SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION ON GAS SWEETENING UNIT AND COOLING

TOWERS

At OGT, P. MALLAVARAM

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Submitted by

PENKAE RAMA KRISHNA (21021A2728)

Under the guidance and supervision of

SHRI K M K MOHAN

GM(P), OGT, MALLAVARAM

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KAKINADA(A)

JAWAHARLAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY KAKINADA-533003

2023

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 STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I, P.RAMA KRISHNA, herby declare that this summer internship report entitled
“A brief description on Gas sweetening unit and cooling towers” is original and has not
previously formed on basic for the award of any degree to similar work.

Place: Kakinada
Date: 09/06/2023

PENKAE RAMA KRISHNA (21021A2728)

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 OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION,
HPHT ONSHORE GAS TERMINAL, P.MALLAVARAM

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “A brief description on Gas sweetening
unit and cooling towers” submitted by PENKAE RAMA KRISHNA in partial fulfil-
ment of the award of Bachelor of Technology in Petroleum Engineering, is a bonafide
work carried out by him.

SHRI K M K MOHAN
GM (P)-RE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The internship opportunity provided to us in ONGC-HPHT(Asset) was a great chance for
learning and professional development. Our internship provided us an insight into the in-
dustry and laid down a path that would help me in seamless transition from a student to
professional.

We express our deepest gratitude to SHRI K M K MOHAN GM(P)-RE sir for giving nec-
essary advices and guidance throughout.

We express our deepest thanks to Shri Kranthi-officer (GSPC) and Shri Sandeep EE (P)
for giving necessary advices, guidance, study material and providing us with such a great
learning environment.

It is our radiant sentiment to place on record our best regards, deepest sense of gratitude
to the support of the entire administration department and staff members of ONGC, the
internship wouldn’t have been possible without your support.

We perceive this opportunity as a big mile stone in our carrier development. We will
strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way, and we will continue
to work on their improvement, in order to attain desired career objectives.

P. RAMA KRISHNA

21021A2728

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 GAS SWEETENING UNIT

PROCESS SUMMARY
Sour gas from the slug catcher and Off-Gas from condensate stabilisation Unit will be
processed in the Gas sweetening Unit (2 trains). The main function of GSU is to remove
Hydrogen Sulphide (HS) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) from the sour gas to meet Sale gas
specification. This is an absorption-regeneration type process based on MDEA (Methyl
Di-ethanol Amine) as the solvent. Acid gas and Flash gas from GSU will be sent to SRU
and fuel gas header respectively. The condensate generated will be routed to CSU.

A gas sweetening unit, also known as a gas treating unit, is a facility used in the oil and
gas industry to remove undesirable compounds, particularly hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and
carbon dioxide (CO2), from natural gas streams. The process of removing these impuri-
ties is referred to as gas sweetening.
Gas sweetening is essential because H2S and CO2 can be corrosive, poisonous, and can
also degrade the quality of the natural gas. Additionally, they can cause environmental
concerns when released into the atmosphere.

The gas sweetening process typically involves the following steps:

1. Absorption: The natural gas stream is brought into contact with a liquid solvent,
such as amine-based solutions (e.g., Methyl Di-ethanol Amine or MDEA). The sol-
vent selectively absorbs the H2S and CO2 from the gas, allowing the purified gas to
pass through.
2. Desorption: The solvent loaded with H2S and CO2 is then processed further to re-
move these impurities. It is heated in a regeneration column, which releases the
H2S and CO2 from the solvent.
3. Recovery: The released H2S and CO2 gases are separated from the solvent in the
regeneration column and sent for further processing or disposal.
4. Recycle: The regenerated solvent is cooled and then recycled back to the absorption
column to repeat the sweetening process.
Gas sweetening units can vary in size and complexity depending on the volume and com-
position of the gas being treated. They are often integrated into natural gas processing
plants, refineries, or offshore production facilities to ensure the quality and safety of the
natural gas produced.
By removing H2S and CO2, gas sweetening units help meet product specifications, pro-
tect equipment from corrosion, and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

What Is Sour gas?

Sour gas is natural gas containing Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) levels greater than 4 ppm
(parts per million) by volume under standard temperature and pressure conditions. This
value, however, varies between countries and regions.

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The term ‘acid gas’ is often used interchangeably with sour gas, but they do not mean the
same thing. Acid gas is natural gas that contains a high level of acidic gases, e.g., CO2
and H2S. In addition to H2S, acidic gas may also contain contaminants such as Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) and Nitrous Oxides (known environmental pollutants). To regulate emis-
sions and the release of toxic gases, authorities mandate natural gas producers to min-
imise the Sulphuric content in their products. Therefore, sour gas must be sweetened be-
fore it is sent out from the refinery or gas processing plant.

What Is Sweet Gas?

Natural gas or landfill gas can be termed ‘sweet gas’ if it contains only trace quantities of
H2S and CO2.  Sweet gas in its pure form is non-corrosive, requires little refining, and
we can transport and market it safely.

