0.09% The core temperature of heavier stars may be
of mass is converted into energy. In fusion larger than that of the sun and much larger nuclei
0.66% of mass is converted into energy. may be formed. (At the core of the sun,
Hydrogen bomb is a fission – fusion bomb. gravitational attraction produces immense
STELLAR AND SOLAR ENERGY: pressure and temperature, which can reach more
Stellar and solar energy is due to fusion.
than 27 million degrees Fahrenheit (15 million
The cycles that occur are.
degrees Celsius). Hydrogen atoms get
Proton - Proton Cycle & Carbon - Nitrogen
Cycle compressed and fuse together, creating helium)
PROTON - PROTON CYCLE: NOTE: Due to enormous energy released in Sun
The Thermonuclear reactions involved are: and Stars the atmosphere of them will be in
1 1 2
2( H )+2( H )  2( H ) + 2( e ) + Q1
0 ionised state which is called Plasma (Which
1 1 1 +1 contains fast moving neutrons and electrons).
2  1 H 2   2  1 H 1   2  2 He3   Q2 Nuclear fusion can not be controlled.
3 3 4 2
He + He  ( He ) + 2( H ) + Q3 Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
2 2 2 1
On adding up these reactions, we obtain. 1) Neutron are required 1) Protons are required
1 4 0
4( H )  He + 2 e + Q for it for it
1 2 +1
Where Q  Q1Q2 Q3 is the total energy 2) It is possible at normal 2) It is possible at high
pressure and temperature pressure and temperature
evolved in the fusion of 4 hydrogen nuclei
3) Energy released per 3) Energy released per
(protons) to form Helium nucleus. The value of
nucleon  0.9MeV nucleon  6MeV
Q as calculated from mass defect comes out to 4) % of mass getting 4) % of mass getting
be 26.7MeV converted into energy converted into energy
CARBON - NITROGEN CYCLE: = 0.1% = 0.7%
Proposed by bethe. It consists of following 5) Fissionable materials are 5) Fusion materials are
reactions. expensive cheap
12
1 H 1  7 N 13  Q1 ; 6) Harmful reactions are 6) Harmful reactions are not
6C
13 13 0
produced produced
N  C +( e )+ Q 2
7 6 1 Illustration-35:
13 1 14
6 C 1 H  7 N  Q3 ; An explosion of atomic bomb releases an
N 14 1 H 1 8 O15  Q4 energy of 7.6 x 1013 J. If 200 MeV energy is
7
15 15 0 released on fission of one 235 U atom
O  N +( e )+ Q5 ; calculate (i) the number of uranium atoms
8 7 +1

7N
15
1 H 1  6 C 12  2 He 4  Q6 undergoing fission. (ii) the mass of uranium

Page 352
 NUCLEI
used in the atom bomb Illustration-38:
Solution: How much 235U is consumed in a day in
E=7.6x103J; Energy released per fission an atomic power house operating at 400
= 200 MeV MW, provided the whole of mass 235U is
= 200  106  1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J converted into energy?
Number of uranium atoms (n) = Solution: Power = 400 MW = 400 x 106 W;
Total energy time = 1 day = 86, 400 s.
Energy produced , E = power  time = 400 
Energy per fission
106  86,400 = 3.456  1013 J.
7.6  1013 As the whole of mass is converted into energy ,
n 11
= 2.375  10 24 atoms by Einstein's mass -energy relation.
3.2  10
E = Mc2
Avogadro number (N) = 6.023×1023 atoms
Mass of uranium = E 3.456  1013
  3.84  104 kg  0.384 g .
c2 (3  108 ) 2
n × 235 2.375 × 10 24 × 235
= = 92.66g Illustration-39:
N 6.023 × 10 23 Calculate the energy released by the fission
Illustration-36: 1 g of 235 U in joule, given that the energy
Calculate the energy released by fission released per fission is 200 MeV.
from 2 g of 23592U in kWh. Given that the ( Avogadro’s number = 6.023  1023 )
energy released per fission is 200 MeV. Solution:
Solution: Mass of uranium = 2g The number of atoms in 1 g of 235 U
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV Avogadro ' s number
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J = Mass number
=
Number of atoms in 2 gram of uranium is
6.0231023
23  2.5631021
2  6.023  10 235
n = 5.125  10 21 atoms Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
235
Total energy released = No. of atoms x energy = 200106 1.61019  3.21011 J .
released per fission Energy released by 1 g of 235 U
= 5.125 x 1021 x 3.2 x 10-11 = 16.4  1010J = Number of atoms  energy released per
16.4  1010 fission
 Energy in Kwh = Kwh
36  105 = 2.5631021 3.2 1011 J  8.2021010 J
= 0.455  105 Kwh = 4.55  104 Kwh Illustration-40: A nuclear power reactor gen-
Illustration-37: erates electric power of 100 MW. How many
number of fissions occur per second if
200 Mev energy is released when one nuclear fuel used in the reactor is uranium.
nucleus of 235U undergoes fission. Find the Solution: Power of a reactor using uranium is
number of fissions per second required for n
producing a power of 1 megawatt. P     200  106  1.6  10 19 J
t
Solution: Energy released = 200MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11J n
100  106     200  1.6  10 13
P = 1 mega watt = 106 watts. t
No.of fissions per second  O  100 MW 
Total energy
n n 100  106
Energy per fission   3.125 1018 / s
t 200 1.6 10 13
106
n=  3.125  1016 Fissions Illustration-41: What is the power output of
3.2  10 11 235
92 U reactor if it takes 30 days to use up 2

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 NUCLEI
kg of fuel and if each fission give 185 MeV
2
of usable energy? E0  m0c 2   9.1  1031    3  108 
Solution: Number of atoms in 2 kg of
235 6.02  1023  2  103  8.2  10 14 J  0.51MeV
92 U   5.12  1024 Hence for pair production, the minimum energy
235
Therefore, energy released in 30 day of γ -photon must be 2 x 0.51 = 1.02 MeV. If
the energy of γ -photon is less than this, there
 5.12  10 24  185MeV  1.511014 J
 Energy released per second may be Compton’s effect. If energy of γ -
1.51 1014 photon is greater than E0 , then extra energy
  58.4 MW will become kinetic energy of the particles. If E
30  24  60  60
Note:Antiparticles: An antiparticle is a form of mat- is the energy of γ -photon, then kinetic energy
ter that has the same mass as the particle but of each particle will be,
carries an opposite charge and/or a magnetic E  2 E0
moment that is oriented in an opposite direction K electron  K positron 
relative to the spin. 2
Name of the particle Antiparticle The inverse process of pair production is called
pair annihilation. According to it when electron
Electron  e  Positron  e 1 
1
and a positron come close to each other,
annihilate each other and produces minimum two
Proton  P   Anti Proton  P   γ -photons. Thus
0
Neutron  n  Anti Neutron  n  1 β
0
 1 β  2hf
 Positron   electron   γ  photon 
Neutrino  v  Anti Neutrino  v 
0
+1
Positive Pi-Meson    Negative Pi-Meson    
Positive Mu-Meson     Negative Mu-Meson     2 (   photon )
A few electrically neutral particles, like the pho-
ton and neutral  meson are their own antipar- 10
ticles. A collision between a particle and an an- ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
tiparticle results in annihilation of matter. RADIO ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES:
Pair Production and Pair Annhilation (a) Radio isotopes have very short half lives and
Conservsion of Photon energy to mass (Pair hence used for various purposes.
Medical applications :
production) 27
PAIR PRODUCTION AND  0 n1 11 Na 24* 2 He 4
13 Al
ANNIHILATION  Radio – sodium is used to find out how a given
medicine is circulated in the body. It is also used
 When an energetic γ - photon falls on a heavy to find out circulatory disorders in blood vessels.
nucleus, it is absorbed by the nucleus and a pair 31 2 32*
of electron and position is produced. This 15 P 1 H 15 P 1 H1
phenomenon is called as pair production and Radio – phosphorus is used in the treatment of
can be represented by the following equation: skin diseases. It is also used for the treatment of
0
blood disorders.
0
hv  β  β 127
 γ  photon 
1 1
53 I  0 n1 53 I128*    rays
 Positron   electron 
 Radio – iodine is used in the treatment of thyroid
+1
0
glands. Radio - iodine ( I131) is used for diagnosis
and treatment of brain tumor and for the study
of pumping condition of heart.
  photon 59
27 Co  0 n1 27 Co60*    rays
Heavy nucleus 10 Radio – cobalt is used in the detection and
The rest mass energy of electron or positron is: treatment of cancer
Radio-iron is used to detect anemia and treat
anemia.

Page 354
 NUCLEI
In Geology: Radio carbon(C14) is used to
determine the age of fossils by radio - carbon
dating Radio isotopes are used to determine
the age of rocks by the ratio of U 238 to Pb 206
In industry : Radio – isotopes are used to find the
wear and tear of machine parts Radio isotopes
are used to detect flaws in metal structures
 Radio isotopes are used for treatment of alloys
such as quenching , annealing and hardening.
Radio isotopes are used in the selection of
appropriate lubricants.
In research: Radio - isotopes are used in the study
of nuclear disintegrations of elements.
In food preservation: By exposing vegetables and
other food stuffs to radiations from radio - active
isotopes, their shelf life can be increased.
In agriculture: Radio phosphorus (P32) is used to
study the uptake of phosphorus by plants using.
Radio sulphur (S34) is used to study the transport
of minerals in plants .Radio zinc is used to
develop new species of plants by causing genetic
mutation. Irradiation by  - radiations of seeds
to improve yields.
In Chemistry: Radio oxygen (O18) is used to
study the mechanisms of photosynthesis and
hydrolysis of ester Radio isotopes are used in
the chemical analysis of solubility of sparingly
soluble salts such as PbSO4 and AgCl and
determination of trace amounts of elements in
industrial raw materials and products.

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1

RAY OPTICS PART-1

(Reflection of light)
INTRODUCTION In case of reflection at the point of incidence
 Nature has endowed the human eye (retina) ‘O’, the angle between incident ray and normal
to the reflecting surface is called the angle of
with the sensitivity to detect electromagnetic
incidence (i). The angle between reflected ray
waves within a small range of the and normal to the reflecting surface is called
electromagnetic spectrum. angle of reflection (r).
 Electromagnetic radiation (wavelength from The plane containing incident ray and normal is
400 nm to 750 nm) is called light. It is mainly called plane of incidence.
through light and the sense of vision.
 Light travels along straight line with enormous  Laws of reflection : The incident ray, the
speed. The speed of light in vacuum is the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
highest speed attainable in nature. The speed surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the
of light in vacuum is same plane.
c  2.99792458108 ms1 . i  r
  3108 ms1  Laws of reflection are valid for all reflecting
 The wavelength of light is very small compared surfaces either plane or curved.
to the size of ordinary objects that we encounter
commonly. A light wave can be considered to
travel from one point to another, along a straight
line joining them. The path is called a ray of
ir ir ir
light, and a bundle of such rays constitutes a
beam of light.
 The phenomena of reflection, refraction and
dispersion of light are explained using the ray  If a light ray is incident normally on a reflecting
picture of light. We shall study the image surface, after reflection it retraces its path i.e.,
formation by plane and spherical reflection and if i  0 then r  0
refracting surfaces, using the basic laws of
reflection and refraction.
 Reflection of Light : When a light ray strikes
the boundary of two media such as air and glass,
a part of light is turned back into the same
medium. This is called reflection of light.
 In case of reflection of light frequency,
wavelength and speed do not change. But the
intensity of light on reflection will decrease.
 If reflection of light takes place from a denser
medium, there is a phase change of  rad.
i  If i, 
n andr are vectors of any magnitude along
incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray
respectively then
 
r. i
n    
n. i r i. 
n r  0
Page 356
RAY OPTICS PART-1
This is because incident ray, reflected ray and 1 sin 1 cos
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the

same plane. 
Types of reflections 1 cos 1 sin
 Regular reflection: When reflection of light  
takes place from a perfect smooth plane surface,
then the reflection is called regular reflection t̂
(or) specular reflection.  e1  Unit vector along the incident ray
In this case, a parallel beam of light incident
e  Unit vector along the reflected ray
will remain parallel even after reflection as 2

shown in the figure. t  Unit vector along tangential direction

n  unit vector along outside normal
Since e1  e2  1;
 We can write
e as the vector form i.e.
1

e1 and e2

From equation i and ii we get,
e  e  2 cos  
1 2 n
 e2  e1   2 cos  
n.........iii 
In case of regular reflection, the reflected light
By concept of dot product
ray has large intensity in one direction and
negligibly small intensity in other direction. e .
1n  11 cos    
Regular reflection of light is useful in determining  e1.
n   cos 
the property of mirror.
n
 Diffused reflection: If the reflecting surface
is rough or uneven, parallel beam of light is
reflected in random directions. This kind of
reflection is called diffused reflection. e1 
   

By putting the value of cos  we get,

As shown in the above figure if the reflecting

e  e  2 e .
2 1 n  
n , this is the vector form
1

surface is rough, the normal at different points of law of reflection

will be in different directions, so the rays that  Deviation of a ray due to single
reflection:
are parallel before reflection will be reflected in
The angle between the direction of incident ray
random directions.
and reflected light ray is called the angle of
We see non-luminous objects by diffused
reflection. deviation (  ).
LAW OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT IN
VECTOR FORM:

Page 357
 RAY OPTICS PART-1
ROTATION OF IMAGE:
Case (1) :
When direction of incident ray is kept
i r
fixed and mirror is rotated.
See figure M1, N1 and R1 indicating the initial
position of mirror, initial normal and initial
direction of reflected light ray respectively.
M 2 , N 2 and R 2 indicate the final position of
From the above figure      i  r  mirror, final normal and final direction of reflected
But i = r light ray respectively.
N1 N2
Hence angle of deviation in the case of reflection A
 R1 D
is     2i fixed 
C
incident 
R2
ray  

 M1
B 
M2
i
/2
i1  r1   i2  r2    
y  mx  c From the figure it is clear that
It is noted that, generally anti - clock wise
ABC  2    2      or   2
deviation is taken as positive and clock wise
deviation as negative. That means when incident ray is fixed, and mirror
Normal incidence: In case light is incident rotates through the angle  .
normally (i) Then reflected ray rotates through the angle 2
in the same sense as the mirror rotates.
i  r  0;   180o (ii) The angular velocity and angular acceleration of
Reflected Light new reflected ray becomes twice as that of mirror

fixed incident ray 2

Incident Light

N
Grazing incidence: d d  2 
m  ; r 
In case light strikes the reflecting surface dt dt
tangentially, i  r  90o ;   0o or 360o d
r  2  2m
dt
1  Angular velocity of mirror
2  Angular velocity of reflected ray
2  21
Incident Case (2) :
Reflected When mirror is fixed and incident ray
Light Light rotates:
1 = Angular velocity of incident ray
N

Page 358
RAY OPTICS PART-1

2 = Angular velocity of reflected ray Final ray

initial ray
1 = 2
1 2 

 

 = 2n+
fixed mirror Illustration 1: Two plane mirrors are inclined
to each other such that a ray of light
[negative sign shows that the direction of angular incident on the first mirror and parallel to
velocity is opposite to each other] the second is reflected from the second
mirror parallel to the first mirror. The angle
DEVIATION OF LIGHT RAY DUE TO between the two mirrors is
TWO SUCCESIVE REFLECTION: Solution: Let the angle between the two mirrors
2 be  . Ray PQ is parallel to mirror M 1 and
M2 –
RS is parallel to M 2
–
 M1 P
R 
S



  
O M2
1 M1 Q
So, M 1 RS  ORQ  M1OM 2  
0
 1  180  2 Similarly M 2QP  OQR  M 2OM 1  
 2  1800  2      In ORQ , 3  1800 ,   600
  1   2  3600  2 Illustration-2:Two plane mirrors are placed
 ; angle between mirrors. perpendicular to each other. A ray strikes
 Net deviation is equal to summation of on the mirror and after reflection falls on
individual deviation suffered by a light ray. the second mirror. The ray after reflection
1
from the second mirror will be
Solution:
 – 1
o
90 
net net –  – 2 90o

2
 
 – 3 90o

  360  2  360  2  90  180o

 net      1     2     3  2 Hence the ray after reflection from the second
 net  1   2   3 mirror will be anti parallel to the original ray.
 It is defined as an angle by which initial ray vector Illustration 3: Show that “A light beam
needs to be turned so as to overlap final ray reflected from three mutually
vector. perpendicular plane mirrors in succession
reverses its direction”.
Solution: we can assume three mutually
perpendicular plane mirror

Page 359
 RAY OPTICS PART-1
ui = uix i + uiy j +uiz k i.e., the image formed by a plane mirror left is
turned into right and vice versa with respect to
z
object as shown in figure (b).
i2 M
u 
k N1

ur = urx i + ury j + urz k

i2 N2
 j y
N3
i u  (b)
i3
x  When you look into a plane mirror, you see
an image of yourself that has three properties.
 Let e1  ai bj  ck is a unit vector incident  All the incident rays from a point object will
meet at a single point after reflection from a
on the first mirror. plane mirror which is called an image.
 After reflection by  x  y  plane mirror, the  The image is up right.
unit vector of reflected ray will be  The image is the same size as you are
e2  ai bj  ck  Distance of object from mirror=Distance of
And this ray incidents on the mirror image from the mirror.
 The image is upright, if the extended object is
 y  z  plane and reflected ray will be placed parallel to the mirror.
e3  ai bj  ck   The image is inverted, if the extended object
And finally this ray incidents on the mirror lies perpendicular to the plane mirror.
 z  x  plane and reflected ray will be  If two plane mirrors inclined to each other at
an angle  , the number of images of a point
    
e4  ai bj  ck = e4    ai  b j  ck  object formed are determined as follows
or e4  e1 , this means, final ray reverses its reflected reflected
direction. side side
 x  y  plane Normal unit vector is k real
 y  z  plane Normal unit vector is i real object virtual
image image
 z  x  plane Normal unit vector is j
Characteristics of images due to
 The image is located as far behind the mirror
Reflection by Plane Surface: as you are infront of it. This is shown in the
 A plane mirror produces front - back reversal figure(b).
rather than left - right reversal. It must be kept in M
M A1
mind that the mirror produces the reversal effect A
in the direction perpendicular to plane of the O I
mirror. The figure (a) shows that the right handed O I
B1
B
co-ordinate system is converted into left handed
Point object Extended object
co-ordinate system. (a) (b)
M
1
y y The graph between image distance (v) and
object distance (u) for a plane mirror is a straight
1 line as shown in figure (b).
z
z The ratio of image height to the object height is
1
x called lateral magnification (m). Thus in case of
x
plane mirror ‘m’ is equal to one.
(a)

Page 360
RAY OPTICS PART-1
 The principle of reversibility states that rays approach (or recede) at the same speed v,
retrace their path when their direction is and the relative velocity of image with respect
reversed. In accordance with the principle of to object will be 2v as shown in figure (a). If
reversibility object and image positions are the mirror moved towards (or away from) the
interchangable. The points corresponding to stationary object with speed v, the image will
object and image are called conjugate points. also move towards (or away from) the object
This is illustrated in figure. with a speed 2v, as shown figure (b).
O I I O

(a) (b) M M
 A mirror whatever may be the size, it forms the  When the object moves infront of stationary
complete image of the object lying infront of it. mirror, the relative speed between object and
Large mirror gives more bright image than a its image along the plane of the mirror is zero
smaller one. It is seen that the size of reflector and in perpendicular to plane of mirror relative
must be much larger than the wavelength of the speed is twice that of the object speed.
incident light otherwise the light will be scattered VIO y  0 and VIO x  2v x
in all directions.
 Every object has its own field of view for the M
given mirror. The field of view is the region
between the extreme reflected rays and V Vy
y V
depends on the location of the object infornt of
the mirror. If our eye lies in the filed of view V
then only we can see the image of the object  
other wise not. This is illustrated in figure.
O Vx Vx I
Field
of view
Illustration 4: A plane mirror is placed at
origin parallel to y-axis, facing the positive
x-axis. An object starts from (2m, 0, 0) with

M
 
a velocity of 2iˆ  2ˆj m/s. Find the
relative velocity of image with respect to
I object.
O

 A plane mirror always form virtual image to a

real object and vice versa and the line joining
object and image is perpendicular plane mirror
as shown in figure (a).
M

Solution: The relative velocity of image with respect

u v to object along normal  4iˆ The relative
O I velocity image with respect to object along
plane of mirror = 0. Hence the relative velocity
(a) of image with respect to object  4iˆ
 If an object moves towards (or away from) a NO OF INCIDENTS OF A POINT OBJECT
plane mirror at speed v, the image will also PLACED BETWEEN TWO MIRRORS:

Page 361
 RAY OPTICS PART-1

HF  2  x  y   H
H
MM 1   x  y  
2
Illustration 5: Find the minimum size of mir-
ror required to see the full image of a wall
behind a man standing at the centre of
360 room, where H is the height of wall
 If is even number (say m) Number of Solution:From similar triangles concept from the

images formed n  m  1, for all positions figure
of objects in between the mirrors.
360
 If is odd integer (say m) number of images

formed n  m , if the object is not on the
bisector of mirrors. n  m  1, if the object
is on the bisector of mirrors.
360
 If is a fraction (say m). The number of

images formed will be equal to its integer part
i.e., n   m .
O  Observer eye
Ex: If m=4.3, the total number of images
n   4.3  4 H
'

3x
 MM ' 
H
MM x 3
Illustration 6: A point source of light S, placed
at a distance L in front of the centre of a
mirror of width d, hangs vertically on a
wall. A man walks in front of the mirror
along a line parallel to the mirror at a
distance 2L from it as shown in figure.
m Find the greatest distance over which he
can see the image of the light source in
the mirror.
 To see complete image form head to toe,
minimum height of mirror is half of height of
object, the upper end of mirror should between
head and eye and lower end of mirror should S
be between eye and feet. d

H H L
x 2L
 M

x x Solution: The ray diagram will be as shown in figure.
E
y y


M
y

F F

Page 362
RAY OPTICS PART-1

o h
In ABC , tan 45 
60
h = 60m
IMAGES FORMED BY TWO PLANE
MIRRORS:

HI = AB =d, DS = CD = d/2
d
Since, AH = 2AD,  GH = 2CD = 2 d
2
Similarly IJ = d
GJ = GH + HI +IJ =d +d + d =3d
Illustration 7:A man is 180cm tall and his eyes
are 10cm below the top of his head. In x y
order to see his entire height right from
toe to head, he uses a plane mirror kept y+d x+d
at a distance of 1m from him. The mini-
mum length of the plane mirror required
is x + 2d y + 2d

H
10 cm
y + 3d x + 3d
E
180 cm

180/2 cm
and so on.
Solution:
I1 = Image formed by the mirror M1
F
I 2 = Image formed by the mirror M2
According to the following ray diagram
I 21  Image of I 2 which will act as an object
1
length of mirror = 10  170   90cm for mirror M1
2
Illustration 8: When a plane mirror is placed I12  Image of I1 which will act as an object
horizontally on level ground at a distance for mirror M2
of 60 m from the foot of a tower, the top of Illustration 9: Figure shows a point O i.e. the
the tower and its image in the mirror object placed between two parallel mirrors.
0
subtend an angle of 90 at the eye. The Its distance from M1 is 2 cm and that from
height of the tower is M2 is 8 cm. Find the distance of images from
Solution: the two mirrors considering reflection by
A the combination.
M1 M2
h

45o o
90 2cm
B
45
o
C
O

h 8 cm

A
60 m
Solution:

Page 363
 RAY OPTICS PART-1
M1 M2

2cm
O M M1 M2

8 cm

d = 10 cm

Image formed by Mirror M 1

D
(Distance of images measured from the mirror M1) d
mage formed by Mirror M 2 1 1 
(Distance of images measured from the mirror M ) MM 1   D   D  d 
2
2 2 
2 8 D  d D  d
MM1  .... (i) and MM 2  D 
4 4
18 12  3D  d 
MM 2  ... (ii)
4
22 28  Width of the mirror = M 1M 2  MM 2  MM1
Illustration 10: An Object moves with 5 m/s 2D  2d
 [From (i) and (ii)]
towards right while the mirror moves with 4
1 m/s towards the left as shown. Find the 2 D  d D  d
velocity of image  
4 2
 A mirror whatever may be the size, it forms the
complete image of the object lying infront of it.
object Large mirror gives more bright image than a
5 m/s smaller one. It is seen that the size of reflector
1 m/s must be much larger than the wavelength of the
incident light otherwise the light will be scattered
mirror
in all directions.
Solution: Perpendicular to the plane mirror, Illustration 12: A ray of light travelling in the
Vim  Vom , Vi  Vm  Vm  V0 1 ˆ
Vi  (1)  (1)  5
direction
2
 
i  3jˆ is incident on a
plane mirror. After reflection, it travels
1 ˆ
object
5 m/s
along the direction
2
 
i  3jˆ . Find the
1 m/s angle of incidence.
Solution: Let the angle between the directions of
incident ray and reflected ray be  ,
mirror
1
 Vi  7m / s
Illustration 11: The minimum width of a plane
 
A.B cos  2 2

ˆi  3jˆ . ˆi  3jˆ  1 
cos   ; 1 1
mirror required for a person to see the AB 1 3 1 3
complete width of his face is  D  d  / 2 , 2 2
where, D is the width of his face and d is 1
the distance between his two eyes.
cos   ;   1200
2
Solution:   180    180  120  600

So, the angle of incidence is i   300
2

Page 364
RAY OPTICS PART-1

of convex mirror
Field of view

O


Illustration 13:A reflecting surface is 

represented by the equation Lens
Field of
2L x view of
Y sin   , 0  x  L. A ray
  L  Lens
travelling horizontally becomes vertical
after reflection. The coordinates of the O
point(s) where this ray is incident is
Solution: A horizontal ray becomes vertical
after reflection

Field of view of
concave mirror
I
O

SPHERICAL MIRROR:
dy x Spherical Mirror is formed by polishing one
tan    2 cos surface of a part of sphere. Depending upon
dx L which part is shining the spherical mirror is
classified as
2  900 ;   450 a) Concave mirror: If the side towards center of
1  2 cos   x / 2   x  L / 3 curvature is shining and
b) Convex mirror: If the side away from the
2L 3L center of curvature is shining.
y  sin   / 3 
  BASICTERMS:
 L 3L   2 L 3 L  The basic terms associated with spherical
 ,  &  ,  mirrors are as follows :
3    3   (i) The centre of curvature, C is the centre of
Field of view of object as well as its the sphere from which the mirror is a small
image w.r.t an optical surface: segment
 It is defined as region of space where diverging (ii) The vertex or pole, P is the midpoint of the
incident rays for an object and diverging reflected mirror.
or refracted rays for the image are present . (iii) The radius of curvature, R is the radius of
 Field of view of image depends on shape, size the sphere from which the mirror is a small
and nature of given optical boundary as well as section.
position of the object. (iv) The principal axis is the line passing through
CONCEPT OF FIELD OF VIEW: the centre of curvature C and the vertex P. It
 If our eyes are present in the field of view then extends indefinitely in both directions.
only we can see the object and image. (v) With a concave mirror, all rays parallel to the
 Virtual object has no field of view hence it cannot
be seen. principal axis pass through a single point F after
reflection. Then F is called the principal focus.
The parallel rays converge at F after reflection.
however, in case of a convex mirror, the
reflected rays appear to emerge from F behind

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1
the mirror. Thus, the reflected rays appear to cos   1,sin  , tan    .
diverge from the principal focus. This is also known as paraxial approximation.
SIGN CONVENTION:

(a) The diagrams are drawn with the incident light

(vi) Focal plane is a plane passing though the point
travelling from left to right
F and perpendicular to the principal axis
(b) The distances are measured by taking the vertex
(vii) The focal length, is the distance between the
as the origin.
vertex P and the principal focusR F. It will be
f  . (c) The distances measured in the direction of the
shown later that
2 incident light are considered positive while those
Where R = Radius of sphere
measured in the direction opposite to the
(viii) The reciprocal of the focal length is1called the
incident light are taken as negative.
power of the mirror. Thus, P   .
f (All quantities measured to the right of P (pole)
(f in meter). The unit of the power is diopter
are positive and all those to its left are negative).
or m–1
(d) Heights measured upward and perpendicular
(ix) The diameter MN of the circular outline of the
to the principal axis are taken as positive while
mirror is called the aperture of the mirror. The
those measured downward are considered as
unobstructed surface area of the mirror, having
negative.
circular rim and available for reflection,
(e) Angles measured clockwise, beginning at the
represents the aperture.
optic axis, are negative. Angels measured
 It is measured in terms of the angle  ,
counterclockwise are positive.
subtended by the extremities of the mirror at
RULES FOR IMAGE FORMATION (FOR
the centre of curvature. The aperture determines
PARAXIAL RAYS ONLY)
the amount of light energy that is received by
1. A ray parallel to the principal axis after
the mirror. In other words, it determines the
reflection from the mirror passes or appears to
light gathering capability of the mirror.
pass through its focus (by definition of focus).

PARAXIAL RAYS AND PARAXIAL

APPROXIMATION:
A ray is said to be paraxial if the angle  2. A ray passing through or directed towards the
between the ray and the principal axis (or focus, after reflection from the mirror, became
symmetry axis) is small. parallel to the principal axis.
 Only rays inclined at less than about 10 0 to the
principal axis are considered as paraxial rays
and they lie close to the axis throughout the
distance from the object to the image. As the C F F C
angles are small, and when expressed in
radians. (a) (b)

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
3. A ray passing through or directed towards the 4. Parallel rays but not parallel to principal
centre of curvature, after reflection from the axis
mirror, retraces its path (as for it
i  0 and so r  0)

C F F C Such rays after reflection meet at F point on

the focal plane, such that
(a) (b) FF ' FF '
4. Incident and reflected rays at the pole of a  tan        FF '  f 
FP f
mirror are symmetrical about the principal axis. 5. Mirror formula for point object
An object is placed at a distance u from the
pole of a mirror and its image is formed at a
distance v from the pole
If angles are very small :
MP MP MP
 ,  and  
u R v
From CMO,          
RELATIONS FOR SPHERICAL
MIRRORS:
Relations between f and R of spherical mirror
1. For marginal rays,
In
 ABC , AB  BC and AC  CD  DA  2 BC cos 
R
 R  2BC cos  BC  2 cos  and From
CMI ,           
R So we can write
BP  PC  BC  R 
2 cos          2    
M 2 1 1 1 1 1
A      
D
R v u f u v
C
6. Mirror formula for extended object
2 P
B
M
f A

h0
R
B 
1
M P
2. For paraxial rays (parallel to principal axis) B C hi F 
Here  is small so A
sin    , cos   1, tan    )
u
R R
Hence BC  and BP  . thus, point B is v
2 2 R
the Using the sign convention, u = -ve, R = -ve
midpoint of PC (radius of curvature) and is and v=-ve into the above equation, we get
R
defined as focus, so BP = f = .
2 1 1 2 1 1 2
   
R u v  R u v R
3. BP is the focal length, f 
2

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1
Using the relation R = 2f in the above equation,  dv
 For small objects: ml 
1 1 1 du
we obtain   By differentiating mirror equation on both sides
u v f with respect to u we get,
This relation is the Mirror formula. 1 1 1 1 dv v 2 dv v 2
   2  2  ml     m2
v u f v du u du u 2
MAGNIFICATION:
Length of image =  m 2  (length of object)
size of image l
Magnification : sizeof object li  m 2  lo  i  m 2  ml  m 2
lo
 For transverse magnification, size means height  For small one dimensional object:
and for longitudinal magnification size means ml  (Transverse magnification)2
length of object / image. SUPERFICIAL MAGNIFICATION OR
 For 1 dimensional object, there are two types AREAL MAGNIFICATION(mA):
of magnification
a) Transverse or Lateral magnification area of image
b) Longitudinal magnification. mA 
area of object
a) Transverse or Lateral magnification:
M
A

h0
B  P
B C hi F 
A

u
v Overall magnification:
R
In case of more than one optical component,
height of image h1
m  the image formed by first component will act
height of object h0
as an object for the second and image of
In the figure ABP and ABPare similar. So,
second acts as an object for third and so on,
hi v h v h v
  i  m i  the product of all individual magnifications is
h0 u h0 u h0 u called over all magnifications.
b) Longitudinal magnification
I I I I
m0   1  2  n
O O1 O 2 On
 m1  m 2 m n
1 1
A B Case (1):
P
A B When an object is placed with its plane
u1
u2 perpendicular to the principal axis.
v1
v2 In this case both dimensions height of the
 If one dimensional object is placed along the object and width of the object are
principal axis then linear magnification is called perpendicular to the principal axis. Then
longitudinal magnification. h1  mh0 ; h0  height of object ;
Longitudinal magnification :
Wi  mW0 ; W0  width of object
length of image  v2  v1 
ml     Area of image :
length of object  u2  u1  Aimage  hi  Wi  mh0  mW0

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
 Aimage  m 2 Aobject  u  u  Illustration 14: The focal length of concave
Case (2): mirror is 30cm. Find the position of the
When an object is placed with its plane parallel object in front of the mirror , so that the
to principal axis. The image of a rectangular image is three times the size of the object.
frame kept in front of a concave mirror as Solution: As the object is in front of the mirror it is
shown in the figure will be a rectangle. real and for real object the magnified image
formed by concave mirror can be inverted (i.e.
W 0 real) or erect (i.e virtual) , so there are two
h 0 possibilities.
f
a) If the image is inverted (i.e real) m 
f u
hi  mh0 (Transverse magnification)
Wi  m 2 h0 (Longitudinal magnification for
small objects )
Then, area of image
 Wi  hi    m 2W0   mh0 
Area of image   m 3  (area of object) 30
VOLUME MAGNIFICATION(mV): 3   u  40cm
30  u
Object must be at a distance 40cm in front of
volume of 3D image
mV  the mirror (In between C and F)
volume of 3D object b) If the image is erect (i.e virtual)
For small cubical objects only, all dimensions
will be magnified equally because all dimensions f 30
are almost at the same distance from the mirror, m 3
hence final image is also a cube. f u 30  u  u  20cm
Area of object is perpendicular to the principal
axis. Hence,
Area of image Ai  m 2 A0
Length of image li  m 2l0 then,

Object must be at a distance of 20cm in front

of the mirror (In between F and P).
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors:
From the ray diagrams we understand that
Volume of image  Ai  li To a real object in case of concave mirror the
4
image is erect, virtual and magnified when the
 m 2 A0 .m 2 l0  m 4 A0 l0 , Vi  m V0 object is placed between F and P. In all other
positions of object the image is real and
Volume of image  m 4 (Volume of object) inverted.
 An observer whose least distance of distinct  To a real object the image formed by convex
vision is ‘d’ views his own face in a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished
mirror of radius of curvature ‘r’ then the no matter where the object is.
r  A concave mirror with virtual object behaviour
maximum magnification is m  is similar to convex mirror with real object and
d  d 2  r2 convex mirror with virtual object behaviour is
similar to concave mirror with real object.

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1
 By principle of reversibility a convex mirror can form real and magnified image to a virtual object
which is within the focus and virtual images when virtual object is beyond the focus. i.e., the convex
mirror can form real and virtual images to virtual objects. A concave mirror with virtual object always
form real images.
 If the given mirror breaks into pieces, each piece of that mirror has its own principal axis, but behaviour
is similar to that of main mirror with less intensity of image.

a) Concave mirror

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
b) Convex Mirror

Motion of Object in front of Spherical respect to mirror along the principal axis. Here
Mirror Along the Principal Axis negative sign indicates that the object and the
 When the position of the object changes with image are always moving opposite to each
time on the principal axis relative to the mirror, other.
the image position also change with time  Relation between object velocity and image
relative to the mirror. velocity given above is also valid for convex
mirror. In convex mirror speed of image slower
than the object whatever the position of the
object may be.
 Above relation is not true in terms of
acceleration of object and image.
Motion of the object Transverse to the
Principal Axis:
If the object moves transverse to principal axis
then the image also moves transverse to
principal axis.
1 1 1
  V0
v u f
Differentiating with respect to time, we get u
1 dv 1 du
 2 .  2 .  0 (or) O h0 I
v dt u dt hi
C
 v  du  v  v
2 2
dv
   . (or) iV    
  .V0
dt  u  dt u Vi
(or) Vi   m 2V0 Consider the diagram. For a spherical mirror
Where Vi is velocity of the image with respect h
m i
ho
to mirror and V0 is velocity of the object with
Differentiating w.r.t time

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1

dh i / dt 1 1 1
 m or V1  mV0 (a) For all real image     ;
dh 0 / dt v u f
Power of Curved Mirror : Every optical 1 1 1
    ; y=mx+c
instrument have power. It is the ability of an v u f
optical instrument to deviate the path of rays This is a straight line equation with slope -1.
incident on it. If the instrument converges the This is represented by the line AB.
rays parallel to principal axis, its power is said 1 1 1
to be positive and if it diverges its power is said (b) For virtual image,    ;
to be negative. v u f
1 1 1
   ; y=mx+c
v u f
This is a straight line equation with slope +1.
This represents line BC.
F
(c) The graph between 1/v and 1/u to a convex
mirror as shown in figure (b).
Since convex mirror always form virtual image
Converging mirror to a real object.
P = +ve
(a) 1 1 1 1 1 1
     ; y=mx+c
v u f v u f
This is a straight line equation with slope +1.
 U-V Graph for Curved Mirrors:
F
In case of concave mirror, the graph between
u and v is hyperbola as shown in figure.
v
Diverging mirror
P = -ve Plane mirror
(b)
For a mirror Power ‘P’ 2f Real image
1 100
P  or P   f
f  metre f cm O
f 2f u
S.I unit of power is dioptre D  m1
For concave mirror P is positive and for convex
mirror power is negative. Virtual image
1 1
 , Graph for Curved Mirrors:
V U Figure (a)
1 1
The graph between and to a concave 1 1 1 1 uf
v u (a) For real image   (or) 
mirror is shown in figure (a) v u f v uf
uf
1 1 v
v v u f
1 1 1 1
f
A C (b) For virtual image   
v u f
45° 45° 1 45° 1 1 f u fu
O 1 u  or v 
B u v fu f u
1 f (c) In case of convex mirror, the graph between u
f and v is a hyperbola as shown in figure (b)
Since convex mirror form only virtual images.
Figure - (a) Figure - (b)
1 1 1 1 1 1 fu
Since     or v 
v u f v u f uf

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
v

2f
f
O f 2f u

Figure (b)
 m-v Graph for Spherical Mirrors:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 
In a spherical mirror:   reduces to  
v u f v u f f  x2 f  x1 f
v v v v Which on simplification gives x1 x2  f
 1   or   1
2

u f u f
m m m (Newton’s Formula) ( f  x1 x2 )
Illustration 15: The image of a real object in
1 a convex mirror is 4 cm from the mirror. If
v v the mirror has a radius of curvature of 24 cm,
v
f 1 f find the position of object and magnification.
Solution:
Fig.(a) Fig.(b) Fig.(c)
(a) Concave mirror: vf (4)(12)
If the object is real, for real image Now u    6cm
u=-ve, v=-ve, f=-ve, v f 4  12
v v The negative sign shows that the object is real
 m  1or  m    1 and it is placed in front of mirror.
f f
Graph as shown in figure (a) v (4) 2
For virtual image, u=-ve, v=+ve, f=-ve The magnification, m =   
u 6 3
v
 m   1, Graph as shown in figure (b) Illustration 16:A point light source lies on the
f principal axis of concave spherical mirror
(b) Convex mirror:
Since convex mirror always form virtual image with radius of curvature 160 cm. Its image
to a real object, u=-ve, v=+ve, f=+ve, appears to be back of the mirror at a
v distance of 70 cm from mirror. Determine
 m  1, graph as shown in figure (c). the location of the light source.
f
From the above graph it is observed that for
v  0, m  1. i.e., when an object is very near 1 1 2
Solution:   , Here v  70 cm ,
to pole of the mirror u  0 , then the curved u v R
mirror behaves like a plane mirror. 1 2 1
Newton’s Formula : R  160cm  
u R v
In case of spherical mirror, if the object distance
1 2 1 15
 x1  and image distance  x2  are measured    
u 160 cm 70 cm 560 cm
from focus instead of the pole of the mirror.
Then mirror formula reduces to a simple form 560
called the Newton’s formula.  u  cm 37.3cm
15
The image is at a distance of 37.3 cm in front
of the mirror.

