Integral Calculus

Integral calculus helps in

finding the anti-derivatives of
a function. These anti-
derivatives are also called
the integrals of the
function. The process of
finding the anti-derivative of a
function is called integration.
 Who is the father of integration?
The principles of integration were formulated independently by
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th
century. Both men developed the concept of the integral as an
infinite sum of rectangles of infinitesimal width
 Integral Notation
The integral operator is represented by the integral symbol ∫ and has four
parts: the expression being integrated, the differential, a start value and
an end value. Typically, the operator appears in an expression like this:
Symbols/Terms/Phrases Meaning

∫ f(x) dx The Integral of f with respect to x

f(x) in ∫ f(x) dx Integrand.

Variable of integration, meaning the variable upon which

x in ∫ f(x) dx
integration is performed.

Integrate This means that you are supposed to find the integral.

An integral of f A function F such that F′(x) = f (x).

Integration This is the process of finding integrals.

C can have any value as long as it is a real number and is a

Constant of Integration(C)
constant function.
INTEGRALS FORMULAE
Differentiation Integration
d(sin x)/dx = cos x ∫sin x dx = -cos x + C
d(cos x)/dx = -sin x ∫cos x dx = sin x + C
d(tan x)/dx = sec2x ∫tan x dx = (1/a) ln |sec x| + C

d(cot x)/dx = -cosec2x ∫cot x dx = (1/a) ln |sin x| + C

d(sec x)/dx = sec x tan x ∫sec x dx = (1/a) ln |sec x + tan x| + C

d(cosec x)/dx = -cosec x cot x ∫cosec x dx = (1/a) ln |cosec x - cot x| + C

d(sin-1x)/dx = 1/√(1 - x2) ∫sin-1x dx = x sin-1x + √(1 - x2) + C

d(cos-1x)/dx = -1/√(1 - x2) ∫cos-1x dx = x sin-1x - √(1 - x2) + C

d(tan-1x)/dx = 1/(1 + x2) ∫tan-1x dx = x tan-1x - (1/2) ln(1 + x2) + C

d(cot-1x)/dx = -1/(1 + x2) ∫cot-1x dx = x cot-1x + (1/2) ln(1 + x2) + C

d(sec-1x)/dx = 1/x√(x2 - 1) ∫sec-1x dx = x sec-1x - ln(|x| + √(x2 - 1)) + C

d(cosec-1x)/dx = -1/x√(x2 - 1) ∫cosec-1x dx = x sec-1x + ln(|x| + √(x2 - 1)) + C

 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Fundamental theorem of calculus contains two important theorems namely:

First fundamental theorem of integral calculus

Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function.
Then A′(x) = f (x), for all x ∈ [a, b].
Here, the F'(x) is a derivative function of F(x).

Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus

Let f be a continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and F be an antiderivative of f.
Then F(b)- F(a) = a∫b f(x) dx
Here R.H.S. of the equation indicates the integral of f(x) with respect to x.
f(x) is the integrand.
dx is the integrating agent.
‘a’ indicates the upper limit of the integral and ‘b’ indicates a lower limit of the integral.
Power Rule of Integration
As per the power rule of integration, if we integrate x raised to the power n, then;
∫xn dx = (xn+1/n+1) + C
By this rule the above integration of squared term is justified, i.e.∫x2 dx. We can use this rule, for
other exponents also.
Example: Integrate ∫x3dx.
∫x3 dx = x(3+1)/(3+1) = x4/4

Sum Rule of Integration

The sum rule explains the integration of sum of two functions is equal to the sum of integral of
each function.

∫(f + g) dx = ∫f dx + ∫g dx Example: ∫(x + x2 )dx

= ∫x dx + ∫x2 dx
= x2/2 + x3/3 + C
Difference Rule of Integration
The difference rule of integration is similar to the sum rule.

∫(f – g) dx = ∫f dx – ∫g dx Example: ∫(x – x2 )dx

= ∫x dx – ∫x2 dx
= x2/2 – x3/3 + C

Multiplication by Constant
If a function is multiplied by a constant then the integration of such function is given by:

∫cf(x) dx = c∫f(x) dx Example: ∫2x.dx

= 2∫x.dx
=2 x2/2 + C
= x2 + C
Indefinite Integrals
These are the integrals that do not have a pre-existing value of limits; thus making the final
value of integral indefinite. ∫g'(x)dx = g(x) + c. Indefinite integrals belong to the family of
parallel curves.

Example: Find the indefinite integral ∫ x3 cos x4 dx

Solution:
Using the substitution method.
Let us assume,
x4 = t
4x3 dx = dt
Now, ∫ x3 cos x4 dx
= 1/4∫cos t dt
= 1/4 (sin t) + C
= 1/4 sin (x4 ) + C
Definite Integrals
The definite integrals have a pre-existing value of limits, thus making the final value of an
integral, definite. if f(x) is a function of the curve, then
"Integration by Substitution" (also called "u-Substitution" or "The Reverse Chain Rule") is a method
to find an integral, but only when it can be set up in a special way.
The first and most vital step is to be able to write our integral in this form:

Note that we have g(x) and its derivate g'(x)

Like in this example:

Here f=cos, and we have g=x2 and its derivative 2x

This integral is good to go!

When our integral is set up like that, we can do this substitution:

Then we can integrate f(u), and finish by putting g(x) back as u.

Integration by Parts is a special method of integration that is often useful when
two functions are multiplied together, but is also helpful in other ways.
You will see plenty of examples soon, but first let us see the rule:

∫u v dx = u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx

•u is the function u(x)
•v is the function v(x)
•u' is the derivative of the function u(x)

The rule as a diagram:

Integration by the Partial Fractions
The method of writing the integrand, an improper rational function as a sum of simpler rational
functions, is called partial fraction decomposition. Finding the integral in such cases is called
integration by partial fraction method.
How integrals are applied in real life:

•Finding the area under a curve: Integrals can be used to find the area under a curve, such as
the area of a circle or the area between two curves. This is useful for calculating the amount
of land that a farmer owns or the amount of water that a reservoir can hold.

•Calculating work: Integrals can be used to calculate the work done by a force, such as the
work done by a car engine or the work done by a person lifting a weight. This is useful for
determining the amount of energy that is required to perform a task.

•Calculating volume: Integrals can be used to calculate the volume of a solid, such as the
volume of a sphere or the volume of a cone. This is useful for determining the amount of
material that is needed to build a structure or the amount of liquid that can be held in a
container.

•Solving differential equations: Integrals can be used to solve differential equations, which are
equations that describe the change of a quantity over time. This is useful for modeling the
motion of objects and the behavior of waves.