What Is Gas Sweetening?

Gas sweetening is the process of removing Hydrogen Sulphides, Carbon Dioxide, and
Mercaptans from natural gas to make it suitable for transport and sale. Sour gas must be
sweetened because H2S and CO2 have a corrosive effect on gas pipelines and are also
toxic to humans.

Why Is Natural Gas Sweetening Important?

In addition to removing impurities and corrosion control, gas sweetening is also essential
for:
• Meeting gas and liquid product specifications.
• Preventing toxicity and poisoning. 
• Controlling the heating value. 
• Meeting environmental requirements.
• Reducing contact with bacteria. 
• Preventing water and carbonic acid from forming together.  
• Meeting feedstock quality requirements. 
Removing hydrogen sulphide from natural gas is also essential for eliminating harmful
fumes. At concentrations of 100-1,000 parts per million (ppm), hydrogen sulphide can
even cause instant death from a single breath. Sales gas specifications typically require
the hydrogen sulphide content to be less than 4 ppm to prevent extreme toxicity. 
High concentrations of carbon dioxide can lower natural gas’s high heating value. Car-
bon dioxide must also meet sales gas requirements and stay within a specific range before
creating unsafe operational conditions.  
While the primary concern during natural gas sweetening is to remove acid gases, other
sulphuric compounds must be removed from the process gas, including:
• Thiols derived from hydrogen sulphide
• Carbonyl sulfide
• Carbon disulphide
Removing these contaminants is also critical to prevent freezing issues and comply
with environmental regulations to control corrosion and emissions. 

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Absorption Section

The selective removal of H2S is made by washing the sour gas with an aqueous solution
of MDEA. MDEA is tertiary amine which does not react easily with CO2. The selectivity
is so promoted by using the difference in reaction rate of H2S and of CO2, with the ter -
tiary amine.

To perform a selective desulfurization using a MDEA solution, it is necessary to provide

in the absorber a gas-liquid contact time large enough to remove H2S but short enough to
retain CO2 partially. H2S and CO2, absorption performance control is therefore mainly
controlled by the gas-liquid contact time in the absorber.
As slug catcher derived sour gas can have wide range of operating temperatures, provi-
sion for cooling by water cooler as well as preheating the sour gas by steam heater has
been made at the inlet of absorption section. The cooling or preheating requirement of the
gas is to be decided based on arrival temperature w.r.t. Absorption temperature require-
ment. The feed gas after flow/pressure control is then mixed with CSU off-gas and taken
to inlet gas knock out drum. The condensate so separated is pumped by HC condensate
pumps to CSU.

The separated gas from Inlet gas K. O. Drum enters the Amine Absorption Column where
it comes in contact counter currently with the aqueous solution of MDEA At the absorber
top, treated gas contains less than 4 ppm vol. of H2S & 3 vol % of CO2.
The treated gas then enters water wash column (11-C-104) equipped with packed bed of
pall rings. Here, the gas is counter currently contacted with circulating water to remove
any amine solution carryover, a small purge stream of water being sent to Rich amine
flash drum (11-V-103) under wash water level control. Wash water circulation pump (11-
P-108A/B) is used to circulate wash water in this column whereas Wash water makeup
pump (11-P-109A/B) is used to feed make up water requirement to limit amine concen-
tration in wash water as well as to partly compensate for water losses in the unit.
The treated gas is then cooled by passing through a water cooler and piped to downstream
unit of GDU. In case of GDU upset, the Sweet Gas is routed to Flare header after raising
its temperature using a steam heated Flared Gas Heater. Liquid phase resulting from cool-
ing (condensed water + amine carry- overs) is separated in the treated gas K. O. Drum
and returned to rich amine circuit at low pressure along with rich amine from GDU.

Regeneration Section

The stream of rich amine solution is recovered under level control valve from the bottom
of the absorber and piped to the rich amine flash drum. The sour flashed gas from flash
drum is brought into contact with a small lean MDEA flow in an absorption tower placed
on the top of the rich amine flash drum in order to meet the fuel gas specification.
The rich amine solution flows from the flash drum to rich/lean amine exchanger. The rich
amine flash drum level control valve is located downstream of exchanger in order to min-
imise the solution degassing by the exchanger plates. MDEA solution stripping is accom-
plished in the regenerator by the vapour generated from the re-boiler.
The lean amine collected at the bottom of the regenerator is pumped & routed through
rich/lean amine exchanger to air cooler followed by water cooler before sending it to lean

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amine storage tank. Make-up water is also added to the lean amine stream. MDEA is very
sensitive to oxygen whose contact produces acidic elements. In order to avoid direct con-
tact with air, the storage tank is equipped with a gas blanket. Inert gas is normally used as
a blanketing gas.
From the storage tank lean amine is pumped back to the absorbers by the main lean amine
charge pump. The discharged amine stream is split into two parts through flow rate con-
trol valves: a main stream flow to the high pressure absorber and a smaller one to the fuel
gas absorber.
The hot acid gas mixture from the overhead of the regenerator is cooled in an air cooler
followed by a water condenser where water vapour condenses. This condensed vapour is
separated in the reflux drum and pumped back to the top section of the regenerator as re-
flux liquid.
Acid gas is sent to Sulphur Recovery Unit (SRU) through an acid gas header under pres-
sure control provided on top of the reflux drum.