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1
Illustration 17: A point source of light is Solution: Since the image is virtual, erect and of a
located 20 cm in front of a convex mirror smaller size, the given mirror is ‘convex’
with f=15 cm. Determine the position and (concave mirror does not form an image with
nature of the image point. the said description).
1 1 1 R
Solution:   Given R  60 cm f   30 cm
u v f 2
Transverse magnification,
Here u  20 cm, f  15 cm I 6 3 v 3
m     Further m   
1 1 1 1 1 35 O 10 5 u 5
    
v f u 15cm 20cm 300cm 3u
 v
5
1 7
 1 1 1 5 1 1
v 60 cm ; v  8.6 cm nearly Using   ,  
v u f 3u u 30
Also v is positive, the image is located behind 5  3 1
the mirror, hence the image is virtual.   u  20 cm
3u 30
v 3 Thus the object is at a distance 20 cm (from
m  the pole) in front of the mirror.
u 7
Illustration 20: A rod of length 10cm lies along
Since m is positive, image is erect. Also m  1 , the principal axis of a concave mirror of
focal length 10cm in such a way that the
hence the image is diminished. end closer to the pole is 20cm away from
So, a virtual, erect and diminished image is it. Find the length of the image.
formed. Solution:
Illustration 18: An object is 30.0 cm from a
spherical mirror, along the central axis.
The absolute value of lateral B A
magnification is 1/2. The image P
produced is inverted. What is the focal
length of the mirror?
Solution: Given that image is inverted, so it is real.
Hence u and v both are negative. Magnification 10 cm 20 cm
is 1/2, therefore, Since point A is centre of curvature, image of A
u is formed on A itself
v  , given, u  30 cm, v  15cm Image of B :
2
1 1 1 u  30cm , f  10cm, v  ?
Using the mirror formula,   1 1 1 1 1 1
v u f     
1 1 1 1 v u f v 30 10
We have,   
f 15 30 10 1 1 1 3  1
   ; v  15cm
 f  10 cm v 10 30 30
Since focal length is negative the given mirror is
concave.
Illustration 19: An object of length 10 cm is A B
P
placed at right angles to the principal axis
of a mirror of radius of curvature 60 cm
such that its image is virtual, erect and has
15 cm
a length 6cm. What kind of mirror is it and 20 cm
also determine the position of the object? Length of image A ' B '  20  15  5cm

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
Illustration 21: A concave mirror of focal
length 10cm and a convex mirror of focal
length 15cm are placed facing each other
40cm apart. A point object is placed X X
O
between the mirrors on their common axis Solution: I P
and 15cm from the concave mirror. Find
the position and nature of the image
produced by the successive reflections, first
at concave mirror and then at convex
mirror. 22.5 cm
1
f =+15cm f= -10cm
Let object be placed at distance x from plane
mirror as shown. The image is formed at
distance (22.5  x) from concave mirror..
I2 P2
I1 O P1 For concave mirror
u  (22.5  x ), v  (22.5  x ), f  10 cm

40cm
15cm 1 1 1 1 1 1
  ,  
Solution: v u f (22.5  x ) (22.5  x ) 10
Image by concave mirror: The direction of
incident rays is from left to right. 45 1
2 2
 , x  7.5 cm
u  15cm, f  10cm, v  ? (22.5  x ) 10
Illustration 23: An object is placed infront of a
1 1 1 1 1 1
     convex mirror at a distance of 50 cm. A
v u f v 15 10 plane mirror is introduced covering the
1 1 1 3  2 1 lower half of the convex mirror. If the
    , distance between the object and the plane
v 10 15 30 30
mirror is 30 cm, if it is found that there is
v  30 cm no parallax between the images formed by
Image of O is formed at I1 the two mirrors. What is the radius of
Image by convex mirror : After every reflection, curvature of the convex mirror?
direction of incident rays is reversed, now it is
from right to left. Now I1 servers as an object
for convex mirror.
50 cm
u '  10 cm, f '  15 cm, v '  ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 20 cm
     M
v' u' f ' v ' 10 15 P I F
Solution: 30 cm
1 1 1 23 1
    , v '  6 cm
v ' 15 10 30 6
30 cm
Illustration 22: A plane mirror is placed 22.5
cm in front of a concave mirror of focal As shown in figure the plane mirror will form
length 10cm. Find where an object can be erect and virtual image of same size at a distance
placed between the two mirrors, so that the of 30 cm behind it. So the distance of image
first image in both the mirrors coincides. formed by the plane mirror from convex mirror
will be PI = MI - MP. But as MI = MO,

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 RAY OPTICS PART-1
PI= MO-MP = 30-20 = 10 cm. v 60
Now as this image coincides with the image  v  60m  m    3
u 20
formed by convex mirror, therefore for convex Shortcut solution :
mirror,
u  50 cm; v  10 cm f 30
1 1 1 m   3
50 f  u (30)  (20)
So   , i.e., f   12.5 cm
10 50 f 4
So R  2f  212.5  25 cm v  mu  (3)(20)  60cm
Illustration 24: A convex mirror of focal length Since mirror is at rest (given that) :
1m and a plane mirror are facing each
other, if the distance between them is 1m, 2
 60 
their images are separated by VIM ||    (5)  45 m / s
 20 
Solution:
P P Q
 VIG  VIM  VMG

1m 1m 1
m  VIG  45  0  45m / s
2

Image of convex mirror by plane mirror is That means image approaches the mirror
formed at P ' . with velocity 45 m/s.
Image of plane mirror by convex mirror
1 1 1 1  Method of finding co-ordinates of
   v  m is formed at Q image of a point object, if its
v 1 2 2
1 coordinates of object are known:
P ' Q  1  1   2.5m Suppose coordinates of a point object
2
Illustration 25:Find the velocity of image  x0 , y0  with respect to coordinate axis as
w.r.t. ground. Given velocity of object shown in figure. The coordinates of images
w.r.t. ground is 5 m/s towards the mirror.
 xi , yi  can be obtained using

V= 5m/s

Solution: For the velocity component along the

principle axis
v2
VIM ||   (VOM )||
u2 1 1 1 f x0
   xi 
Apply mirror equation : x0 xi f x0  f

1 1 1 1 1 1 yi  xi fy0
     m   yi 
v u f v 20 30 y0 x0 f  x0

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RAY OPTICS PART-1
Illustration 26: A reflecting surface is
represented by the equation x 2  y 2  a 2 .
A ray travelling in negative x-direction is
directed towards positive y-direction after
reflection from the surface at point P.
Then, find the co-ordinates of point P.
Solution: The ray diagram is as shown.

||||||| 45°
|||||||| |||||||||||
|| ||||
45°
|
P
||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||

a
||||||
||

y
||||||||||||||||

45° x
x
||| ||||

||| ||

|||| ||||
||||||
|||||||||||||||||||

a a  a a 
x and y  ; P   , 
2 2  2 2

Illustration 27: Find the velocity of image in

a situation as shown in the figure.
Given that object is instantaneously at
a distance of 30 cm.

30 cm
f = 20 cm


Solution: V0 = Velocity of object =  9 iˆ  1 2 ˆj  m / s


Vm = Velocity of mirror = 2iˆ m / s
f 20
m   2
f  u 20  (30)

Page 377
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2

RAY OPTICS PART-2

(Refraction at plane surface and curved surfaces)
INTRODUCTION Angle of deviation due to refraction(  ): It
Refraction of Light :When a beam of light is the angle between the direction of incident
is travelling from one medium to another light ray and refracted light ray.
Angle of emergence (e): The angle which the
medium, a part of light gets reflected back into
emergent ray makes with the normal is called
first medium at the interface of two media and the angle of emergence.
the remaining part travels through second Laws of Refraction:
medium in another direction. The change in the  Incident ray, refracted ray and normal always
direction of light take place at the interface of lie in the same plane.
two media.  The product of refractive index and sine of angle
 The phenomenon due to which light deviates of incidence at a point in a medium is constant,
from its initial path, while travelling from one   sin i = constant;
optical medium to another optical medium is 1 sin i1   2 sin i2
called refraction.
If i1  i and i2  r then;
 Refraction of light is due to change in speed of 1 sin i   2 sin r;
light when passes from one medium to another This law is called Snell’s law.
medium.  According to Snell’s law,

 In case of refraction of light frequency (colour) sin i  2 

 constant    for any pair of
and phase do not change. But wavelength and sin r  1 
velocity will change. medium and for light of given wavelength.
Note: When light passes from one medium to  When light ray travels from medium of
another medium, the colour of light is refractive index 1 to another medium of
determined by its frequency not by its
refractive index  2 then, 1 sin i1   2 sin i2
wavelength.
 Vector form of Snell’s
Refraction of light at plane surface: law: 1  eˆ1  nˆ    2  eˆ 2  nˆ 
N1
i n
0 Air
Medium
(glass)

r i 
e1
Refracted
light ray 
Air e i
emergent ray e2
N2
Angle of incidence (i): The angle which
the incident ray makes with normal, is called There ê1  unit vector along incident ray
angle of incidence. ê2  unit vector along refracted ray
Angle of refraction(r): The angle which the
refracted ray makes with normal, is called the n̂  unit vector along normal incidence point
angle of refraction.  Applying Snell’s law at each interface, we get

Page 378
RAY OPTICS PART – 2
r . If i is changed slightly by i then
corresponding change in r is
1  cos  i 
 r     i
  cos  r 

r
1 sin i  2 sin r1 ;  2 sin r1  3 sin r2
3 sin r2  4 sin r3 ; It is clear that air
i
1 sin i  2 sin r1  3 sin r2  4 sin r3
(or)  sin i  constant
When a light travels from optically Condition for no refraction :
rarer medium to optically denser (a) When an incident ray strikes normally at the
medium obliquely: point of incidence, it does not deviates from its
incident light ray path. i.e., it suffers no deviation.
In this case angle of incidence (i) and angle of
optically rarer
refraction(r)are equal and i  r  0.
i medium (air)
O
Optically rarer Optically rarer
medium(air) medium(air)
optically denser r  = i - r
medium(glass)

refracted
light ray

a) it bends towards normal.

b) angle of incidence is greater than angle of Optically denser
medium(glass)
Optically denser
medium(glass)
refraction.
c) angle of deviation   i  r (b) If the refractive indices of two media are equal
When a ray of light travels from 1  2  
optically denser medium to optically From Snell’s law,
rarer medium obliquely:
 sin i   sin r , sin i  sin r ; i  r
Incident Hence, the ray passes without any deviation
light ray
at the boundary.
N
optically
i denser medium i
(glass) 1=
2=
optically rarer r  = r–i
medium r
(air)
refracted light ray
a) it bends away from the normal at the point
of incidence. (c) Because of the above reason a transparent solid
b) angle of refraction is greater than angle of is invisible in a liquid if their refractive indices
incidence. are same.
c) angle of deviation   r  i . Absolute refractive Index  or n :
 A monochromatic light ray is traveling from air The absolute refractive index of a medium
into a medium of Refractive Index  with angle veloctiy of light in free space (C)

velocity of light in a given medium (V)
of incidence i and the angle of refraction is
It is a scalar.

Page 379
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
It has no units and no dimensions. From snell’s law 1 sin i  2 sin r
From electromagnetic theory if 0 and  0 are the sin i1 sin i2 sin i sin i
permittivity and permeability of free space,   or  1  2
 and  are the permittivity and permeability V1 V2  
of the given medium then refractive index of Illustration 1:The refractive index of glass
the given media with respect to water is 9/8. If the
1 velocity and wavelength of light in glass
C  0 0  are 2  108 m/s and 4000 A 0 respectively,,
n     r r find the velocity and wavelength of light
V 1 0  0 in water.

where  r and  r are the relative permittivity and g v w 9 vw
Solution: w g    v  8  2  108 ;
permeability of the given medium. w g

 For vacuum or free space, speed of light of all 9  2 108

wavelengths is same and is equal to C and  =1 vw   2.25  108 m / s.
8
 For a given medium the speed of light is different
for different wavelengths of light, greater will g w    
w g    g  0 ,  w  0 
be the speed and hence lesser will be refractive w g  g w 
index.
9  9  4000
R  V , So in a medium V   R  w ; w   4500A 0 .
 Actually refractive index  varies with 8 4000 8
Illustration 2: The wavelength of light in
B
 according to the equation   A    . vacuum is  . When it travels normally
where A and B are constants through glass of thickness ’t’, find the
 For a given ray of light, denser the medium lesser number of waves of light in ‘t’ thickness
will be the speed of light and greater will be of glass (Refractive index of glass is  )
the refractive index. Solution: Number of waves in a thickness ‘t’ of a
Example : Glass is denser medium when medium of refractive index  is
compared to water, so thickness t
number of waves  
glass water ;  4/3;   3/ 2
w g wavelength  m

 For a given ray of light and given medium, the  t

refractive index is also equal to the ratio of But m   number of waves = 
 
wavelength of light in free space to that in the Where 0 is the wavelength of light in vacuum.
medium.
Illustration 3: When light of wavelength  in
C f vaccum vaccum vacuum travels through same thickness
   ‘t’ in glass and water, the difference in
V f medium medium
the number of waves is ______.
Relative Refractive Index: When light (Refractive indices of glass and water are
passes from one medium to the other, the  g and  w respectively.)
.)
refractive index of medium 2 relative to medium Solution: We know number of waves of a given
1 is written as 1 2 and is given by t
light in a medium of refractive index  is 
2 v1  
(a) 1 2    v   ... 1
t
 Difference in number of waves     g  w 
1 2 
(b) Refractive index of medium 1 relative to 
medium 2 is
where  g and  w are the refractive indices of
1 v 2 
and 2 1    v   ...  2  glass and water respectively.
2 1
2 1 

Page 380
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Illustration 4: A ray of light is incident at the D
glass-water interface at an angle i as shown 2 3 4
1
in figure, it emerges finally parallel to the
surface of water, then the value of A B C

 g would be
Solution: Applying Snell’s law at B and C,
Air
r 4 1 2 3 4
w =
3
r
Water
Glass D
iC
iB B C
i
A

Solution: Applying Snell’s law (  sin i  constant)

at first and second interfaces, we have  sin i  constant or 1 sin iB  4 sin iC
But AB  CD ;  iB  iC or 1  4
1 sin i1  2 sin i2 ; But, 1   glass ,i1  i
Illustration 7: A ray of light is incident at the
2  air  and i2  900 glass-water interface at an angle i as shown
1 in figure, it emerges finally parallel to the
 0
  g sin i  1 sin 90 or  g  sin i  surface of water, then the value of  g would
Illustration 5: A light beam is travelling from be
region I to region IV (Refer figure). The
refractive index in regions I, II,III and IV Air
n0 n0 n0 4
are n0 , , and , respectively. The w 
2 6 8 3
angle of incidence  for which the beam r
just misses entering region IV is Water
IV Glass
I II III
  n   n 90 n i
 2  6  8
A: Applying Snell’s
law   sin i  constant  at first and second
interface, we have
0 0.2m 0.6m 1 sin i1   2 sin i2 ; But, 1   glass , i1  i
Solution: As the beam just misses entering the
region IV, the angle of refraction in the region  2   air  1 and i2  90o
IV must be 900 . 1
Application of Snell’s law successively at   2 sin i  1  sin 90o  or  g 
sin i
different interfaces gives
Optical Path : The optical path to a given
n0 n n
n 0 sin   sin  1  0 sin  2  0 sin 90 0 geometrical path in a given medium is defined
2 6 8
as distance travelled by light in vacuum in the
1 1
 sin   or   sin 1 same time in which it travels a given path length
8 8
Illustration 6: A ray of light passes through four in that medium.
transparent media with refractive indices 
1 , 2 , 3 and 4 as shown in the figure.
A d B
The surfaces of all media are parallel. If
the emergent ray CD is parallel to the
incident ray AB, Find the relation between
1 1

1 and 4 . vaccum
d

Page 381
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
AB = real path or geometrical path Illustration 9: Find the thickness of a
1 1 = optical path
AB transparent plastic plate which will
If light travels a path of length ‘d’ in a medium produce a change in optical path equal to
d
  the wavelength  of the light passing
at speed v, the time taken by it will be t =   .
v through it normally. The refractive index
So optical path length, of the plastic plate is  .
d   c Solution: When light travel a distance x in a medium
x  c  t  c      d  as   
v  v of refractive index  , its optical path =  x
Therefore optical path is  times the Change in optical path =  x  x     1 x .
geometrical path. As for all media   1, optical
path length is always greater than actual path This is to be equal to  . But    1 x  
length. 
The thickness of the plate x 
 If in a given time t, light has same optical path  1
length in different media, and if light travels a Illustration 10: Two parallel rays are travelling in
distance d1 in a medium of refractive index 1
4
and a distance d 2 in a medium of refractive a medium of refractive index 1  . One of
3
index  2 in same time t, then 1d1   2 d 2 .
the rays passes through a parallel glass slab of
 The difference in distance travelled by light in
vacuum and in a medium in the same interval of 3
time is called optical path difference due to that thickness t and refractive index  2  . The
2
medium.
path difference between the two rays due to
x  A ' B ' AB   d  d x     1 d the glass slab will be
 A slab of thickness d and refractive index  is
kept in a medium of refractive index  '     . Solution: x    2  1 t   3 / 2  1 t  t
 
If the two rays parallel to each other pass  1   4 / 3  8
through such a system with one ray passing Illustration 11:Consider slabs of three media
through the slab, then path difference between A, B and C arranged as shown in figure.
  R.I. of A is 1.5 and that of C is 1.4. If the
two rays due to slab will be x    1 d . number of waves in A is equal to the
'  number of waves in the combination of B
2 and C then refractive index of B is:
 The optical phase change,   (optical path
 A
Monochromatic
difference) light
Illustration 8: The optical path of a B C
monochromatic light is the same if it goes x 2x
through 4.00 m of glass or 4.50 m of a x A xB xC
liquid. If the refractive index of glass is Solution: N A  N B  N C ;  
1.5, what is the refractive index of the
 A  B C
liquid? x A  A x B  B xC  C
 
Solution: When light travels a distance ‘x’ in a 0 0 0
medium of refractive index  , the optical path
is  x 3 x  1.5  x   B  2 x  1.4 ;   B  1.7
Given 1 x1  2 x2  1.5  4.00  2  4.50
Principle of Reversibility of Light
According to principle of reversibility, if a ray
1.5  4.00 of light travels from X to Z along a certain path,
2   1.333 it will follow exactly the same path, while
4.50 travelling from Z to X. In other words the path
of light is reversible.

Page 382
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
N Illustration 12: A light ray is incident normally
X Normal
on a glass slab of thickness ‘t’ and
Medium A
refractive index ‘  ’as shown in the figure.
(Rarer medium) Then find time taken by the light ray to
1 travel through the slab.
P Q
Y
Medium B 2
(Denser medium)
90 t
Solution: 
Z Plane mirror
M
From the figure distance travelled by the light
1 ray through the slab is ‘t’
a b 
b a distance travelled
 Thus, the refractive index of medium ‘b’ with Velocity of light in glass 
respect to ‘a’ is equal to the reciprocal of time (t')
refractive index of medium ‘a’ with respect to c t t
  t' 
medium ‘b’.  t' c
In case of first medium. Illustration 13: A light ray is incident on a
1 sin i   2 sin r ; 1 sin i  2 sin  i  d1  plane glass slab of thickness ‘t’ at an angle
of incidence ‘i’ as shown in the figure. If
1 1  1  ‘  ’is the refractive index of glass, then
sin  i  d1   sin i ; i  d1  sin  sin i  find time taken by the light ray to travel
2  2  through the slab.
  
d1  i  sin 1  1 sin i 
 2  i
N O
X
1
i Solution:
Y t
r d
r d1
2
As shown in the above figure distance travelled
Z by the light ray through the slab is ‘d’. From
In case of second medium
then figure

 2 sin r  1 sin i ; 2 sin  i  d 2    sin i
1
t t
2 cos r   d 
1 d cos r
  
sin  i  d 2   sin i ; i  d2  sin 1  1 sin i  Velocity of light in glass
2  2  Distance travelled through the glass
 
=
d2  i  sin 1  1 sin i  time(t')
 2  c d d
N   t'
X  t' c
1
d2 i t  2t
t' 
Y cos r  c c  2  sin 2 i

r
Illustration 14: Light of wavelength 4500 A0 in
2
air is incident on a plane boundary
between air and another medium at an
Z
angle 300 with the plane boundary. As it
From (1) and (2) d1  d 2 deviation in two
enters from air into the other medium, it
media remains same
deviates by 150 towards the normal. Find

Page 383
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
refractive index of the medium and also Illustration 16: The x-z plane separates two
the wavelength of given light in the media A and B of refractive indices
medium. 1  1.5 and  2  2 . A ray of light travels
Solution: from A to B. Its directions in the two media

are given by unit vectors u1  aiˆ  bjˆ and
i  a
o u2  ciˆ  djˆ . Then find the ratio of .
30 air c
-y
medium
r' 15
o

i
ai  b j
(i)
Angle of incidence i  900  300  600. As x-z plane
the ray bends towards the normal, it deviates Solution: r ci  d j
by an angle i  r  150 (given)
 r  450 Applying Snell’s law y( j)
air sin i  med sin r ; a a
tan i  so sin i 
 1 sin 600    sin 450 b a 2  b2
In terms of wavelengths, c c
and tan r  ,sin r 
air  4500 d c2  d 2
  1.5   or  med  air 
med 1 1.5 1 sin i  2 sin r ;
0
med  3674 A  3  a   c 
    2 
Illustration 15: Monochromatic light falls at  2   a 2  b2  2
 c d 
2

an angle of incidence ‘i’ on a slab of a But as aiˆ  bjˆ and ciˆ  djˆ are unit vectors so
transparent material. Refractive index of
this material being ‘  ’for the given light, a 2  b2  c2  d 2  1 ;
what should be the relation between i and 3 a 4
 so that the reflected and the refracted Hence a  2c, so 
rays are mutually perpendicular? 2 c 3
Solution: In the given figure let r is the angle of Illustration 17: A ray of light is incident on the
surface of a spherical glass paper-weight
reflection and r ' is the angle of refraction. making an angle  with the normal and
According to the given condition, considering
the reflected and the refracted rays to be is refracted in the medium at an angle  .
perpendicular to each other, Calculate the deviation.
Solution: Deviation means the angle through which
i r the incident ray is turned in emerging from the
medium. In Figure ifAB and DE are the incident
o
and emergent rays respectively, the deviation
r 90 will be  .


 C

 From the figure r  90  r   180
0 0
B  
D
So, r   900  r A
E
O
r   900  i [i = r, by law of reflection]
According to Snell’s law, 1 sin i   sin r 
sin i   sin  900  i  Now as at B ; i   and r  
sin i   cos i,   tan i  i  tan 1    So from Snell’s law, 1sin    sin  ....(1)
Now from geometry of figure at D, i  

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
So  sin   1sin  .....(2) sin i AO
Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2)     ; According to Snell’ law
sin r AI
Now as in a triangle exterior angle is the sum of  sin i  sin i
remaining two interior angles, in BCD , 1
 or 1 
 sin r  sin r
            2    
 AO AO  1  1 x
Illustration 18: A ray of light falls on a   AI  
transparent sphere with centre at C as  1 AI  
shown in figure. The ray emerges from the The distance of image AI is called apparent
sphere parallel to line AB. The refractive depth or apparent distance. The apparent
index of the sphere is  1 xreal
 depth xapp is given by x
i.e., app 

C
1x
r The apparent shift OI  AO  AI  x 
A
o
B 
60 1
  
Hence the apparent shift OI  x  1   
 
Solution: Deviation by a sphere is 2 (i - r)
 Case(2) : If rarer medium is air  1  1
Here, deviation   600  2 (i-r) or i-r = 30 0
x
 r = i 300  600  300  300 xapp  real  y  mx 

sin i sin 60 0
    3  1
sin r sin 30 0 apparent shift OI  1   x
Apparent Depth:  
 Case(1) : Object in denser medium and Diagram shows variation of apparent depth with
observer in rarer medium. real depth of the object.
When object ‘O’ is placed at a distance ‘x’
from A in denser medium of refractive index 
app depth

as shown in figure. Ray OA, which falls normally

on the plane surface, passes undeviated as AD.
Ray OB, which ‘r’(with normal) on the plane 
surface, bends away from the normal and passes
as BC in air. Rays AD and BC meet at ‘I’ after Real depth
extending these two rays backwards. This ‘I’ 1
Slope  tan     1
is the virtual image of real object ‘O’ to an 
observer in rarer medium near to transmitted  If two objects O1 and O2 separated by ‘h’ on
ray AD. When i and r are very small normal line to the boundary in a medium of
AB refractive index  . These objects are observed
sin i  tan i  ......(i) from air near to normal line of boundary. The
AI
h
AB distance between the images , I1I2  ;
sin r  tan r  .......(ii) 
AO
Dividing eq. (i) and (ii) h
O1O 2  h; I1I2 

D
rarer medium()
i C
A
 i B
I r
x
r

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
V  u  x  t 
x  2t
air 
  
I1 I3 I2 (O3)
O1 (x+t)
h I2 (x+2t)
O2 2 1  2  1
  ; R 
 Apparent depth of object due to composite slab V u R
1  1 
x1 1  O; 
V  u  2t  V   x  2t 
x2 2
V
  x  2t 
x3 3

O
x x x  x  2t 
is S  1  2  3   
1  2  3 
 
P P  
 If there are ‘n’ number of parallel slabs which 
are may be in contact or may not with different air o
x - t
refractive indices are placed between the x
observer and the object, then the total apparent t
shift 2 1 2  1
 
v u R
 1   1   1   1
S  1 
 
 x1  1 
1   
 x 2      1 
2   
xn
n 
   0  R     V1    x
V1  x
Where x1,x2 ---- xn are the thicknesses of the
Here, I1 behaves like object for pole P2 (Plane
slabs and 1 , 2 ....n are the corresponding
mirror): for this I 2 is the image from refraction
refractive indices. through the plane mirror.
Concept of Slab when one surface is
Silvered : Again for pole P1 , I 2 behaves as an object, then
Applying formula of spherical surface for pole apply
P1 2 1 2  1
  ; (for pole P1 )
V u R
1 
   0  R   
I1 O V3    x  2t 
1– x – p1  V3  
  x  2t 
2 1  2  1 
   Object in rarer medium and observer
V u R in denser medium :
R   and 1  1 and  2  u An object is in a rarer medium (air) at a distance
  1   1 ‘y’ from boundary and an observer is near to
 O;  ; V   x normal in a denser medium of refractive index
V  x  V x ‘  ’.Since    1 image distance in rarer
I2(O2) medium is more than object distance in the
(x+t) medium.
(x+t)
I2
x

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 2

 1 
rarer
shift  x  1   
 real 
medium () Note: When convergent beam of rays passing from
rarer to denser medium as shown in the figure,
real image is formed in denser medium which is
far to boundary than that of virtual object.
shift   real  1 x
rarer
A
When i and r are small Denser
AB AB
sin i  tan i  ,sin r  tan r 
AO AI O'
y I
 Therefore apparent height of object (AI) 
1 x
real height of object (AO) AO' x, AI =
rel
Apparent shift y  AI  AO  Application Normal shift due to glass
slab :When an object is placed on normal line
 to the boundary of a slab whose thickness is ‘t’
i.e. yapp  1  yreal 
 and refractive index is  . On observing this
  object from the other side of the slab, due to
Apparent shift y   1  1 y . refraction, the image of this object shift on the
  normal line. This shift value is called normal shift.
If rarer medium air then  1  1. Apparent  This shift is towards the slab, if the slab is denser
height relative to the surroundings and the shift is away
from the slab, if the slab is rarer relative to the
AI   y  y  mx surroundings. Then the normal shift
Apparent shift     1 y  1   1 
OI   1   t  1   t
 Diagram shows variation of apparent height with   rel   
real height of the object.  1
 If  l  1, normal shift OI   1   t .
 
app height


Real height

slope  tan     1
' (a) (b)
Note: When convergent beam of rays passing from (a) shifts towards the slab
denser to rarer medium as shown in the figure, (b) shift is away from the slab
real image is formed in rarer medium which is  Relation between the velocities of
nearer to boundary than that of virtual object. object and image :
(a) The figure shows an object O in denser
O' medium is moving towards the plane
1x
I rarer boundary of a rarer medium. xap 

rarer
medium ()
A Denser
x
AO' x, AI =
rel

Page 387
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Differentiating the above equation with H
1V Apparent depth of point Q =
respective to time, we get Vap  
 Apparent distance between points P and Q = u
If the speed of the object is v. Then the speed
v1 H  H h h
of the image will be . – =
     
To an observer in rarer medium and object in  Image appears to be formed behind the
denser medium, the image appears to be closer
but moving slowly. In same direction of object. h
mirror at I at a distance of v =
1 V 
If rarer medium is air   1 Vi   The apparent distance between object and

rarer medium() 2h
image is x = v+u = .

(b) I Illustration 20: A concave mirror is placed at
the bottom of an empty tank with face
The figure shows an object O in rarer upwards and axis vertical. When sunlight
medium is moving towards the plane falls normally on the mirror, it is focussed
x at distance of 32cm from the mirror. If the
boundary of a denser medium. xap  1  4
    upto a
tank filled with water 
Differentiating the above equation with  3
V height of 20cm, then the sunlight will now
respective to time, we get Vap  1 get focussed at
 (a) 16 cm above water level
To an observer in the denser medium, the object (b) 9 cm above water level
in rarer medium appears to be more distant and (c) 24 cm below water level
moving faster. In same directio of object . If (d) 9 cm below water level
Solution: Sun is at infinity i.e, u   so from mirror
rarer medium is air then Vi  V formula we have
Illustration 19: A plane mirror is placed at the
F F O
bottom of a tank containing a liquid of
I
refractive index  . P is a small object at a 12cm

height h above the mirror. An observer O, B

20cm
vertically above P, outside the liquid,
observes P and its image in the mirror. The
apparent distance between these two will
be 1 1 1
   f  32cm
f 32 ()
O When water is filled in the tank upto a height of
20cm, the image formed by the mirror will act
as virtual object for water surface. Which will
form it’s image at I such that
Actural height 
P  w i.e., BO  4 / 3
Apperant height a BI 1
H
3 3
Q' h  BI  BO   12   9cm
h 4 4
Q
μ Illustration 21: A container is filled with water
Plane mirror (Q) P' (   1.33) up to a height of 33.25cm. A
H h concave mirror is placed 15cm above the
Solution: Apparent depth of point P = water level and the image of an object
 placed at the bottom is formed 25cm below

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
the water level. The focal length of the M M'
mirror is
32cm 4cm
32cm
15cm

30cm 28cm
=1.33 25cm
33.25cm I
t = 6cm
O

Position of
Solution: Distance of object from mirror shifted mirror
Again, after reflection from plane mirror, light
33.25 rays pass through the glass slab and shifted by
 15   3  39.93cm
4 2 cm to the right.
Distance of image from mirror  Final image is formed at 30 cm behind the
25 1 1 1 plane mirror.
 15   3  33.75 For mirror,   Illustration 24: An observer can see through
4 v u f
a pin-hole the top end of a thin rod of
1 1 1 height h, placed as shown in figure. The
    f  18.3cm
33.75 39.93 f beaker height 3h and its radius h. When
the beaker is filled with a liquid upto a
Illustration 22: In a tank, a 4cm thick layer of height 2h, he can see the lower end of the
rod. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
 4
water     floats on a 6 cm thick layer
 3
of an organic liquid    1.5  . Viewing at
normal incidence, how far below the water
surface does bottom of tank appear to be? 3h
h1 h2 6 4
Solution: d AP      1.5  4 / 3  7 cm h
1 2
Illustration 23: An object is placed in front of 2h
Solution: QP = QR = 2h
a slab    1.5  of thickness 6 cm at a P
distance 28 cm from it. Other face of the
i
slab is silvered. Find the position of image. h i
Solution: S
2h
M r
Silvered face Surface 1 i

surface 2 1=1 2h R
T
Q

M N
K
O 2h
28cm
2=1.5  i  450 ;  ST = RT = h = KM = MN
2
h 1
6cm KS = h 2   2h   h 5 ; sin r  
First, while light rays from object O passes h 5 5
through the glass slab of thickness t, its image sin i sin 450 5
 1     
sin r 1/ 5 2
is shifted by t  1    2cm towards left. This
   Illustration 25: A person looking through a
acts as object for plane mirror which is at a telescope focuses the lens at a point on the
distance of 6+26=32 cm, whose image is edge of the bottom of an empty cylindrical
formed at 32 cm behind the mirror. vessel. Next he fills the entire vessel with
a liquid of refractive index  , without
disturbing the telescope. Now, he observes

Page 389
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
the mid point of the bottom of the vessel. O
Determine the radius to depth ratio of the
vessel.
Solution:After the vessel is filled with the liquid, i O' i
A D
light ray starting from the mid point O of the 
bottom of the vessel as OA, after refraction
goes along CA.

r B E
D A i i
i
r
F
H C
Illustration 27: An observer looks at an object
C B
O
R
kept at a distance 30 cm in air. If a
 Applying Snell’s law, for the refraction at rectangular glass plate    1.5  is placed
sin i 1
point A,  ... (i) between the observer and the object with
sin r  its thickness along the line of observation,
OB R the object appears to the observer to be at
From AOB,sin i  OA  a distance 25 cm. Find the thickness of
R 2  H2
glass plate. Position of the glass plate is
CB 2R now shifted (i) from object towards observer
and from ACB,sin r  CA 
4R 2  H 2 (ii) from observer towards the object. How
 From Eq(i) does it change the apparent position of the
2 R H2 2 2
4R  4H 2 object as seen by the observer?
  2 2 Solution: As a glass plate is placed between the
4R 2  H 2 4R  H
observer and the object, the object appears to
3H 2 be at a distance 25 cm in-stead of 30 cm. It
or  2  1 
4R 2  H 2 implies that normal shift due to refraction at the
2 3H 2 2 3H 2 glass plate is 30 - 25 = 5 cm.
i.e.,   1  or   1  2
4R 2  H 2 4R  H 2  1
Illustration 26: A diverging beam of light from Normal shift  t  1  
a point source S having divergence angle  
 falls symmetrically on a glass slab as  1  1 
shown. The angles of incidence of the two Hence t  1    5 t  1    5;
extreme rays are equal. If the thickness of    1.5 
the glass slab is t and its refractive index  t = 15 cm
is n, then the divergence angle of the Since the plate has given values of refractive
emergent beam is index (1.5) and thickness (15 cm), if its position
S is shifted, it will not change the values of normal
i  i
 1
shift t  1   . It implies that the object will
 
appear to be at the same distance 25 cm and
n t its apparent position remains the same.
Illustration 28: An air bubble is trapped inside
Solution: Divergence angle will remain unchanged a glass cube of edge 30 cm. Looking
because in case of a glass slab every emergent through the face ABEH, the bubble
ray is parallel to the incident ray. However, the appears to be at normal distance 12 cm
rays are displaced slightly towards outer side. from this face and when seen from the
(In the figure OA  BC  and OD  EF ) opposite face CDGF, it appears to be at
normal distance 8 cm from CDGF. Find

Page 390
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
refractive index of glass and also the actual OM OM t
position of the bubble. But cos r  , OP   ....(2)
B
OP cos r cos r
C
from (1) and (2)
A D  sin  i  r  
x  t  
12cm 8cm
 cos r 
E F For small angle of i and r sin i  i,
H G sin r  and cos r  1 ; sin i  r   i  r 
Solution: Let the actual distance of the bubble from
the face ABEH is ‘x’ then its actual distance  r
 x  t  i  r   ti  1  
from the face CDGF is 30 - x.  i
Actual dis tan ce of bubble  1
But   Apparent dis tan ce of bubble Lateral shift x  1   ti
 
The apparent distance of bubble from refracting
t
x x
surface ABEH  ; 12  .....(1)
  x
The apparent distance of bubble from refracting (Lateral shift)

30  x 30  x
surface CDGF  ; 8 .....(2) O /2
 
i (Angle incidence)
x 30  x Fig. Plot of lateral shift versus angle of incidence
Adding Eqs. (1) and (2)   20 ,
  
x x Note: When i  (grazing incidence)
2
From Eq. (1);  12 or =12 ; so x = 18 cm
 1.5 t  
This actual position of bubble is at normal xmax  sin   c   t r  c
distance 18 cm from face ABEH or at a cos r  2 
distance 12 cm from face CDGF. Examples of Refraction :Visibility of two
Lateral Shift : Consider a ray AO incident on images of an object :
the slab at an angle of incidence ‘i’ and passing When an object in a glass container filled with
through a slab of thickness ‘t’. After two a liquid is viewed from outside at a level higher
refractions at the boundary, the ray emerges
parallel to the incident ray. The perpendicular than of liquid, there will be two images one due
distance between incident ray direction and to refraction through liquid and another due to
emergent ray direction is called lateral shift or refraction through glass.
lateral displacement (x) Twinkling of stars : Due to fluctuations in
Ai
O refractive index of atmosphere, the refraction
r i-r
becomes irregular and the light some times

t Q reaches the eye and some times it does not.
r This gives rise to twinkling of stars.
x
M P i Oval shape of Sun in the morning and
i
evening :- In the morning and evening, the
From the figure, the distance PQ is called lateral sun is at the horizon and refractive index in the
displacement (or) lateral shift atmosphere of earth decreases with height.
PQ Therfore unequal refracted rays diverge from
From the triangle PQO, sin  i  r   the lower and upper ends of the sun. Rays from
OP
the lower edge have to go through a greater
PQ   x   OP sin  i  r 
thickness of air than rays from the upper edge.
x = OP sin  i  r  .....(1) So the vertical diameter appears to be dimin-
ished in size. Where as horizontal diameter re-
mains unaltered.
Page 391
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Visibility of two images of an object:- When
an object in a glass container filled with a liquid i
is viewed from outside at a level than of liquid, A
there will be two images one due to refraction
through liquid and another due to refracrion t r i-r
through glass D
 r E
Twinkling of stars:- Due to fluctuations in re-
fractive index if atomsphere, the refraction be- B C
comes irregular and the light some times reaches
the eye and some times it does not. This gives
sin i sin 600
rise to twinkling of stars By Snell’s law,   , 3 
Bending linear object in liquid:- If a linear sin r sin r
object is dipped in a liquid inclined to the sur- 3 1
3 ,sin r  ; Hence, r  300
face of liquid. Actual depth will be different for 2 sin r 2
its different points and so apparent depth. Due t
Lateral shift  sin  i  r 
to this object appears to bending cos r
Duration of sun’s visibility:- In absence of at-  sin 300  4
mosphere the sun will be visible for its posi-  4 0 
 4 tan 300 
 cos 30  3
tions from M to E as shown in figure
Critical Angle and total Internal Reflection :
(A). However, in presence of atmosphere (in Critical Angle: It is the angle of incidence in
which  decreases with height) due to the phe- denser medium at which the angle of refraction
nomenon of refraction, the sun will become vis- in rarer medium is 900.
ible even when it is below the horizon and will  Consider a point object O placed in an optically
remain visible for some time even when it goes denser medium as shown in the figure. Rays of
light travel from O in all possible directions.
below the horizon as shown in figure
(1) When light is refracted at the surface into
 This results in increases in duration for which the rarer medium, it bends away from the
the sun is visible. It is estimated that due to this normal.
effect the period of visibility of the sun increases
by 2 minutes in the morninig an d2 minutes the Due to Snell’s law as the angle of incidence
evening. increases, the angle of refraction also increases
till for a certain angle of incidence, the angle of
E Horizon M refraction is 900 and light is refracted along the
surface separating the two media. The
(Evening) O (Morning)
corresponding angle of incidence is called the
Earth
critical angle C  .
(2) When light is incidence at any point beyond
S
O >c
P, that is when the angle of incidence is greater
S
Sun than the critical angle  i  C  , then no light is
Illustration 29: A parallel sides glass slab of refracted, and the entire incident light is reflected
thickness 4 cm is made of a material of into the same medium. This phenomenon is
refractive index 3 . When light is known as the total internal reflection.
incident on one of the parallel faces at an
angle of 600 , it emerges from the other
parallel face. Find the lateral displacement
of the emergent beam.
Solution:

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
 In case of total internal reflection as all (100%)
Expression for criticalangle  C or C  : incident light is reflected back into the same
According to Snell’s law, at critical angle of medium i.e. there is no loss of intensity. This is
incidence why images formed by total internal reflection
are much brighter than that formed by mirrors
 and lenses.
 D sin C  R sin 900 or sin C  R
D  Image due to total internal reflection is real,
lateral and inverted with respect to object.
 R VD D
sin C    Deviation of light under total internal
 D VR R reflection: The figure shows a light ray
1 travelling from denser to rarer medium at an
For  R  1 ,  D 
s in  C angle i, less than the critical angle c .
N
Condition for total internal reflection :
For total internal reflection to take place light
must be propagating from denser to rarer rarer (air)
medium.
Ex: Ray from water to air, glass to water. r 
 Total internal reflection will take place only if
angle of incidence is greater than critical angle. a) Denser()

C )
i.e.

i(<
 
i  C where C  sin 1  R 
 D   The deviation  of the light ray is given by
 Critical angle  C depends on nature of pair of
  r i
R Since  sin i  sin r , therefore
media. Greater  ratio greater will be the
critical angle
D
  sin 1   sin i   i
For glass - air : This is a non linear equation. The maximum
3 2 value of ‘  ’ occurs when i   c , and
 D  ;  R  1; c  sin 1   ;c  420
2 3 
 max    c
For water - air : 2
4 3  If the light incident at an angle i   c , as shown
 D  ;  R  1;  c  sin 1   ; c  490
3 4 in the figure (b) then the angle of deviation is
For glass - water : given by     2i. The maximum value of
3 4 8
 D  ;  R  ;  c  sin 1   ;c  630
 occurs when i  c and is equal to
2 3 9  max    2 c .
For diamond - air :
 1 
 D  2.5;  R  1;  c  sin 1   ; c  24
0

 2.5 
 For a given pair of media, critical angle depends i
on wavelength of light used i.e greater is the air 
wavelength of light, lesser will be the value Medium ()
i i
 1
of   as    and so greater will be the
 
critical angle. This is why critical angle is
maximum for red and minimum for violet.
Generally, the critical angle of a medium is The variation of ‘  ’ with the angle of incidence
defined for mean colour i.e yellow.
‘i’ is plotted in figure.