BASIC CHEMISTRY OF AMINE REGENERATION

Absorption Section:
The MDEA structure is:

MDEA is a base and it forms salts during the reaction with the weak acids formed by H2S
and CO2 in an aqueous solution. When a gas stream that contains the H2S, CO2, or both,
is contacted by an amine solution, the acid gases react to form a soluble acid - base com-
plex, a salt, in the treating solution. The reaction between the amine and both
H2S and CO2 is exothermic. H2S reacts rapidly with amine via a direct proton transfer
reaction, as shown in Equation 1.0, to form the amine hydrosulfide:
R1R2R3N + H2S————— R1R2R3NH+HS- (1.0)
The reaction between the MDEA and the CO, is more complex because CO, reacts
through different mechanism. When dissolved in water, CO, hydrolyses to form carbonic
acid, which, in turn, slowly dissociates to bicarbonate. The bicarbonate then undertakes
an acid-base reaction with the amine to yield the overall reaction as shown by Equation

CO2+ H20 ————H2CO3, (carbonic acid) (2.0 a)

H2C03———-H° + HCO3- (bicarbonate) (2.0 b)
H' + RIRZR3N———RIR2R3NH* (2.0 c)
CO2 + H20 + R1R2R3N———-R12R3NH+ HCO3- (2.0)

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This acid-base reaction is not as rapid as that of H2S, because the carbonic acid dissocia-
tion step to he bicarbonate is relatively slow. This attributes to MDEA products yield sig-
nificant selectivity toward H2S relative to CO2, and, consequently, all of the H2S is re-
moved while some of the CO2 "slips" through with the gas. Because the CO2 reaction
with water to form bicarbonate is slow and the H2S reaction is fast for MDEA, the H2S
reaction is considered gas-phase limited and the CO2 reaction is considered liquid-phase
limited.
The above absorption reactions are enhanced by high pressure and low temperature.

b) Regeneration Section
The amine regeneration is carried out at low pressure and high temperature thus shifting
the equilibrium of the above mentioned reactions to the left side.

Amine Sweetening Unit typically consists of the following equipment:

• Inlet filter-separator (Optional)
• Amine Contactor Column
• Gas After Scrubber/Gas Coalescer
• Wash Water Column (Optional)
• Wash Water Pump (Optional)
• Flash drum
• Particulate/carbon filters
• Heat recovery exchangers
• Air cooled Heat Exchangers
• Hot oil/gas fired re-boilers
• Stripper Column
• Reflux KO Drum
• Reflux Recycle Pumps
• Amine Booster Pumps
• Amine Transfer Pumps
• Chemical injection package (Optional)
• Fuel Gas Package for Re-boiler (Optional)
• Control System (Optional)
• Amine Storage Tank (Optional)
• Offsite Utility

DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

Inlet Gas regulation:

The sour gas from slug catcher at pressure of 112 Kg/cm°g and temperature of 19.6/42
°C Is main feed to GSU. Provision for cooling of Sour Gas by water cooler as well as pre-
heating the Sour Gas by steam heater has been made at the inlet of Absorption Section.-
control is then mixed with CSU off-gas at pressure of 106 Kg/cm^2g and temperature of
39.4 °C and taken to inlet gas knock out drum at temperature of 27.8/35.7°C and pressure

11
of 105 Kg/cm^2g. Flow of sour gas to inlet sour gas KOD will be controlled by 11-FV-
1101 which may operate through selector switch 11-SS-1101 which can be based on se-
lected signal either from 11-PIC-1102 or 11-FIC-1101. As per control philosophy one
train will be on flow control and second train will be on pressure control. Flow of CSU
off gas to inlet sour gas KOD will be controlled by 11-FV-1102 which will operate
through selector switch 11-SS-1102 which can be based on selected signal either The
condensate so separated in inlet sour gas KOD is routed to CSU based on level control
11-LIC-1103 of Inlet Gas KOD (11-V-101).
During tube failure case of 11/12-E-102, the ingression of treated gas into cooling water
may lake place, the pressure of sour gas is much higher than cooling water which may
over-pressurise exchanger and hence 11/12-PSV-1103 is provided. A sample connection
is also provided in cooling water return line to monitor cooling water quality when re-
quired in case of very minor leak. During tube failure case of 11/12-E-111, the ingression
of treated gas into LP Condensate may take place, which will result in over-pressurisation
of shell side, hence 11/12-PSV-1101 is provided. Also to confirm leakage sample connec-
tion also provided in LP condensate line

HP Absorption:

The Amine Absorber 11-C-101, is a trayed column where H2S and CO2 removal takes
place from combined sour gas and CSU off gas feed and Rich Amine generation also
takes place. Combined feed sour gas at pressure of 105 Kg/cm^2g and temperature of
27.8-35.7 °C enters amine absorber below tray 22. Lean amine can be supplied to amine
absorber at three locations based on requirement as follows:
- Above tray 1
-Above tray 3
-Above tray 5
Lean amine is supplied from 11-P-103//B, Lean Amine charge pump discharge at pres-
sure of 108 Kg/cm^2g. Flow of lean amine is controlled by 11-FIC-1201 which will allow
required flow through 11-FV-1201. 11-TI-1206 will indicate the temperature of lean
amine supplied to amine absorber. 11-FALL-1203 is provided which will close the 11.
UV-1202/1203/1024 and trip 11-P-103 A/B
Here counter current contact of lean amine and sour gas is made. This absorption process
is exothermic in nature. So five temperature indication has been provided to monitor ab-
sorber temperature profiles, which are located as follows:

- 11-TI-1201 Overhead Line to Treated gas Water wash column(42 1.422 °G)
- 11-TI-1202 Below tray 4(42.1-42.2 °C)
- 11-TI-1203 Above tray 15(42 1-422 °C)
- 11-TI-1205 Above tray 18(66-68.8 °C)
- 11-TI-1204 At column bottom(66-68.8 °C)

The amine absorber top is maintained at pressure 104.7 Kg/cm2g and bottom pressure is
105 Kg/cm2g. There are three PT provided in the amine absorber at following location to
monitor pressure:
11-PI-1201 at column top
11-PI-1202 near tray 5
11-PI-1203 at column bottom

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Amine Absorber level is controlled by 11-LIC-1202 which will adjust bottom flow to
Rich Amine Flash Drum based on level through 11-FIC-1202 which will operate 11-FV-
1202 accordingly.

Water Wash Column and sweet Gas Cooler:

The Sweetened Gas is routed to Treated Gas Water Wash Column, 11-C-104, below
chimney tray. Treated Gas Water Wash column is equipped with packed bed of pall rings.
Here the Treated Gas is counter currently contacted with circulating water to remove any
amine solution carryover, a small purge stream of water being sent to Rich amine flash
drum (11-V-103) under control of 11-LIC-1204 which will operate 11-LV-
1204. Wash water circulation pump (11-P-108 A/B) is used to circulate wash water in this
column based on flow control through 11-FIC-1203 which will adjust 11-FV-1203 on
11-P-108A/B discharge line, whereas Wash water make pump (11-P-109A/B) is used to
feed Make up requirement to limit amine concentration in wash water as well as to partly
compensate for water losses in the unit.
The packed bed differential pressure is monitored by 11-PDI-1206 which will give alarm
on high value. The treated gas is then routed to treated gas water cooler 11-E-103(water
cooler). It will cool the treated gas to 40°C. then the cooled treated gas is routed to
Treated Gas KOD, During tube failure case of 11/12-E-103, the ingression of treated gas
into cooling water may take place. Hence a sample connection is also provided in cooling
water return line to monitor cooling water quality when required.

Flash Drum Absorber and Treated Gas KOD:

Cooled Gas from Treated Gas Cooler is routed to DU through Treated Gas
Knock out Drum 11-V-102. From KOD top at the time of GDU upset provision exist for
routing of treated gas to Flare Header through flared Gas heater 11-E-110, after raising
temperature to 55 °C based on Pressure control of KOD through 11-PIC-1304 which will

13
operate 11-PV-1304. Liquid phase resulting from cooling (condensed water + Amine car-
ryovers) is separated in the treated gas KOD and routed to Rich Amine Flash Drum,
11-V-103 under level control of 11-V-102 through 11-LIC-1306 which will operate 11-
LV-1306 accordingly.
The Rich Amine is allowed to flash in the flash drum (11-V-103) to drive off the hydro-
carbons. Some HaS also gets liberated. The liberated HaS is again absorbed by a slip
stream of lean amine solution making counter current contact with the liberated gases
over a trayed section in Flash drum absorber, 11-C-103. The flash drum operates at a top
pressure of 8.9 kg/cm2g.
11-V-103, Rich Amine Flash Drum, get rich amine from treated gas KOD and Amine Ab-
sorber. Residual Amine with makeup water is also collected in this vessel. The flashed
gas from Rich Amine Flash Drum is contacted with small MDEA flow in Flash drum Ab-
sorber, 11-C-103, which is mounted at top of drum. It is 6 tray column with de-mister
provided at top. The flow of lean amine to flash drum absorber is controlled through 11-
FIC-1301 which will regulate flow by operating 11-FV-1301 accordingly. This may ab-
sorb HaS from flash gas and desulpurised gas will be routed to LP fuel Gas header. The
level of rich Amine flash drum will be controlled by 11-LIC-1302 which will operate 11-
FV-1306 accordingly.