Page 393
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
 in cold regions particularly in the vicinity of the
cold surface of sea or of a lake. Light rays
C
starting from an object S (say a ship) are curved
downward and on entering the eye the rays
 appear to come from S  , thus giving an
 C
2
impression that the ship is floating in air.
i
C
Some exampels of total internal S'
reflection:
1) An air bubble in water shines due to TIR at its
outer surface when light propogates from wa-
ter to air medium for i  c
2) The faces of a piece of diamond are so cut that E S
light entering into it suffers total internal reflec-
tion repeatedly at different faces and come our Field of vision of fish : - A fish at a depth
through one or two faces only. So these faces ‘h’ from the surface of water of refractive index
appears very glittering which explains the bril-  can see the outer world through an inverted
liance of diamonds cone with
3) Mirage:
N N

c r c
Refractive index

h
decreasing

c c

 Vertex angle = 2C
 Radius of the circular base of the cone formed
O hot summer days, the air near the ground on surface of water is given by
becomes hotter than the air at higher levels. The h
refractive index of air decreases with its den- r  h tan C 
sity. Hotte air is less , and has smaller refractive 2  1
index than tha cooler air. If the air is still, then
opticla density at different layers of air increases 1 1
 sin C  and tan C 
with height. As a result, light from a tall object  2 1
such as tree, passes the medium whose refrac-
tive index decreases towards the ground. Then 3h
a ray of light from the object successively bends  For water 2C  980 and r 
7
away from the normal and under goes total in- 2
ternal reflection if the angle of incidence for the h
air near the ground exceeds the ciritical angle. d) Area of the base : A  2
 1
This is as shown in figure. To a distant observer, Total Internal reflection in Prisms:
the light appears to be coming from somewhere The critical angle of ordinary glass is very nearly
below the ground. Such inverted imgaes of dis-
tant tall objects cause an optical illusion to the 420 . If light is incident inside a prism at an angle
observer. This phenimenon is called mirage. greater than 420 , then the light will be totally
Looming : This effect occurs when the internally reflected. This is achieved by taking
density of air decreases much more rapidly with a right angled prism ( 900 ) so that the other
increasing height than it does under normal angles of the prism are 450 each.
conditions. This situation sometimes happens

Page 394
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
For Deviation through 900 : fibre is bent or twisted in any form. And there
is almost no loss of light through the sides of
45° the fibre or due to absorption by the core.
Light ray rotated  (cladding)
through 90°

45° (core)
45° 
The only condition is that angle of incidence of
45° light must be greater than the critical angle for
the fibre material w.r.t its coating.
 Formula for maximum lunching angle:
For Deviation through 1800 : From the figure, from snell’s law
sin i
 1 ; sin i   sin r .....(1)
sinr1 1 1

From the figure angle of incidents at core and

cladding interface is i1  90o  r1
For TIR, i1  C 90o  r1  C
2
sin  90 o  r1   sin C cos r1 
1
2 2
   
1  sin 2 r1   2  ,sin r1  1   2  ......(2)

 1  1 
deviated
2
sin i  
Erecting prism (No Deviation Prism): from eq.(1) and (2)  1  2 
1  1 
Here the rays of light are incident parallel to the
2
base. After refraction they are incident on the  
hypotenuse face of the prism at an angle greater sin i  1 1   2  .
 1 
than the critical angle ( 420 ). Hence total internal 2
 
reflection takes place and the rays emerge sin imax  1 1   2  ;sin imax  12  22
parallel to the base.  1 
Applications of optical fibres:
1. A bundle of optical fibres is called light pipe,
this pipe can transmit an image.
2. Optical fibres are used in transmission and re-
45° 45° ception of electrical signals by converting them
However, on emergence the rays are inverted. first into light signals.
Therefore, this prism is used for making an 3. Optical fibres are used in telephone and other
inverted image erect.
transmitting cables. Each fibre can carry upto
Optical fibres : These are also based on the phe-
nomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fi- 2000 telephone messages with almost no loss
bres consist of several thousands of very long of intensity.
fine quality fibres of glass or quartz. The diam- Illustration 30: A ray of light travelling in a
eter of each fibre is of the order of 104 cm with rarer medium strikes a plane boundary
refractive index of material being of the order between the rarer medium and a denser
of 1.5. The fibres are coated with a thin layer medium at an angle of incidence ‘i’ such
of material of lower refractive index of 1.48 that the reflected and the refracted rays are
and this coating is called cladding. Light inci- mutually perpendicular. Another ray of
dent on one end of the fibre at a small angle light of same frequency is incident on the
enters the fibre after refraction and strikes the same boundary from the side of denser
core/cladding interface at an angle. Light thus medium. Find the minimum angle of
travels inside the optical fibre along a zig – zag incidence at the denser-rarer boundary so
path a shown in Fig. 6(b).15. it finally comes that the second ray is totally reflected.
out of the fibre at the other end, even if the

Page 395
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
on the surface of the water that produces an
(rarer) angle of incidence C is a circle of radius r.
R
i r
r=90o
o A D B
90
c
r1
C C
(Denser) h
D
Solution: Figure shows incidence of a ray at the C
rarer-denser boundary such that reflected and
refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.
i.e., r  900  r1  1800 . or S
r  90  r  90  i [r=i, law of reflection]
1 0 0 r
In the  DBS, tan C  ;
Apply Snell’s law at the boundary, h
 R sin i  D sin r1 h
r  h tan C; r 
D  2 1
R sini  D sin 900 i  D cosi or  tani --- (1) The area of the surface through which the light
R
passes,
1 1  2
sin c    R ---- (2) 2    0.20 
R D D / R D A  r  2
 0.1005m 2
1.5  1
Using equation (1), Illustration 33: An optical fibre is made of
1 glass fibre of refractive index 1.68. The
sin  c   cot i   c  sin  1  cot i  outer coating of the glass fibre is made of
tan i
material of refractive index 1.44. What is
Illustration 31: A ray of light travelling in a the range of angles of the incident rays
transparent medium falls on a surface with the axis of the pipe for which total
separating the medium from air at an angle internal reflection inside the optical fibre
of incidence 450 . The ray undergoes total takes place?
internal reflection. If  is the refractive Solution: We know that maximum launching
angle in case of optical fibre as
index of the medium with respect to air,
select the possible value(s) of  . i max  sin 1  12   22   1  2 
Solution: For total internal reflection to occur,
i  critical angle, C or sin i  sin C or i max  sin 1  2
1.68   1.44 
2

1 1 1 i max  sin 1  0.8653  590551
sin 450  or  or   2 or   1.414
 2  This is the maximum value of i. All light rays
Illustration 32: A liquid of refractive index 1.5 with angle of incidence between 00 and 590551
is poured into a cylindrical jar of radius will undergo total internal reflection.
20 cm upto a height of 20cm. A small bulb Illustration 34: Light is incident at an angle
is lighted at the centre of the bottom of the  on one planar end of a transparent
jar. Find the area of the liquid surface cylindrical rod of refractive index  so that
through which the light of the bulb passes the light entering the rod does not emerge
into air. from the curved surface of rod irrespective
Solution:Let S be the small bulb at the bottom of of the value of  .
the jar. The bulb is in the denser medium. The Solution:The angle of incidence at the curved
light from the bulb is incident on the water - air surface of the cylindrical rod is given to
interface. Light emerges for incident angles less be  90 0    .
than the critical angle. The locus of all the points

Page 396
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Light entering the rod at angle of incidence 
on one planar end will not emerge from the n2 n 
Where sin  C  or  C  sin 1  2 
n1  n1 
curved surface if angle of incidence  90   
0

is greater than the critical angle. Refractive index   r1 max  900   C

is denoted by  . Now applying Snell’s law at face AB:
R
n1 sin  max sin  max sin  max
   
Q   I n 2 sin  r1  max sin  90   C  cos  C
0


n1
P
S or sin  max  n cos  C
2
  90    C ; sin  90     sin C n 
1 1  max  sin 1  1 cos  C 
cos   ; 1  sin 2   -------- (1)  n2 
 
By Snell’s law at plane surface n   n   
 max  sin 1  1 cos sin 1  2   
sin  sin   n 2   n1   
 ; sin   -------- (2)
sin   Illustration 36: What will be the minimum
Substituting eq. (2) in eq. (1) angle of incidence such that the total
internal reflection occurs on both the
By simplification   1  sin 2  surfaces?
But sin  max  1 ;    2
1  2
Illustration 35: A rectangular glass slab ABCD
of refractive index n1 is immersed in water
2  2
of refractive index n 2  n1  n 2  . A ray of
light is incident at the surface AB of the
slab as shown. The maximum value of the 3  3

angle of incidence  max , such that the ray

comes out only from the other surface CD, A
1  2
is given by
A n2 D i
n1 2  2
Solution: i

max B
3  3

Critical angle at A  C1
B C
Solution:
1 2 1
A
n2
D  sin C1    ; C1  450
n1 2 2 2
r2
r1 Critical angle at B  C2
n 

3 3
 sin C 2    C2  600
B C 2 2
r1  r2  900 ;  r1  900  r2  Minimum angle of incidence for total internal
0 reflection to occur on both the slabs should be
 r1 max  90   r2 min and  r2 min  C 0
(for total internal reflection at AD) 600 .  i min  60

Page 397
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Illustration 37: A ray of light incident on the Liquid
horizontal surface of a glass slab at an
o o
angle of incidence ‘i’ just grazes the A 60 30 C
adjacent vertical surface after refraction.
Compute the critical angle and refractive
index of glass.
90o
A i B
B
r
Solution: Critical angle between glass and liquid
C  2
F D sin  C  
Solution: face is 3 3
2
E
Liquid
By Snell’s law of refraction, at the horizontal o o
surface A 60 30o 30 C
o
90
1 sin i   sin r;  sin r  sin i ---(1)
Apply Snell’s law at vertical surface,
90o
1
 sin c  1 sin 900 ; sin C 
 B
From figure in BFD Angle of incidence at face AC is 600
For the TIR to take place at the face AC, the
r  C  900  1800 ; c  900  r angle of incidence at the face AC, i   C
1
sin  900  r  
;  cos r  1 ---(2) 2 3 3
 600   c or sin 600  or 
3 4
From equations 1 & 2 Illustration 39: What is the value of the
 2 sin 2 r   2 cos 2 r  1  sin 2 i refractive index for a 900  450  450 prism
which is used to deviate a beam
  1  sin 2 i through 900 by total internal reflection?
Critical angle is determined from
1 1 45°
sin C  
 1  sin 2 i
Illustration 38: Light is incident normally on
face AB of a prism as shown in figure. A
90° 45°
liquid of refractive index  is placed on
face AC of the prism. The prism is made of Solution: At face AB, the ray of light suffers no
deviation if the light is incident normally
glass of refractive index 3/2. The limits of
 for which total internal reflection takes
place on face AC is

Page 398
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
A
Illustration 41: White light is incident on the
interface of glass and air as shown in the
figure. If green light is just totally
internally reflected then the emerging ray
in air contains:
45°
d e
Re rang w
O ello
Y
B C
Air Green
Glass
At face AC, the light ray undergoes TIR, so
angle of incidence at the face AC is greater than B
critical angle In lue
white Vi dig
1 1 ol o
 ;  2 et
45 0  C; sin 450  sin C; 2 
Illustration 40: A beam of light consisting of Solution: Critical angle  C  sin 1  1 
red, green and blue colours is incident on   
a right angle prism. The refractive indices Wavelength increases in the sequence of
of the material of the prism for the red, VIBGYOR. According to Cauchy’s formula
green and blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44
and 1.47 respectively. The colour of light refractive index (  ) decreases as the
that comes out of the prism is wavelength increases. Hence, the refractive
index will increase in the sequence of
ROYGBIV. The critical angle  C will thus
increases in the same order VIBGYOR. For
green light the incidence angle is just equal to
the critical angle. For yellow, orange and red
the critical angle will be greater than the incidence
45° angle. So, these colours will emerge from the
glass air interface, while for violet, indigo and
Solution: The colours for which i   c , will get total blue, the critical angle is less than angle of
internal reflection i   c incidence. So, they undergo TIR.
A Illustration 42: A rectangular block of glass
is placed on a printed page lying on a
horizontal surface. Find the minimum
value of the refractive index of glass for
Composite which the letters on the page are not visible
i from any of the vertical faces of the block.

Red
o
45 R
B o C i
i = 45
Blue
Green
r
 R  G   B ; CR  CG  CB A
O
B
 Paper
0 1 1 1 Solution: The situation is as shown in the Fig,
or sin i  sin  c or sin 45   
 2  D C

   2or  1.414
Hence, the rays for which   1.414 will get R P
i
TIR. For green and blue   1.414 , so they
will suffer TIR on face AC only red comes out r
O
from this face. A Paper B


Page 399
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Light will not emerge out from the vertical face When angle of incidence    c , then the
BC if incident ray will refract and hence ‘x’ region
1 will be illuminated. So, in limiting case:
at it i   C or sin i  sin C ; sin i  ..... (1)

But from Snell’s law at O.
1 sin    sin r and  OPR , C

r  i  900 , r  900  i
So sin    sin  900  i  ; cos i   sin  /  
2
But sin i  1  cos 2 i  1   sin  /   --(2)
In PQR;
Substituting the value of sin i from eq (2) in (1)
R  1 3
2 cos c  sin  c  r  
sin  1 2 Rx d 2 / 3 2
1 2
 ,   1  sin 2 
  o
 c  60 , R  5cm ( given)
Now as  sin   max  1;   2,   2
2 2 5
 cos 60   5  x  10  x  5cm.
5 x
Hence  min  2 Concept of Refraction in a medium of
Illustration 43:A uniform, horizontal beam of variable refractive index :
light is incident upon a quarter cyclinder of The atmosphere becomes thinner as we move
radius R  5cm , and has a refractiv index up. When we move up from the earth refractive
2 / 3 . A patch on the table at a distance index decreases. We assumed the situation
‘x’ from the cylinder is un illuminated. Find where refractive index changes only in one
the value of ‘x’? direction, medium can be considered as a
Solution: When the angle of incidence is c , ‘x’ collection of large number of the thin layers.
region will remain unillumiated. This is the Let refractive index be a function of y i.e.,  
limiting case. f (y) then the medium can be considered as to
normal be made up of large number of thin slabs placed
Q parallel to x-axis and optical normal at any
C 90 interface is parallel to y-axis. Similarly if
  f(x) then slabs are parallel to y-axis and
optical normal at any interface is parallel to x-
axis.
y y
P R X R  = f(y)

When the angle of icidence is greater than  = f(x)

critical agle T.I.R. will place, in this case also
‘x’ regio is unilluminated. x x
O fig (a) O fig (b)
normal Examples of variable refractive index:
C  = f (y). Now the medium can be divided
into thin slices parallel to x axis and optical
 normal parallel to y axis. Let 0 be the angle of
incidence in the variable medium at point (0,0).
And  is the angle made by tangent with normal
parallel to y axis at any point (x,y) on the

Page 400
RAY OPTICS PART – 2
trajectory. of the incident light are taken as negative.
y
Refraction at Spherical surfaces :
Normal 1 N
2
i
 f(y) r
 
 
 x O M C I
u R
 air V

From the Snell’s law:1. Sin 0   sin  .... 1 2 1  2  1

  
Geometrically, relate the slope of this tangent v u R
to the angle  i.e dy This is the Gaussion’s relation for a single
 tan  90    ..  2  spherical refracting surface. Though above
dx relation is derived for a convex surface and for
Substitute for  from equation (1) and a real object and real image, it is equally valid
dy for all other conditions.
determine as a function of y. Integrate and
dx  If we move in the direction of light, 1 is the
obtain an expression of y as a function of x.
refractive index of the medium which comes
Refraction at Spherical surfaces
before the boundary and  2 is the refractive
 A part of a sphere of refracting material is
index of the medium which comes after the
called a spherical refracting surface. boundary.
A  If the object or image itself is present at a
Radius of refracting surface, refraction at that surface is
curvature not considered.
P  It is noted that with respect to real object
Principal axis Pole C
convex refracting surfaces can form real image
(Centre of curvature) (for distant object) as well as virtual image (for
Rarer medium Denser medium nearer object), where as concave refracting
B surface forms only virtual images.
 The point ‘P’ in the figure is the pole (P)
 The centre of the sphere of which the refracting
Magnification
surface forms a part is called the centre of Lateral magnification or transverse
curvature (C) of the spherical refracting surface. magnification:
 The radius of the sphere of which the refracting 1
2
surface forms a part is called the radius of h0
curvature of the spherical refracting surface (R) i C I
 The diameter of the spherical refracting surface r hi
is called its aperture. In the figure, the line joining
A and B is the aperture of the spherical u v
refracting surface. h
 The line joining the pole and centre of curvature The lateral magnification, is mt  i
h0
and extends on either side of the surface is called
the principal axis. hi v

Sign convention:All the distances are Note: mt  h is u  because the object and
0
measured from the pole of the spherical the image are in two different media.
refracting surface.
 The distance measured in the direction of the From Snell’s law: 1i  2 .r (for small angles)
incident light are taken as positive.
 The distance measured opposite to direction

Page 401
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
h0 h
Therefore 1  2 i dh i
u v  v hi
mt  1     dt
h i 1  v  2  u  h 0 dh 0
Lateral magnification mt    
h 0 2  u  dt
Longitudinal magnification at 2  v 
refracting curved surface: If a small  Velocity of image is, Vi    u  V0
1
object of length ‘du’ is placed on the axis,
produces an image of length ‘dv’ along the or Vi  m t V0
axis of the refracting surface, then longitudinal Principal foci :
magnification
1
dv     1 1 2
mL  and 2  1  2 ...(1) 2 O
du v u R F2 F1

dv 1 v 2 f2
fig (a)
f1
f ig (b)
On differentiating (1),  .
du 2 u 2  2 1  2  1
 In the equation  
v u R
1 v 2    If the object at infinity i.e., u  
 mL  2
 m 2t  1 
2 u  2  2   1  v   2 R
0  2 ;
Where ‘ m t ’ is transverse magnification. v R  2  1
Concept of Motion of Object 2 R
From the figure v  f 2 ; f 2     ...(1)
When object moves Along the 2 1
Principlal Axis : i.e. The position of image corresponding to the
As the object position changes with time, the object at infinity, is called the second principal
image position also changes. focus of the refracting surface. This is shown in
Refraction at a spherically surface, fig (a)
 2 1  2  1  Similarly if v   , i.e., the object is so placed
  ..... (1) that the refracting rays becomes parallel to the
v u R
principal axis, then
differentiating (1) we get
2 1 2  1 R
 dv 1 du     u 1
 22  2  0 ; 22 v1  21 v 0  0  u R 2  1
v dt u dt v u
1R
   v 
2
From figure, u  f1 ; f1      ...(2)
 Vi   1    V0 ; V , velocity of image 2 1

 2   u  i
i.e. The position of the object, whose image is
formed at infinity to known as the first principal
and V0 , velocity of object Vi  m L V0 focus of the refracting surface. This is shown in
We use sign convention to get direction of figure(b).
motion of image. f1 1
When object moves Along Hence f    .....(3)
Perpendicular ( Transverse) to the 2 2

Principal Axis: If the object moves It is easy to see that first focal length f1 for
transverse to the principle axis with the spherical refracting surface is not equal to the
speed V0 and if ‘mt’ is the magnification, then second focal length f 2 .
 2 1  2  1
Further   .....(4)
v u R

Page 402
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
2 R 1R 4 1 1 4 1 1 5
  1   ;   
v  2  1  u  2  1  3v 20 120 3v 120 20 120
160
f 2 f1 v  32 cm
   1 .....(5) 5
v u
Illustration 45: A small object stuck on the
Power of Refracting Spherical
surface: surface of a glass sphere    1.5  is
Any distance divided by the refractive index of viewed from the diametrically opposite
the space in which it is measured is called a position. Find transverse magnification.
reduced distance. The refracting power of a Solution: Refraction will take place at side II of
spherical surface is defined as the reciprocal of  2 1  2  1
the reduced focal length. If f1 and f 2 are first the surface  
v u R
and second principal focal length of refracting
surface.
f1 f2 I II
The ratios  and
1 2 are the reduced focal
lengths.Then refracting power I O C P

1   f1 f 
P  2  As  2 
f1 f2  1 2 
Here, 1  1.5, 2  1 and u  2R
  2  1   1R 
Power (P)    R   f1       1

1.5

1  1.5 1 0.5 1.5 0.5
    
2 1 
v  2R  R ; v R 2R 2R
Relative motion of object and image
w.r.t spherical refracting surface: or v  4R
y negative sign indicates that the image is
formed to the left of refracting surface as
(u h0) shown.
O
1 v 1.5  4R 
Magnification, m   u  1 2R ;  m  3
(v hi)
I
2  
Illustration 46: A point object is placed at the
2 1 2  1 1 v centre of a glass sphere of radius 6 cm and
  m  refractive index 1.5. The distance of the
v u R 2 u
virtual image from the surface is.
 2 dv 1 du
  0 Solution: A point object is at the centre of a glass
v 2 dt u 2 dt sphere of radius 6 cm.

dv 1  v  du  1  2 du 1 1.5 1  1.5 1 3 1
       mt .     
dt 2  u  dt  2  dt v ( R) R v 2R 2 R
Illustration 44: Locate the image of the point 1 2 1
object O. The point C is centre of curvature     v  R
of the spherical surface. v 2R R
=1.0 =4/3
O
P C

20cm 40cm
Solution: Here O
1  1, 2  4 / 3, u  20cm, R  40cm
 2 1  2  1 4 / 3 1 4 / 3 1
  ;  
v u R v 20 40
Page 403
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
The rays from the object fall normally on the conventions, we
surface of the sphere and emerge undeviated.
When drawn backwards, they meet at O. The 1.5 1.0 1.5  1.0
have    v1  
image will be formed at the centre O itself. v 2 R R
Illustration 47: An air bubble in Second: reflection
glass    1.5  is situated at a distance 3 1 1 1 2
Using    with proper sign
cm from a convex surface of diameter 10 v u f R
cm as shown in figure. At what distance conventions, we
from the surface will the bubble appear?
1 1 2 R
have v     R  v2   2
A 2
=1 Third: refraction
=1.5
 2 1  2  1
P Again using   with reversed
C O I v u R
sign convention, we
1.0 1.5 1.0  1.5
3cm have v  1.5 R   R orv3  2 R i.e.,
3
5cm final image is formed on the vertex of the
Solution: In case of refraction from curved surface silvered face.
2 1  2  1 Illustration 49: A sphere of radius R made of
 
v u R material of refractive index  2 . Where
Here, 1  1.5,  2  1;R  5cm should an object be placed so that a real
image is formed equidistant from the
1 1.5 1  1.5 sphere?
and u  3cm ; So v  3  5 ,
    
1
 1

i.e., v  2.5 cm
0 P1 P2 1
Illustration 48: A solid glass sphere with ra-
dius R and an index of refraction 1.5. is sil-
vered over one hemisphere. A small object X 2R X
is located on the axis of the sphere at a dis- A: Let object be placed at a distance x from
tance 2R to the left of the vertex of the
unsilvered hemisphere. find the position of the pole P1 of the sphere, then the ray must
final image ofter all refractions and reflec-
tion have taken place. pass symmetrically through the sphere, as
Solution: The ray of light first gets refracted then shown in the figure Applying the equation at
reflected and then again refracted. For first the first surface, we get
refraction and then reflection the ray of light
travels from left to right while for the last 2 1  2  1  1 
  or x   R
refraction it travels from right to left. Hence,   x R  2  1 
the sign convention will change accordingly. Note that the real image is formed only when
the refracive index of the sphere is more than
I2 that of the surronding. i.e.  2  1 .
0 I3
2R
Illustration 50: Consider the situation shown
in figure. The refractive index of medium
is 3/2 and its radius of curvature is 30cm,
1.5R R PO1 = PO2 =10cm. Find distance between
2 O1 and O2 and see by (a) O1 and (b) O2 .
First: refraction
    1
Using 2  1  2 with proper sign
v u R
Page 404
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
distance 10 cm from the surface and inside
=3/2 glass when seen from the other medium.
O1 P O2 Find the actual location of air bubble.
Air     1
Medium Solution: 2  1  2
 u R

Solution: (a) O1 is observing O2 :

C O1 P I O2 O I P C

1  3/ 2, 2  1.0, u  10cm, R  30cm, v  ?

 2 1 2  1
  Here
v u R
1 3 / 2 1 3 / 2 1 3 1 1  1.5, 2  1, v  10cm, R  10cm
    
v 10 30 v 20 60
1 1.5 1  1.5 1
1 1 3 1 9    
   10 u 10 20
v 60 20 60
60 1.5 1 1 1
v    7.5cm , image of O2 is formed     ;  u  30 cm
8 u 10 20 20
at I ; PI = 7.5 cm
Hence the air bubble is actually located at a
O1 I  O1P  PI  10  7.5  17.5 cm
distance 30 cm from the surface and inside glass.
(b) O2 is observing O1 :
Illustration 52: One end of a horizontal
cyclindrical galss rod (   1.5) of radius
C P O2
5.0cm is rounded in the shape of a
I O1
hemisphere. An object 0.5mm high is
placed perpendicular to the axis of the rod
1  1, 2  3/ 2, u  10cm, R  30cm, v  ? at a distance of 20 cm from the rounded
 2 1  2  1 3/ 2 1 3 / 2 1 edge. Locate the image of the object and
     find its height.
v u R v 10 30
3 1 1 7
  
2v 60 10 60
60 O P
v cm , image of O1 is formed at I
7
60 Solution: Refraction at spherical surface
PI  cm, O2 I  O2 P  PI
7
60 130 0.5mm
(u=3/2)
 10   cm
7 7
Illustration 51: One end of a cylindrical glass P C
0.5mm
   1.5 is given the shape of a concave
refracting surface of radius 10 cm. An air 20cm
5cm
bubble is situated in the glass rod at a point 30cm
on its axis such that it appears to be at

Page 405
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
1  1.0, 2  3/ 2, u  20cm, R  5cm, v  ? I 1v I 1 (32)
m  ; 
2 1 2  1 O  2u 1 (4 / 3)  (40)
 
v u R
I  0.6cm ; The image is erect.
3/ 2 1 3 / 2 1 3 1 1
  ;   Illustration 54: A transparent thin film of
v 20 5 2v 20 10
uniform thickness and refractive index
3 1 1 1 n1  1.4 is coated on the convex spherical
    v  30cm
2v 10 20 20 surface of radius R at one end of a long
v is +ve i.e, image is formed right of P.. solid glass cylinder of refractive index
I 1v n 2  1.5 , as shown in figure. Rays of light
m  parallel to the axis of the cylinder
O  2u
traversing through the film from air to
I 1 30 glass get focused at distance f1 from the
  I  0.5 mm
0.5 3  (20) film, while rays of light traversing from
2 glass to air get focused at distance f 2 from
I is –ve i.e, image is inverted.
the film. Then, the magnitudes of f1 , f 2 are
Illustration 53: Locate the image and find its
height. n1

=1 4
μ=
3
Air
1 cm
C P

n2
20cm
Solution: For air to glass
40cm
n1
Solution:
1  1, 2  4 / 3, u  40cm, R  20cm, v  ?
Air R
 2 1  2  1 F2 F1
  f2
v u R f1
n2
4
1
4/3 1 3
 
v 40 20 1.5 1.4  1 1.5  1.4
   f1  3R
f1 R R
4 1 1 2  3 1
   
3v 60 40 120 24 For glass to air
v  32cm 1 1 .4  1 .5 1  1 .4
  ; f2  2R
The magnifincation f2 R R

Page 406
 RAY OPTICS PART – 2
Illustration 55: A spherical solid glass paper
weight of diameter 6 cm has a small air
bubble at a distance of 1.5 cm from the
the side to which it is nearest along the
line joining the bubble and the centre, find
3
where will it appear. (Given  glass  )
2
Solution: Fig shows the relevant situation. O is the
air bubble which acts as the object and P is the
pole. The light ray travelling from the object
passes from glass to air.

Air
Glass
1 = 3/2 2 = 1
C O P

1.5 cm

 1  3 / 2 and  2  1

3
Also, u  cm, R  3cm and v  ?
2

2 1 2  1
Using Eq.  
v u R

1  3/ 2  1  3/ 2 
We have, v  3/ 2cm  3cm
   

1  3/ 2  1  3/ 2 
or, v  3/ 2cm  3cm
   
1 1 1
or, v  6cm  1cm or, v  1.2 cm

Thus, the bubble appears at a distance of 1.2

cm from the surface P inside the sphere.

Page 407
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

RAY OPTICS PART-3

(Refraction by Lenses , Prisms and Optical instruments)
Note: While calling the name of the lens we called
Refraction through Lenses first the shape of the surface which has more
Lens theory :A lens is a piece of transparent radius of curvature is to be considered.
material with two refracting surfaces such that  A thin lens with refractive index greater than
at least one is curved and refractive index of its that of surroundings behaves as a convergent
material is different from that of the or convex lens. If its central portion is thicker
surroundings. than marginal one. i.e. it converges if parallel
 If the curved surface (or surfaces) of a lens are rays incident on it.
spherical, the lens is called spherical lens and if  If the central portion of a lens (with  L  m )
its thickness is small the lens is called thin.
is thinner than marginal, it diverges parallel rays
 Different types of spherical lenses and behaves as divergent or concave lens.
are shown in figure (a) and (b) In case of thin spherical lenses:
Optical centre O is a point for a given lens
through which any ray of light passes
undeviated.

If the lens has two spherical surfaces, there are

two centres of curvature C1 and C2 and
correspondingly two radii of curvature R1 and
R2 .
Principal axis C1C2 is a line passing through
optical centre and centres of curvature of two
refracting surfaces. It is perpendicular to the
lens.
 A lens has two surfaces and hence two focal
points. First focal point ( F1 ) is an object point
(real in case of a convex lens and virtual for
concave) on the principal axis for which image
R1  R 2 is formed at infinity.

(a) (b)
Second focal point ( F2 ) is an image point on
the principal axis for which object lie at infinity.

Convexo concave Concavo convex

(c) (d)
Page 408
RAY OPTICS PART – 3

 The distance between optical centre of a lens those measured downward are considered as
and the point where the parallel beam of light negative.
converges or appears to converge. i.e., second (e) Angles measured clockwise, beginning at the
principal focal point ( F2 ), is called focal length optic axis, are negative. Angels measured
f. counterclockwise are positive.
 To a lens, if the media on the two sides is same,  Transverse distance measured above the
then first principal focal distance is equal to principal axis are taken to be positive while
those below it to be negative.
second principal focal distance. i.e., f1  f 2 .
 Longitudinal distances are measured from
Focal plane: It is a plane passing through optical centre and are taken to be positive if in
the principal focus and perpendicular to the the direction of light propagation and negative
principal axis. if opposite to it.
Aperture(D): In reference to a lens, aperture  While using the sign convention it must be kept
is the effective diameter of its light transmitting in mind that, to calculate an unknown quantity
area. The intensity of image formed by a lens the known quantities are substituted with sign
depends on square of aperture. i.e., I D2 in a given formula.
Incident Incident
SIGN CONVENTION light
light
R1 R2
R1 R2

C2 O F C1 C1 O C2

(a)
(b)
For a convex lens as shown in fig.(a)
(a) The diagrams are drawn with the incident light
travelling from left to right R1   OC1  is +ve; R 2   OC2  is -ve
(b) The distances are measured by taking the optic
center P as the origin. f   OF  is +ve
(c) The distances measured in the direction of the For concave lens as shown in fig. (b)
incident light are considered positive while those R1   OC1  is -ve; R 2   OC2  is +ve
measured in the direction opposite to the
incident light are taken as negative. f   OF  is -ve
(All quantities measured to the right of P are
positive and all those to its left are negative).
(d) Heights measured upward and perpendicular
to the principal axis are taken as positive while

Page 409
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
POSITION AND NATURE OF IMAGES :
a) Convexlens and Formation of Image by a Convex Lens:

S.No Position of Ray Diagram Position of Nature and Size

Object Image of Image
1. At the principal Real, inverted
At infinity
F2 2F2 focus (F2) or in and extremely
2F2 F1 the focal plane diminished

A Real, inverted
2. Beyond 2F1 Between
F2 B ' 2F2 F2 and 2F2 and diminished
B 2F1 F1
A'

A Real, inverted
At 2F1 and of same
3. At 2F1 B F2 2F2
B' size as the
2F1 F1
object
A'

A
4. Between Between 2F2 Real, inverted
F2 2F2
F1 and 2F1 and highly
2F1 B F1 B'
magnified
A'

At infinity Real, inverted

5. At F1
2F2 F1 F2 2F2 and highly
magnified
B'
6. Between F1
and optical A F2 2F2 On the same Virtual,erect
centre A ' 2F1 F1B side as the
and magnified
object

Page 410
RAY OPTICS PART – 3

b) Concave lens  2 1  2  1
 
v u R
Virtual, For first surface
F erect,
diminished  2 1 2  1
I P   .... (1)
at F v1 u R1
The image I1 acts as object to second surface,
and form final image I2
Virtual, For second surface
In front
of lens erect, 1 2 1  2
F diminished   .... (2)
between O IP v v1 R2
between
P and  F and P So adding (1) and (2) equation, we have
1 1  1 1 
From the ray diagrams it is clear that 1      2  1    
Regarding convex lens: A convex lens will v u  R1 R 2 
form a real image for a real object when the  1 1    2  1 1 
object is placed beyond focus. or  v  u      1 R  R 
When the object comes with in the focus, then    1  1 2 
a virtual image is formed for the real object.
The real image formed is always inverted while 1 1  1 1 
   r  1   
virtual image is always erected. v u
Regarding concave lens:A concave lens  R1 R 2 
always form virtual image for a real object . 2 L
The image of a real object formed by a concave with  r    or  
1 M
lens is always erected and diminished in size.
A concave lens can form a real image as well  If object is at infinity, image will be formed at
as virtual image if the object is virtual. the focus
Lens Maker’s formula and Lens formula : i.e. for u  , v  f , so that above equation
In case of image formation by a lens, the
incident ray is refracted at first and second 1  1 1 
surface respectively. The image formed by the   r  1   
f  R1 R 2 
first surface acts as object for the second.
Consider an object O placed at a distance u Which is known as Lens-maker’s formula and
from a convex lens as shown in figure. Let its 1 1 1
image is I1 after refraction through first surface. for a lens it becomes   which is
v u f
So from the formula for refraction at curved known as the “lens - formula” or “Gauss’s
surface. formula” for a lens.
Lens formula :Lens formula is a relation
connecting focal length of the lens with the
object distance and image distance,
1 1 1
 
f  u
 The above formula is valid for convex as well
as concave lenses and it is independent of
nature of the image (real or virtual)
uf vf vu
 v ; u ; f
uf f v uv

Page 411
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Magnification convex as well as concave lens and for both

Lateral magnification: Magnification real and virtual images.
produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the  The lens maker’s formula is applicable for thin
size of image to that of the object. Here the lenses only and the value of R1 and R 2 are to
sizes being measured perpendicular to principal be put in accordance with the Cartesian sign
axis. convention.
I I1 h1 v f  v f
mt  1
    1 1
OO h 0 u f f u and Graphs:
O' V u
ho F 1
O
I (a) Convex lens: The graph between and
hi
v
I'
1
u v in case convex lens is as shown in figure (a).
 When we apply the sign convention, for erect u
E
image formed by a convex or concave lens ‘m’
is positive, while for an inverted image, m is
negative.
Longitudinal magnification:
Longitudinal magnification is defined as the ratio D
of infinitesimal axial length (dv) in the region of
the image to the corresponding length (du) in
the region of the object.
dv (a) (b)
Longitudinal magnification, m L  It is a straight line with slope +1 for real image,
du
AB line.
1 1 1
On differentiating equation   , we get 1 1 1 1 1 1
v u f   ;  
v  u  f v u f
dv du dv v 2
  0  L m    m2 It is a straight line with slope - 1, for virtual
v2 u 2 du u 2 image, BC line
So, longitudinal magnification is proportional to
1 1 1
the square of the lateral magnification.   ; 1  11
 When several lenses are used co-axially, the  v   u  f v u f
total magnification 1
m  m1  m 2  ....  m n (b) Concave lens: The graph between and
v
Angular magnification of lens: The ratio 1
of the slopes of emergent ray and corresponding in case of concave lens as shown in figure(b).
u
incident ray with principal axis is called the Concave lens form only virtual images of real
angular magnification. objects.
1 1 1 1 1 1
  ;  
v u f v u f
1 2 It is a straight line with slope +1, DE line .
O I U and V Graph
(a) Convex lens: The graph between v and
u is hyperbola to convex lens as shown in figure.
tan  2
Angular magnification     tan 
1
 Though we derived it for a real image formed
by a convex lens, the formula is valid for both

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Determination of the Focal length of a

convex lens and size of the object by
“LENS DISPLACEMENT METHOD”.