Regeneration Section:
The regeneration of Rich Amine so obtained from Rich Amine Flash Drum Is
taking place in Regenerator 11-C-102, which is tray column no of tray=21). The Rich
Amine from Rich Amine Flash Drum lows to rich/lean amine exchanges, 11-E-104 A/B.
The Rich Amine Flash Drum level control will control flow of Rich Amine to Regenera-
tor by operating 11-FV-1306 downstream of 11/E-104 A/B in order to minimise the solu-
tion degassing by the exchanger plates. The Rich Amine will heat upto 110°C. Heated
Rich Amine will then fed to Regenerator below tray 1(from top). MDEA stripping is ac-
complished in the regenerator by vapour generation in reboiler 11--107. This reboiler is
kettle type. The heating medium is desuperheated LP steam. De superheating is obtained
by 11-BH-101, Desuperheater. LP steam is supplied to the kettle type Amine Regenerator
Reboilers under flow control reset by flow controller 11-FIC-1306 of rich amine feed to
the regenerator. The steam flow controller will obtain signal from 11-FIC-1401 (t will
take signal from 11-FIC-1306) which will operate 11-FV-1401 accordingly.
LP condensate generated in the reboiler is sent to pure ATM Condensate Flash Drum
11-V-106, under level control 11-LIC-1401 on the Condensate Pot, 11-V-105,
The Reboiler vapours from the bottom of Column counter currently contact the Rich
Amine and strip off Acidic Gases. Reflux liquid enters the column above topmost tray
and follows down. This prevents MDEA loss into the overhead and ensures complete re-
moval of H2S and CO2. The Overhead vapours from the Regenerator are routed to the
Amine Regenerator Air coolers 11-A-105 A/B. Some condensation takes place and
vapours are cooled to 50 °C in Regenerator condenser, 11-E-106(water cooled). Cooled
overhead vapors then collected in regenerator reflux drum 11-V-104. Acid gases are
routed to SRU through 11-PIC-1506 which will operate 11-PV-1506(back pressure con-
trol). In case of higher reflux drum pressure 11-PIC-1507 will open 11-PV-1507 which
will route acid gas to Acid Flare Header. The condensed liquid is pumped by Regenerator
Reflux Pump 11-P-102 A/B, under level control of reflux drum 11-LIC-1502 which will
give signal to 11-FIC-1502. The pump discharge control valve 11-FV-1502 will operate
an Ite basis of signal obtained from 11-FIC-1502
Lean Amine so obtained from bottom of Regenerator is pumped to Lean Amine Storage
Tank after cooling. The level of column is controlled through 11-LIC- 1404 which will

14
pass signal to 11-FIC-1602 which will operate 11-FV-1602 accordingly. The Lean Amine
Transfer pump discharge will flow to Lean/rich amine exchanger 11-E-104 A/B and
coaled to 73.5 °C. The Cold Lean Amine will get further cooled in Air Cooler 11-A-
108A/B and subsequently in water cooler 11-E-109A/B. The Lean Amine at temperature
of 41 °C is routed to Storage Tank. Temperature controller 11-TIC-1605 will regulate Fan
motor RPM of 11-A-108 A/B

The removal of acid gases (H2S and CO2) can be achieved with a wide range of differ-
ent technologies. The chemical absorption of acid gases on amines is the most common
but molecular sieves and non-regenerative adsorbents can be also used for specific appli-
cations. Chemical absorption of acid gases can be improved by use of activators or by
combined use of amines and physical solvents allowing the removal of additional sulphur
compounds (RSH, COS, CS2).

A list of available Gas Sweetening processes is the following:

• Conventional Amines: MEA, DEA, MDEA, DIPA. The most widely used
is the MDEA as it is more selective to H2S with lower regeneration heat while
DEA is used in case total CO2 and H2S removal is required. A higher selectivity
of H2S vs CO2 can be achieved with use of conventional MDEA by means of a
special design with very low residence times in Amine Absorber reducing CO2
absorption and allowing a higher H2S/CO2 ratio in acid gas. The same principle is
used for Acid Gas Enrichment upstream the Sulphur Recovery Units
• Activated Amines: amine (MDEA or DIPA) is mixed with an activator to
modify absorption and regeneration properties such as improving the efficiency of
CO2 removal, improving the selectivity for H2S, reducing regeneration heat and
allowing absorption of COS or RSH, etc.
• Mixed Solvents: amines are mixed with physical solvents in order to en-
hance physical absorption of sulphur compounds
• Molecular Sieves: normally used for the removal of mercaptans and H2S
from gas phase at a concentration of a maximum of some hundreds of ppmv while
CO2 can be efficiently removed at a max of 0,1 %. Mol. sieves are 5A type or
larger and the typical process scheme is based on open loop regeneration (spent
regeneration gas is not recycled). Mol. sieves can be also used for the sweetening
of NGL or LPGs
• Non-Regenerative Adsorbents: used for the removal of H2S at lower
concentrations (typically lower than a hundred ppmv) and based on high activity
metal oxides which by reaction with H2S are converted to stable sulphides.

Pure Amine unloading,Storage, Amine Filtration Section, Corrosion

Inhibitor Dosing Package and Antifoam Dosing Package:
Pure Amine is received in drums and unloaded in Amine sump with help of transferring
pump 11-P-112. Nitrogen is provided for blanketing purpose. Amine Drain Pump 11-P.
105 A/S, with auto start/stop facility, will transfer Pure MDEA to Lean Amine Storage
Tank. DM water line is also provided for washing, flushing and dilution in sump. 11-P.
105 A/S is Amine Drain Pump which will transfer Pure MDEA to Lean Amine Storage
Tank through line 3°-LM-11-2001-A29A. Amine Sump also collects the amine rich waste
stream from various piping and vessels drains during decommissioning operations. So at
this time the drain pump will transfer this collected liquid to suction of Lean amine filter
pump which will pump the liquid to amine filter package and filtered amine is recycled

15
back to Lean Amine Storage Tank. Required concentration batch of Lean Amine is pre-
pared in Lean Amine Storage Tank with DM water before transferring it to process facil-
ity (subsequent dilution may be carried out in Amine sump).
In this process, dosing of corrosion inhibitor and Anti- loam agent injection are required
to be maintained. Facilities have been provided to inject the above chemicals in the suc-
tion of Lean Amine Charge Pumps.
Amine filter package comprises of two cartridge filler followed by one charcoal filter and
then other cartridge filter. Lean amine filter pump pumps the amine to filter train and fil-
tered amine is recycled. back to Lean amine storage tank. Each filter is provided with
PDAH alarm which will indicate filter element condition. During normal operation, Lean
Amine will be routed through filtration package only.
age consist of one Antifoam surge drum 11-V-113 which will have agitator and here
batch of required concentration of antifoam solution is prepared.
Prepared batch of antifoam solution will be pumped by antifoam injection pump 11-P.
113 A/B to lean amine charge pump suction. It will be then pumped to consumers
Corrosion inhibiter injection package consist of one Corrosion inhibiter surge drum 14-v.
114 which will have agitator and here batch of required concentration of Corrosion inhib-
iter solution is prepared. Prepared batch of antifoam solution will be pumped by antifoam
injection pump 11-P-114A/B to lean amine charge pump suction. It will be then pumped
to consumers.

Reason for CO2 Removal for Gas Sweetening:

• When combined with water forms Carbonic Acid which is corrosive
• CO2 reduces the BTU value of the gas
• If present in 2-3% gas is not saleable.
Reason for H2S Removal for Gas Sweetening:
• Extremely toxic gas
• Highly corrosive
Reason for Mercaptans (R-SH) Removal for Gas Sweetening:
• It has smell
• If comes in contact with bacteria (inside the final product storage) then released
H2S
• 2R-SH Bacteria R-SSR + H2S
Gas Sweetening Process Treatment – Process Selection
• Air pollution regulations regarding Sulphur Compound disposal and/or Tail gas
clean-up requirements
• Type & concentration of Impurities in sour gas
• Temp/pressure at which sour gas is available and at which sweet gas must be de-
livered
• Specification for the Acid gas
• Specification for the Residue gas
• Hydrocarbon composition of the gas
• Selectivity required for Acid Gas Removal
• Capital cost and operating cost
Chemical Reaction Process (Continuous) for Gas Sweetening

16
Reasons for Gas Sweetening Process
Removal of the contaminants from Gas is required for the reason of:

• Corrosion Control
• Toxicity
• Gas/ Liquid product specifications
• To prevent poisoning of catalysts in downstream facilities
• Control of the overall heating value of the natural gas
• To meet environmental requirements
CO2 & H2S are very common contaminants in Natural Gas system

Types of operating problems

The main problems that can be encountered in the operation of sour gas treating facilities
using chemical solvents are as follows:[11]
• failure to meet H2S specification for sales gas
• solution foaming in the contractor or regenerator
• corrosion in pipes and vessels
• solvent losses
Failure to Meet H2S Sales-Gas Specifications. Treated gas that does not meet the H 2S
specifications is not admitted into the sales-gas transmission lines. Potential causes for
“going sour” are:
• a change in the acid gas concentration of feed gas
• a change in the feed gas temperature
• too hot lean amine solution
• too low solvent concentration in solution
• inadequate regeneration of solution
• insufficient contact in absorber
• too low amine circulation rate
• too low absorber pressure
• too high concentration of degradation products
• too high inlet gas rate
• mechanical damage or problems in absorber
• foaming

Solution Foaming
Solution foaming occurs when gas is mechanically entrained in liquid as bubbles. [12] The
tendency to form bubbles increases with decreasing surface tension of the solution owing
to interference of foreign substance at the surface of the solution on the tray. Foaming is
thought to be caused by factors such as:
• liquid hydrocarbons entering the contractor with the sour gas
• acidic amine-degradation products
• treating chemicals from wells or gathering system
• treating chemicals from makeup water

17
 • compressor oil
• fine solid suspensions such as iron sulphide
While solids suspended in the solution by themselves might not cause foaming, it is
thought that they tend to stabilize the foam. The results from foaming can be:
• severe upsets in the process tower
• leading to carryover and loss of chemical
• possible damage to downstream process equipment or material
The best way to reduce the propensity for foaming is to ensure that the sour gas entering
the contactor is clean, free of condensed liquids, and that the solution is cleaned up by
mechanical and carbon filtration. The addition to the solution of antifoam agents is some-
times effective in controlling the foaming tendency of the solution. However, this does
not solve the basic problem. Too much antifoam in the solution can actually add to the
foaming problem.