I
u
(b) Concave lens: The graph between v and
u is hyperbola to concave lens as shown in figure d
(b). If the distance ‘d’ between an object and screen
is greater than four times the focal length of a
convex lens, then there are two positions of
lens between the object and screen. This
method is called displacement method and is
used in the laboratory to determine the focal
length of convex lens.
If the object is at a distance u from the lens, the
distance of image from the lens, v   d  u  ,
Newton’s Formula:
1 1 1
In case of thin convex lens if an object is placed From lens formula  
v u f
at a distance x1 from first focus and its image
1 1 1
is formed at a distance x 2 from the second   or u 2  du  df  0
focus. du u f
d  d  d  4f 
h1 or u 
2
O F1 h2 h2
Now there are three possibilities.
x1 f1
f2 x2  i) If d  4f , then u will be imaginary, so
From properties of triangles, to the left of the physically no position of lens is possible.
lens d
h1 h 2 h1 h 2  ii) If d  4f , then u   2f so only one
  2
x1 f1 and to the right of the lens f 2 x 2 . position is possible and in this v  2f . That is
x1 f 2 why the minimum separation between the real
 f  x or  x1x 2  f1f 2 ,if f1  f 2 =f, object and real image is 4f.
1 2
d  d  d  4f 
x1 x 2  f 2  iii) If d  4f then u1  and
is called Newton’s formula or lens user formula. 2
Lens with Different Media on either d  d  d  4f 
side: u2  for two positions of the
2
Consider a lens made of a material with object for two real images
refractive index  with a liquid a on the left (a) For u  u1 ,
and a liquid b on the right as shown in figure
d  d  d  4f 
v  d  u1   u2
2
(b) For u  u 2 ,
d  d  d  4f 
v2  d  u 2   u1
The governing equation for this system is 2
 b a   a b  
  
v u R1 R2
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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

i.e., for two different positions of the lens the Again this acts as object for lens and final image
dist ances of object and image are I2 is formed at 6 cm infront of the lens.
interchangeable as shown in the figure.  The final image is real and at a distance of
Lens positions 16 cm from the mirror.
(1) (2)
(d-u) Illustration 2: A bi-convex lens is formed with
two thin plano convex lenses as shown in
the figure. Refractive index ‘n’ of the first
I lens is 1.5 and that of the second lens is
1.2. Both the curved surfaces are of the
x same radius of curvature R=14 cm. For this
(d-u) bi-convex lens, for an object distance of
The magnification for both the positions of the 40 cm, find the position of the image.
I I n = 1.5
object are related as m1  1 , m2  2
O O n = 1.2
1
m1 
m2
I1 I 2 I1I 2
i.e m1m 2  1 or m1m 2  .  1
O O O2
Therefore O  I1I2 where I1 and I 2 are the R = 14 cm
Solution:
sizes of the images for two positions of the
object and O is the size of the object. 1   1 
PT  1.5  1   0   1.2  1  0  
 If ‘x’ is the distance between the two positions  14   14 
x
of the lens. Then f  m  m 0.5 0.2 1
PT   
1 2 14 14 20
Illustration 1: A biconvex lens of focal length
15 cm is in front of a plane mirror. The 1 1 1
f   20 cm ;  
distance between the lens and the mirror v 40 20
is 10 cm. A small object is kept at a 1 1 1 1
distance of 30 cm from the lens. Find the    ;  v  40 cm
location of final image. v 20 40 40
Solution: Illustration 3: An object is 5 m to the left of a
flat screen. A converging lens for which
the focal length is 0.8 m is placed between
object and screen. (a) Show that for two
positions of lens form images on the screen
and determine how far these positions are
O I1 I2 from the object? (b) How do the two images
differ from each other?
Solution:
10cm
6cm
For the first time refraction through the lens:
1 1 1
 
f v1 u  v1  30
This acts as object for plane mirror with
u  20 .
Hence it forms image at v2  20 .

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

1 1 1 mirror are incident normally, i.e., I1 is the

(a) Using the lens formula,   centre of the mirror, so that
v u f
We have, R  MI1  50 cm and hence
1 1 1 1 1 f   R / 2    50 / 2   25cm
  or   1.25
5  u u 0.8 5  u u Power of A Lens :The power of lens is the
 u  5  u  1.25u  5  u  measure of its ability to produce convergence
or divergence of a parallel beam of light.
or 1.25 u 2  6.25u  5  0; u =4m and 1m The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent
Both the images are real, which means there of the angle by which it converges or diverges
exist two positions of lens that form images of a beam of light falling at unit distant from the
object on the screen. optical centre.

v 5  4
(b) m  ;  m1  4  0.25 and  
u   h h
 F
m2 
 5  1  4.00 O I
 1
Hence, both the images are real and inverted, f
the first has magnification -0.25 and the second (a) (b)
-4.00. h 1
Illustration 4: A point object is placed at a tan   ; if h  1, tan  
f f
distance of 12 cm on the axis of a convex
lens of focal length 10 cm. On the other 1
side of the lens, a convex mirror is placed As per definition, power (P) = tan  
f
at a distance of 10 cm from the lens such  If lens is placed in a medium other than air of
that the image formed by the combination 
coincides with the object itself. What is the refractive index  . Then power P  ;
focal length of convex mirror? f
1 1 1 1
Solution: For convex lens,   In air P     1
v 12 10 f
The S.I unit of power is diopter (D) and
i.e., v  60 cm ; i.e., in the absence of convex
1D  1m1
mirror, convex lens will form the image I1 at a
1 100
distance of 60 cm behind the lens. Since, the i.e. P  f in m  f in cm D
mirror is at a distance of 10 cm from the lens,    
I1 will be at a distance of 60  10  50 cm  A convex lens converge the incident rays. Due
to this reason, the power of a convex lens is
from the mirror, i.e., MI1  50 cm taken as positive. On the other hand, a concave
lens diverge the incident rays. Therefore its
power is taken as negative.
Lens with one Silvered surface
 When the back surface of a lens is silvered.
The rays are first refracted by lens, then
reflected from the silvered surface and finally
refracted by lens, so that we get two refractions
and one reflection.

Now as the final image I2 is formed at the

object O itself, the rays after reflection from
the mirror retraces its path, i.e., rays on the

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Refraction at 1st surface When curved surface of a plano

R1 R2 R1 R2 convex lens is silvered.

1 2 1 2
=
O O I1   

Re? ection at 2nd surface Refraction at 1st surface

R1 R2 R1 R2 Then, the focal power of the given lens is

1 1 2
1 2 +O I I 1 2 Pe  Pm  2 Pl ; f  f  f
O I2 2 3 e m l

2

2    1  2  f   R
e
In the diagram if fl and f m are the respective R R R 2
focal lengths and Pl and pm are the powers Since fe is negative, the system behaves as a
of lens and mirror. Then effective power R
Pe  Pl  Pm  Pl  2 Pl  Pm concave mirror with focal length
2
1 1 1 1
   When the curved surface of an
f e fl f m fl equiconvex lens is silvered
1 R
with Pm   f where f m  2 and
m 2 = + +
1 1 1 
Pl      1   
fl  R1 R2  1 1 2
Use sign convention in the formula of focal Pe  Pm  2Pl ; f  f  f
length. e m l
So the system will behave as a curved mirror 2   1 2
1 Pl  Pm 
R R
of effective focal length, f e   P
1 R 2 4   1
When the plane surface of plano
e
 Pm   where f m  ; Pe  
fm 2 R R
convex lens is silvered.
2  4  4 4  2 2  2 1
  
R R R
R
    fe 
2 21
Since fe is negative, the system behaves as a
Then, the focal power of the given lens is R
concave mirror with focal length 2 2 1
( Pm  0 )  
1 1 2 Illustration 5: A pin is placed 10 cm in front
Pe  Pm  2 Pl ; f   of a convex lens of focal length 20cm made
e f m fl of material having refractive index 1.5. The
  1  2    1 surface of the lens farther away from the
Pe  2.  0  pin is silvered and has a radius of curvature
 R  R 22cm. Determine the position of the final
1 R image. Is the image real or virtual?
 fe     Solution: As radius of curvature of silvered surface
Pe 2    1 is 22 cm, so
Since   1 , fe is negative, the system behaves R 22
as a concave mirror. f M    11cm and hence,
2 2

Page 416
RAY OPTICS PART – 3
x  12.5cm
1 1 1
PM     D Hence, the object should be placed at a
fM 0.11 0.11 distance
Further as the focal length of lens is 20cm, 12.5cm in front of the silvered lens.
i.e., 0.20 m, its power will be given by: Illustration 7: A convex lens and convex
1 1 mirror are seperated by distance d as
PL   D shown in the figure. What should be the
f L 0.20
value of d so that image is formed on the
object itself
f=10cm
f=10cm

I
O
10 cm O
15cm

d
11 cm

Now as in image formation, light after passing 1 1 1

through the lens will be reflected back by the Solution:- For lens    v  30cm
curved mirror through the lens again v 15 10
Lens maker’s formula-Special Cases
P  PL  PM  PL  2PL  PM
It relates the focal length of the lens to the
2 1 210 refractive index of material of the lens and the
i.e., P    D radii of curvature of the two surfaces.
0.20 0.11 11
So the focal length of equivalent mirror 1  lens  1 1 
The formula is   1  
1 11 110 f  medium   R1 R2 
F   m cm
P 210 21
where lens is the absolute refractive index of
i.e., the silvered lens behaves as a concave
mirror of focal length (110/21) cm. So for material of the lens, medium is the absolute re-
object at a distance 10 cm in front of it, fractive index of the medium in which the lens
1 1 21 is placed.
 
v 10 110 R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of two sur-
faces of the lens.
i.e., v  11cm i.e., image will be 11 cm in
front of the silvered lens and will be real as If the lens is placed in vacuum then
shown in figure. 1 1 1 
  lens  1   
Illustration 6: A biconvex thin lens is prepared f  R1 R2 
from glass of refractive index 3/2. The two
bounding surfaces have equal radii of 25 The lens makers’ formula is applicable for thin
cm each. One of the surfaces is silvered lenses only and the value of R1 and R2 are to
from outside to make it reflecting. Where be put in accordance with the Cartesian sign
should an object be placed before this lens convention.
so that the image coincides with the ob-
ject. 1) For convex lens
Solution: Here,
R1  25cm, R2  25cm and   3 / 2 O
C 2 C 1
Image coincides wit h object , hence
u  v   x (say)
R 2 R 1
1 2 1 3  2 2
   2   1 
F FL FC  2  25 25
1 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 For convex lens R1 is +ve and R2 is -ve so the
 ,by using   ;   
F 25 v u F x x 25

Page 417
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

1  1 1  radius of curvature R. On immersion in a

lens makers formula is     1    medium of refractive index 1.75, it will
f  R1 R2  behave as which kind of lens.
1 2 Solution: When glass lens is immersed in a me-
For equiconvex lens     1  
f R dium, its refractive index is m  g .
2) For concave lens a
 g 1.50 6
m
g    By lens makers’
m 1.75 7 
a

C1 O C2
formula
1  1 1  1 6  1 1 
R1 R2
  m  g  1    or    1     
f  R1 R2  f  7   R R 
For concave lens R1 is -ve and R2 is +ve so
the lens makers formula is 1  1  2  7R
or       or f   3.5 R
1  1 1  f  7  R  2
    1     Hence, the given lens in medium behaves like
f  R1 R2  convergent lens of focal length 3.5R
1 2 Illustration 10: Show that “A hollow equi con-
For equiconcave lens      1   vex lens of glass will behave like a glass
f R
plate”.
3) For converging meniscus (or)
Solution: Hollow convex lens is as shown in figure
concavo-convex
1 1 1 
1  1 1     g  1     0
    1    , if  R  R  f1  R1 R2 
f  R1 R2 
1 2

4) For diverging meniscus  as R1  R2 and R3  R4 

(or) convexo-concave R1 R4
R2 R3
1 1 1 
     1    , if  R  R  
f  R1 R2 
1 2

5) For plano convex lens

1 f f
1 1 2

    1    R2  
f R Hollow glass lens

Illustration 8: What is the refractive index of or f1   , similarly f 2  

material of a plano-convex lens, if the ra- Therefore, a hollow equi convex lens of any
dius of curvature of the convex surface is material will behave like a glass plate.
10cm and focal length of the lens is 30cm?
Illustration 11: The diagram shows a concavo
Solution: According to lens-maker’s formula -convex lens. What is the condition on the
1 1 1  refractive indices so that the lens is diverg-
    1    ing?
f  R1 R2 
Here f  30cm, R1  10cm and R2  
1 1 1 1 3
so     1    2
30  10  
i.e., 3  3  1 or    4 / 3
Illustration 9: A concave lens of glass, refrac-
tive index 1.5, has both surfaces of same

Page 418
RAY OPTICS PART – 3

The refractive index of the lens is 2 Solving eqs. (1) and (2) , we get x  6cm
Solution: Illustration 14: An object placed at A
3 1 1  2 2  3 1   2  OA  f  . Here, f is the focal length of
     3  2 the lens. The image is formed at B. A
v u 2R R 2 perpendicular is erected at O and C is
 1   2  2  3  2  2  1   2  2  3 chosen such that BCA  900 .
Illustration 12: The magnification of an ob- Let OA  a, OB  b and OC  c . Then find
ject placed in front of a convex lens of fo-
cal length 20cm is +2. To obtain a magni- the value of f in terms of a,b and c.
fication of -2, the object will have to be 1 1 1 1 1 1
moved by a distance equal to d. Find the Solution: From   we have  
value of d. v u f b a f
Solution: When magnification is +2 then the image ab
is virtual. Both the image and the object are on or f   1
the same side of the lens. a b
Further AC 2  BC 2  AB 2
u   x; v  2 x; f  20
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 or  a 2  c 2    b 2  c 2    a  b 
Using   we have   or
v u f 2 x x 20 or a 2  b 2  2c 2  a 2  b 2  2ab ; ab  c 2
x  10cm .
To have a magnification of -2 the image must o
90
be real.
u   y, v  2 y and f  20 c

1 1 1
   or y  30cm d  y  x  20cm
2 y y 20 A O B
Illustration 13: Two point sources S1 and S 2
are 24cm apart. Where should a convex
lens of focal length 9 cm be placed in be- a b
tween them so that the images of both c2
sources are formed at same place? Substituting this in Eq. (1) we get f 
ab
Solution: In this case, one of the images will be Illustration 15:Convex lens has a focal length
real and other virtual. Let us assume that image
of 10cm.
of S1 is real and that of S 2 is virtual. a) Where should the object be placed if the
f=9 cm image is to be formed at 30cm from the lens
on the same side as the object?
b) What will be the magnification?
S1 I S2

I
y
x O FO F
Solution:
24-x
1 1 1 30cm
Applying  
v u f a) In case of magnifying lens, the lens is
convergent and the image is erect, enlarged,
1 1 1 virtual , between infinity and object and on
For S1 :    1
y x 9 the same side of lens as shown in figure. So
here f  10cm and v  30cm and hence
1 1 1
for S 2 :      2 from lens-formula,
y 24  x 9

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

1 1 1 to be +2. In order to obtain a magnifica-

  tion of -2, by how much distance should
v u f
the object be moved?
1 1 1 Solution: In the first case, the magnification is posi-
we have   i.e u  7.5cm
30 u 10 tive which implies that the image is erect, vir-
So the object must be placed in front of lens at tual and on the same side of the lens as the
a distance of 7.5cm (which is <f) from it. object. If a is the object distance then u  a
and v  2a . From the lens formula, we have
 I  v  30
b) m      4 1 1 1 1 1 1
O  u  7.5   or    a  15cm
i.e, image is erect, virtual and four times the v u f 2a a 30
size of object. So the object is at a distance of 15cm from the
Illustration 16: In the figure, light is incident lens. In the second case, the magnification is
on the thin lens as shown. The radius of negative, the image is real, inverted and on the
curvature for both the surfaces is R. De- other side of the lens as the object. If b is the
termine the focal length of this system. object distance, then u  b and v  2b .

1 1 1 1
Hence    b  45cm
2 3 2b b 30
Thus the object has to be moved through a dis-
tance of  45  15   30cm away from the lens.
Illustration 18:The distance between the ob-
ject and the real image formed by a convex
Solution: For refraction at first surface, lens is d. If the linear magnification is m,
find the focal length of the lens in terms
 2 1 2  1 of d and m.
   i 
v1  R Solution: The convex lens formula for a real image
For refraction at 2nd surface is
 3  2 3   2 1 1 1
    ii     i 
v2 v1 R v u f
Where no sign conventions are to be used. Mul-
3 u u
tiplying by u we get  1 
1 2
v f
2 1 1 u u f
or  1 
m f f
1  m  f
or m  u  f   f or u    ii 
v1 m
v2
Multiplying (i) by v we get
Adding equations (i) and (ii) we get
v v v
3 3  1 3 R 1  or 1  m  or v  f 1  m    iii 
 or v2  u f f
v2 R 3  1
Now u  v  d . Using (ii) and (iii) we have
Therefore, focal length of the given lens system
3 R
d
1  m  f  f 1  m 
is    m
3 1

Illustration 17:The linear magnification of an md

which gives f 
object placed on the principal axis of a 1  m 
2

convex lens of focal length 30cm is found

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Illustration 19: A concave lens of focal length If a lens made of two or more materials and
f forms an image which is n times the size are placed side by side as shown in below, then
of the object. What is the distance of the there will be one focal length and hence one
object from the lens in terms of f and n? image
1 1 1
Solution: Using lens formula is   Thus
v u f
u u 1 u v 
 1  or  1    n 
v f n f  u 
1 n 
or u   f
 n 
Some important points regarding lens:
 Every part of a lens forms complete image. If a
portion of lens is obstructed, full image will be
formed but the intensity will be reduced. Lens immersed in a liquid:
 The focal length of a lens depends on its Consider a lens made of a material of refrac-
1 tive index lens is immersed in a liquid of re-
refractive index i.e     1 , so the focal
f fractive index liquid ,
length of a given lens is different for different
wave lengths and maximum for red and If f a is the focal length of the lens placed in air,,
minimum for violet whatever the nature of the then
lens as shown in figure.
1 1 1 
white light
white light   lens  1     1
fa  R1 R2 
If fl is the focal length of the lens when im-
mersed in a liquid then
fv
fR 1  lens  1 1 
  1      2 
Filling up of a lens: 
fl  liquid 
  R1 R2 
If a lens made of a number of layers of different
refractive indices as shown in figure, for a given 1  fl

 lens  1
wave length of light it will have many focal lengths  2 f a  lens 
1   1
    1 
as,
f  liquid 
Hence it will form many images. According to  Depending upon the values of lens and liquid ,
given diagram number of images formed by lens we have three cases
is 4.
lens  liquid
lens  liquid lens  liquid
liquid liquid 
liquid
liquid

liquid liquid
L

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
lens >liquid lens=liquid lens<liquid A 1 2
   ; R1  10cm
liquid liquid liquid liquid liquid
Initially, G  
3
2
3
liquid
and R2  10cm
1 2  1 1  2
So    1      ie
(a) (b) ( c) f  3   10 10  30
Case(a): If  lens   liquid , then fl and f a are of f  15cm
same sign and f l  f a i.e. the nature of lens re- ie. the air lens in glass behaves as divergent
mains unchanged, but it’s focal length increases lens of focal length 15cm.
and hence power of lens decreases. When the liquid of   2 is filled in the air cavity,,
Case(b): If  lens   liquid then fl   ,ie. the lens  2 4
 L  
behaves as a plane glass plate and becomes  M 1.5 3
invisible in the medium.
1 4   1 1  2
Case(c): If  lens  liquid , then fl and f a have op- So that now    1   
posite sign and the nature of lens changes ie. a f '  3  10 10  30
convex lens diverges the light rays and con- f '  15cm ie. the liquid lens in glass will be-
cave lens converge the light rays. have as a convergent lens of focal length 15cm.
Illustration 20: A glass convex lens of refrac-
tive index (3/2) has a focal length equal to  If the two radii of curvature of a thin lens are
0.3m. Find the focal length of the lens if it not equal, the focal length remains unchanged,
is immersed in water of refractive index where the light is incident on either of two
(4/3)? surfaces.
Solution: As according to lens-makers’ formula Cutting of a lens:
3   If an equi convex lens of focal length ‘f’ is cut
fw   g  1 f w   1 into two equal parts along its principal axis, as
2
 ;     f  1.2 m
w
fa   g  0.3  3  shown in figure , as none of  , R1 and R2 will
  1  2  1
 w change, the focal length of each part will be
 4 
 3  equal that of initial lens, but intensity of the image
Illustration 21: As shown in figure, a spheri- formed by each part will be reduced.
R1=R2=R3
cal air lens of radii R1  R2  10cm is
formed by cutting in a glass    1.5  cyl-
f
inder. Determine the focal length and na- f
ture of air lens. If a liquid of refractive in-
dex 2 is filled in the lens, what will hap-
pen to its focal length and nature?
f

 = 1.5
 = 1.5  = 1.5
(a) (b) ( c)
A) =1 =2
 = 1.5
 If an equi convex lens of focal length ‘f’ is cut
into two equal parts transverse to principal axis,
as shown in figure, the focal length of each part
Solution: According to lens-maker’s formula, will become double that of initial value, but
intensity of image remains same.
1 1 1 
    1    with   L
f  R1 R2  M

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3
R1=R2=R3
1 1 1 1 2
  , 
Fnet 2 f 2 f Fnet 2 f and
f 2f 1
Fnet  f , Pnet 
f
 If an equi convex lens of focal length ‘f’ is
divided into two equal parts along its principal
axis as shown in figure, the focal length of each
part is f . If these two parts are put in contact
in different combinations as shown in figure (a)
(a) (b) ( c) f (ve) f (ve) f (ve)
For original lens
1  1 1  2(   1)
 (   1)      (1)
f  R1 R2  R 
For each part of cut lens
1  1 1  (   1) f (ve)
 (   1)      (2) (a) (b)
f R  R
1 1 1
From (1) and (2) we get f '  2 f For first combined lens, f  f  f
 On removing a part of lens with out disturbing net

remaining part, the principal axis position and f 2

focal length of the remaining part is same as f net   Pnet 
earlier, but intensity of image is reduced 2 f
For the second combination as shown in figure
(b) , first part will behave as convergent lens of
f focal length f while the other divergent of same
f
focal length (being thinner near the axis), so in
1 1 1
this case, F  f  f ; Fnet  , Pnet  0
net

Motion of object and images of a lens:

f
(a) V0
(b)
 If the equi convex lens of focal length ‘f’ is
divided into two equal parts transverse to the
principal axis as shown in figure, the focal length I
of each part is 2f. If these two parts are put in O u
Vi
contact in different combinations as shown in
figure
2f 2f 2f 2f 2f 2f v

1 1 1
For a lens  
v u f
 (or)  (or) 
On differentiating above equation, we get
1 dv 1 du du dv
 2
,  2  0; V0  , Vi 
v dt u dt dt dt

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

2
v
(or) Vi    V0 where Vi  velocity of im-
u
age with respect to lens, V0 =velocity of object
with respect to lens. ;
2
2  f 
i.e. Vi  m .V0    .V0
u  f 
If an object is moved at constant speed to-
wards a convex lens from infinity to focus, the
image will move other side of the lens slower in
the beginning and faster later on away from the
lens. If the object moves from F to optical cen-
tre, the image moves with greater speed on the u cm
cm
same side of object from infinity to towards So each part will form a real image of the point
lens.
object at 60cm from the lens as shown in fig-
 A point object is kept at the first focus of a
convex lens. If the lens starts moving towards ure. As there are two pieces, two images are
right with constant velocity. The image first will fo rmed. No w in similar triangles
move towards left and then move towards right.
 OI1 I 2 and OL1L2 
V
I1 I 2 OP  u  v 
F  
L1 L2 OQ u
Illustration 22: A point object O is placed at a
distance of 30 cm from a convex lens of 90
ie I1 I 2    2  0.05   0.3cm
focal length 20cm cut into two halves each 30
of which is displaced by 0.05cm as shown
in figure. Find the position of the image? So the two images formed are 0.3cm apart.
If more than one image is formed, find  Rotation of Lenses:
their number and distance between them?

P


C
O O

O
20.05cm
When a thin lens is rotated in a uniform
30cm
medium by an angle ‘  ’, the principal axes also
rotates by an angle '  ' in the same direction.
All calculations to be performed now according
f =20cm
to the new system of principal axis.
Solution: Considering each part as separate lens Combination of Lenses :
with u  30cm and f  20cm , from lens 1) Consider two thin lenses kept in contact as
1 1 1 1 1 1 shown in figure. Let a point object ‘O’ is placed
formula   we have   on the axis of the combination.
v u f v 30 20
ie. v  60cm

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3
d
f1 f2 f1 f2

O
I I1
u v
v1
First lens of focal length f1 form the
image I1 of the object ‘O’ at a distance v 1
L1 L2
from it. Then
1 1 1 i) The distance of equivalent lens from second
   1
v 1 u f1 fd
lens L2 is f towards the object if the value is
Now the image I1 will act as an object for sec- 1

ond lens and the second lens forms image I at positive and away from the object if the value
a distance ‘v’ from it, then is negative
ii) The distance of equivalent lens from the first
1 1 1
   2 fd
v v1 f 2 lens L1 is f away from the object, if the value
So adding (1) and (2) equations we have 2
is positive and towards the object if the value is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
    or    negative. It is noted that f, f1 and f 2 are to be
v u f1 f 2 v u F
substituted according to sign convention.
1 1 1 4) If the medium on either side of the lens is air
so f  f  f and the medium between the lens is having
1 2
refractive index  , we can imagine that the
i.e., the combination behaves as a single lens of
rays emerging from the first lens are incident on
equivalent focal length “F” given by
the second lens as if they have traversed a thick-
1 1 1
  d 1 1 1 d /  
f f1 f 2 ness in air. Hence   
 F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
This derivation is valid for any number of thin
lenses in contact co-axially. d 
P  p1  p2    P1 P2
1 1 1 1 1 
    ......... 5) A plane glass plate is constructed by combin-
f f1 f 2 f 3 fn
ing a plano-convex lens and a plano-concave
In terms of power Pnet  P1  P2  P3  .....Pn lens of different materials as shown in figure.
Here focal length values are to be substituted ( C is the refractive index of convergence lens,
with sign.
2) If two thin lenses of equal focal length but of  D is the refractive index of divergent lens and
opposite nature are paired in contact, the re- R is the radius of curvature of common inter-
sultant focal length of the combination will be face).
1 1  1
      0 i.e. F   and P  0
F f  f 
3) If two thin lens are separated by a distance d ,
1 1 1 d
then f  f  f  f f and
1 2 1 2

Pe  P1  P2  dP1P2

Page 425
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
By lens maker’s formula and the whole arrangement is placed in a liquid
1  1 1   C  1 of refractive index liquid then this is equivalent
  C  1     1 and
fC   R  R to combination of two lenses kept in contact in
1  1 1    D  1 a medium. Now
  D  1      2
fD  R   R 1 1 1
Now as the lenses are in contact,  
f f1 f 2
1 1 1  C  D  R
   ;f  1  1  1 1 
f fC f D R  C   D  where f     1   
  R1 R2 
As C   D , the system will act as lens. The 1  liquid 
system will behave as convergent lens if    1
1 1 
C   D (as its focal length will be positive) and   1  1  
f 2  m   liquid  R ' R '
as divergent lens if C   D (as f will be nega-  1 2 

8) If parallel incident ray on first lens emerges

tive)
6) Two convex lenses made of materials of re- parallel from the second lens, then f e  
fractive indices 1 and 2 , they are placed as 1 1 1 d
shown in figure, the gap between them is filled     d  f1  f 2
 f1 f 2 f1 f 2
with a liquid of refractive index liquid .This com- (a) If both the lenses are convex, then
bination is placed in air then
liquid d  f1  f 2

R1 R2 R1 R2

air air
1 2

The system is equal to a combination of three

thin lenses in contact. Now f1 f2
1 1 1 1
   (b) If first lens is convex and second lens is con-
f f1 f liquid f 2
cave, then
1  1 1  d  f1    f 2   f1  f 2
where f   1  1  R  R 
1  1 2 

1  1 1 
  liquid  1   
fliquid  R2 R1 ' 
1  1 1 
  2  1   
f2  R1 ' R2 ' 
If the effective focal length f of the combination
is +ve then the combination behaves like con-
verging lens, if f is -ve then the combination
behaves like diverging lens. Illustration 23:Two thin lenses, when in con-
7) If two convex lenses made of materials of re- tact, produce a combination of power +10
fractive indices 1 and 2 are kept in contact diopter. When they are 0.25m part, the

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

power reduces to +6 diopter. Find the fo- 1 3   1 1  1

   1    
cal lengths of the lenses. f 3  2   30   60
Solution: When the lenses in contact,
1 1 5 1
P  P1  P2 or P1  P2  10  1 So    ; F = – 72 cm
F 40 180 60
When lenses have d separation, i.e., the system will behave as a divergent lens
PP
1 2
of focal length 72cm.
P1  P2  dP1 P2  P or P1  P2  6 Illustration 25:Two thin symmetrical lenses
4
of different nature and of different
P1 P2 material have equal radii of curvature
or 10   6 or P1P2  16   2 
4
R  15cm .The lenses are put close
From (1) and (2) . we get P1  8D, P2  2 D together and immersed in water
1 1  4
 f1   0.125m, f 2   0.5m  w   . The focal length of the system
8 2  3
Illustration 24:Two plano-concave lenses of in water is 30cm. The difference between
glass of refractive index 1.5 have radii of refractive indices of the two lenses is
curvature of 20 and 30 cm . They are Solution: Let f and f be the focal lengths in
1 2
placed in contact with curved surfaces to- water. Then
wards each other and the space between
them is filled with a liquid of refractive 1  1  1 1  1   2 
  1       1  1    1
index (4/3). Find the focal length of the f1  w   R R  f1   w   R 
system.
1  2  1 1 
Solution: As shown in figure the system is equiva-   1    
lent to combination of three thin lenses in con- f2  w   R R 
1 1 1 1
tact. ie. F  f  f  f 1  2  2 
  1      2 
1 2 3 f 2  w   R 
Adding Eqs. (1) and (2) we get
1 1 2  1   2 
 
f1 f 2 w R
1 2 3 But the given system is equal to combination of
two lens kept in contact in liquid so
1 1 1 1 2  1  2 
  or 
F f1 f 2 30 w R

w R
But by lens-maker’s formula   1   2   ; substituting the values we
60
1 3  1 1  1 4  15 1
   1      get  1   2   
f1  2    20  40 3  60 3
1 4   1 1 5 Illustration 26: A converging lens of focal
   1    
f 2  3   20 30  180 length 5.0cm is placed in contact with a
diverging lens of focal length 10.0cm. Find
the combined focal length of the system.

Page 427
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Solution: Here f1  5.0cm and f 2  10.0cm

Therefore, the combined focal length F is given
1 1 1 1 1 1
by F  f  f  5.0  10.0   10.0 refracting

second refracting
1 2 edge

first refracting
 F  10.0cm ie. the combination behaves

surface

surface
as a converging lens of focal length 10.0cm.
Illustration 27: Two thin converging lenses are
placed on a common axis, so that the cen- Incident A
ray emergent
tre of one of them coincides with the focus ray
of the other. An object is placed at a dis-
Principal section
tance twice the focal length from the left- of prism
side lens. Where will its image be formed?  The plane surfaces on which light incident and
What is the lateral magnification? The fo- emerges are called refracting faces.
cal length of each lens is f.  The angle between the faces on which light is
Solution: incident and from which it emerges is called
refracting angle or apex angle or angle of
the prism (A).
 The two refracting surfaces meet each other in
a line called refracting edge.
 A section of the prism by a plane perpendicular
to the refracting edge is called principal section
O
2f f  Angle of deviation   means the angle between
emergent ray and incident ray. While measuring
the deviation value in anticlockwise direction is
taken as positive and clockwise direction is
taken negative.
The image formed by first lens will be at dis-
tance 2f with lateral magnification m1  1 .For A 
second lens this image will behave as a virtual
1 1 1
object. Using the lens formula,   we Incident emergent
v u f ray ray
1 1 1  = deviation angle
have,    If refractive index of the material of the prism is
v f f
equal to that of surroundings, no refraction at
f v  f / 2 1 its surfaces will takes place and light will pass
v  ; m2  2  
2 u2 f 2 through it undeviated ie.   0 .
Therefore, final image (real) is formed at a dis-  vii) Generally we use equilateral or right angled
tance f/2 right side of the second lens with total or Isosceles prism.
lateral magnification,
Determination of Refrative index of
1 1 material of the prism for minimum
m  m1  m2   1      deviation:
2 2
Refraction through Prism:
 Prism is a transparent medium bounded by any
number of surfaces in such a way that the
surface on which light is incident and the surface
from which the light emerges are plane and non-
parallel as shown in figure.

Page 428
RAY OPTICS PART – 3
X
A vi) We know that r1  r2  A, r  r  A, r  A/ 2
N1  N2
also   i1  i2   A, min   i  i   A i1  i2  i 
 min  A
2i   min  A; i 
P 2
S
Y Z sin i sin i1 sin i2
Angle of deviation through a prism By Snell’s law   sin r  sin r  sin r
1 2
   i1  i2   A and A  r1  r2
 A   min   A   min 
 Minimum Deviation sin   p
sin  
 2   2 
 
From the equation    i1  i2   A , the angle sin
A m sin
A
of deviation  depends upon angle of incidence 2 2

 i1  . If we determine experimentally, the angle  Deviation produced by small angled prisms.

For small angles
of deviation corresponding to different angles
of incidence and then plot a graph by taking i1 i2
angle of incidence (i) on x-axis , angle of de-   ; i1   r1 , i2   r2
r1 r2
viation   on y-axis, we get the curve as
But    i1  i2   A
shown in figure.
Y    r1   r2  A;     r1  r2   A ;
But r1  r2  A ;    A  A

For a prism immersed in a medium of refrac-

tive index  m deviation,
 
 min      1 A     p  1 A
X
 m 
O i1 i
1 2 i i) For a given material of prism, wave length of
i
1 light and angle of incidence, when angle of the
From the graph prism increases angle of deviation also increases
i) With the increase in angle of incidence (i), the as   A .
angle of deviation first decreases, becomes ii) With increase in wavelength , deviation de-
minimum for a particular angle of incidence creases i.e. deviation for red is least while maxi-
and then begins to increase
 1 
ii) From the graph it is obvious that, for one mum for violet as      1  
  
angle of devitation   . There are two angles
iii) When a given prism is immersed in liquid, the
of incidence  i1  and  i2 
angle of deviation changes as     r  1
iii) From the graph for one particualr value of
angle of incidence (i), the angle of minimum iv) When the prism is set for minimum deviation,
the light travelling inside an equilateral prism is
deviation is denoted by  min necessarily parallel to the base .
iv) For minimum deviation, i1 and i2 values v) The angle of minimum deviation will increase if
refractive Index of prisms is increased keeping
coincide at    min ,i1  i2 (say) also
the outside medium unchanged if   P   S 
r1  r2  r (say)
 Maximum deviation:
v) In the position of minimum deviation the
incident and emergent rays are symmetrical, Deviation of a ray of light will be maximum when
therefore the path of the ray within the prism the angle of incidence is maximum i.e i  900 .
is parallel to the base Then , the maximum deviation
 max  90  i2  A

Page 429
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

But in view of equation (2)

A
sin r1  sin  A  C  ;
R
90 i2 sin i1
 sin  A  C 
Q c r2

S sin i1   sin  A  C 
ie. sin i1   sin A cos C  cos A sin C 
P
To find the angle of emergence in this case let
ie sin i1    sin A 1 sin C   cos AsinC 
2
us apply Snell’s law at second surface.  
 a sin r2 1
  i.e sin i1    2
 1 sin A  cos A 
 sin i 2   
As i1  900 , r1  C ; Also 1
(as sin C    )
r1  r2  A,  C  r2  A 
So, r2  A  C ;  sin  A  C   sin i2 1 
or i1  sin   2
 1 sin A  cos A
 
i2  sin 1   sin  A   C  
Maximum deviation is  max  90  i2  A 0
1 
or  i1 min  sin   
 2  1 sin A  cos A   3

i.e light will emerge out of prism only if angle of
 max  900  sin 1   sin  A   C    A
incidence is greater than  i1 min given by Eq.
 Since the law of reversibility always true, then (3) . In this situation deviation will be given by
for an angle of incidence
1
   i1  900  A  with i1 given by Eq.(3)
i  sin   sin  A   C   , the emergent ray
 Condition of no emergence:
grazes at the second surface.
The light will not emerge out of a prism for a
 Condition of grazing emergence: If a values of angle of incidence if at face AB for
ray can emerge out of a prism, the value of
i1 max   900 and at face AC
angle of incidence i1 for which angle of
emergence i2  900 is called condition of r2  C  1
grazing emergence. In this situation as the ray
emerges out of face XZ, i.e., TIR does not take
place at it.
X
r1
r2
A
N1
N2

B C
Apply Snell’s law at face AB,
1 sin 900   sin r1

1  1 
r2  C  1 ie. r1  sin   ; or r1  C   2 

But as in a prism r1  r2  A; r1  A  r2
From eq. (1) and (2) ; r1  r2  2C   3
So r1  A    C  ie. r1  A  C   2 
Now from Snell’s law at face XY, we have But r1  r2  A   4 
1sin i1   sin r1

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

A  2C   5  then

A
A  A  A 1
  C or sin    sin C  sin   
2 2 2  c c

  A 
i.e.   cos ec      6 
  2 
i.e., A ray of light will not emerge out of a prism
(what ever be the angle of incidence) if
 A (i) i1  i2  900 (ii) r1  r2  C
A  2 C , if   cos ec  
2
(iii)Angle of prism A  2 C
(or)   cot A / 2 1
2
(iv) Deviation d  180  2C  180  A
 Limiting Angle : In order to have an emer-
 Prism formula A  r1  r2
gent ray, the maximum angle of the prism is 2C ,
  i1  i2  A are not always applicable
where  C is the critical angle of the prism w.r.t
the surrounding medium2C is called the limit- i1 A
ing angle of the prism. r1
 If the angle of incidence at first surface i is such 
that r2 i2

a) If i  sin 1   sin  A   C   , then the ray
grazes at the other surface. In this figure A  r2  r1 and   i1  i2  A
1
b) If i  sin   sin  A   C   , then the ray Image formation by a prism:
emerges out of a prism from the other surface. A small angled prism forms a virtual image for
1
small objects.
c) If i  sin   sin  A  C   , then the ray un-
der go TIR at the other surface. I
 Normal incidence- grazing emer- h
gence: If the incident ray falls normally on 
O
the prism and grazes from the second sur-
face, then a
h
tan   ; h  a
a
‘h’ height of the image formed by the prism.
Illustration 28: An equilateral glass prism is
c made of a material of refractive index 1.5.
Find its angle of minimum deviation.
(Given sin 48035'  0.75 )

a) i1  r1  0, i2  900 and r2   C  A Solution: A  600 ,   1.5,  min  ?