Corrosion

Corrosion is common in most amine plants. It is necessary to control the corrosion rate by
the addition of corrosion inhibitor and by use of stainless steel in certain pieces of process
equipment. In the case of MEA solutions, corrosion rates tend to increase with increasing
solution strengths beyond about 22% MEA, as well as with high levels of amine degrada-
tion products in the solution. Most of the process piping and vessels in amine plants are
built with carbon steel, meeting NACE MR0175 guidelines.
It is not possible to predict with certainty where corrosive attack will take place. Experi-
ence has shown that the most likely areas for corrosive attack are those where the temper-
atures are high, such as in:
• the top part of the still
• the reboiler tubes
• the heat exchangers
• some connecting piping
Hydrogen blisters are sometimes evident after many years of service in the shell of the
contactor or still. Hydrogen-induced cracking can also occur in welds in the vessels or
piping after many years of service. Corrosion/erosion can occur in areas where fluid ve-
locities are high, such as:
• in the return line from the reboiler
• at the point of entry of the reboiler vapors into the still
• downstream of pressure letdown valves
As compared with CO2 and H2S mixtures, corrosion rates in amine systems, especially
MEA systems, generally increase with:
• increasing temperature
• increasing amine concentration
• increasing mole loadings
• pure acid gas
MEA is generally much more corrosive than DEA, and MDEA is only slightly corrosive.
Use of Corrosion Inhibitors. The use of corrosion inhibitors is a common practice to re-
duce the attack on steel by H2S and CO2 in aqueous environments. In most sour gas

18
sweetening installations, a corrosion inhibitor is continuously injected into the sweetening
solution.

Solvent Loss
In all regenerative solvent systems, it is necessary to periodically add pure solvent to the
solution because of the loss of solvent during operation. Solvent losses in gas treating sys-
tems can occur because of:
• vaporization
• entrainment
• degradation and removal of degradation products
• mechanical losses
Solvents used in gas treating, like any other liquids, have a vapor pressure that increases
with temperature. In a gas sweetening system, there are three vessels where gas and liquid
streams separate:
• contactor
• flash tank
• reflux drum
By far the largest gas stream is the one leaving the contactor. To reduce the solvent losses
from this source, a water wash process is usually applied to the treated gas downstream of
the contactor. Solvent losses from the flash tank are usually quite small, as the amount of
gas leaving this vessel is usually small when compared to the total plant stream. When the
solution is regenerated in the still, some solvent leaves the still overhead with the acid gas
stream and the water vapor. Upon cooling the still overhead stream and condensing most
of the water and amine, the liquid is returned to the top of the still as reflux, which also
recovers most of the solvent. Nevertheless, some solvent vapor leaves the top of the re-
flux drum with the acid gas stream. Lower reflux drum temperatures reduce solvent losses
at this point.
Entrainment of solvent occurs during foaming or under high gas velocity situations. By
preventing foaming and by staying within design throughput, entrainment losses can be
avoided.
In amine systems, some degradation of the solvent occurs. Primary amines are most sus-
ceptible to this problem, and such systems require special separation equipment to period-
ically remove the degradation products that contribute to corrosion. The degradation
products are mainly caused by irreversible reactions between the solvent and CO2.

19
The most serious losses of solvent usually result from mechanical actions or problems.
These include:
• filter changeouts
• drips from pumps or flanges
• vessel cleaning and draining

20
 COOLING TOWERS

What Is A Cooling Tower And How Does It Work?

A cooling tower is a heat removal device that uses water to transfer process waste heat
into the atmosphere. Likewise, an industrial cooling tower operates on the principle of re-
moving heat from water by evaporating a small portion of water that is recirculated
through the unit.
The mixing of warm water and cooler air releases latent heat of vaporisation, causing the
water to cool. If you are ever looking down from a high-rise building, you might notice a
square unit, with fans on top of it, on the buildings below. That's a water cooling tower.
No one wants to stay in a building with bad air conditioning—at least not for too long. On
the other hand, buildings with excellent cooling make you want to return, even if it’s just
to enjoy the air. That’s thanks, in large part, to the continued modernisation and innova-
tion of the commercial cooling tower system.

What Is The Purpose Of A Cooling Tower?