1  A   min   600   min 

1 sin  sin  
b) A   C  sin    2

 1.5   2 
  0
 A ;  60 
c) Deviation d  90  C sin    sin 
2  2 
 Grazing incidence - grazing emergence: If
the incident ray falls on the prism with grazing
incidence and grazes from the second surface,

Page 431
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

0  600   min   0  r2  A; r2  A
1.5sin 30  sin  
 2  When the emergent light grazes the second sur-
face , r2 becomes the critical angle  C 
 60 0   min 
sin    1.5  0.5000  0.75 1 1
 2  i.e. C  A and  
sin C sin A
600   min 0 Illustration 32: A ray of light passing through
 48 35'
2 a prism having   2 suffers minimum
0 0 0
60   min  97 10 '   min  37 10 ' deviation. It is found that the angle of in-
cidence is double the angle of refraction
Illustration 29:A prism of refracting angle 40 within the prism. What is the angle of
is made of a material of refractive index prism.
1.652, Find its angle of minimum devia- Solution: As the prism is in ‘The position of mini-
tion.
mum deviation’,  m   2i  A with r  A / 2
Solution: A  40 ,   1.652,   ?
According to given problem,
0
  A    1  4 1.652  1 i  2r  A as r  A / 2 
0 0
 4  0.652  2.608  m  2 A  A  A and hence from
Illustration 30: A ray of light is incident nor-
mally on one of the faces of a prism of apex sin  A    / 2 sin A
 i.e 2   or 
angles 300 and refractive index 2 . The sin  A / 2  sin A / 2
angle of deviation of the ray is......degree
A A A
Solution: Apply Snell’s law of refraction at P 2 sin  2sin cos
2 2 2
A 1
i.e, cos   or  A  450 ie. A  900
2 2 2
Illustration 33: A ray of light is incident at an
angle of 600 on one face of prism of angle
300
300 . The ray emerging out of the prism
makes an angle of 300 with the incident
ray. Show that the emergent ray is perpen-
sin 300 1 dicular to the face through which it
 emerges and calculate the refractive index
sin r 2
of the material of the prism.
1 1
or sin r  2    sin 450 or r  450 Solution: According to given problem,
2 2
A  300 , i  600 and   300 and as in prism ,
  r  300  450  300  150
 Deviation of ray =150    i1  i2   A ; 300   600  i2   300 ;i.e i2  00
Illustration 31: A ray of light is incident nor-
mally on one of the refracting surfaces of So the emergent ray is perpendicular to the face
a prism of refracting angle A. The emer- from which it emerges.
gent ray grazes the other refracting sur- Now as i2  0, r2  0;
face. Find the refractive index of the ma-
terial of prism.
But as r1  r2  A, r1  A  300
Solution: For normal incidence on one of the re-
fracting faces of the prism, i1  0 and r1  0 . So at first face 1sin 600   sin 300 ie   3
But r1  r2  A , when light undergoes refrac-
tion through a prism.

Page 432
RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Illustration 34: A 600 prism has a refractive Solution: Since the emergent light slides along the
index of 1.5. Calculate (a) the angle of in- face AC , angle of emergence is 900 , as shown
cidence for minimum deviation, (b) the . It implies that angle of incidence ray of the ray
angle of emergence of light at maximum that falls on face AC is equal to the critical angle
deviation. (Given sin 1  0.75   490 ,  C  r2   C  1
From the prism theory, we know
 2
1
sin    420 and sin 1  0.465   280 .
 3
Solution: (a) As the prism is in the position of mini-
mum deviation, r   A / 2    60 0 / 2   30 0 ,
so that at either face sin i  1.5sin 300  0.75 0
r1  r2  A  900  r2  90  r1   2 
or i  sin 1  0.75  490
From the equations (1) and (2) 900  r1   C
Note: In this situation angle of emergence is equal
to angle of incidence = 490 and deviation  sin  90 0  r1   sin  C  or  cos r1  sin  C

 m   2i  A    2  49  60   380 1 1
But sin C   cos r1 
 
b) For maximum deviation, i1  900 so that Applying Snell’s law at the boundary

2 0 1
r1   C  sin 1    420 , But as in a prism AB,1sin 45   sin r1   1 
2
3
1
r1  r2  A so r2  A  r1  600  420  180    2  1 or  2  3 / 2  1.5    1.5
2
Now applying Snell’s law at the second face, Illustration 36: The refractive index of a prism
is 2. This prism can have what maximum
3
 sin r2  sin i2 , i.e., sin180  sin i2 refracting angle, such that light emerges
2 from the prism?
Soluton: Critical angle
ie. i2  sin 1 1.5  0.31  sin 1  0.465  280
1 1
Illustration 35: Monochromatic light falls on a C  sin 1    sin 1    30 0
 2
right angled prism at an angle of incidence
450 . The emergent light is found to slide If A  2 C the ray does not emerge from the
along the face AC. Find the refractive index prism. So, maximum refracting angle can be
of material of prism. 600 .
Illustration 37: For an equilateral prism, it is
observed that when a ray strikes grazing
N at one face it emerges grazing at the other.
Then find it’s refractive index.
A
Solution: i1  i2  900 , r1  r2   300
2

Page 433
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

sin i1  v ,  R and  y . The deviation  y correspond-

 2
sin r1
ing to yellow colour is taken as mean devia-
 Dispersion by A Prism : tion. The deviations can be written as
When white light passes through a prism it splits
up into different component colours. This phe-
 v   v  1 A,  R   R  1;Ay    y  1 A
nomenon is called dispersion and arises due to
the fact that refractive index of prism is differ-  Angular dispersion for violet and red
ent for different wave lengths.
    v   R    v   R  A
 As      1 , different waves in passing
Thus the angular dispersion depends on the na-
through a prism are deviated through different ture of the material of prism and upon the angle
angles. Violet is deviated most while red is de- of the prism. In general the angular dispersion
viated least giving rise to display of colours means we consider angular dispersion of violet
known as spectrum. and red.

A  Dispersive Power   :
  R v Screen
White light y
Dispersive power indicates the ability of the ma-
R
O terial of the prism to disperse the light rays. It is
Y
G the ratio of angular dispersion of two extreme
B
I colours to their mean deviation
V

Angular dispersion
 In visible spectrum the deviation and the re- 
Mean deviation
fractive index for the yellow ray are taken as
the mean values. If the dispersion in a medium v  R
takes place in the order given by “VIBGYOR” 
it is called normal dispersion. If however, the  v   R  ... (i)
 
dispersion does no t follo w the rule  2 
“VIBGYOR”, it is said to be anomalous dis- But the mean colour of red and violet is yellow,
persion. A medium which brings about disper-
sion is called dispersive medium. v  R
so  y ... (ii)
 Prism that separated light accordance to wave- 2
length are known as dispersive prisms. Disper-
 v   R
sive prism are mainly used in spectrometers to
    ... (iii)
separate closely adjacent spectral lines. Prisms y y

made of glass used in the visible region for dis-

persion. where  y is the deviation for yellow light
 Dispersion also occurs in U.V and I.R regions,
but materials used for the dispersion are dif- v   R d
 
ferent.   y  1    1
 Angular dispersion    :  It is seen that the dispersive power is indepen-
The difference in the angles of deviations of any dent of the angle of prism and angle of inci-
dence, but depends on material of prism.
pair of colours is called angular dispersion  
 The dispersive power is more precisely ex-
for those two colours. If the refractive indices
pressed with reference to C, D and F
of violet, red and yellow are indicated by

Page 434
RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Fraunhofer’s lines in the solar spectrum. The materials and specified angles such that rays of
C,D and F lines lie in the red , yellow and blue white light may pass through the combination
regions of the spectrum respectively and their without dispersion, though it may suffer devia-
0 0 tion. Such a combination is called achromatic
wavelengths are 6563 A , 5893 A and combination.
0
4861 A respectively. Then the dispersive i.e   0 and   0
power may be expressed as,
 v  R  A    'v   'R  A'  0
 F  C F  C

D  1 where  D 
2  v   R  A   'v   'R  A
 y  1    '  1  0
y
 It is noted that a single prism produces both  y  1   '  1
y

deviation and dispersion simultaneously. How-

ever if two prisms (crown and flint) are com- i.e C  C   f  f  0
bined together we can get deviation without dis-
In this case as the deviation produced by flint
persion or dispersion without deviation.
prism is opposite to crown prism. Therefore
 The dispersive power of flint glass prism is
the net deviation,   C   f
greater than that of crown glass prism for the
same refracting angle . i.e the angular separa-
    y  1 A    ' y  1 A '
tion of spectral colours in flint glass is more than
crown glass.
 y  1
 If two prisms of angles A and A ' and refrac-   V   R  A
 V   R 
tive indices  and  ' respectively are placed
together then the total deviation
  '  1
y
   'v   'R  A '
  1   2    y  1 A    ' y  1 A '   'v   ' R 
and total dispersion
C  f
 
  1   2   V  R  A    'v   'R  A ' C  f
Deviation without Dispersion Or Dispersion without Deviation OR
achromatic Prism : Direct Vision Prism :
If the angles of crown and flint glass prism are
 Whitelight so adjusted that the deviation produced for the
A mean rays by the first prism is equal and oppo-
Whitelight
Crown A' site to that produced by the second prism, then
the final beam will be parallel to the incident
An achromatic prism is a combination of two beam. Such a combination of two prisms will
appropriate prisms so constructed that it shows produce dispersion of the incident beam with-
no constituent colours. Flint glasses have higher out deviation.
dispersive power than crown glass. Hence, it
is possible to combine two prisms of different

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

=0
A R
Y
White light V
A

i.e   0 and   0 air air air

   y  1 A    ' y  1 A '  0 ... (i)

 y  1
 v   R  A  The glass slabs forming the prism are very thin
 v   R  and permit the rays to pass undeviated.
 ' y  1
  'v   ' R  A '  0
... (ii) Hence a hollow prism gives no spectrum.
  'v   ' R  Illustration 39:White light is passed through
a prism of angle 50 . If the refractive indi-
C  f ces for red and blue colours are 1.641 and
ie.     0 ... (iii) 1.659 respectively. Calculate the angle of
C f
dispersion between them.
In this case the dispersion produced by flint
Solution: As for small angle of prism      1 A
glass prism is opposite to crown glass prism.
Therefore the net angular dispersion  b  1.659  1  50  3.2950 and
  C   f
 r  1.641  1  50  3.2050 so
   V   R  A    'V   'R  A '  or 
   b   r  3.2950  3.2050  0.0900
 V   R  A   'V   'R  A ' Illustration 40:The refractive indices of flint
  y  1    '  1
y
  y  1   ' y  1 glass prism for C,D and F lines are 1.790,
1.795 and 1.805 respectively. Find the dis-
  C  C   f  f persive power of the flint glass prism.
Solution:

Illustration 38:A beam of white light passing C  1.790, D  1.795 and F  1.805
through a hollow prism gives no spectrum
 F  C 1.805  1.790 0.015
why?     0.1887
D 1 1.795  1 0.795
Solution: Light travels from air to air in case of
hollow prism. No refraction and no disper-
sion occur.

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
Illustration 41: A thin prism P1 with angle 40 are now added as shown in figure. The ray
and made from glass of refractive index 1.54 will suffer
is combined with another prism P2 made Q

from glass of refractive index 1.72 to pro- P R

duce dispersion without deviation. What

is the angle of the prism P2 ? 1) The greater deviation
2) no deviation
Solution: In case of thin prism      1 A , when 3) same deviation as before
4) total internal reflection
two prisms are combined together. Solution: Figure (a) is part of an equilateral prism
of figure (b). This is shown as a magnified im-
  1   2     1 A    ' 1 A '
age in figure (c) Therefore, the ray will suffer
For producing dispersion without deviation the same deviation in figure(a) and figure (c)

  0 , ie.   ' 1 A '      1 A or

1.54  1 0 Q
A'    4  30 P R  
1.72  1
(a) (b) (c )
So the angle of the other prism is 30 and op-
Illustration 44: Calculate (a) the refracting
posite to the first. angle of a flint glass prism which should
Illustration 42: A crown glass prism of refract- be combined with a crown glass prism of
ing angle 80 is combined with a flint glass refracting angle 60 , so that the combina-
prism to obtain deviation without disper- tion may not have deviation for D line and
sion. If the refractive indices for red and (b) the angular separation between C and
F lines, given that the refractive indices
violet rays for crown glass are 1.514 and
of the materials are as follows:
1.524 and for the flint glass are 1.645 and
C D F
1.665 respectively, find the angle of flint Flint 1.790 1.795 1.805
glass prism and net deviation. Crown 1.527 1.530 1.535
Solution: The condition for deviation without dis-
Solution: Let A1 and A2 be the refracting angles of
persion is  v  R  A     'v   'R  A ' the flint and crown glass prisms respectively.

1.524 1.514 80   0.080  40 1and 2 be the refractive indices for the D
 A'   line of flint and crown glasses respectively. (a)
1.665 1.645 0.02
If 1 and  2 be the angles of deviations due to
1.514  1.524 the flint and crown glass prisms respectively,
For crown glass    1.519
2 then for no deviation of D line, condition is
1.645  1.665 1   2  0; A1  1  1  A2  2  1  0
For flint glass    1.655
2
A1   1
 The net deviation   2 
A2  1  1 
   '     1 A    ' 1 A '
The negative sign indicates that A1 and A2 are
= 0.159  80  0.655  40  1.530 oppositely directed.
Illustration 43: A given ray of light suffers
minimum deviation in an equilateral A1  1.530  1  0 0.530
0
   ; A1  6   40
prism P. Additional prism Q and R of iden- 6  1.795  1  0.795
tical shape and of the same material as P b) Angular dispersion due to the flint glass prism

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

 A1  F C  40 1.8051.790 0.060 be changed by applying pressure on it through

ciliary muscles.
Angular dispersion due to the crown glass prism 6) Power of accommodation : The ability of
eye to see near objects as well as far objects is
 A2   F  C   60 1.535  1.527   0.048 called power of accommodation.
7) Range of vision : For healthy eye it is 25cm
Net angular dispersion =
(near point) to  (far point).
0.048  0.060  0.012 A normal eye can see the objects clearly,
The negative sign indicated that the resultant only if they are at a distance greater than
dispersion is in the direction of the deviation
25cm. This distance is called Least
produced by the flint prism.
distance of distinct vision and is
 Optical Instruments : Optical instruments
represented by D.
are used primarily to assist the eye in viewing
8) Persistence of vision : Is 1/10s. i.e, if time
the object. Optical instruments are classified
interval between two consecutive light pulses
into three groups.
is lesser than 0.1s, eye cannot distinguish them
a) visual instruments separately.
Ex: microscope, telescope 9) Resolving limit : The minimum angular
b) photographing and projecting instruments separation between two objects, so that they
Ex: cameras are just resolved is called resolving limit. For
c) analysing and measuring instruments 0
Ex: spectrometer  1 
eye it is 1'   
 Optical instruments such as telescope and mi-  60 
croscopes have one object lens and one eye  The light enters the eye through a curved front
lens. The lens towards the object is called ob- surface, called cornea and passes through the
jective and the lens towards eye is called eye pupil which is the central hole in the iris. The
piece. size of pupil can change under control muscles.
 Human Eye The cornea-lens-fluid system is equivalent to
Sclera single converging lens.
Ciliary
Muscles  The light focused by the lens on retina which is
a film of nerve fibres. The retina contains rods
Eye Lens Retina and cones which sense the light intensity and
Yellow
Cornea Spot colour respectively. The retina transmit electri-
Blind cal signals to the brain through optic nerve.
Aqueous Spot  The shape (curvature) and focal length of the
humour Optic eye lens may be adjusted by the ciliary muscles.
Nerves The image formed by this eye lens is real, in-
Vitreous Humour verted and diminished at the retina.
 The size of the image on the retina is roughly
1) Eye lens : Overall behaves as a convex proportional to the angle subtended by the ob-
lens of   1.437 ject on the eye. This angle is known as the vi-
2) Retina : Real and inverted, image of an sual angle. Therefore it is known as the angular
object, obtained at retina, brain sense it erect. size.
3) Yellow spot : It is the most sensitive part,
the image formed at yellow spot is brightest. h

4) Blind spot : Optic nerves go to brain through O  I
blind spot. It is not sensitive for light. X
5) Ciliary muscles : Eye lens is fixed between
these muscles. It’s both radius of curvature can

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RAY OPTICS PART – 3

through a complex process. But our eye may

develop some defects due to various reasons.
h Some common optical defects of the eye are

a)myopia b) hypermetropia c) presbyopia
O   Myopia: The light from a distant object
Y I
arriving at the eye lens may be converged at a
When the object is distant, its visual angle  point infront of the retina. This defect is called
and hence image at retina is small and object Myopia (or)
looks smaller. Shortsightedness. In this defect, the far point
When the object is brought near to the eye its of the eye is at a distance lesser than infinity,
visual angle  and hence size of image will and distant objects are not clearly visible.
increase and object looks larger as shown in Retina Concave lens
Far point Retina
figure (b)
Optical instruments are used to increase this
visual angle artificially in order to improve the d
clarity. (A) Defected eye (B) Removal of Defect
Eg : Microscope, Telescope  This defect is rectified by using spectacles
 When the eye is focused on a distant object having divergent lens (concave lens) which
forms the image of a distant object at the far
  0  the ciliary muscles are relaxed so that point of defected eye.
the focal length of the eye-lens has maximum From lens formula
value which is equal to its distance from the 1 1 1
retina.   P
F .P   dis tan ce of object  f
 When the eye is focused on a closer object ( 
increases) the ciliary muscles of the eye are Where F.P= Far point of the defective eye.
 If the object is at infinity
strained and focal length of eye lens decreases.
The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length in 1 1
Power of lens (p)= 
such a way that the image is again formed on f F .P
the retina and we see the object clearly. This  Hypermetropia (or) Long-sightedness:
process of adjusting focal length is called The light from an object at the eye lens may be
accommodation. converged at a point behind the retina. This
 If the object is brought too close to the eye the defect is called Hypermetropia (or) Long-
focal length cannot be adjusted to form the sightedness.
image on the retina the image is formed behind  In this type of defect, near point is at a distance
the retina. Thus there is a minimum distance for greater than 25cm and near objects are not
clearly visible.
the clear vision of an object.
Retina
The nearest point at which an object is seen
clearly by the eye is called the near point of the
eye and distance of near point from the eye is
called the
 least distance of distinct vision, It is equal (A) Defected eye
to 25cm for normal eye and it is denoted by D. Convex lens
The farthest point from an eye at which an object Retina
is distinctly seen is called far point and for a
normal eye it is theoretically at infinity. I O
Defects of Vision: Our eyes are marvelous Near point
organs that have the capability to interpret
incoming electromagnetic waves as images (B) Removal of Defect

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
 This defect is rectified by using spectacles However, when eye is suffering from some
having convergent lens(i.e convex lens) which other defect along with astigmatism, the spectacle
forms the image of near objects at the near point lens surface is made toroidal. The two radii of
of the defected eye (which is more than 25cm) curvature are chosen as to compensate for that
1 1 1 defect and the astigmatism at the same time
  P
 N .P.   dis tan ce of object  f Illustration 45: A person cannot see distinctly
N.P.= Near Point of defective eye. any object placed beyond 40cm from his
 If the object is placed at D=25cm=0.25m eye. Find the power of lens which will en-
able him to see distant stars clearly is?.
1  1 1  Solution: The person cannot see objects clearly
P   
f  0.25 N .P.  beyond 0.4m.
 Presbyopia: The power of accommodation so his far point = 0.4m , distance of object =
of eyelens may change due to the decreasing .
effectiveness of ciliary muscles. So, far point is He should use lens which forms image of dis-
lesser than infinity and near point is greater than tant object  u    at a distance of 40cm
25cm and both near and far objects are not
clearly visible. This defect is called infront of it.
presbyopia.This defect is rectified by using 1 1 1
bifocal lens.     p;
0.40  f
ASTIGMATISM
10
P  2.5D
It is yet another common defect of vision, which 4
occurs when cornea has unequal curvatures in Illustration 46: A far sighted person cannot
different directions. For example cornea may focus distinctly on objects closer than 1m.
have larger curvature in the vertical plane than in What is the power of lens that will permit
the horizontal plane or vice – versa. Therefore, him to read from a distance of 40cm?
such a person is not able to focus simultaneously Solution: As near point is 1m and distance of ob-
on horizontal and vertical lines. If horizontal lines jects is 0.40m
are well focused, the vertical lines appear both in front of lens.
distorted or vice – versa.
1 1 1 1 1
From the distribution of the intensity variation, P      P  1.5D
f v u 1 0.40
an optometrist deduces the variations in the
curvature of the cornea. Astigmatism is corrected Simple Microscope :
by using a cylindrical lens of suitable radius of To view an object with naked eye, the object
curvature and suitable axis. To correct must be placed between D and infinity. The
astigmatism only, one surface of each lens will maximum angle is subtended when it is placed
be flat and the other surface of each lens will be at D.
a section of circular cylinder, with the axis of  Magnifying power of simple
cylinder horizontal. Rays passing through the lens microscope:
in a horizontal plane are unaffected, and rays in The magnifying power or angular magnification
vertical plane are converged by the circular of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio
surface. The extra convergence is such as to of visual angle with instrument to the maximum
compensate for the lack of curvature of the visual angle for unaided eye when the object is
cornea in that direction. at least distance of distinct vision.
The corrected astigmatic eye is shown in fig.
Cylindrical h'
lens
2F h 
I O F
u
Image formed v  D to 
on retina Eye with instrument

Page 440
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

visual angle withinstrument for higher magnifying power.

M  Simple magnifier is an essential part of most of
max imumvisual angle for unaided eye optical instruments such as microscope or
 telescope in the form of an eye piece.
M Illustration 47: A graph sheet divided into
0
Case(1):When the final image is formed at far point squares each of size 1mm 2 is kept at a dis-
(or) When the final image is formed at infinity tance of 7cm from a magnifying glass of
focal length of 8cm. The graph sheet is
D viewed through the magnifying lens keep-
In this case u  f , V   ; So M   ing the eye close to the lens. Find (i) the
f
As here u is maximum, magnifying power is magnification produced by the lens, (ii) the
minimum and as in this situation parallel beam area of each square in the image formed
of light enters the eye, eye is least strained and (iii) the magnifying power of the magnify-
is said to be normal, relaxed and unstrained. ing lens when image is formed at near
Case(2):When the final image is formed at near point .Why is the magnification found in
point (or) at D (i) different from the magnifying power
v   D, u is  ve found in (iii)?
1 1 1 1 1 1 Solution: i) u  7cm; f  8cm; v  ?
  ;   1 1 1
f D u u f D For a lens,  
1 1  D f v u
M D  D    ; M D  1   1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 f D  f    ;    ; v  56cm
As the minimum value of v(=D) in this situation 8 v 7 v 8 7 56
u is minimum and magnifying power is maxi- v 56
mum and eye is under maximum strain. Magnification, m    8
Note: If lens is kept at a distance ‘a’ from the eye u  7
then D is replaced by  D  a  ii) Each square is of size 1mm 2 ie. its length and
breadth are each 1mm. The virtual image
 Da Da
M D  1   ; M  formed has linear magnification 8. So its length
 f  f and breadth are each equal to 8mm, The area
 Some important points regarding of the image o f each square=
microscope:
D D 8  8mm 2  64mm2
 As M D  1  ; M   , so M D  M  iii) Magnifying power of the magnifying glass
f f
ie. simple microscope.
D D
 As M D  1  ; M   , so smaller the
f f D 25
m  1  1  4.125  D  25cm 
focal length of the lens greater the magnifying f 8
power of the simple microscope.
 With increasing wave length of light used, focal The magnification found in  i  is different from
length of microscope will increase and hence
magnifying power will decrease. the magnifying power because the image dis-
 The maximum possible magnifying power of a
simple microscope for a defect-free image is tance in  i  is different from the least distance
about 4. of distinct vision D.
 As we use single lens in microscope, the image Illustration 48: If the focal length of a magni-
formed by a single lens possesses several defects
like spherical aberration and astigmatism, at fier is 5cm calculate
larger magnifications the image becomes too a) the power of the lens
defective. b) the magnifying power of the lens for re-
 For higher magnifying power , we cannot use laxed and strained eye.
simple microscope, this is because, at larger Solution: As power of a lens is reciprocal of focal
magnifications the image becomes too
defective. So we use compound microscope length in

Page 441
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

1 1 25  D
P  diopter  20 D i.e  MP  min   5  M  
 5 10 m  0.05
2 5  f
and MP will be maximum when
b) For relaxed eye, MP is minimum and will be
u  min   25 / 6  cm
D 25
MP   5 25  D
f 5  MP max   6  1  
  25 / 6   f
While for strained eye, MP is maximum and
Illustration 50: a) The near point of a hyper-
will be
metropic person is 75 cm from the eye. What
D is the power of the lens required to enable
MP  1   1  5  6
f the person to read clearly a book held 25
Illustration 49: A man with normal near point cm from the eye?
(25cm) reads a book with small print us- b) In what way does the corrective lens help
ing a magnifying glass, a thin convex lens the above person? Does the lens magnify
objects held near the eye?
of focal length 5cm.
c) The above person prefers to remove the
a) What is the closest and farthest distance
spectacles while looking at the sky. Ex-
at which he can read the book when view-
plain why?
ing through the magnifying glass?
Solution: a) u=0.25 m, v=0.45m, F=?
b) What is the maximum and minimum
magnifying power possible using the above 1 1 1
  ; power
simple microscope? F v u
Solution: a) As for normal eye far and near points 1 1 100 100 4
are  and 25cm respectively, so for magni- P     4
0.75 0.25 75 25 3
fier vmax   and vmin  25cm. . However , P = 2 . 6 7 D
b) The corrective lens produces a virtual image
1 1 1 (at 75 cm) of an object at 25 cm. The angular
for a lens as   size of this image is the same as the object. IN
v u f
this sense, the lens does not magnify the object
f but merely brings the object to the near point
ie u   f / v   1 so u will be minimum when of the hypermetropic eye which then gets fo-
cused on the retina.
vmin  25cm c) A hypermetropic eye may have normal far
point i.e. if may have enough converging power
5 25 to focus paralllel rays from infinity on the retina
ie.  u  min    5 / 25   1  6  4.17cm of the shortened eyeball. Wearing spectacles
of converging lenses (used for near vision) will
and u will be maximum when vmax   amount to more convering power than needed
for parallel rays. Therefore , distant object may
5
ie  u  max   5 /  1  5cm get focused in front of the retina, appearing
blurred. Hence the person prefers not to use
so the closest and farthest distances of the book the spectacles for distant objects.
from the magnifier (or eye) for clear viewing
are 4.17cm and 5cm respectively. (b) As in case Illustration 51: A far sighted person can-
of simple magnifier MP=(D/u). So MP will be not focus distinctly on objects closer
minimum when than 1m. What is the power of lens
umax  5cm that will permit him to read from a
distance of 40 cm?
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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

Solution: As nearpoint is 1m and distnace Note: When the object is very close to the principal
of object is 0.40m both in front of lens. focus F0 of the objective, the image due to the
objective becomes very close to the eyepiece.
1 1 1 1 1
P      P  1.5D Then replace u with f0 and v 0 with L so the
f v u 1 0.40 expression for magnifying power.
Compound Microscope
A simple magnifying lens is not useful where L  D
M    
large magnification is required. A highly mag- f 0  fe 
nified image must be produced in two stages.
Case-ii: If the final image is formed at D (Near
A compound microscope is used for that pur- point):
pose.
In this case, for eye piece v e   D, ueis  ve
 Magnifying power:
1 1 1
  
L D ue f e
u v ue 1 1  D
h0
O
F0 Fe i.e u  D 1  f  ; m  mo me
F0 IM hi  e  e 

v  D fD
MD   1   with LD  v  e
I u fe  fe  D
f eyelens  f objective In this situation as ue is minimum magnifying
power is maximum and eye is most strained.
 diameter eyelens   diameter objective When the object is very close to the principal
intermidiate image is real, inverted focus F0 of the objective, the image due to the
Final image is magnified and inverted objective becomes very close to the eyepiece.
visual angle with instrument  Then replace u with f0 and v with L so the ex-
M 
max. visual angle for unaided eye 0 pression for magnifying power.
L  D
 v  D  MD   1  
M     f0  fe 
 u   ue 
 Some important points regarding
Where u is the object distance for the objec- compound microscope:
tive lens, v is image distance for the objective  As magnifying power of a compound
lens, u e is the object distance for the eye piece. microscope is negative, the image seen is always
truly inverted.
i.e M  m0  me  For a microscope magnifying power is minimum
when final image is at  and maximum when
The length of the tube L  v  ue final image is at least distance of distinct vision
Case(i): If the final image is formed at infinity
(far point): v D
D, and M max    1  
u fe 
In this case ue  f e
 For a given microscope magnifying power for
v D normal setting remain practically unchanged if
 M      with L  v  f field and eye lens are interchanged as
u  fe   e
LD
A microscope is usually considered to operate M 
in this mode unless stated other wise. In this f0 fe
mode ue is maximum and hence magnifying  In an actual compound microscope each of the
objective and eye piece consists of a
power is minimum. combination of several lenses instead of a single

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
lens to eliminate the aberrations and to increase sion (25cm)
the field of view. Solution: The magnifying power of a compound
 In low power microscopes, the magnifying microscope when the final image forms at the
power is about 20 to 40, while in high power least distance of distinct vision,
microscopes, the magnifying power is about
500 to 2000. v0  D 
Illustration 52: A microscope consists of two m 1  
u fe 
convex lenses of focal lengths 2cm and 5cm
placed 20cm apart. Where must the object To find v0 ; power of the objective
be placed so that the final virtual image is
p0  100 D . Focal length of the objective,
at a distance of 25cm from the eye?
Solution: For t he eyepiece, fo cal length 1 1 100
f  f0   m cm  1cm
f  f e  5cm;v  ve  25cm,u  ue  ?sub- p0 100 100
stituting in u  u0  1.1cm; v  v0  ?
1 1 1 1 1 1
  ;   1 1 1
f v u 5 25 ue For a lens,  
f v u
1 1 1 6
   1 1 1 1 1 1 0.1
ue 25 5 25   ;   
1 v0 1.1 v0 1 1.1 1.1
25 v0  11cm
ue   cm
6
Power of the eyepiece, pe  16 D ;focal length
object for the eyepiece is to be at a distance of
of the eye piece.
25
cm to its left. 1 1 100
6 fe   m cm  6.25cm
pe 16 16
25
But v0  ue  20cm where ue  cm Least distance of distinct vision, D  25cm
6
11  25 
25 95 m  1    10  5  50
v0  20  ue  20   cm 1.1  6.25 
6 6
Illustration 54: In a compound microscope,
95
For the objective, v  v0   cm the object is 1cm from the objective lens.
6 The lenses are 30 cm apart and the inter-
f  f 0  2cm; u  ? mediate image is 5cm from the eye piece.
1 1 1 1 6 1 What magnification is produced?
  ;  
f v u 2 95 u Solution: As the lenses are 30cm apart and inter-
mediate image is formed 5cm in front of eye
1 6 1 83 190
   ;u    2.29cm lens,
u 95 2 190 83
The object is to be placed at a distance of ue  5cm and v  L  ue  30  5  25cm
2.29cm to the left side of the objective. Now as in case of compound microscope,
Illustration 53: Find the magnifying power of
a compound microscope whose objective v D
M  m0  m e    
has a focal power of 100D and eye piece u  ue 
has a focal power of 16D when the object here u  1cm and D  25cm
is placed at a distance of 1.1cm from the
objective. Assume that the final image is 25  25 
formed at the least distance of distinct vi- So M     125
1  5 

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
Negative sign implies that final image is inverted. 1 1 1 1 1
    ie F '  2.5cm
Illustration 55: A compound microscope has F ' F f ' 2 10
a magnifying power 30. The focal length This lens will form the image of same object at
of its eyepiece is 5cm. Assuming the final a distance v2 such that
image to be at the least distance of distinct
vision (25cm), calculate the magnification 1 1 1
 
produced by objective. v2 3 2.5 ie v2 =15cm
Solution: In case of compound microscope, So to refocus the image, eyepiece must be
moved by the same distance through which the
M  m0  me  1 image formed by the objective has shifted ie.
And in case of final image at least distance of 15-6=9cm away from the objective.
distinct vision, Illustration 57: The focal lengths of the ob-
jective and the eyepiece of a compound mi-
 D croscope are 2.0cm and 3.0cm respectively.
me  1     2 
fe  The distance between the objective and the

eyepiece is 15.0cm. The final image formed
by the eyepiece is at infinity. Find the dis-
 D
so, from eqs. 1 and  2  , M  m0 1   tance of object and image produced by the
 f e  objective, from the objective lens.
Solution: As final image is at infinity, the distance
Here M  30; D  25cm and f e  5cm
of intermediate image from eye lens ue will be
 25  30 given by
So, 30  mo 1   ie m0   5
 5 6 1 1 1
 
Negative sign implies that image formed by ob-  ue f e ie ue   f e  3cm
jective is inverted. and as the distance between the lenses is
Illustration 56: A compound microscope is 15.0cm , the distance of intermediate image
used to enlarge an object kept at a distance (formed by objective) from the objective will
be
0.03m from its objective which consists of
several convex lenses in contact and has v  L  ue  L  f e  15  3  12cm
focal length 0.02m. If a lens of focal length and if u is the distance of object from objec-
0.1m is removed from the objective, find tive,
out the distance by which the eyepiece of 1 1 1
the microscope must be moved to refocus   ie u  2.4cm
12 u 2
the image? So object is at a distance of 2.4cm in front of
Solution: If initially the objective forms the image objective.
1 1 1 Telescopes : A microscope is used to view the
at distance v1 .   ie v  6cm objects placed close to it. To look at distant
v1 3 2 1
objects such as star, a planet or a cliff etc, we
Now as in case of lenses in contact use another optical instrument called telescope,
which increases the visual angle of distant ob-
1 1 1 1 1 1 ject.
   ........... or  
F f1 f 2 F f1 F ' The telescope that uses a lens as an objective
1 1 1
is called refracting telescope. However in many
with F ' f    ........ telescopes we use curved mirrors as objec-
2 f3
tives such telescopes are known as reflecting
So if one of the lenses is removed, the focal
telescopes. There are three types of refracting
length of the remaining lens system
telescopes in use.

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
i) Astronomical telescope  f0  fe 
MD  1 
ii) Terrestrial telescope f e  D 
iii) Galilean telescope In this case length of the tube
 Astronomical Telescope : fD
Magnifying power (M): LD  f 0  e
fe  D
Magnifying power of a telescope is given by
In this situation ue is minimum , hence magnify-
A fo ue ing power is maximum while the length of the
tube is minimum and eye is most strained.
Some important points regarding
B astronomical telescope:
B'
O Q E  In case of telescope if object and final image
are at infinity and total light entering the telescope
A' leaves it and parallel to its axis.
P f 0 A0
ue  D to 
 magnifying power  
Visual angle with instrument  f e Ae
M 
Visual angle for unaided eye 0 where A0 and Ae are the apertures of objec-
tives and eyepiece respetively.
h
From the above figure,  0   As magnifying power is negative, the image
f0 seen in astronomical telescope is truly inverted
i.e left is turned right with upside down
h simultaneously. However as most of the
 
u astronomical objects are symmetrical this
and   h ; M     e    f 0 inversion does not effect the observations.
ue 0  h  ue
   For given telescope, magnifying power is
 f0  minimum when final image is at infinity (Far
point) and maximum when it is at least distance
The length of the tube L  f 0  ue of distinct vision (Near point) ie.
Case-i: If the final image is at infinity f  f  f 
(far point):In this case, for eyepiece M min    0  and M max   0 1  e 
 fe  fe  D 
1 1 1
v e   , ue  ve ;    As magnifying power for normal setting as
 ue f e
 f0 
Hence ue  f e   to have large magnifying power f0 must
 fe 
f0
Hence M    and L  f 0  fe be as large as practically possible and fe is
fe small. This is why in a telescope, objective is of
Usually a telescope is operated in this mode large focal length while eyepiece of smaller focal
unless stated other wise. In this mode ue is maxi- length.
mum, hence magnifying power is minimum,  Larger aperture of objective helps in improving
while length of tube is maximum. the brightness of image by gathering more light
This case is also called normal adjustment be- from the distant object. However it increase
cause in this case eye is least strained or re- aberrations particularly spherical.
laxed.  If a fly is sitting on the objective of a telescope
and we take a photograph of distant
Case-ii:If the final image is at D (Near point): astronomical object through it, the fly will not
In this situation for eyepiece v e   D be seen but the intensity of the image will be
slightly reduced as the fly will act as obstruction
1 1 1 1 1  fe  to light and will reduce the aperture of the
  ie  1  D 
 D ue f e ue f e   objective.
 A telescope produces angular magnification

Page 446
RAY OPTICS PART – 3
whereas a microscope produces linear
magnification. The image due to a telescope
appears to be near to the eye increasing the is diverging lens.
visual angle. f0  fe 
2) Magnification: mD  f 1  D  and
e  
S. Microscope Telescope
no f
m  0
1 It is used to see It is used to see fe
very distant objects
small objects 3) Length : LD  f 0  ue and L  f 0  f e
2 Its objective is of Its objective is Illustration 58: An astronomical telescope has
small focal length of large focal an angular magnification of magnitude 5
and of small length and of
aperture. large aperture for distant objects. The separation between
3 It produces linear It produces the objective and eye piece is 36cm and the
magnification angular final image is formed at infinity. Determine
and size of the magnification
the focal length of objective and eye piece.
image is larger and the image is
than that of the near to the eye, Solution: For final image at infinity,
object. but the size
does f0 f0
M  5   1
not increase. f e and L  f 0  fe fe
 Terrestrial Telescope: The magnifying
power and length of a telescope for relaxed and 36  f 0  f e   ii 
eye will be
Solving these two equations , we have
f f
M   0  1  0 , L  f  f  4 f f 0  30cm and f e  6cm
fe fe  0 e

f0 Illustration 59: A telescope has an objective

IF
fe of focal length 50cm and an eyepiece of
f
focal length 5cm. The least distance of dis-
F0 Im
Field Erecting
lens
tinct vision is 25cm. The telescope is fo-
lense
f0 2f 2f cused for distinct vision on a scale 2m away
fe
Terrestrial telescope
Final image is errect and virtual and diminished from the objective. Calculate
 The magnifying power and the length of a) magnification produced
telescope for image at D will be b) separation between objective and eye
f0  f  Dfe piece,
MD   1  e  , LD  f 0  4 f 
fe  D  D  fe Solution: Given f 0  50cm and f e  5cm
 Gallilean Telescope: It is also a type of For objective
terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field
of view. 1 1 1 200
  v0  cm
v0 200 50 3
u  D to  e
A
P v0  200 / 3  1
m0   
B u0 200 3
 Q  E A'
  For eyepiece:
O
B'
1 1 1
   ue   25 cm and
ue 25 ue 5 6
fo
1) Objective is a converging lens while eye lens ve 25
me   6
ue   25 / 6 
Page 447
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

a)Magnification, m  m0  me  2 If the telescope is focussed on a scale 2m

from the objective, the final image is formed
b) Separation between objective and eyepiece.
at 25cm from the eye. Calculate (i) the
200 25 425 magnification and (ii) the distance be-
L  v0  u e     70.83cm
3 6 6 tween the objective and the eyepiece.
Illustration 60: A telescope objective of focal Solution: f 0  100cm ; f e  5cm
length 1m forms a real image of the moon To find the image distance due to objective
0.92cm in diameter. Calculate the diam- u0  2m  200cm; v0  ?
eter of the moon taking its mean distance 1 1 1 1 1 1
For a lens f  u  v ; 100  v  200
from the earth to be 38 104 km . If the tele- 0

scope uses an eyepiece of 5cm focal length, 1 1 1 1

   ; v0  200cm
what would be the distance between the v0 100 200 200
two lenses for (i) the final image to be Magnifying of objective,
formed at infinity (ii) the final v 200
m0  0   1
image(virtual) at 25 cm from eye. v 200
To find the object distance for the eyepiece
Solution: f 0  1m
ve  25cm , ue  ?
object distance from the objective
1 1 1 1 1 1
=distance of the moon from the earth For a lens f  v  u ; 5  25  u
e
 3.8  105 km  3.8  108 m
1 1 1 6 25
image distance from the objective    ue   cm
= focal length of the objective =1m ue 25 5 25 6
Magnification of the eyepiece,
image size = image diameter= 0.92  10 2 m v 25  6
object size = object diameter me  e  6
ue 25
ie diameter of moon=? i) Total magnification of the telescope,
We know that mo  me  1 6  6
Object diameter Object dis tan ce ii) Distance between the objective and the eye-

Im age diameter Im age dis tan ce 25
piece  v0  ue  200   204.2cm
Diameter of moon 3.8  108 6

Im age diameter 1 Illustration 62: A tower 100m tall at a distance
of 3km is seen through a telescope having
 Diameter of moon= 3.8  108  Image diameter objective of focal length 140cm and eye-
 3.8  108  0.92  10 2 m piece of focal length 5cm. What is the size
= 3.496  10 6 m  3496 km of final image if it is at 25cm from the eye?
i) For normal adjustment, the distance between the
Solution: For objective lens
two lenses f 0  f e  100  5  105cm
1 1 1
ii) For the final image at 25cm from the eye, the dis-  5
 ie v  140cm  f 0
tance between the two lenses v 3  10 140
v 140 14
 Dfe   25  5  So m0   5
   104 and as final
 f0     100     104.2cm u 3  10 3
 D  fe   25  5  image is at least distance of distinct vision, so
for eye lens, we have
Illustration 61: In an astronomical telescope,
1 1 1
the focal lengths of the objective and the   ie ue  25
eye piece are 100cm and 5cm respectively. 25 ue 5 6

Page 448
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3

ve 25 f0  f e  60  3
me   6 M 
ue  25  fe 1  D   3 1  25   22.4
so  
 
 6 
 
14 4 Now as by definition M     ,
and hence, m  m0  me    10  6  0
3
so the angular size of image
I 
But as m    1
0

O   M   0  22.4     11.20

2
I  m  O  28  10 4 100  10 2   28cm 
  11.2  0.2rad
Negative sign implies that image is inverted. 180
Illustration 63: The diameter of the moon is And if I is the size of final image which is at
 I 
3.5  103 km and its distance from the earth least distance of distinct vision    
 25 
3.8  105 km. It is seen through a telescope
having focal lengths of objective and eye- i.e I  25    25  0.2  5cm
piece as 4m and 10cm respectively. Calcu- Reflecting Telescope:
late (a) magnifying power of telescope(b) The telescope in which the objective is a
angular size of image of moon curved mirror is called “reflecting tele-
Solution: For normal adjustment scope” . This type of telescope is light
f 0 4  100 weight, portable, low cost and easy to
a) M  f  10  40 handle. The image formed by it is more
e
briht and free from chromatic aberration.
b) L  f 0  f e  400  10  410cm  4.10m
By using parabolic mirror instead of spheri-
c) As the angle subtended by moon on the
objective of telescope cal mirror spherical aberration is also can
be eliminated.
3.5 103 3.5
0   10 2 rad and as
3.8  105 3.8 A
Objective

M 
 0 , the angular size of final image
3.5
  M   0  40   102  0.3684 rad
3.8 fe
0
B
180
i.e   0.368   210

Illustration 64: An astronomical telescope
f0
consisting of an objective of focal lenght
60cm and eyepiece of focal length 3cm is Cassegrain’s Telescope
focused on the moon so that the final im- One obvious problem with a reflecting telescope
age is formed at least distance of distinct is that the objective mirror focuses the light in-
vision ie 25cm from the eye piece. Assum- side telescope tube so another convex mirror
ing the angular diameter of moon is is place inside tube to focus the incident light
0 on the eye piece. The light ray from distant star
1 / 2 at the objective, calculate (a) angu- after reflection from concave mirror ‘A’ fall on
lar size and (b) linear size of image seen the convex mirror B and allowed to converge
through the telescope. at convexlens act as eyepiece.
Solution: As final image is at least distance of dis- 1) In reflecting telescopes no absorption of light
tinct vision,
as in lenses.

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 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
2) Mirrors can be constructed with consider-  i.e. intensity of scattered light varies inversely
able large diameters than lenses. as the fourth power of the wavelength of
3) Mirrors are free from chromatic and spheri- incident light. These conclusions were verified
cal aberrations experimentally by Tyndall.
Note: The latest telescope in India in Kavalur, Rayleigh established further that the rays do not
Tamilnadu. It is a 2.34 m diameter cassegrain undergo any change in wavelength on
telescope scattering.
Note: The largest telescope in the world are However, in case of scattering of light by
the pair of keck telescoep in Hawaii (USA) transparent media, the scattered light might
with a reflector of 10m in diameter. contain some frequencies or wavelengths,
Hubble space telescope is a cassegrain type which might not be present in the incident
telescope radiations. When some energy from incident
SCATTERING OF LIGHT: light is imparted to the scattering molecule, the
Most of the beautiful phenomena like ‘blue scattered light will have lesser energy, i.e.,
colour of Sky’. ‘white colour of Cloud’, ‘red smaller frequency and longer wavelength. On
colour of Sunrise and Sunset’, have been the contrary, when the scattering molecule is in
explained in terms of scattering of light. a higher energy state before the collision than
after the collision some energy is received from
As sunlight travels through the earth’s
the scattering molecule. The scattered
atmosphere, it gets scattered by the large
light will have higher energy, i.e., longer
number of molecules and numerous small
frequency and shorter wavelength.
objects present in the atmosphere. Scattering
represents basically change in the direction However, when there is no exchange of energy
of light. between the incident light and the scattering
molecule, there is no change in wavelength of
 Lord Rayleigh was the first to study scattering
frequency on scattering, aspostulated by
of light from air molecules.
Rayleigh.
If A = amplitude of incident light,
Another important factor in scattering is relative
 = wavelength of incident light,
size of the wavelength of light    and the
V = volume of the scattering particle
scatterer (of typical size, say, x), For x<<  ,
a = amplitude of scattered light at a distance r
Rayleigh scattering is valid, i.e., when size of
from the scattering particle, then according to
scatterer is much smaller than wavelength of
Rayleigh,
 When size of scatterer is much smaller light, I s  I /  4 . But for x>>  , Rayleigh
than wavelength of light, then scattering is not valid and all wavelengths are
scattered nearly equally.
AV
a 2 Some applications of scattering of
r
light are :
As intensity of sctatterd light  I s  varies directly (a) Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of
sunlight. Light from the sun, while travelling
as square of amplitude of scattered light  a  , through earth’s atmosphere, gets scattered by
2

large number of molecules in the earth’s

1 1 atmosphere. As x<<  , Rayleigh scattering is
i.e I s  2 ; therefore, I s  4 valid. The intensity of scattered light varies
a 
inversely as the fourth power of wavelength of

Page 450
 RAY OPTICS PART – 3
light. As blue colour has a shorter wavelength red colour on the outside (making an angle of
than red, therefore, blue colour is scattered 420 and violet colour on the inside (making an
much more strongly. Hence the sky looks blue. angle of 400. The primary rainbow is formed
(b) White colour of clouds. The clouds are at by the rays which undergo one internal reflection
much lower height. They are seen due to and two refractions before emerging finally from
scattering of light from lower parts of the the water droplets. The outer of the two bows
atmosphere, which contains large dust is called secondary rainbow. It is not as bright
particles, water droplets, ice particles etc. in as the primary one. It subtends an angle of about
this case, size of scatterer x>>  . Therefore, 51.50 at the eye of the observer. It also shows
all wavelengths are scattered nearly equally. All all the colours of the solar spectrum but in
colours scattered equally merge to give us the reverse order i.e. red on the inner edge making
sensation of white. Hence clouds generally an angle of 500 and violet on the outer edge
appear white. making an angle of 530. Secondary rainbow is
formed by the rays which have undergone two
(c) The sun looks reddish at the time of sun internal reflections and two refractions before
rise and sun set. At the time of sun rise and emerging finally from the water droplets.
sun set, the sun is near the horizon. The rays
from the sun have to travel a larger part of the
atmosphere.
As b  r , and intensity of scattered light
1
 , therefore, most of the blue light is
4
scattered away. Only red colour, which is least
scattered enters our eyes and appears to come
from the sun. hence the sun looks red, both at
the time of sun rise and sun set. Sunlight
(d) Danger signals are red. Because wavelength 1
 red colour is large and intensity of scattered
Raindrops
light varies inversely as the fourth power of 2
wavelength. Therefore, red colour is least
scattered. It can be seen from maximum 400
distance. That is why danger signals are red. observer 420
RAINBOW:
(b)
A rainbow is a spectrum of sun’s light in
nature. It occurs in the form of concentric
coloured circular arcs in the sky, when the
sun shines on rain drops during or after a
shower.
The essential condition for observing a
rainbow is that the observer must stand
with his back towards the sun.
The common centre of concentric arcs lies on
the line joining the Sun to the eye of the observer.
Generally, there are two kinds of rainbows:
1. Primary rainbow,
2. Secondary rainbow
The inner of the two bows seen is the primary
rainbow. It is brighter of the two and subtends
an angle of 420 at the eye of the observer. It
shows all the colours of the solar spectrum with

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Page 452
 WAVE OPTICS

WAVE OPTICS
INTRODUCTION HUYGEN’S WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
 By now, you are well versed with laws that  This theory was enunciated by Huygen’s in a
govern the formation of images through lens, hypothetical medium known as luminiferous
mirrors and various optical instruments. At what ether. Ether is that imaginary medium which
you have read was based on the fact that light prevails in all space, in isotropic, Perfectly
travels in straight line. But from this chapter you elastic and massless. The different colours of
will get to know that light does not always light are due to different wave lengths of these
travel in straight line, indeed light is a wave. waves. The velocity of light in a medium is
Hence light is a wave and it exhibit interferes, constant but changes with change of medium.
diffracts and even undergo polarization. This This theory is valid for all types of waves.
new branch of physics that deals with the wave (i) The locus of all ether particles vibrating in same
nature of light is called “Wave Optics”. phase is known as wave front.
NATURE OF LIGHT NEWTON’S CORPUSCULAR (ii) Light travels in the medium in the form of
THEORY OF LIGHT: wavefront.
 This theory was given by Newton. (iii) When light travels in a medium then the particles
Important Characteristics of the theory is as of medium start vibrating and consequently a
follows disturbance is created in the medium.
(i) Extremely minute, very light and elastic (iv) Every point on the wave front becomes the
particles are being constantly emitted by all source of secondary wavelets. It emits
luminous bodies (light sources) in all directions. secondary wavelets in all directions which travel
with the speed of light.
(ii) These corpuscles travel with the speed of light.
(v) The tangent plane to these secondary wavelets
(iii) The different colours of light are due to different
represents the new position of wave front.
size of these corpuscles.
THE PHENOMENA EXPLAINED BY THIS THEORY
iv) Reflection of light is due to force of repulsion
applied by particle at denser medium on the (i) Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
corpuscles Polarisation and double refraction.
v) The laws of refraction were explained by (ii) Rectilinear Propagation of light.
assuming that the particle of denser medium (iii) Velocity of light in rarer medium being greater
attract the particle of light causing a bending at than that in denser medium.
the surface PHENOMENA NOT EXPLAINED BY THIS THEORY
THE PHENOMENA EXPLAINED BY THIS THEORY. (i) Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and
(i) Reflection and refraction of light. Raman effect.
(ii) Rectilinear propagation of light (ii) Backward propagation of light
(iii)Existence of energy in light due to force of attraction, which is against the
THE PHENOMENA NOT EXPLAINED BY THIS THEORY experimental observation by foucault
(i) interference, diffraction, polarisation, double GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
refraction and total internal reflection. 1. In geometrical optics, light is assumed to be
(ii) velocity of light being lesser in denser medium travelling in a straight line. This property is
than that in a rarer medium due to force of known as rectilinear propagation.
attraction. 2. By using rectilinear propagation of light, laws
(iii) Photoelectric effect and Compton effect. of reflection, refraction, total internal reflection
etc are explained geometrically.

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WAVE OPTICS
PHYSICAL OPTICS OR WAVE OPTICS: such points, which are equidistant from the point
1. In physical optics, light is considered as a wave source, is a sphere (a)
2. Huygen’s wave principle and principle of Note:
superposition are used to explain interference 1
and diffraction. Amplitude of light wave, A
r
3. Electromagnetic wave nature of light is used to 1
explain the concept of polarisation. Intensity of light wave , I  2
r
Condition for applicability of geometrical
optics and wave optics: When the size of
the object interacting with light, is much larger
than the wavelength of light, we can apply
geometrical optics.
When the wavelength of light is comparable to
or larger than the size of the object interacting
with light, we can apply wave optics.
If ‘b’ is the size of the object interacting with (a) (b) (c)
light, ‘l’ is the distance between the object and 2. CYLINDRICAL WAVE FRONT:
the screen and ‘  ’ is the wavelengh of light When the source of light is linear in shape (such
then, as a slit), a cylindrical wavefront is produced.
It is because, all the points, which are
i) The condition for applicability of geometrical equidistant from the linear source, lie on the
b2 surface of a cylinder (b).
optics is  1
l 1
ii) The condition for applicability of wave optics Amplitude of light wave, A ,
r
is
1
b2 b2 Intensity of light wave , I 
 1 or  1 r
l l 3. PLANE WAVE FRONT :
Note: The object interacting with light may be a A small part of a spherical or a cylindrical
mirror, a lens, a prism, an aperture (pin hole), a wavefront originating from a distant source will
slit and a straight edge. appear plane and hence it is called a plane
WAVE FRONT: wavefront (c).
 According to wave theory of light, a source of Intensity of light wave , I  r 0 ,
light sends out disturbance in all directions. In Amplitude of light wave, A  r 0
a homogeneous medium, the disturbance HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE:
reaches to all those particles of the medium in
Every point on the wave front becomes a source
phase, which are located at the same distance of secondary disturbance and generates
from the source of light and hence at any instant, wavelets which spread out in the medium with
all such particles must be vibrating in phase with the same velocity as that of light in the forward
each other. direction only.
The locus of all the particles of the medium, 1. The envelope of these secondary waves at any
which at any instant are vibrating in the same instant of time gives the position of the new
wave front at that instant.
phase, is called the wavefront.
2. The wave front in medium is always
Depending upon the shape of the source of light, perpendicular to the direction of wave
wavefront can be of the following types propagation.
1. SPHERICAL WAVE FRONT:
A spherical wavefront is produced by a point
source of light. It is because, the locus of all
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 WAVE OPTICS
v1t vt sin i v1
 2   ...(iii )
sin i sin r sin r v2
Now, if r < i (i.e., ray bends towards the
B normal)
1 i i sin r < sin i
i
A r D sin i v
r   1  1  1  v1  v2
r sin r v2
2
C  i.e., speed of light in medium 1 is greater than
that in medium 2. This is exactly what we
AB is width of incident beam studied in Geometrical (Ray) optics. This
prediction is opposite to the prediction as per
CD is width of refracted beam
the Newton’s Corpuscular Theory. Also if 1
width of incident beam cos i
 be the refractive index of light in medium 1,
width of refracted beam cos r
then
APPLICATIONS OF HUYGENS’
PRINCIPLE TO STUDY REFRACTION c c
1   v1 
AND REFLECTION v1 1
REFRACTION FROM RARER TO DENSER MEDIUM : c c
Let v1 and v2 represents the speed of light in similarly,  2  v and v2  
2 2
medium – 1 at medium – 2 respectively.
Consider a plane wavefront PQ – propagating sin i v1  2
in the direction P1P, incident on the medium hence, from e.q (iii), sin r  v  
boundary at point P at an angle of incidence i. 2 1

Let t be the time taken to travel from Q to B.  1 sin i  2 sin r Snell’s law of refraction
 Also, since same phase is achieved if the wave
travels a distance equal to integral multiple of
the wavelength, hence
QB  n1  v1t and PR  n2  v2t
On dividing , we have
 v sin i  2
 1 1 
2 v2 sin r 1
Also, v1  1 f and v2  2 f
 The frequency of the wave does not change as
 QB  v1t it travels from one medium to another as the
frequency is source dependent.
From the point P , draw a sphere of radius v2t Illustration 1:
, let BR represent the forward tangent plane. It A plane wavefront is incident at an angle
is refracted wavefront at t. of 370 with horizontal a boundary of re-
 PR  v2t ; From fractive medium from air    1 to a me-
QB v1t vt 3
PQB ,sin i    PB  1 ....(i ) dium of refractive index   . Find the
PB PB sin i 2
PR v2 t angle of refracted wavefront with horizon-
From  PRB , Sinr   tal.
PB PB Solution :
vt It has been given that incident wavefront makes
 PB  2 ...............(ii)
sin r 370 with horizontal. Hence incident ray makes
Equating (i) and (ii), we have 370 with normal as the ray is perpendicular to
the wavefront.

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WAVE OPTICS

1 sin i   2 sin r ; For air/vaccum 1  1

3 3 3 2 S
1 sin 37  sin r ; sin r   
2 2 5 5
 2
r  sin 1   which is same as angle of
5  Time taken by the wave to advance to point R
refraction of wavefront with horizontal. from point Q will be t.
Illustration 2: Hence QR = vt
A circular beam of light of diameter Now, in order to construct the reflected
(width) falls on a plane surface of galss. wavefront we draw a sphere of radius vt from
The angle of incidence is ‘i’, angle of point P. Let RS represent a tangent drawn from
refraction is ‘r’ and refactive index of R to wavefront from P to the spherical
glass is  . Then the diameter of the wavefront.  PS  vt
refracted beam d 1 is ---- Consider, PSR and RQP
Solution: PR = PR (Common side)
B1 PSR  RQP (Each 900)
PS = QR (Each vt )
A1 B
Hence, PSR  RQP
i d
Medium 1 Q   i  r
P r which proves law of reflection.
Medium 2 d1 THE DOPPLER EFFECT:
i) When any source emitting light (like sun,
moon, star, atom etc) is approaching or
receding from the observer then the frequency
Let d be the diameter of incident beam and or wavelength of light appears to be changing
d 1 be the diameter of refracted beam. to the observer. This apparent change in
Then from figure frequency or wavelength of light is called
Doppler effect in light.
d
cos i  ; d  PQ cos i CASE-1: Source and observer approach each
PQ other.
From figure
cv
d1 fA  f
cos r  and d 1  PQ cos r cv
PQ
d 1 cos r S O
i.e.  
d cos i
Diameter of refracted beam (d 1 ) cos r  Here, c is the speed of light
 v is the relative speed of approach
Diameter of incident beam (d ) cos i
f is the frequency of wave emitted by source
REFLECTING SURFACE :
After refraction let us now study laws of f A is the observed frequency
reflection from Huygens’wave model. To prove  Now, if v << c, then by binomial expansion,
the laws of reflection let us consider a plane we have
wave PQ incident at an angle i on a reflecting
1/2 1/2
surface AB.  v  v
f A  f 1   1  
 c  c
 v  v 
 f A  f 1  1 
 2c   2c 

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 WAVE OPTICS
Note that in the above formulae v is the
v
(neglecting higher powers of ) component of the source velocity along the
c line joining the observer to the source relative
 v to the observer. v is positive when source
 f A  f 1   moves relatively away from observer and v is
 c negative when source moves towards the
BLUE SHIFT: When the distance between the source observer. The Doppler effect for the
and observer is decreasing (i.e. the source is
approaching the observer) then frequency of light is very important in astronomy. It is the
light appears to be increasing or wavelength basis for the measurements of the radial
appears to be decreasing i.e. the spectral line velocities of distance galaxies.
in electromagnetic spectrum gets displaced When galaxy is approaching,
towards blue end, hence it is known as blue  Vradial

shift.  A     C
CASE-2: if the source or the observer recede from  Vradial
each other When galaxy is moving away , 
 C
cv
fR  f Source of light moves Source of light moves
cv towards the stationary away the stationary
observer (v<<c) observer (v<<c)
(I) Apparent frequency (I) Apparent frequency
S O
 v  v
f A  f 1   and fA  f  1   and
 c  c
 v Apparent wavelength Apparent wavelength
which again reduces to f R  f 1   for v
 c so  A   1  v  so  A   1  v 
 c  c
<< c, here f R represents frequency of
Doppler’s shift: Apparent Doppler’s shift: Apparent
recession. wavelength < actual wave wavelength < actual wave
 The same relationship can be transformed in length, so spectrum of the length, so spectrum of the
terms of the wavelength. radiation from the source radiation from the source
of light shifts towards the of light shifts towards the
c violet and of spectrum. red and of spectrum.
 This is called violet or blue This is called red shift.
f shift. v Doppler’s shift    v
   c
1 Doppler’s shift c
c c  v
  1     A   1  v  Note: Doppler’s shift    and time period of
A   c   c
 
rotation (T) of a star relates as
 v  2r
  A   1      ; r  radius of star..
 c c T
v  v Applications of Doppler effect:
  A     ;   (i) Determination of speed of moving bodies
c  c (aeroplane, submarine etc) in RADAR and
RED SHIFT: When the distance between the source SONAR.
and observer is increasing (i.e. the source is (ii) Determination of the velocities of stars and
receding from the observer) then frequency of galaxies by spectral shift
light appears to be decreasing or wavelength (iii) Detemination of rotational motion of sun
appears to be increasing i.e. the spectral line in (iv) Explanation of width of spectral lines
electromagnetic spectrum gets displaced
towards red end, hence it is known as red shift. (v) Tracking of satellites.
(vi) In medical sciences in echo cardiogram,
 A    sonography etc.

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WAVE OPTICS
Illustration 3: of the medium undergo displacements due to
with what speed should a star move with all the waves simultaneously. The resultant wave
respect to us so that the beam at wave- is due to the resultant displacement of the
length 460.0 nm, is observed at 460.8nm ? particles.
Solution :  Principle of superposition of waves states that
when two or more waves are simultaneously
v  v impressed on the particles of the medium, the
Now we have,    radial
v  c resultant displacement of any particle is equal
to the sum of displacements of all the waves.
Now,    460.8  460.0  nm  0.8nm (or)
8  “When two or more waves overlap, the
c 3  10  0.8 nm resultant displacement at any point and at any
Now, vradial  
 460 nm instant is the vector sum of the instantaneous
displacements that would be produced at the
 5.217  105 m / s  521.7 km / s point by individual waves, if each wave were
Since, v comes out to be positive, hence we present alone”.
can conclude that the star is moving away from
us.  If y1 , y2 ,......... yn denote the displacements of
Illustration 4: ‘n’ waves meeting at a point, then the
resultant displacement is given by
A galaxy moving with speed 300 km/s
shows blue shift. At what wavelength so- y  y1  y2  ....  yn .
dium line at 589.0 nm will be observed ? A) SUPERPOSITION OF COHERENT WAVES:
Solution :  Consider two waves travelling in space with
an angular frequency  . Let the two waves
Here, vradial  300 km / s  3  105 m / s
arrive at some point simultaneously. Let y1 and
Negative sign comes because we observe blue
shift i.e., galaxy is approaching us. y2 represent the displacements of two waves
 v at this point.
Now,    radial
 c  y1  A1 sin(t  1 ) & y2  A2 sin(t  2 )
  3  105   Then according to the principle of superposition
 the resultant displacement at the point is given
 
589.0nm  3 108  by, y  y1  y2 or
     589.0  103 nm  0.589 nm y  A1 sin(t  1 )  A2 sin(t  2 )
y2 y
Hence, the observed wavelength will be
(589.0-0.589)nm=588.411 nm
Illustration 5: A
A2
What speed should a galaxy move with re-
spect to us so that the sodium line at 589.0 
nm is observed at 589.6 nm? 
A1 y1
Solution :
 v  A1 (sin t cos 1  cos t sin 1 )
 ;
 C
 A2 (sin t cos 2  cos  t sin 2 )
 0.6   0.6   A cos  .sin t  A sin  .cosAt sin(t   )
v  c    3  108  
 589.0   589.0  Where
 3.06  105 ms 1 A cos   A1 cos 1  A2 cos 2 .......(1)
Therefore. the galaxy is moving away from us
with speed 306 km/s. and Asin  A1 sin 1  A2 sin 2 ........(2)
Principle of superposition of waves:  Here A and  are respectively the amplitude
 If two or more waves meet at a place and initial phase of the resultant displacement
simultaneously in the same medium, the particles Squaring and adding equations (1) & (2), we
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 WAVE OPTICS
get Amin
2 2
A  A  A  2 A1 A2 cos(1  2 )
1 2 (iv) if A1  A 2  A 0 (iv) if A1 = A2 = A0
A = 2A0 A= 0
 A12  A22  2 A1 A2 cos  .....(3)
(v) I = ( I1 + I 2 )2 (v) I = ( I1 - I 2 )2
 Where   1  2 , phase difference between
(cos   1) (cos   1)
the two waves.
 Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get (vi) if I1 = I 2 = I0 (vi) if I1 = I2 = I0
Ires = 4I0 Ires = 0
A sin 1  A2 sin 2
tan   1 ........(4) B) SUPERSPOSITION OF INCOHERENT WAVES:
A1 cos 1  A2 cos 2
Incoherent waves are the waves which do not
 Since the intensity of a wave is proportional to maintain a constant phase difference. The phase
square of the amplitude, the resultant intensity
I of the wave from equation (3) may be written of the waves fluctuates irregularly with time and
as independently of each other. In case of light
waves the phase fluctuates randomly at a rate
I  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2 cos  .........(5) of about 108 per second. Light detectors such
as human eye, photographic film etc, cannot
where I1 and I 2 be the intensities of the two respond to such rapid changes. The detected
waves. intensity is always the average intensity,
 It can be seen that the amplitude (intensity) of averaged over a time interval which is very much
the resultant displacement varies with phase larger than the time of fluctuations. Thus
difference of the constituent displacements.
CASE I : I av  I1  I 2  2 I1 I 2  cos   . The
 When   1  2  0, 2 , 4 ...... 2n average value of the cos  over a large time
where n  0,1, 2,.......... interval will be zero and hence I av  I1  I 2
 cos   1  This implies that the superposition of incoherent
 A  A1  A2 from (3) waves gives uniform illumination at every point
and is simply equal to the sum of the intensities
and I  I1  I 2 from (5) of the component waves.
 Hence the resultant amplitude is the sum of the INTERFERENCE:
two individual amplitudes. This condition refers  The variation in intensity occurs due to the
to the constructive interference. redistribution of the total energy of the
Case II: interfering waves is called interference.
When   1  2   ,3 ,5 ..... (2n  1) Interference of light is a wave phenomenon.
where n  1, 2,3,....... ;  cos   1  The source of light emitting wave of same
frequency and travelling with either same phase
 A | A1  A2 | and I | I1  I 2 | or constant phase difference are called
 Hence the resultant amplitude is the difference Coherent Sources.
of the individual amplitudes and is referred to Ex: Two virtual sources derived from a single
as destructive interference. source can be used as Coherent Sources.
Constructive Destructive  The source producing the light wave travelling
Interference Interference with rapid and random phase changes are
(i)   0 or 2n (i)   (2n 1) called Incoherent Sources.
where n=0,1,2.....where n=1,2,3..... Ex: 1. Light emitted by two candles.
(ii) x  0 or n 2. Light emitted by two lamps.
(ii) x  (2n  1)  /2 CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE
where n=0,1,2.....where n=1,2,3.....  The two sources must be coherent.
(iii) A = A1 + A 2 =Amax (iii) A =| A1 - A 2 | = Two sources must be narrow.

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WAVE OPTICS
Two sources must be close together. maximum. It means it is the fringe with zero
path difference between two waves on reaching
Note:The two sources must be monochromatic, the point P.
otherwise the fringes of different colours  The bright fringe corresponding to n = 1 is called
overlap and hence interference cannot be first order bright fringe i.e., if the path difference
observed. between the two waves on reaching ‘P’ is  .
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT Similarly second order bright fringe n  2 is
 Young with his experiment measured the most located where the path difference is 2 and
important characteristic of the light wave i.e so on.
wavelength (  )
2  
Young’s experiment conclusively established the From I  4 I 0 cos  
2
wave nature of light.

For maximum intensity cos 1
2

i.e.  0,  ,  ,  2 ..........
2
(or) Phase difference between the waves
  2  n with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 .........
P
The corresponding path difference, x  n
  4, x  2 2nd secondary max 
sin(
 t+k
x)
  3, x  3 / 2 2nd minima 
Hence I max  4 I 0 .
y1=A
)

  2, x   1st secondary max  B) DARK FRINGES :

x+
+k

S1 y
  , x   / 2 1st minima 
t


 Dark fringes occur whenever the waves from
(
sin

d   2, x   1st secondary max 

=A

2
  , x   / 2 1st minima 
2
y

d
 x
  0, x  0 Central maxima  S1 and S 2 interfere destructively. i.e., on
  , x   / 2 1st minima 
reaching ‘P’ one wave with its crest and another

s in

  2, x   1st secondary maxima 

=d

S2
wave with its trough superimpose. Then the
x

  3, x  3 / 2 2nd minima 

  4, x  2 2nd secondary max 
phase difference between the waves is  and
s1s2=d the waves are said to be in opposite phase.
 When source illuminates the two slits, the  Destructive interference occurs at P, if S1P and
pattern observed on the screen consists of large 
number of equally spaced bright and dark S2P differ by a odd integral multiple of .
2
bands called “interference fringes” Thus the condition for finding dark fringe at P
A) BRIGHT FRINGES : 
 Bright fringes occur whenever the waves from is that S 2 P  S1 P  (2n  1) .
S1 and S2 interfere constructively. i.e. on 2
reaching ‘P’, the waves with crest (or trough) Where n  1,  2,  3,........... , and n is called
superimpose at the same time and they are said order of dark fringe. Hence for nth order dark
to be in phase. The condition for finding a bright fringe, the path difference,
fringe at ‘P’ is that S 2 P  S1 P  n , 
d sin   (2n  1)
 Where n  0,  1,  2,  3, .... and n is called 2
the order of bright fringe. Hence for nth order y   D
d  n    2n  1  yn   2n  1
bright fringe, the path difference is D 2 2d
d sin   n Where yn is the position of nth minima from
y  n D O.
 d  n   n ,  yn 
D d The first dark fringe occurs when
 Where yn is the position of nth maximum from 
S 2 P  S1 P  .This is called first order dark (n
O. 2
 The bright fringe corresponding to n = 0, is 3
= 1) fringe and similarly for S2P - S1P =
called the zero - order fringe or central 2
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 WAVE OPTICS
second order dark fringe (n = 2) occurs and i.e. when   0, 2 , 4 ........2n
so on.

2  b) If the path difference x  2n   (even
From I  4 I 0 cos   2
2 multiples of half wavelength).
 i.e when x  0,  , 2 ........n
For minimum intensity cos 0
2 The amplitude and intensity are maximum.
  3 5
i.e.,   ,  ,  ...... Amax   A1  A2 
2 2 2 2
(or)    ,  3 , 5 ...... 2

(or)    (2n  1) with n = 1, 2, 3 ......

I max   I1  I 2    A1  A2 
2

The corresponding path difference, Note: If A1  A2  a then Amax  2a


x  (2n  1) , Hence I min  O If I1  I 2  I 0 then I max  4 I 0
2
ii) DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE :
C) FRINGE WIDTH (  ):
 The distance between two adjacent bright (or a) If the phase difference    2n  1  (odd
dark) fringes is called the fringe width. It is multiples of  ) where n = 1, 2, 3.....
denoted by  . i.e. when    ,3 , 5 .......  2n  1 
The nth order bright fringe occurs from the
b) If the path difference x   2n  1  / 2
n D
central maximum at yn  ( odd multiples of  / 2 )
d
The (n  1)th order bright fringe occurs from  3 5  2n  1 
i.e. when x  , , ........
( n  1) D 2 2 2 2
the central maximum at yn 1  The amplitude and Intensity are minimum.
d
 The fringe separation,  is given by Amin   A1  A2 
D 2
  yn 1  yn 
d
I min   I1  I 2    A1  A2 
2

 In a similar way, the same result will be obtained Note: If A1  A2  a then Amin  0
for the dark fringes also.
If I1  I 2  I 0 then I min  0
D
 Fringe width,   2
d I max

 I1  I 2   A  A2 
 1
2

 Thus fringe width is same every where on the 2 2

screen and the width of bright fringe is equal to I min
 I1  I 2   A1  A2 
the width of dark fringe.
iii) RELATION BETWEEN PHASE DIFFERENCE AND PATH
D DIFFERENCE :
  bright   dark   
d 2
d) The locus of the point P lying in the xy-plane phase difference = (path difference).

such that S2P - S1P =  x  (path difference)
2
is a constant, is a hyperbola. If the distance D  x
is very large compared to the fringe width, the 
fringes will be very nearly straight lines. APPLICATIONS ON FRINGE WIDTH :
i) CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE : iv) Since   ,  Re d   voilet , as red  voilet
a) If the phase difference is    2n   (even v) In YDSE, if blue light is used instead of red
multiples of  ). Where n = 0, 1,2, 3,...... light then  decreases ( B  R )
vi) If YDSE is conducted in vacuum instead of air,
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WAVE OPTICS
then  increases ( vaccum  air ) n d
As sin   1, 1  n
vii) In certain field of view on the screen, if n1 d 
fringes are formed when light of wavelength 1 Therefore the maximum number of complete
is used and n2 fringes are formed when light of maxima on the screen will be 2( n)  1
wavelength 2 is used, then n n
Ex: If d  3 then sin    As
3 3
n D
y = constant  n = constant sin   1,
d
n can take values 3, 2, 1,0,1, 2,3
 n11  n2 2 (or) n11  n2  2
 Maximum number of maxima is 7.
viii) The distance of nth bright fringe from central XI) FRINGE VISIBILITY (OR) BAND VISIBILITY (V)
n D  It is the measure of contrast between the bright
maximum is ( yn ) bri   n and dark fringes
d
The distance of mth dark fringe from central I max  I min
maximum is Fringe visibility, V  I  I
max min
(2m  1)  D (2m  1)
( ym ) dark    where I max  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2
2 d 2
 The distance between nth bright and mth and I min  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2
dark fringes is
4 I1I 2 2 I1I 2
( yn )bri  ( ym ) dark  n 
(2m  1)
  V  2( I  I )  ( I  I )
1 2 1 2
2
ix) YDSE IS CONDUCTED WITH WHITE LIGHT V has no unit and no dimensional formula.
When white light is used in YDSE the Generally, 0 < V < 1.
interference patterns due to different component Fringe visibility is maximum, if I min  0,
colours of white light overlap (incoherently). then V = 1
The central bright fringes for different colours
are at the same position. Therefore, the central For poor visibility , I max  I min , then V = 0
fringe is white. For a point P for which i.e., if V = 1, then the fringes are very clear and
 contrast is maximum and if V = 0, then there
S 2 P  S1 P  b where b (  4000 A0 )
2 will be no fringes and there will be uniform
represents the wavelength for the blue colour, illumination i.e., the contrast is poor.
the blue component will be absent and the fringe xii) When one slit is fully open and another
will appear red in colour. one is partially open then the contrast between
r the fringes decreases. i.e., if the slit widths are
 Slightly farther away where S 2Q  S1Q  unequal, the minima will not be completely dark.
2 XIII) MISSING WAVE LENGTHS IN FRONT OF ONE
0
where r (  8000 A ) is the wavelength for the SLIT IN YDSE:
red colour, the fringe will be predominantly
blue.Thus, the fringe closest on either side of
the central white fringe is red and farthest will P
S1
appear blue. After a few fringes, no clear fringe y
pattern is seen. d
O
x) MAXIMUM NUMBER OF INTERFERENCE MAXIMA ON
SCREEN :
S2

To know maximum number of possible maxima

on the screen
D
n  Suppose P is a point of observation in front of
If d sin   n (or )sin   slit S1 as shown in figure. Path difference
d between the two waves from S1 and S2 is

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 WAVE OPTICS
x  S2 P  S1P  D 2  d 2  D P  ( S1P  t )  t. The optical path from S 2
to P  S 2 P.
1/2
 d2   d2  d2 To get central zero fringe at P,  s1 p   s2 p
 D 1  2   D  D 1  2   D 
 D   2D  2D  S1P  t  t  S2 P
2
d  S 2 P  S1P  (  1)t
 x  .........(1)
2D Since   1, this implies S 2 P  S1 P hence
But for missing wavelengths, intensity will be the fringe pattern must shift towards the beam
zero. i.e., the corresponding path difference,
from S1.

x  (2n  1) ...... (2) y
2  But S 2 P  S1P  d sin   d , where ‘y’ is
From equations (1) and (2) D
the lateral shift.
d2 
 (2n  1) y
2D 2  (   1)t  d ;  Lateral shift
D
d2 D 
 Missing wavelength,   (2n  1) D ( y )  (   1)t  (   1)t
d 
By putting n  1, 2,3,..., the wavelengths at P (or) Thickness of sheet
are yd y
2 2 2
t 
d d d (  1) D (  1)
 , , ,.......
D 3D 5 D From the above it is clear that
In the above case, if bright fringes are to be a) For a given colour, shift is independent of
formed exactly opposite to S1 then order of the fringe i.e. shift in zero order
maximum = shift in 9th minima (or) shift in 6th
d2 d2 maxima = shift in 2nd minima. Since the refractive
 n    index depends on wavelength hence lateral
2D 2 Dn shift is different for different colours.
By putting n = 1, 2, 3 ,,, the possible b) The number of fringes shifted =
wavelengths at P are
lateral shift
d2 d2 d2 fringe width
 , , ,....
2 D 4 D 6D
XIV) LATERAL DISPLACEMENT OF FRINGES:
y (   1)t
n   (or) n  (   1)t
 To determine the thickness of a given thin sheet  
of transparent material such as glass or mica, Therefore, number of fringes shifted is more
that transparent sheet is introduced in the path for shorter wavelength.
of one of the two interfering beams. The fringe c) If a transparent sheet of thickness ‘t’ and
pattern gets displaced towards the beam in
whose path the sheet is introduced. This shift is its relative refractive index r (w.r.t.
known as lateral displacement or lateral shift. surroundings) be introduced in one of the
beams of interference, then
t
P (  r  1)tD
S1 1) the lateral shift y 
y d
d  O (  r  1)t
2) the number of fringes shifted n 
S2

D d) Due to the presence of transparent sheet,
T the phase difference between the interfering
The optical path from S1 to waves at a given po int is given by

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WAVE OPTICS

2 P a b
 (   1)t . N

e) If YDSE is performed with two different i S
colours of light of wavelengths 1 & 2 but by i
Q r
placing the same transparent sheet in the path
of one of the interfering waves then t r M
n11  n2 2 .
R T
where n1 and n2 are the number of fringes
shifted with wavelengths 1 & 2 .
f) When two different transparent sheets of d
Q1 C
thickness t1 , t2 and refractive index 1 , 2 where i = angle of incidence and
are placed in the paths of two interfering r = angle of refraction
waves in YDSE, if the central bright fringe
position is not shifted, then i) PQ is incident ray, At Q it splits as refrected ray
(Qa) and refracted ray (QR) by the division of
(1  1)t1  ( 2  1)t2 . amplitude. QR undergoes multiple reflections
XV) At constant temperature, with increase of inside the film and refract out as Sb, Rc and
pressure the refractive index of the medium Td.
increases and hence fringe width decreases ii) The rays Qa and Sb interface forming a reflected
1 system.
P  density ; d ,     iii) The rays Rc and Td interfere forming a
V
transmitted system.
XVI) ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH
iv) Path difference between the rays Qa and
i) The ratio of fringe width to distance between QRSb.
source and screen is defined as angular fringe
(P.D) = QRS in medium - QN in air
width ( )
 ( P.D )  2t cos r this is the path lag
S1 1st bright Due to reflection on film additional path lag of
  / 2 exists. (stoke’s theorem)
S d 
O 
Total path difference = 2 t cos r 
S2 Central bright 2
D

ii) Angular Fringe width is v) Condition for maximum 2 t cos r   n
2
  
tan     
D d or 2 t cos r   2n  1 for all values of n is
2
iii) Angular fringe width in a medium of refractive equal to 1, 2, 3 ........... n.
| |  vi) Condition for Minimium
index  is   but  | 
d   
2  t cos r  (2n  1) ; 2 t cos r  n
  2 2
|   for values of n=0, 1, 2, 3 .........
d 
n=0 gives the central minima and it is applicable
 = angular fringe width in air for any wavelength and this explains the central
FORMATION OF COLOURS IN THIN FILMS : dark spot in Newtons rings.
a) INTERFERENCE DUE TO REFLECTED LIGHT For normal incidnet i = o = r

2 t  n for dark 2 t   2n  1 for bright.
2

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 WAVE OPTICS
b) Transmitted system:
I max (9 A2  A2 )2 (10)2 25
i) Interference of two rays Rc and Td. By   
symmetry it can be concluded that the path I min (9 A2  A2 ) 2 (8) 2 16
difference between the rays is 2 t cos r . But Illustration 7:
there would not be any extra phase lag because Two slits are made one millimeter apart
either of the two rays suffers reflection at denser and the screen is placed one meter away.
surface. When blue-green light of wavelength 500
nm is used, the fringe separation is
ii) Condition for maximum: 2 t cos r  n
Solution :
iii) Condition for minimum :
D
 Fringe separation,  
2 t cos r   2n  1 d
2
On careful examination of the conditions for Given, D  1m,   500 nm  5  107 m and
maxima and minima in both the cases the
wavelengths in reflected system are found in d  1mm  1 103 m
transmitted system. 1 5 107
 Fringe separation,   m
II 1103
Interference in reflected Interference in refracted  5  104 m  0.5 mm
light light Illustration 8:
Condition of constructive In YDSE, the two slits are separated by
Condition of constructive
interference (maximum interference (maximum 0.1 mm and they are 0.5 m from the screen.
intensity) intensity) The wavelengh of light used is 5000 Å .
What is the distance between 7th maxima
x  2t cos r  2n  1 and 11th minima on the screen?
2 x  2t cos r  2n 
For normal incidence r=0 2 Solution :
 For normal incidence Here, d = 0.1 mm = 10-4 m,
So 2t  2n  1 2t  n
2
D  0.5 m,   5000 Å  5.0  107 m
Condition of destructive Condition of destructive
interference (minimum interference (minimum x  ( X 11 )dark  ( X 7 )bright 
intensity) intensity)
 (2  11  1) D 7 D
x  2t cos r  2n  x  2t cos r  2 n 1 
2 2 2d d
For normal incidence For normal incidence
 7D 75107 0.5
2t  2n  1 x  
2t  n 2 2d 2104
Illustration: 6  8.75  10 3 m  8.75 mm
Light waves from two coherent sources Illustration 9:
having intensity ratio 81 : 1 produce
interference. Then, the ratio of maxima In Young’s double slit experiment inter-
and minima in the interference pattern will ference fringes 10 apart are produced on
be the screen, the slit separation is
Solution : (  589 nm)
Solution :
I1 A12 81
Given,  2  D
I 2 A2 1 The fringe width,  
d
A1 9 The angular separation of the fringes is given
 A 1 or A1  9 A2 .... (1) by
2

I max ( A1  A2 )2  
 I  ( A  A )2  
D d
min 1 2
From Eq. (i), we get 0 
Given,   1  rad
180

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WAVE OPTICS
  589 nm Illustration 13:
In a double slit experiment the angular
 589 180  109
 d   0.0337 mm width of a fringe is found to be 0.20 on a
  screen placed 1m away. The wavelength
Illustration 10: of light used in 600 nm. What will be the
In Young’s double slit experiment, the angular width of the fringe if the entire
wavelength of red light is 7800 Å and that experimental apparatus is immersed in
of blue light is 5200 Å. The value of n for water? Take refractive index of water to
which nth bright band due to red light co- be 4/3.
incides with (n + 1)th bright band due to Solution :
blue light, is Angular fringe separation,
Solution :
  
nR R D nB B D   ord  ; In water, d 
 or d  
d d      1 3
nR B 5200 2   or   
        4
nB R 7800 3 n  2 3 3 0 0
Therefore 2 of red coincides with 3rd of blue.
nd or       0.2  0.15
4 4
Illustration 11: Illustration 14:
Young’s double slit experiment is made in In a Young’s experiment, one of the slits is
a liquid. The 10th bright fringe in liquid covered with a transparent sheet of thick-
lies where 6th dark fringe lies in vacuum.
ness 3.6  103 cm due to which position of
The refractive index of the liquid is ap-
proximately central fringe shifts to a position origi-
nally occupied by 30th fringe.If   6000
Solution :
Å, then find the refractive index of the
D
Fringe width  
d
. When the apparatus is sheet.
Solution:
immersed in a liquid,  and hence  is reduced
 (refractive index) times. The position of 30th bright fringe,

D D 30 D
y30  Now position shift of central
10    (5.5)  or10     (5.5) d
d d
fringe is
 10
or    or   1.8 30 D
  5.5 y0  ; But we know,,
Illustration 12: d
In Young’s double slit experiment, how D 30 D D
y0  (   1)t ;  (   1)t
many maxima can be obtained on a screen d d d
(including the central maximum) on both
30 30  (6000  1010 )
sides of the central fringe if   2000 Å  (   1)    0.5
t (3.6  105 )
and d  7000 Å?
Solution :    1.5
For maximum intensity on the screen Illustration 15:
The maximum intensity in the case of n
n
d sin  n or sin   d ; identical incoherent waves each of inten-
W W
(n)(2000) n sity 2 2 is 32 2 the value of n is
  m m
(7000) 3.5 Solution :
maximum value of sin   1 I = n I0, 32 = n 2, n = 16
Illustration 16:
 n  3, 2, 1, 0,1, 2,3 ;  7 maxima.

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Compare the intensities of two points lo- (1.52  1.40)10.4
(1   2 )t  n,   m
  n
cated at respective distance and from
4 3 (10.4  0.12) 1248
the central maxima in a interference of  m  nm
n n
YDSE (  is the fringe width)
When n=1,  =1248 nm is not present in
Solution : the given range
2 2  d   2  d  D  1248
  x    =   D 4d  When n=2,    624nm
  D 4   2
2  1248
  When n=3,    416nm
     I  4 I 0 cos 2   3
4 2 4
Similarly 1248
When n=4,    312nm is not
4
2  2  present in the given range.
   I  4I 0 cos2    I0
3  23   416nm and 324 nm will form maxima
at point ‘O’
 required ratio = 2 :1
Illustration 19:
Illustration 17:
In Young’s double slit experiment the y co-
In Young’s double slit experiment inten- ordinates of central maxima and 10th
sity at a point is (1/4) of the maximum in- maxima are 2 cm and 5 cm respectively.
tensity. Angular position of this point is When the YDSE apparatus is immersed in
Solution : a liquid of refractive index 1.5 the corre-
sponding y co-ordinates will be
  I  
I  I max cos 2   ;  max  I max cos 2   Solution :
2 4  2
Fringe width    . Therefore,  and hence
 1   2  2   will decrease 1.5 times when immersed in
cos  or  ,     .x
2 2 2 3 3    liquid. The distance between central maxima
where x  d sin  and 10th maxima is 3 cm in vacuum. When
immersed in liquid it will reduce to 2 cm. Position
     of central maxima will not change while 10th
 d sin  ,sin   ,   sin 1   maxima will be obtained at y = 4 cm.
3 3d  3d 
Illustration 18: Illustration 20:
YDSE is carried with two thin sheets of In YDSE, bi-chromatic light of wave-
thickness 10.4 m each and refractive lengths 400 nm and 560 nm are used. The
distance between the slits is 0.1 mm and
index 1  1.52 and  2  1.40 covering the the distance between the plane of the slits
slits s1 and s2 respectively. If white light and the screen is 1m. The minimum dis-
of range 400nm to 780 nm is used then tance between two successive regions of
which wavelength will form maximum complete darkness is:
exactly as Solution :
point ‘O’ the centre of the screen? Let nth minima of 400 nm coincides with mth
minima of 560nm, then
 400   560 
(2n  1)    (2m  1)   or
 2   2 
O 2n  1 7 14
   .....
2m  1 5 10
i.e., 4th minima of 400 nm coincides with 3rd
Screen minima of 560 nm. Location of this minima is,
Solution :

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WAVE OPTICS

(2  4  1)(1000)(400  10 9 )
the plane of the slits and slits are
Y1   14 mm illuminated by plane monochromatic light
2  0.1 of wavelength  . P is a point on the screen
Next 11th minima of 400 nm will coincide with at a distance y from the central maximum.
8th minima of 560 nm. If by some special arrangement the slits
Location of this minima is, be moved symmetrically apart with relative
velocity v, estiame the number of firnges
(2 11  1) (1000)(400 109 ) crossing tth point p per unit time.
Y2   42 mm
2  0.1 Solution:
 Required distance = Y2  Y1  28 mm . Let l = distance bweteen the slits
Illustration 21: dl yl
V path diff x 
An interf erence is observed due to two co- dt D
herent sources S1 placed at origin and S2 dx y dl yv
placed at (0,3 , 0) . Here  is the wave-  . 
dt D dt D
length of the sources. A detector D is moved
along the positive x-axis. Find x-coordi- since a change in optical path difference of 
nates on the x-axis (excluding x = 0 and corresponds to one fringe, so the number of
x   ) where maximum intensity is ob- dx l yv
served. fringes crossing point P per unit is 
dt  D
Solution : Illustration 23: In figure shown
At x = 0, path difference is 3 . Hence, third
order maxima will be obtained. At x   , path S1
difference is zero. Hence, zero order maxima
is obtained. In between first and second order S2 O
maxim will be obtained.
S3


S 1O  S 2 O  S 3 O  S 2 O  , Intensity
4
at O due to any one of the slits is I 0 . What is
the intensity due to all three coherent sources
S1 , S2 and S3 at O ?
First order maxima: Solution: Phase difference corresponding to the
given path difference
S 2 P  S1 P   (or ) x 2  9 2  x  
A g  5A 0
2A0
or x 2  9 2  x   Squaring both sides,
we get x 2  9 2  x 2   2  2 x . Solving
this, we get x  4 . Second order maxima: 0
90
S 2 P  S1 P  2 ; (or) x  9  x  2 (or)
2 2
A0
2 2  
x 2  9 2  ( x  2 ) Squaring both sides,   . x   
we get   4 2
x 2  9 2  x 2  4 2  4 x Let A0 be the amplitude
5 due to either of the slits
Solving, we get x    1.25
4 Ag  5 A0 , I R  5I 0 as I  A2
Hence, the desired x coordinates are, Illustration 24:
x  1.25 and x  4 . Two coherent light sources A and B with
Illustration 22: separation 2 are placed on the x-axis
In YDSE the screen is at a distance D from symmetrically about the origin. They emit
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 WAVE OPTICS
light of wavelength  . Obtain the posi- 3
 (2 ) 2  D 2  D  
tions of maxima on a circle of large ra- 2
dius, lying in the x-y plane and with cen- 2
tre at the origin. 3 
 (2  ) 2  D 2     D 
Solution :  2 
9 2 3
 4 2  D 2    D2  2    D
4 2
9 7 7

 3 D  4    D 
4 4 12

For the farthest minima, S1 P  S2 P 
2

For P to have maximum intensity, d cos   n  4 2  D 2  D 
2
n 2 15
2 cos   n cos   2 where n is integer  42  D2   D2  D  D  4   / 4 
4 4
For n  0,   900 , 2700 Illustration 26:
A ray of light of intensity I is incident on
n  1,   600 ,1200 , 2400 ,3000 a parallel glass slab at a point A as shown.
n  2,   00 ,1800 It undergoes partial reflection and refrac-
tion. At each reflection 20% of incident
So, positions of maxima are at energy is reflected. The rays AB and A’ B’
  00 ,600 ,900 ,1200 ,1800 ,2400 , 2700 a n d undergo interference. The ratio Imax / Imin
is
3000 ; i.e., 8 positions will be obtained. B
Short cut : In d  n then number of maximum I B'

on the circle is 4n.

 A A'
Note: For minima x  (2n  1)
2
Illustration 25:
Two coherent point sources S1 and S2 vi- C
brating in phase emit light of wavelength
 . The separation between the sources is Solution :
2 . Consider a line passing through S1 According to the question, Intensity of ray AB,
and perpendicular to the line S1 S 2 . Find I
I1 = 0 and Intensity of ray AB ,
the position of farthest and nearest minima 5
S2

2

S1
D P
Solution :

xmin  (2n  1) The farthest minima has
2
path difference  / 2 while nearest minima
has path difference (3 / 2) . For the 16 I 0 81
nearest minima. I2  , I max  ( I1  I 2 ) 2  I0 ,
125 125
3
S1 P  S 2 P   ; [as maximum path I I
2 I min  ( I1  I 2 ) 2  0 , max  81 .
difference is 2 ] 125 I min

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WAVE OPTICS
Illustration 27: Solution :
In a YDSE experiment if a slab whose Phase difference
refractive index can be varied is placed in
front of one of the slits, then the variation  2   2 
of resultant intensity at mid-point of   (d sin )    d tan   
     
screen with '  ' will be best represented
by (   1). Y  D   small 
[Assume slits of equal width and there is dy  2 
no absorption by slab]     i.e.,   y
D  
 The required graph is a straight line
I0 Illustration 29:
I0
The graph between the path difference
 1
versus phase difference is a /an
 1
1) Straight line 2) Parabola
3) Sine curve 4) None of these
I0
I0 Solution :
Since, a path difference of  corresponds to
 1  1 phase difference of 2
Solution : 
x  (   1)t ; For   1, x  0 x    x   , hence graph is a
2
 I = maximum = I0 ; As  increases path straight line.
difference x also increases.; For x  0 to Illustration 30:
 Which of the following graphs represent
, the
2
intensity will decrease from I0 to zero. variation of the path difference (  l )
between

Then for x  to  , intensity will increase the interferring waves in a double slit
2 experiment with the ‘angular position’ (  )
from zero to I 0 . of
Hence option 3 is correct the point on the screen?
Illustration 28:
Which of the following graphs best
represent the variation of phase difference
between the interfering waves in a double
slit experiment with the distance y from
the central maximum?

Phase Phase
difference difference

(a) (b)
Solution :
L  d sin 
Phase Phase
difference difference 
L versus  is a sine curve, with |  | 2

c  (d)

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Illustration 31: The point source of light S is having wave-
A Young’s double slit experimental set up length equal to  . The light is reaching
is completely submerged in a transparent screen only after reflection. For point P to
liquid. Which of the following graphs best be 2nd maxima, the value of  would be
represent the variation of total number of ( D  d & d   )
fringes N observed on the screen with the
index of refraction  of the liquid?

N N

(1) (2)

N N

(4)
12d 2 6d 2 3d 2 24d 2
(3) 1) 2) 3) 4)
Solution : D D D D
Solution :
If L is size of the screen and  is the size
 (8d )  3d
Ld a. At P, x  ;
of a fringe, then N  where  '  D
'D 
Ld 24d 2
N   N M For 2nd maxima, x  2 ;   2
D D
S1
 The graph is a straight line, with positive 2d
slope and passing through the origin. P
Illustration 32: S
The graph between the shift of the 3d
interference pattern in a double slit
experiment with the thickness t of a glass 6d 
O
slab is best represented by Central
maxima
S2
s s 2
12d
 
D
t (1) t Illustration 34:
(2)
Two coherent point sources S1 and S 2 vi-
brating in phase emit light of wavelength
s s
 . The separation between them is 2 as
shown in figure. The first bright fringe is
t t formed at ‘P’ due to interference on a
(3) (4) screen placed at distance ‘D’ from
Solution :
S1 ( D   ), then OP is
Shift S= (  1)t , a straight line with positive
slope and passing through the origin.
 correct answer is (4)
Illustration 33:
Consider the optical system shown in fig.

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WAVE OPTICS
the fringes disappear. Till this happens, the
fringe separation remains fixed.
e) Same as in (d). As the source slit width
increases, fringes pattern gets less and less
sharp. When the source slit is so wide that the
condition S   / d is not satisfied, the
interference pattern disappears.
f) The interference patterns due to different
component colours of white light overlap
(incoherently). The central bright fringes for
different colours are at the same position.
1) 3 D 2) 1.5 D 3) 2 D 4) 2 D Therefore, the central fringe is white. For
Solution :
appoint P for which S 2 P  S1P   b / 2 , where
  1
x  d cos    ; cos   d  2  2  b (  4000 A0 ) represents the wavelength for
the blue colour, the blue component will be
x absent and the fringe will appear red in colour.
  600 tan 60  x  3D Slightly farther away where
D
Experimental applications of YDSE: r
S 2Q  S1Q  b  where r  8000 Ao is
a) When screen is moved away from the plane of 2
the slits; the wavelength for the red colour, the fringe
b) When monochromatic source is replaced by will be predominantly blue.
another monochromatic source of shorter Thus, the fringe closed on either side of the
wavelength; central white fringe is red and the farthest will
c) When separation between the two slits is appear blue. After a few fringes, no clear fringe
increased; pattern is seen.
d) When source slit is moved closer to the double-
slit plane; DIFFRACTION :
e) When width of the source slit is increased; Rectilinear propagation of light:
f) When monochromatic source is replaced by a
source of white light?
Observations:
d
a) Angular separation of the fringes remains
constant ( / d ). The actual separation of the
fringes increases in proportion to the distance
of the screen from the plane of the two slits   d
b) The separation of the fringes (and also angular
separation) decreases. See, however the Diffraction
condition mentioned in (d) below.
c) The separation of the fringes (and also angular
separation) decreases. See, however, the
condition mentioned in (d) below. d
d) Let S be the size of the source and d is its
distance from the plane of the two slits. For
interference fringes to be seen, the condition
S<  / d should be satisfied; otherwise d Spherical
interference patterns produce by different parts wave fronts
of the source overlap and no fringes are seen. The bending of light around edges of an obstacle
Thus, as S decreases (i.e., the source slit is or the encroachment of light within geometrical
brought closer), the interference pattern gets shadow is known as “diffraction of light”
less and less sharp, and when the source is  Diffraction is a characteristic property of a
brought too close for this condition to be valid, wave.

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 Diffraction is an effect exhibited by all electro-
magnetic waves, water waves and sound waves 
 Diffraction takes place with very small moving to P
P
particles such as atoms, neutrons and electrons
A
which show wave like properties.
 When light passes through a narrow aperture M1
O  to P P
some light is found to be enchroached into M2 L
shadow regions.
B a sin
 When slit width is larger, the encroachment of
light is small and negligible.
 When slit width is comparable to wavelength T
of light the encroachment of light is more i) Condition for minimum intensity:
 If the size of obstacle or aperture is comparable Divide the slit into two equal halves AO the
with the wavelength of light, light deviates from and OB each of size a/2. The path difference
rectilinear propagation near edges of obstacle between the secondary waves from A and O
or aperture and enchroaches into geometrical will be  / 2. For every point ( M 1 ) in the
shadow. upper half OA, there is a corresponding point
 Diffraction phenomenon is classified into two (M 2 ) in the lower half (OB) and the path
types, a) Fresnel diffraction b) Fraunhofer
diffraction difference M 1 and M 2 at p1 is  / 2.
FRESNEL DIFFRACTION
 The source or screen or both are at finite First order
minima
distances from diffracting device (obstacle or a/2
a/2
aperture)
 In Fresnel diffraction, the effect at any point on
the screen is due to exposed wave front which D
may be spherical or cylindrical in shape. Position of ?rst order minima

Fresnel diffraction does not require any lens to a  

   (or ) a    (or )   ........(3)
modify the beam. 2 2 a
Fresnel diffraction can be explained in terms of
“half period zones or strips” Hence the contributions from M 1 and M 2 are
FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION: 180o out of the phase and cancel each other..
The source and the screen are at infinite distance So the above equation gives the angle at which
from diffracting device (aperture or obstacle). the intensity falls to zero. Similarly it can be
shown that the intensity is zero for
In Fraunhofer diffraction the wave front meeting
the obstacle is plane wave front.  
 n  n (or ) sin  n  n or a sin  n  n
Fraunhofer diffraction requires lenses to modify a a
the beam. n = 1, 2, 3 ....
DIFFRACTION DUE TO SINGLE SLIT where n being any integer (Except zero).
Diffraction is supposed to be due to interference ii) Condition for Maximum Intensity:
of secondary wavelets from the exposed 3 
portion of wavefront from the slit. Consider an angle     which is midway
Where as in interference, all bright fringes have 2 a 
same intensity. In diffraction, bright bands are between two diffraction minimas, Divide the slit
of decreasing intensity. into three equal parts. If we take the first two
thirds of the slit, the path difference between
the two ends.
2 2 3
a   a    .........(4)
3 3 2a
If the first two thirds of the slit can be divided
into two halves then their contributions cancel
in the same manner as described above. Only

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WAVE OPTICS
the remaining one-third of the slit contributes light, the central maximum is white and the rest
to the intensity at a point between two minima. of the diffraction bands are coloured.
 for first order maxima INTENSITY CURVE OF FRAUNHOFER’S
a a 3  DIFFRACTION
path difference    . 
3 3 2a 2
I0 Intensity

First order
Z1 maxima
a/3
Z2
a/3 Z3

D 3 2  O  2 3
Position of ? rst order maxima      
Diffraction angle ()
Intensity of maxima in Fraunhofer’s direction
3 3 is determined by
 (or ) a sin    . similarly for second
2a 2 2
5  sin  / 2 
order maxuma a sin  2  . In general, for I  I0   where I 0=intensity of
2   /2 
higher order maxima, we can write central maxima.
 2
a sin  n   2n  1where n= 1, 2, 3, .....  a sin  (Total phase difference
2 
The intensity decreases as we go to successive between waves from the top and bottom
maxima away from the centre, on either side. portions of the slit)
The width of central maxima is twice as that of For minima and for maxima
secondary maxima.
Illustration 35:
A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500
nm falls on a narrow slit and the result-
ing diffraction pattern is observed on
y screen 1 m away. It is observed that the
O 
P first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm
from the centre of the screen. Find the
D width of the slit.
Solution :
T y 2.5  103
For first minima a sin      ,  radian
D 1
y D Now, a sin   n
a   ( sin   tan  )  y 
D a Since  is very small, therefore sin    .
2 D n 1  500  109
Width of central maxima w  2 y  or a   m
a  2.5  103
Note: If lens is placed close to the slit, then D = f.
Hence ‘f’ be the focal length of lens, then width  2  104 m  0.2 mm
2f Illustration 36:
of the central maximum w  . A screen is placed 50 cm from a single slit,
a which is illuminated with 6000 Å light, If
Note: If this experiment is performed in liquid other distance between the first and third
than air, width of diffraction maxima will minima in the diffraction pattern is 3.00
1 mm, what is the width of the slit?
decrease and becomes times. With white Solution :


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 WAVE OPTICS
In case of diffraction at single slit, the position
 
of minima is given by a sin   n . Where a (a = width of each slit); 10 2
is the aperture size and for small  : d a
d 1
sin     ( y / D )  a   0.2 mm
5 5
 y D T HE VALIDITY OF RAY OPTICS:
 a    n , i.e., y  (n )
D a The distance of the screen from the slit, so that
spreading of light due to diffraction from the
D D centre of screen is just equal to size of the slit,
So that, y3  y1  (3   )  (2 ) and is called Fresnel distance. It is denoted by ZF.
a a
hence, The diffraction pattern of a slit consists of
0.50  (2  6  107 ) secondary maximum and minima on the two
a  2 104 m sides of the central maximum. Therefore, one
3  103 can say that on diffraction from a slit, light
 0.2 mm spreads on the screen in the form of central
maximum. The angular position of first
Illustration 37: secondary minimum is called half angular width
In a single slit diffraction experiment first of the central maximum and it is given by
minimum for 1  660 nm coincides with 
first maxima for wavelength 2 . Calculate  (provided  is small)
a
2 . If the screen is placed at a distance D from the
slit, then the linear spread of the central
Solution : maximum is given by
Position of minima in diffraction pattern is given
by; a sin   n D
y  D 
a
For first minima of 1 , we have
It is, in fact, the distance of first secondary
1 minimum from the centre of the screen. It
a sin 1  (1)1 or sin 1  .....(i) follows that as the screen is moved away (D is
a increased), the linear size of the central
The first maxima approximately lies between
maximum i.e., spread distance, when D  Z F ,
first and second minima. For wavelength 2
its position will be y = a (size of the slit) Setting this condition in
the above equation, we have
3 3
a sin  2  2  sin  2  2 ...... (ii) ZF a2
2 2a a or Z F 
The two will coincide if, a 
It follows that if screen is placed at a distance
1   2 or sin 1  sin  2
beyond Z F , the spreading of light due to
1 32 diffraction will be quite large as compared to
  or the size of the slit. The above equation shows
a 2a
that the ray -optics is valid in the limit of
2 2 wavelength tending to zero.
2  1   660 nm  440 nm
3 3 Illustration 39:
Illustration 38: For what distance is ray optics a good ap-
Two slits are made one millimeter apart proximation when the aperture is 3 mm
and the screen is placed one meter away. wide and the wavelength is 500 nm?
What should the width of each slit be to Solution :
obtain 10 maxima of the double slit pat-
tern within the central maximum of the For distance Z  Z F ,
single slit pattern. ray optics is the good appropriate
 Fresnel distance
Solution : We have a   (or)  
a

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WAVE OPTICS

a 2 (3 103 )2 2  tan 
ZF    18 m (b)  Resolving power (RP)  1.22
 5 107
RESOLVING POWER OF OPTICAL where 2 is the angle subtended by the
INSTRUMENTS diameter of the objective lens at the focus of
the microscope and  is the refractive index
i) The ability of optical instrument to produce of the medium between the object and the
distinctly seprate images of two objects located objective lens.
very close to each other is called its resolving
power.  When a parallel beam of light falls on a convex
lens, the image is a diffraction pattern, consisting
ii) Resolving power is normally defined as the of central bright region surrounded by
reciprocal of the smallest value (resolving limit) concentric dark and bright rings.
subtended or separated w.r.t to the objective
of optical instrument by two point objects, Note: The radius of the central bright region is
which can be distinguished as separate. 1.22 f 0.61 f
given by r0   Rayleigh’ss
iii) To a human eye, the diameter of iris is about 2a a
2mm the resolving limit for green light of criterion. . Here, f is the focal length of the
wavelength 5000 Ao is   1.22  / a lens and 2a is the diameter of the circular
aperture or the diameter of lens.
 3  104 rad (or )1min . of arc.
O 2a 0.61f
a
f
Illustration 40:
d Eye
What is the approximate radius of the cen-
tral bright diffraction spot of light of wave-
length   0.5  m , if focal length of the
O lens is 20 cm and radius of aperture of the
D lens is 5 cm ?
Solution :
(A) Resolving power of telescope: 0.61 f
(a) Resolving power of telescope is defined as r0 
the reciprocal of the smallest angular seperation a
(resolving limit) between two distant objects putting values,
whose images are just separated w.r.t to the 0.61 0.5 106  20  102
objective lens. r0 
5 102
(b) Resolving power limit (  ) is
d 1.22   1.22  10 6 m
     where a is aperture of lens
D a  1.22  m
(c) Resolving power of telescope Note 2: The argument we applied for telescope
1 a can be applied for objective lens of a
  microscope. In the case, the object is placed
 1.22
(d) The resolving power of telescope increases slightly beyond f, so that a real images is formed
with increase in thediameter of the objective v v
but the effect of spherical aberration becomes at a distance v. the magnification m  
u f
appreciable. Hence in case of large telescope Image
objectives, the central position of the objective
is covered with a stop to minimize the spherical  D 1.22f
aberration this will not effect on resolving power f  D
Object
B) Resolving power of microscope: Object v
plane
(a) Resolving power of microscope is defined as Objective Image plane
the reciprocal of the smallest distance (resolving lens
limit) between two closed objects whose images From ABC , we can show,,
are just separated w.r.t to the objective lens.
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 WAVE OPTICS
D is used. Such an arrangement is called “Oil
D
AC 2   2 tan  immersion objective”.
tan    f
BC F 1
Resolving power 
where 2  is the angle subtended by the 
diameter of the objective lens at focus of the Illustration 41:
microscope. Which light would produce more resolu-
 The diffraction effect becomes important when tion the red light or the blue one ?
the separation between two points in a Solution :
microscope specimen is comparable to the Resolving power is larger when blue light is
wavelength  of the light used to observe the used instead of the red light.
object. The image of a point object will again Illustration 42:
be a diffraction pattern whose size in the image
Assume that light of wavelength 6000 Å
 v1.22  is coming from a star. What is the limit of
plane will be v   
 D  resolution of a telescope whose objective
 Two objects whose images are closer than this has a diameter of 100 inch?
distance will not be resolved, and consequently Solution :
they will be seem as one. The corresponding A 100 inch telescope implies that
minimum separation in the objects plane will a = 100 inch = 254 cm. Thus if,
be
v v  1.22
  6000 Å  6  105 cm then,
d min   1.22
m Dm    2.9  107 radians
a
1.22  v  1.22 f
    Illustration 43:
D m D Light of wavelength 589 nm is used to view
D an object under a m icroscope. The
Also, we had  2 tan  aperature of the objective has a diameter
f of 0.900 cm. Find
1.22 0.61 (a) The limiting angle of resolution
 d min  
2 tan  tan  (b) What is the maximum limit of resolution for this
microscope using visible light of any wavelength
0.61 you desire
 (For small  , sin  = tan  )
sin  (c) What effect would this have on the resolving
if the medium between the object and the power. If water (  1.33) fill the space
objective lens is not air but a medium of between the object and objective.
refractive index  , Solution :
 0.61 (a) Here;   589nm  589  109 m
then   d min 
  sin 
a  0.900cm  0.900  10 2 m
 The product  sin  is called “numerical ( O r )
aperture” and is often marked on specification
of the objective. The resolving power of the   589  109 m 
  1.22    1.22   rad
minimum separation of two points seen as a
2
 0.900  10 m 
distinguished .
1  sin  7.89  105 rad
 Hence, Resolving power d  0.61 (b) To obtain the smallest angle corresponding to
min the maximum limit of resolution, we have to use
Now for a given wavelength, Resolving power the shortest wavelength (  400nm) in the
is directly proportional to refractive index visible spectrum
 Hence, resolving power can be increased by Limiting angle of resolution
choosing a medium of higher refractive index.
Usually an oil having a refractive index close
to that of the glass used to make objective lens

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WAVE OPTICS

 400 109 m  5
  1.22  2  rad  5.42 10 rad (4)
 0.900  10 m 
(c) Wavelength of light in water, Partially polarized light
 a 589nm
w    443nm (5)
 1.33
 443 10 9 m  5
  1.22  2  rad  6.00  10 rad Unpolarized light
 0.900  10 m 
Since  in this case is less than that in case
(a), resolving power increases.
unpolarised light Polarised
POLARIZATION : light
Polarizer Analyzer
 The properties of light, like interference and METHODS OF OBTAINING POLARISED LIGHT:
diffraction demonstrate the wave nature of light.
i) By Scattering
 Both longitudinal and transverse waves can
exhibit interference and diffraction effects. ii) By reflection
 The properties like polarization can be exhibited iii) By refraction
only by transverse waves. iv) By double refraction (or) Birefringence
 The peculiar feature of polarized light is that iv) By selective absorption (dichroic crystals)
human eye cannot distinguish between polarised a) Polarisation by Scattering:
and unpolarised light. Z
 As light is an electromagnetic wave, among its
electric and magnetic vectors only electric
vector is mainly responsible for optical effects. POLARISED
 The electric vector of wave can be identified LIGHT
as a “light vector”
 Ordinary light is unpolarised light in which     X
O
electric vector is oriented randomly in all POLARISED
directions perpendicular to the direction of LIGHT UNPOLARISED
propagation of light. LIGHT
 The phenomena of confining the vibrations of Y
electric vector to a particular direction When a beam of light passes through a medium,
perpendicular to the direction of propagation it gets scattered from the particles constituting
of light is called “Polarization”. Such polarised the medium, provided the size of the particles
light is called linearly polarised or plane is of the order of the wavelength of the light.
polarised light. The scattered light viewed in a direction
 The plane in which vibrations are present is perpendicular to the direction of the beam of
called “plane of polarization.” light is found to be plane polarised.
b) Polarisation by reflection:
(1)
When the angle fo incidence of light is gradually
changed, at a particualr angle of incidence, the
(2) reflected light is completely polarised.
This angle of incidence is known as polarising
angle
Polarized light
( P ) or Brewster’s angle. If i   P
(3) i) Reflected light is plane polarised
ii) Refracted light is partially polarised
Partially polarized light iii) The vibrations parallel to the reflecting surface
are present in the reflected light (dot component
of the light)

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 WAVE OPTICS
iv) The vibrations perpendcular to the reflecting
surface (arrow component) are present in the incidence  p .   p  600
refracted light. A few dot components are also Using Brewster’s law
present in the refracted lihgt.
v) Angle between reflected and refracted light is   tan  p  tan 600    3
90o. b) From Snell’s law
vi) If i   P or i   P both reflected and refracted sin i sin 600
  3
light will be partially polarised. sin r sin r
Ordinary
light i = p Plane 3 1 1
polarized light or sin r    , r  300 .
2 3 2
i
c) Polarisation by refraction:
air

glass

Partially
polarized light 32.5
Brewster’s Law:
The tangent of polarising angle is equal In this the principle is multiple refraction. A pile
to the refractive index of material of the of plates is used. Usually 15 to 20 microscope
reflecting surface.   tan P cover glasses are used as a pile. They are
arranged in a brass tube making an angle of
 P  57.5o  57o301 for glass air media
32.5o with the axis of the tube. Now the light
i)  P  tan 1 (  )
ray travelling parallel to the axis of the tube
1 incidents at polarising angle  P  57.5o on the
ii)   where C= critical angle
sin C plates.
  Refracted ray from a plate is partically polarised.
iii) Tan  P  1 ; sin  P  ;
If the ray undergoes multiple refractions then
 2 1
the emergent ray is completely plane polarised
containing arrow components.
2  1 D) Double refraction (Birefringence):
1
cos  P 
 2 1 PPL E
P
1
O

iv) Polarising angle depends on nature of L i
UP  r1
r2
   PL E O
material and colour of light.  P


Illustration 44:
When light of a certain wavelength is in- i) Bertholinus discovered double refraction.
cident on a plane surface of a material at ii) When a light ray is refracted through a calcite
a glancing angle 300, the reflected light crystal, two refracted rays are observed, one
is found to be completely plane polarized is ordinary-ray (O-ray) and the other one is
determine. extraordinary ray (E-ray). This phenomenon is
a) refractive index of given material and known as double refraction.
b) angle of refraction. iii) Both O-ray and E-ray are plane polarised in
Solution : perpendicular planes.
a) Angle of incident light with the surface is 300. iv) If ‘i’ is the angle of incidence and r1 , r2 be the
The angle of incidence = 900 - 300 = 600. Since angles of refraction of O-ray and E-ray
reflected light is completely polarized, therefore respectively.
incidence takes place at polarizing angle of

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WAVE OPTICS
sin i sin i I0
0  & e   I
sin r1 sin r2 2
where  o = refractive index of O-ray Thus, if unpolarized light of intensity I 0 is
incident on a polarizer, the intensity of light
e = refractive index of E-ray.. I
E) Dichroism: transmitted through the polarizer is 0 . The
2
i) It is the property of unequal absorption of A0
ordinary and extraordinary rays by some amplitude of polarized light is .
crystals. 2
ii) When unpolarised light strikes the tourmaline EFFECT OF ANALYSER ON PLANE POLARIZED
crystal of certain thickness at right angles to LIGHT:
the optic axis, the O-ray is completely absorbed Malus states that “the intensity of the polarized
and only the E-ray emerges from the crystal. light transmitted through the analyser is
This property is called Dichroism. proportional to cosine square of the angle
POLARIOD: between the plane of transmission of analyser
Polaroid is an optical device used to produce and the plane of transmission of polarizer.” This
plane polarised light making use of the is known as Malus law.
phenomenon of “selective absorption”.
 More recent type of polaroids are H-polaroids.
 H-polaroids are prepared by stretching a film
of polyvinyl alcohol three to eight times to A0
original length.
EFFECT OF POLARIZER ON NATURAL LIGHT:
If one of waves of an unpolarized light of
intensity I 0 is incident on a polaroid and its Therefore the intensity of polarized light after
vibration amplitude A0 makes an angle  with I 2
passing through analyser is I= 0 cos 
the transmission axis, then the component of 2
vibration parallel to transmission axis will be Where I 0 is the intensity of unpolarized light.
A0 cos  while perpendicular to it A0 sin  . The amplitude of polarized light after passing
Now as polaroid will pass only those vibrations A
which are parallel to its transmission axis, the through analyser is A  0 cos  .
2
intensity I of emergent light wave will be
Transmission axis I
Case (i) : If   00 axes are parallel then I  0
A0cos 2
0
Case (ii): If   90 axes are perpendicular, then
 I  0.
Case (iii):If   1800 axes are parallel then
A0sin I
I 0
2
Case (iv): If   2700 axes are perpendicular
then I = 0 Thus for linearly polarized light we
I  KA02 cos 2  (or) obtain two positions of maximum intensity and
two positions of minimum (zero) intensity, when
I  I 0 cos2  [as I 0  KA02 ] In unpolarized light, we rotate the axis of analyser w.r.t polarizer by
all values of  starting from 0 to 2 are equally an angle 2 . In the above cases if the polariser
probable, therefore is rotated with respect to analyser then there is
I 2 I no change in the outcoming intensity.
I  I 0  cos2   I  0  cos2  d  0 Case (v) : In case of three polarizers P1, P2 and
2 0 2

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 WAVE OPTICS
P3: If 1 is the angle between transmission Illustration 46:
Two polaroids are oriented with their
axes of P1 and P2, 2 is the angle between transmission axes making an angle of 30°
transmission axes of P2 and P3. Then the with each other. What fraction of incident
intensity of emerging light from P3 is un polarized light is transmitted?
I0 Solution :
I cos 2 1 cos 2  2 .
2 If unpolarized light is passed through a polariod
Case (vi): ‘n’ polarisers are arranged so that the P1 its intensity will become half.
first and the last ones are crossed,  is the 1
angle between any two successive polarisers, So I1  I 0 with vibrations parallel to the axis
I is the intensity of incident light then intensity 2
of emerging lihgt is of P1 . Now this light will pass through the
I second Polaroid P2 (Analyser) whose axis is
I 1  cos x  , where x=2(n-1)
2 inclined at an angle of 30° to the axis of P1 and
OPTICAL ACTIVITY: hence vibrations of I1 . So in accordance with
i) When plane polarised light passes through Malus law, the intensity of light emerging from
certan substances, the plane of polarisation of
light is rotated about the direction of P2 will be
propagation of light through a certain angle. This 2
phenomenon is called optical activity. 2  1  3  3
I1  I 2 cos 30   I 0     I0
ii) If the optically active substances rotate the plane  2   2  8
of polarisation clockwise then it is said to be
I2 3
Dextro-rotatory or right handed. So the fractional transmitted light I  8
iii) If the subsance rotates the plane of polarisation 0
anti-clockwise then it is called Laevo-rotatory Illustration 47:
or left handed. Unpolarized light of intensity 32 Wm -2
iv) Optical activity of subtance is measured with passes through three polarizers such that
the help of polarimeter. the transmission axis of the last polarizer
Illustration 45: is crossed with the first. If the intensity of
Unpolarized light falls on two polarizing the emerging light is 3 Wm -2, what is the
sheets placed one on top of the other. What angle between the transmission axes of the
must be the angle between the character- first two polarizers? At what angle will the
istic directions of the sheets if the inten- transmitted intensity be maximum?
sity of the tramsitted light is one third of Solution :
intensity of the incident beam?
If  is the angle between the transmission axes
Solution :
of first polaroid P1 and second P2 while 
Intensity of the light transmitted through the first between the transmission axes of second
polarizer I1  I 0 / 2, where I0 is the intensity polaroid P2 and third P3, then according to given
of the incident unpolarized light. Intensity of the problem.
light transmitted through the second polarizer
    900 or   (900   ).....(1)
is I 2  I1 cos 2  where  is the angle between
the characteristic directions of the polarizer Now if I 0 is the intensity of unpolarized light
sheets. incident on polaroid P1 , the intensity of light
But I 2  I 0 / 3 (given) transmitted through it,
I0 I 1 1 W
 I 2  I1 cos 2   cos 2   0 I1  I 0  (32)  16 2 ......(2)
2 3 2 2 m
Now as angle between transmission axes of
2 polaroids P1 and P2 is  , in a accordance with
 cos 2   2 / 3    cos 1
3 Malus law, intensity of light transmitted through
P2 will be

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WAVE OPTICS

I 2  I1 cos 2   16 cos 2  ..........(3)

And as angle between transmission axes of P2
and P3 is  , light transmitted through P3 will be
I 3  I 2 cos 2   16 cos 2  cos 2  .........(4)
According to given problem, I 3  3W / m 2
So, 4(sin 2 )2  3 i.e., sin 2  ( 3 / 2) or
2  600 , i.e.,   300 .
Illustration 48:
Discuss the intensity of transmitted light
when a polaroid sheet is rotated between
two crossed polaroids?
Solution :
Let I0 be the intensity of polarised light after
passing through the first polariser P1. Then the
intensity of light after passing through
second polariser P2 will be I  I 0 cos 2  ,
where  is the angle between pass axes of P1
and P2. Since P1 and P3 are crossed the
angle between the pass axes of P2 and P3 will
be ( / 2   ). Hence the intensity of light
emerging from P3 will be
 
I  I 0 cos 2  cos 2    
2 
 I 0 cos 2  sin 2   ( I 0 / 4)sin 2 2
Therefore, the transmitted intensity will be
maximum when    / 4 .

Page 482
Page 483
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
INTRODUCTION wires which can be detected using a magnetic
 According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge compass needle. Consider two loops l1 and l2
produces a sinusoidal time-varying magnetic field, parallel to the plates P and Q of the capacitor.
which in turn produces a sinusoidal time varying l1 is enclosing only the connecting wire attached
electric field. The two fields so produced are to the plate P of the capacitor and l2 lies in the
mutually perpendicular. They constitute electro region between the two plates of capacitor. For
magnetic waves which can propagate through the loop l1 , a current I is flowing through it, hence
empty space. Ampere’s circuital law for loop l1 gives
 
CONDUCTION CURRENT  B.d l  0 I ....ii 
 Conduction current arises due to the flow of C 1

electrons through the connecting wires of a  Since the loop l2 lies in the region between the
circuit, in a given closed path. plates of the capacitor, no current flows in this
 When a capacitor is connected to a cell, it region. Hence Ampere’s circuital law for loop
starts storing the charge. During this period of  

 B.d l  0 ....iii 
storage, there is conduction current. When the l2 gives C
2
capacitor becomes fully charged, the conduc-
 The relations (ii) and (iii) continue to be true
tion current becomes zero in the circuit.
 Conduction current exists when there is a flow even if two loops l1 and l2 are infinitesimally
of electrons at uniform rate in the connecting close to the plate P of the capacitor. In the
wires. other hand, as the loops l1 and l2 are
 Displacement current: - According to infinitesimally close, it is expected that
Ampere’s circuital Law, the magnetic field B is    
related to steady current I as  B .d l   .d l  0 I ...iv 
B
  l1 l2
 B . dl   0 I ....(i) where I is the current
Thus, relation (iv) is in contradiction with
travelling through the surface bounded by closed
relations (ii) and (iii). This led Maxwell to point
loop.
out that Ampere’s circuital law as given by (i) is
In 1864, Maxwell showed that relation (i) is logically inconsistent.
logically inconsistent. He accounted for this  Idea of Displacement Current : Maxwell
inconsistency as follows: Consider a parallel plate predicted that not only a current flowing in a
capacitor having plates P and Q being charged conductor produces magnetic field but also a
with battery B. time-varying electric field in a vacuum/free space
(or in a dielectric) produces a magnetic field. It
means a changing electric field gives rise to a
l1 l2 current which flows through a region so long as
the electric field is changing there. Maxwell also
predicted that this current produces the same
magnetic field as a conduction current can
produce. This current is known as ‘displacement
current’.
 Thus, displacement current is that current which
comes into play in the region in which the electric
 During charging, a current I flows through the
connecting wires which changes with time. This field and hence the electric flux is changing with
current will produce magnetic field around the time.

Page 484
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Maxwell defined this displacement current in From equations ( iii) and ( iv) I d  I
space where electric field is changing with time
 This idea led Maxwell to modify Ampere’s
dE circuital law in order to make the same logically
as I D   0 ...  v  consistent. He states Ampere circuital law in
dt
 
where E is the electric flux. the form,   B.dl  0  I  I D 
 Maxwell also found that conduction current I C

and displacement current ID together have the  d 

property of continuity, although individually they  0  I   0 E 
 dt 
may not be continuous.
It is now called as Ampere-Maxwell’s law.
Displacement current is equal to
conduction current during charging  The total current  I t  is the sum of the
of a capacitor.
conduction current  I  and the displacement
Let at an instant magnitude of charge on the
plates of capacitor be Q.Area of each plate is current  I d  , i.e.
A. Electric field between the plates of
capacitor I t  I  I d ------(1)
Q
A Q Outside the capacitor, I d  0 and as such
A +
+ I  It
1 +
+
+ Inside the capacitor, I=0 and as such I d  I t
+
Thus, the basic property of all currents, i.e.,
1
continuity and as such the Kirchhoff’s juction
rule is satisfied.
EMF Source  It should be kept in mind that displacement current
Q is equivalent to conduction current only form
E the point of view of its ability of creating a
A 0 ........( i )
magnetic field.
Flux of this field passing through the surface
between the plates is dE d dE
 Since I d   0   0  EA    0 A ,-
dt dt dt
Q Q
E  E  A   A ; E  ..........( ii ) --------(2)
A 0 0 displacement current exists only when an
Displacement current id is electric field varies in time.
dE d
dE d Q dQ  Id  0 A  0 A  E  
id   0   0    0  dt dt
dt dt   0   0 dt
d  V    0 A  dV dV
dQ 0 A    C -----(3)
Id  ...........( iii ) dt  d   d  dt dt
dt where C is the capacitance of the parallel-plate
dQ capacitor.
is the rate at which charge is reaching to  With this generalised meaing of the term current,
dt
positive plate of capacitor through conducting we can now speak of current through the
wire therefore capacitor.
 The existance of displacement current has been
dQ
I  ...... ( iv) established by measuring its magnetic effect and
dt is now regarded as a fundamental fact of nature.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 It is more useful to express eqn.(2) in terms of c) The recognition by Maxwell that a

displacement current gives rise to magnetic
displacement current density  jd  which is
effects equivalent to those produced by an
defined as the displacement current per unit ordinary conduction current is the basis of his
area. Thus, electromagnetic theory of light.
I d  0 A  dE / dt 
jd     0  dE / dt  --(4)
A A MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
8. Though we have derived the result for a  Maxwell, in 1862, gave the basic Laws of
special case of parallel plate capacitor, it is a electricity and magnetism in the form of four
general result. According to this, a changing fundamental equations which are known as
electric field in space is equivalent to a current Maxwell’s equations. In the absence of any
 dielectric and magnetic material may be stated
  E  in the integral form as below.
density jd , where jd   0 ------(5), E is
dt 1. Gauss’s Law for electrostatics :
function of both space and time. In eqn. (5), we This Law gives the total electric flux in terms of
 charge enclosed by the closed surface.
have taken partial derivative of E w.r.t. time(t)
to emphasize that what is important is the   q

change of electric field E with tiem and not its In the usual notations  E.dS  in 0
variation over space. This Law states that electric lines of force start
Consequences of Displacement Current: from positive charge and end at negative charge
a) With the discovery of displacement current, i.e., electric lines force do not form closed paths.
the laws of electricity and magnetism have now 2. Gauss’s Law for magnetism :
become more symmetrical than before, though  
still not perfectly symmetrical. Mathematically  B.dS  0
According to Fardaday’s law of  This Law shows that the number of magnetic
  d lines of force entering a closed surface is equal
electromagnetic induction,   .dl   dtB
E to number of magnetic lines of force leaving
that closed surface.
which implies that a magnetic field changing with
  This law tells that the magnetic lines of force
 
time d B / dt  gives rise to an electric field E . form a continuous closed path.
 This Law also predicts that the isolated magnetic
And according to Ampere-Maxwell’s law, poles or mono poles do not exist.
   d  3. Faraday’s Law of electro magnetic
 B.dl  0  I  0 dtE , which means that induction :
an electric field changing wit h time   d
 Mathematic cally   .dl  dt B  induced
E
d E / dt  gives rise to magnetic field B. This is
emf.
due to the reason that we have replaced I
 This law gives a relation between electric field
(conduction current) in the Ampere law
  and changing magnetic flux.
 
 B.dl  0 I by I  I d  and just like I, I d is  This law tells that changing magnetic field is a
source of electric field.
also a source of magnetic field. 4. Amper’s-Maxwell’s Law :
b) Since the displacement current is produced  
by time varying electric field, an important final Mathematically  B .dl  0 ic  id 
link between electric field magnetic fields stands
established.  d 
 0  ic   0 E 
 dt 
Page 486
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 This law states that magnetic field can be The conduction current at the end of one time
produced by a conduction current as well as constant can be obtained by substituting t   in
by displacement current. the expression i  i0e t / 
 At any instant in a circuit, conduction current
is equal to displacement current. i  i0 e t /t
SOURCES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC R R/4
i i
WAVES:
Electromagnetic waves are produced in the
following physical phenomena. +Q -Q
a) An electric charge at rest has an electric field
in the region around it but no magnetic field. i0 '
as i   i .(say) ,
When a charge moves, it produces both elec- e
tric and magnetic fields. If the charge moves Where e is the base of natural logarithm.
with a constant velocity( in other words, if the If Q be the charge at the mentioned instant then,
current is not changing with time), the magnetic the electric field between the plates is
field will not change with time. As such it can-  Q
E 
not produce an electromagnetic wave. But if 0 0 (R)2
the charge is accelerated, both the magnetic
The electric flux through the specified area is
and eletric fields will change with space and Rate of change of electric flux is
time and an electromagnetic wave is produced.
d E 1  dQ  1(i ') i
Thus an accelerated charge emits an electro-     0
magnetic wave. dt 160  dt  160 16e0
b) An oscillating charge (as in the case of LC Illustration 2:
oscillations) emits an electromagnetic wave A parallel plate capacitor consists of two
circular plates of radius R = 0.1 m. They
which has the same frequency as that of the are separated by a distance d = 0.5 mm. if
oscillating charge. electric field between the capacitor plates
c) An electron while orbiting around its nucleus changes as
in a stable orbit does not emit an electromag- dE V
 5  1013 . Find displacement
netic wave even though it has acceleration. It dt m s
will emit an electromagnetic wave (  -ray) only current between the plates.
Solution:
when it falls from an orbit of higher energy to
one of lower energy. Area of plates A   r 2  3.14  (0.1) 2 m 2
d) Electromagnetic waves (i.e., X-rays) are dE V
 5  1013
produced when fast moving electrons hit a tar- dt m s
get of high atomic number.  dE   dE dE 
Id   0 A    A 
Illustration 1:  dt   dt dt 
A circular parallel plate capacitor with 2
 8.85 10 12  3.14   0.1  5  1013
plate radius R is charged by means of a
cell, at time t=0. The initial conduction I d  13.9 A
current is i0 . Consider a circular area of Illustration 3:
radius R / 4 coplanar with the capacitor What is the instantaneous displacement current
plates and located symmetrically between in space between plates of parallel plate
them. Find the time rate of electric flux capacitor of capacitor 1 F which is charging
change through this area after one time at rate of 1 0 6 V / S
constant, given i  i0e t/  Solution:
Solution:

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

dE d d V  4) Keeping these features in mind, we can assume

As I d   0  0A E   0 A   that if EM wave is travelling along positive
dt dt dt  d  direction along x-axis, the electric field is
 A dV dV oscillating parallel to the y-axis and that magnetic
 0 C ; I d  106  106  1A
d dt dt field is parallel to z-axis, then we can write the
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES electric and magnetic fields as sinusoidal
 A changing electric field produces a changing functions of position ‘x’ and time ‘t’
magnetic field and vice versa which gives rise E  E0 Sin  kx  wt  ;
t o a t r ansverse wave kno wn as
electromagnetic wave. The time varying B  B0 sin  kx  wt 
electric and magnetic fields are mutually
perpendicular to each o ther and also In this, E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the
perpendicular to the direction of propagation fields and angular wave number or propagation
of this wave. 2
 The electric vector is responsible for the constant K =

optical effects of an EM wave and is called the Angular frequency  2
light vector
An electromagnetic wave travelling along x-axis 
Velocity of the wave, C 
K
Y(EY) 5) EM waves can be polarised.
6) EM waves are self-sustaining oscillations of
E0 C electric and magnetic fields in free space or
O X vaccum. EM waves travel through vaccum with
speed of light ‘C’ where.
B0
B Wave Propagation 1
Z(BZ) C  3 108 m / S ec
 0 0
EY  E0 sin  kx  t  ; 7) The speed of EM waves in any other medium
of permittivity  and permeability  is
BZ  B0 sin  kx  t 
1 1 C0
Cmed   
Y   r  0 r  0 r  r

E
C0
r r  n,
C med
(Refractive Index of medium)
o Wave Propagation
X 8) In vaccum, EM waves are of different
B wavelengths, but velocity is same.
Illustration 4: An electomagentic wave travels
Z along z-axis which of the following pairs
of space and time varying field would
Characteristics of E M waves : generate such a wave
    1) E x , B y 2) E y , Bx 3) Ez , Bx
1) E and B are such that E  B is always in the
direction of propagation of wave. 4) E y , Bz
2) EM waves are transverse in nature whose speed Solution: (1)
is same as that of speed of light
  E x and By would generate a plane EM wave
3) The two fields E and B have same frequency   
of oscillation and they are in phase with each travelling to z-direction. E , B and k from a right
other. 
handed system k is along z-axis .

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

As iˆ  ˆj  kˆ Illustration 6:
Suppose that the electric field amplitude
 E xiˆ  By ˆj  Ckˆ of an EM wave is E0  120 N / C and that
i.e E is along x-axis and B is along y-axis its frequency   50 MH Z . Determine
DIRECTION OF POLARIZATION OF
(a) B0 ,  ,  and K
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE :
 In an electromagnetic wave electrical and (b) Find expressions for E and B
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. Solution:
 Wave propagates in a direction perpendicular E0
i) C
to both electric and magnetic filed as given by
  B0 we get
EB . E0 120
 Direction of polarization is perpendicular to B0   8
 4  107 T = 400nT
C 3  10
direction of oscillation.
 Optical phenomena are mainly due to electric   2 v  2    50  106
field. ii)
 3.14  108 rad / Sec
In the polarization of light, it is the electrical
field that gets polarized. C 3  108
iii) c  v      6m
 Therefore direction of polarization must be v 50  106
perpendicular to electric field and parallel to 2 2 2  3.14
iv) K     1.05m 1
magnetic field.  6 6
 
 The direction of polarization is given by x and b) E  E0 sin  kx   t 

that of wave propagation by k .
 = 120 sin 1.05 x  3.14  108 t 
Here, The direction of polarization = x . This
must be parallel to electric field and B  B0 sin  kx  t 
 
perpendicular to magnetic field. X || E  400  10 9 sin 1.05 x  3.14  108 t 
 Illustration7:
The directionof wave propagation  k . This
must be perpendicular to electric and magnetic In a plane electromagnetic wave, the
electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a
field.
   frequency of 2  1010 Hz and amplitude 48
k  EB V/m. Find the amplitude of oscillating
Illustration 5: magnetic field.
Electro magnetic waves travel in a Solution:
medium with speed of 2  108 m / sec . The E 48
B   16  108Wb / m 2
relative permeability of the medium is 1. c 3  108
Find relative permittivity of the medium. Illustration 8:
Solution: In the above problem, the wavelength of
Give C  2  108 m / sec, r  1 electromagnetic wave is
Speed of EM waves in medium Solution:
wave length
1 C0
Cmed   c 3 108
 r  0 r  0 r r    1.5  102  1.5cm
v 2 1010
8 2 Illustration 9:
c2
0 
 3 10   2.25 o
r  8 2
c2r
 2 10  1 If the wavelength of light is 4000 A ,
then the number of waves in 1mm length
will be.
Page 489
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Solution: 1 B2
Number of waves dV is , u   0 E 2 dV  dV
2 20
103  Energy density of EM wave is
  0.25  104
4000  10 10 1 B2
u 2
PROPERTIES OF EM WAVES U  U  2  0 E  2
1. Velocity: The velocity of electromagnetic dV 0

wave does not depend on amplitude of field 1 2 2 B02

  =  E
0 0 sin  kx  wt   sin 2  kx  t 
vectors E and B . 2 20
The electric vector is responsible for the  If we take average over a long time, the sin2
optical effects of an electromagnetic wave and 1
terms have an average value of
is called as “Light vector.” 2
In free space it’s velocity 1 2 B02

Thus u aV   0 E 0 
1 E 4 40
c  0  3  108 m / s
0 0 B0 1
Now E 0  CB 0 and  0  0  2
C
1 1 1 1 1
In isot ropic medium v   uE   0 E 02   0  C 2 B 02    0 B 02
 ; where 4 4 4  0 0

 =Absolute permeability,  = Absolute B02

=  uB
permittivity. 40
2. Intensity (I): The enrgy crossing per unit area Hence in an EM wave, average energy density
per unit time, perpendicular to the direction of of electric field is equal to average energy
propagation of EM wave is called intensity. density of magnetic field.
Total EM wave energy The units of uE and uB are Jm 3
i.e., I   Average energy density of EM wave
Surface area  Time
Total energy density  Volume 1 2 B02
 u  u E  u B  2u E  2u B   0 E0 
Surface are  Time 2 2 0
4. POYNTING VECTOR
1 2 1 B02 Watt When an electromagnetic wave advances, the
 I  uav  c   0 E0 c  .c 2
2 2 0 m electromagnetic energy flows in the direction
 
3. Energy and Energy density of EM of E  B .
waves: The total energy flowing per second per unit
Consider a plane electro magnetic wave area normal to the surface in free space is
propagating along x-axis. The electric and 
magnetic fields in a plane EM wave can be called a Poynting vector S , where
      
given by E  E0 sin  kx  t  and S  c 2 0 ( E  B)  (E  B) /  0  E  H . The
S.I. unit of S is watt/meter2.
B  B0 sin  kx  t    
In any small volume ‘dV’, the energy of electric S  E  B
  
1 2
 S is perpendicular to E and B
field is U E   0 E dV and energy of the
2  Figure shows a plane wave front of area A
travelling with speed c in + x direction. In
B2
magnetic field in volume ‘dV’ is U B  dV time dt this wave front moves a distance
2 0 dx=cdt. The energy in the space between the
Thus total energy of EM wave in small volume two position of the wave front is

Page 490
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

dU=(energy density)( volume)   0 E 2  Al 2S

For a perfectly reflecting surface Pr  ;
c
= u.dV    0 E 2  Acdt S = Poynting vector; c=Speed of light
y
S
For a perfectly absorbing surface Pa 
c
7. Wave impedance (Z): The medium offers
E
hindrance to the propagation of wave. Such
hindrance is called wave impednace and it is
S
x
B cdt  r 0
given by Z  
 r 0
z
 The energy flow per unit time per unit area 0
For vacuum or free space Z   376.6
1 dU 0
is S  .   0 cE 2  uc or
A dt 8. Radiant flux density: It is the average value

0  0 2 EB of poynting vector ( S ) over a convenient time
S E2  E  interval in the propagation of electromagnetic
 0 0 0 0
 wave. When the electromagnetic wave is
S ( parallel to x - axis), cdt ( parallel to x - incident on a surface, the radiant flux density
axis) is called intensity of wave (which is denoted
  by I). Thus I = S.
E & B parallel to y - and z - axis
5. MOMENTUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE  A harmonic electromagnetic wave travelling
along X-axis in free space can be described
The electromagnetic wave has linear momen-
by periodic variation of electric and magnetic
tum associated with it. The linear momentums
fields along y-axis and z-axis with the equa-
p carried by the portion of wave having
tions.
energy U is given by    
E  E 0 cos (kx – t) and B  B0 cos  kx – t 
U
p where U  mc 2 
c Then radiant flux density S is given by
    
If the electromagnetic wave incident on a S  c 2 0 (E  B)  c 2 0 E 0  B 0 cos 2 kx  t 
material surface is completely absorbed, it 
will deliver energy U and momentum p = U/c Therefore the average value of S over a
to the surface. Due to this momentum change, single cycle period T is given by
there is force exerted on the surface.  1 2 1 2
 If the incident wave is totally reflected from S  c 0 E 0  B0
2 20
the surface, the momentum delivered to the Illustration 10: If the earth receives
surface = U/c – (–U/c) = 2U/c. So, it is clear 2 cal min–1 cm –2 solar energy. Then, the
that the electromagnetic wave incident on a amplitudes of electric field of radiation is
surface exerts a greater force on the surface if (V/m)
it is reflected from that surface. Solution:
 If incident wave is fully transmitted p = 0 From Poynting vector, we know that
6. Radiation pressure: Is the momentum S  E  H  EH sin 90º  EH
imparted per second per unit area, on which the
light falls. Given, S  2 cal min 1 cm 2

Page 491
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2  4.18 104 ing surface radiation pressure

 Jm 2 s 1
60 2S 2  0.5
As S represents energy flux per unit area Pr    0.332  10 8
per second, we have c 3  108
2  4.18  104 Illustration 14:If the total electromagnetic
EH   1400
60 energy falling on a surface is U, then the
0 total momentum delivered (for complete
EH   377 absorption) is
0
Solution: If the surface absorbs all the incident
E energy then the total momentum delivered to
 EH   1400  377
H U
the surface is p  (for complete absorp-
 E  1400  377  726.5 V / m c
Amplitude of electric field is tion) . If the surface is a perfect reflector, then
the total momentum delivered to the surface
E0  E 2  102.3 V / m is
Illustration 11:Light with an energy flux of 2U
P (for complete reflection)
25  10 4 Wm 2 falls on a perfectly reflecting c
surface at normal incidence. If the surface Illustration 15: The electric field in an
area is 15cm2, the average force exerted on electromagnetic wave is given by E = 50
the surface is sin (t – x/c) (in NC–1). Find the energy
Solution:
contained in a cylindrical space of cross-
4 4
2 IA 2  25 10 15  10 section 10 cm2 and length 100 cm along
Fav   8
N
c 3 10 the x-axis. Also find the intensity of wave
 250  10 N  2.5  106 N
8
Solution: Energy contained in a cylinder
Illustration 12:A radiation of energy ‘E’ falls U= average total energy density (uav) ×
noramlly on a perfectly reflecting surface. 1 2
The momentum transferred to the surface volume of cylinder (Al)  0 E 0  A l
2
is (C=Velocity of light). 1
  (8.85  10 12 ) (50) 2  (10  10 4 )  1
Solution: The radiation energy is given by 2
hc = 1.1 × 10–11 J
E Initial momentum of the radiation is Intensity of plane electromagnetic wave is
 I = average energy density × velocity of
h E electromagnetic wave
Pi   . The reflected momentum is
 c 1
 0 E 02  c
h E 2
Pr     . So, the change in momen-
 c 1
  (8.85  1012 )  (50)2  (3  108 )
2E 2
tum of light is Plight  Pr  Pi  
c  3.31 W/m 2
Thus, the momentum transferred to the Illustration 16:
2E A plane electromagnetic wave travelling
surface is Plight  along the X-direction has a wavelength
c of 3mm. The variation in the electric
Illustration 13:Radiations of intensity field occurs in the Y-direction with an
0.5 W/m2 are striking a metal plate. The amplitude 66 Vm –1. The equations for
the electric and magnetic fields as a
pressure on the plate is function of x and t are respectively.
Solution:As metal is reflecting surface, for reflect- Solution:
E0  66Vm 1
Page 492
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
E0 66 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
B0    2.2  107 T
C 3  108  The orderly distribution of electromagnetic ra-
Since electromagnetic wave is of transverse
nture. Hence if electric field is along y-axis, diations according to their wavelengths or fre-
then magnetic field must be in z-axis. Since quency is called electromagnetic spectrum.
Propagation is x-axis.

Frequency (Hz)
 x

Wavelength
E y  66 cos 2  1011  t  
 c
 x Gamma-rays 0.1 A
Bz  2.2  107 cos 2  1011  t   10
19

 c 1A
0.1 nm
1018
Illustration 17: X-rays
1 nm
400 nm

The electric field associated with an e.m. 1017

10 nm
wave in vaccum is given by 10
16
500 nm
 Ultra violet

E  i 40 cos(kz  6 108 t ) , where E,z and t

100 nm
1015
Visible 1000 nm
Near IR 1 m
are in volt/m, meter and seconds respec- 1014 600 nm
Infra-red 10 m
tively. The value of wave vector k is 10
13

Solution: 12
Thermal IR 100 m
700 nm
10
8 For IR 1000 m
 6 10 1 1000 MHz 1 mm
  6  108 ; k  v  3 108  2m UHF
1011
1 cm
300 MHz 10
10
Radar
Illustration 18: 10 cm
9

Find the amplitude of the electric field VHF

10
1m
in a parallel beam of light of intensity 10 7-13
108 Radio, TV
100 MHz FM 10 m
watt/m2 . VHF 107
2-0
Solution: 30 MHz 6
100 m
10 AM
Intensity of plane electromagnetic wave is 1000 m
Long-waves
1
I  u av c  0 E 20 c
2
 The major components of electromag
or
netic spectrum with their wavelength 
1/ 2 1/ 2
 2I   2 10  ranges in increasing order are
E0      12 8 
 0 c   8.85 10  3 10  1. Gamma rays [  = 6×10–19m to 10–11m]
= 86.8 NC–1 2. X-rays [  = 10–11 m to 3 × 10–8 m]
PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 3. Ultraviolet [  =6×10–10m to 4 × 10–7 m]
An electromagnetic wave is emitted when an 4. Visible light [  = 4 × 10–7 m to 8×10–7 m]
electron orbiting in higher stationary orbit of 5. Infra red [  = 8 × 10–7 m to 3 × 10–5 m]
an atom jumps to one of the lower stationary
6. Heat radiations [  = 10–5 m to 10–1 m]
orbits of that atom.
7. Micro waves [  = 10–3 m to 0.03 m]
 Some electromagnetic waves (i.e. X-rays)
8. Ultra high frequency [  =10–1 m to 1 m]
are also produced when fast moving elec-
9. Very high radio frequency [  =1m to 10 m]
trons are suddenly stopped by a metal
10. Radio frequencies [  = 10 m to 104 m]
surface having high atomic number.
11. Power frequencies [  =5×106m to 6×106m]

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Production and detection of different types of electromagnetic waves

Wave length Frequency Production Detection
Type range
range
Radio >0.1m 4 9 Rapid acceleration and decelerations Receiver’s aerials
10 to 10 Hz
wave of electrons in aerials

Micro 0.1m to 1mm 109 to 1011 Hz Klystron valve or magnetron valve Point contact diodes
wave
Infrared 1mm to 700nm 1011 to 1014 Hz Vibration of atoms and molecules Thermopiles bolometer,
wave infrared photographic film

Visible rays 700 nm to 41014 to Electrons in atoms emit light when The eyes photo cells,
400 nm 81014 Hz they move from higher energy level to photographic film
a lower energy level
Ultraviolet 400 nm to 14 17
10 to 10 Hz Inner shell electrons in atoms moving Photo cells,
rays 1 nm
from higher energy level to a lower photographic film
energy level

X-rays 1nm to 16 21
Photographic film,
-3
10 nm 10 to 10 Hz X-ray tubes or inner shell electrons Geiger tubes, ionisation
chamber
Photographic film,
Gamma
-3
<10 nm 18 22 Radioactive decay of the nucleus Geiger tubes, ionisation
10 to 10 Hz
rays chamber

TYPICAL USES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM waves are thermal and give off heat. Anything
1. Radio Waves that gives off heat radiates infrared waves. This
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of all includes the human body.
the electromagnetic waves. They range from 4. Visible light
around a foot long to several miles long. Radio The visible light spectrum covers the wavelengths
waves are often used to transmit data and have that can be seen by the human eye. This is the
been used for all sorts of applications including range of wavelengths from 390 to 700 nm which
radio, satellites, radar, and computer networks. corresponds to the frequencies 430-790 THz.
2. Microwaves You can go here to learn more about the visible
Microwaves are shorter than radio waves with spectrum.
wavelengths measured in centimeters. We use 5. Ultraviolet
microwaves to cook food, transmit information, Ultraviolet waves have the next shortest wave-
and in radar that helps to predict the weather. length after visible light. It is ultraviolet rays from
Microwaves are useful in communication because the Sun that cause sunburns. We are protected
they can penetrate clouds, smoke, and light rain. from the Sun's ultraviolet rays by the ozone layer.
The universe is filled with cosmic microwave Some insects, such as bumblebees, can see ul-
background radiation that scientists believe are traviolet light. Ultraviolet light is used by power-
clues to the origin of the universe they call the ful telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope
Big Bang. to see far away stars.
3. Infrared 6. X-rays
Between microwaves and visible light are infra- X-rays have even shorter wavelengths than ul-
red waves. Infrared waves are sometimes clas- traviolet rays. At this point in the electromag-
sified as "near" infrared and "far" infrared. Near netic spectrum, scientists begin to think of these
infrared waves are the waves that are closer to rays more as particles than waves. X-rays were
visible light in wavelength. These are the infrared discovered by German scientist Wilhelm Roent-
waves that are used in your TV remote to change gen. They can penetrate soft tissue like skin and
channels. Far infrared waves are further away muscle and are used to take X-ray pictures of
from visible light in wavelength. Far infrared bones in medicine.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
7. Gamma rays constant   CR .
As the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves
are shorter, their energy increases. Gamma o P OP=0.5
rays are the shortest waves in the spectrum
1M 
and, as a result, have the most energy. Gamma
2V
rays are sometimes used in treating cancer and
in taking detailed images for diagnostic medi- Solution: Time costant   CR
cine. Gamma rays are produced in high energy   109 106  103 s
nuclear explosions and supernovas.  t
  t

3
ACCORDING TO FFREQUENCY RANGE RADIO q  CV  1  e    2  10 9  1  e10 
 
WAVES ARE CLASSIFIED BELOW    
1. Medium wave (frequency band) : The electric field in between the plates at time
t is
300 MHz to 3000 MHz.
2. Short wave (high Frequency band) : q q
E  A   1 m2
3 MHz to 30 MHz A 0  0
3. V.H.F band (very high frequency) : Consider a circular loop of radius
30 MHz to 300 MHz 1
m parallel to the plates passing through P.
4. U.H.F. band (ultra high frequency) : 2
The magnetic field B at all points on the loop
300 MHz to 3000 KHz is along the loop and of the same value
5. Microwaves : 3000 MHz to 3 × 105 MHz 2
Illustration 19: 1 E q
Flu  E  EA '  E      
In a plane E.M. wave the electric field 2 4 4 0
oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency dE 1 dq
3 × 1010 Hz and amplitude 50 Vm –1. displacement current id 0 
dt 4 dt
(a) What is the wavelength of the wave t
(b) What is the amplitude of the oscillat- 1 d  9
  3
10

id   2  10  1  e  
ing magnetic field 4 dt     at t = 10-3s
Solution:
 0.5  106  e 1
Frequency   3 1010 H z, E 0  50V m  1 Applying Ampere-Maxwell law to the loop
(a)Wavelength,
B  2 r  0  ic  id 
c 3  108
   10 2 m  1cm
 3  1010 1
B  2   0  0  id   0  0.5 106 e 1 
(b) Amplitude of oscillating magnetic field, 2
E0 50 B  0.5 106 e 10 ;  0.74 10 13 T
B0    1.67  10 7 T
c 3  108
Illustration 20: Illustration 21:
A parallel plate capacitor with circular A plane electromagnetic wave of fre-
plates of radius 1m has a capacitance of 1 quency 25MHz travels in free space along
nF. At t=0, it is connected for charging the x-direction. At a particular point in
inseries with a resistor R  1M  across a space and time, E   6.3iV / m . What is
2V battery. Calculate the magnetic field  at this point?
at a point P, halfway between the centre B
and the periphery of the plates after Solution:
t  103 s (the charge on the capacitor at The magnitude of B is
t
 
 E 6.3V / m
time t is q  CV  1  e  where the time B   2.1108 T
  C 3  108 m / s

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

To find the direction, we note that E is along y- U 6.48  105 J

direction and the wave propagates along x- p  8
 2.16  103 kgm / s
axis. c 3 10 m / s
Therefore, B should be in a direction perpen- The average force exerted on the surface is
dicular to both x and y-axes. Using vector P 2.16  103
algebra, E x B should be along x-direction. F   1.2  106 N
t 0.18  104
Since,  j   k  iB
    is along the z- Illustration 24:
direction. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields
produced by the radiatio coming from a
 .
Thus, B  2.1 108 kT 100 W bulb at a distance of 3m. Assume
Illustration 22: that the efficiency of the bulb is 2.5% and
The magnetic field in a plane electromag- it is a point source.
netic wave is given by Solution:
The bulb, as a point source, radiates light in all
B y  2  10 7 sin  0.5 10 3 x  1.5  1011 t  T . directions uniformly. At a distance of 3m, the
(a) What is the wavelength and frequency surface area of the surrounding sphere is
of the wave? 2
A  4 r 2  4  3   113m 2
(b) Write an expression for the electric
field. The intensity at this distance is
Solution: power 100W  2.5%
I   0.022 W / m 2
a) Comparing the given equaitons with Area 113m 2
x t  Half of this intensity is provided by the electric
B y  B0 sin 2    field and half by the magnetic field.
 T 
1 1 1
2 I    0 Erms
2
c    0.022W / m 2 
we get,   m  1.26 cm and 2 2 2
0.5  103
1 0.022
 v  1.5  1011  / 2  23.9 GHz Erms   2.9V / m
T 8.85 1012  3108 
b) E0  B0C  2  10 7 T  3  108 m / s The value of E found above is the root mean
square value of the electric field. Since the
 6  101 V / m electric field in a light beam is sinusoidal, the
The electric field component is perpendicular peak electric field, E0 is
to the directio of propagation and the direction
of magnetic field. Therefore, the electric field E0  2Erms  2  2.9V / m  4.07V / m
component along the z-axis is obtained as Thus, you see that the electric field strength of
E z  60 sin  0.5  103 x  1.5 1011 t V / m the light that you use for reading is fairly large.
Compare it with electric field strength of TV
Illustration 23: or FM waves, which is of the order of a few
Light with an energy flux of 18W/cm 2 falls microvolts per metre. Now, let us calculate the
on a non-reflecting surface at normal strength of the magnetic field. It is
incidendce. If the surface has an area of Erms 2.9 Vm 1
20 cm2, find the average force exerted on Brms   8 1
  9.6  109 T 
the surface during a 30 minute time span. c 3 10 ms
Solution: Again, since the field in the light beam is
The total energy falling on the surface is sinusoidal the peak magnetic field is
U  18W / cm 2    20cm 2    30  60  B0  2 Brms  1.4 108 T
Note that although the energy in the magnetic
 6.48  105 J field is equal to the energy in the electric field,
Therefore, the total momentum delivered (for the magnetic field strength is evidently very
complete absorption) is weak.

Page 496