A water cooling tower is used to cool water and is a huge heat exchanger, expelling build-
ing heat into the atmosphere and returning colder water to the chiller. A water cooling
tower receives warm water from a chiller.
This warm water is known as condenser water because it gets heat in the condenser of the
chiller. The chiller is typically at a lower level, like in a basement. The cooling tower’s
role is to cool down the water, so it can return to the chiller to pick up more heat.

How Does A Cooling Tower Work?

Air conditioning equipment and industrial processes can generate heat in the form of tons
of hot water that needs to be cooled down. That’s where an industrial cooling tower
comes in. Overheated water flows through the cooling tower where it’s recirculated and
exposed to cool, dry air. Heat leaves the recirculating cooling tower water through evapo-
ration.
This is called evaporative cooling. The colder water then reenters the air conditioning
equipment or process to cool that equipment down, and the cooling cycle repeats over and
over again.  When the warm condenser goes into the cooling tower, the water is passed
through some nozzles which spray the water into small droplets across the fill, which in-
creases the surface area of water and allows for better heat loss thru greater evaporation.
The purpose of the fan on top of the water cooling tower is to bring in air from the bottom
of the tower and move it up and out in the opposite direction of the warm condenser water
at the top of the unit. The air will carry the heat by evaporating water from the cooling
tower into the atmosphere.

Why Is An Industrial Cooling Tower Needed?

21
An industrial cooling tower is a critical component of many refrigeration systems and can
be found in industries such as power plants, chemical processing, steel mills, and many
manufacturing companies where process cooling is necessary. Also, a commercial cool-
ing tower can be used to provide comfort-cooling for large commercial buildings like air-
ports, schools, hospitals, or hotels.

22
An industrial cooling tower can be larger than an HVAC system and is used to remove
the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power plants, petro-
leum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food processing
plants, and other industrial facilities.

23
With the increased rate of the population all over the world, there has been a huge rise in
the rate of needs and requirements by the world for manufactured products. This has
forced the industrial sector to manufacture more and more products every day, which gen-
erates more manufacturing process heat.

24
The machines and processes of industries that generate tremendous amounts of heat must
be continuously cooled so that those machines can continue to operate efficiently. The
most efficient, effective, and least expensive solution to removing this heat is the installa-
tion of an industrial cooling tower.

Cooling Tower Types

Cooling tower systems are often vital to industrial

processes. These tall, open-topped, cylindrical
structures are responsible for cooling water gener-
ated from industrial or HVAC comfort cooling air-
flow. The different types of cooling towers
are identified by the classification of the draft (nat-
ural or mechanical) and by the direction of airflow
(counter or cross).

Natural Draft Cooling Tower Systems

are usually used for large power plants and indus-

tries with infinite cooling water flow. The tower
operates by removing waste heat by way of rising
hot air that is then released into the atmosphere.
These towers are tall and have a hyperbolic shape
to induce proper airflow.

25
26
Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower Systems

These towers have air forced through the structure by a fan that circulates air through the
tower. Common fans used in these towers include propeller fans and centrifugal fans.
While Mechanical draft towers are more effective than natural draft towers, they consume
more power and cost more to operate as a result.

Crossflow Cooling Tower Systems 

have a design that allows the air to flow horizontally through the fill and the tower’s
structure into an open plenum area. Hot water flows downward from distribution basins.
However, fans and motor drive require weather-proofing against moisture which can lead
to freezing making it less efficient.

Counterflow Cooling Tower Systems

have a design where the air moves upwards and the counter-current, with hot water, falls
downward to cool the air. This allows for maximum performance out of each plan area
and helps minimize pump head requirements. Also, a counterflow cooling tower system is
less likely to ice up in cold weather conditions and can save energy in the long run.
All Delta Cooling Towers are counterflow and all include these advantages.

Induced Draft Cooling Tower Systems 

are typically mounted with a fan at the top of the cooling tower, which allows hot air out
and pulls air throughout. The high exiting air velocities reduce the chance of re-circula-
tion. To avoid the entrapment of water droplets in the leaving stream air, drift eliminators
are used. Induced draft towers are more efficient as they use 30% to up to 75% less en-
ergy compared to forced draft designs.

27
Forced Draft Cooling Tower Systems 

This cooling tower system is similar to induced draft, but the basic difference is that the
air-moving fan is placed at the base of the cooling tower, which allows the air to blow
through from the bottom. Their use is limited due to water distribution challenges, high
horsepower fans, and the possibility of re-circulation.

What Is The Best Material For A Cooling Tower?

Water-cooled systems are primarily made from three materials: Metal, fiberglass, and
plastic. As you know, metal can rust and corrode, and whatever’s inside of it can begin to
leak over time.
To no surprise, a metal cooling tower only has an average shelf life of up to only 15 years
and requires maintenance with epoxy paint, sealants, and more. That maintenance can
lead to downtime for your business. This is why metal is now being replaced with better
technology. Fiberglass cooling tower manufacturers, although providing a better alterna-
tive to metal, are still prone to cracks and wear which can lead to long-term higher main-
tenance costs. 

Cooling Tower Parts and Functions

Cooling tower parts may be further broken down into structural, mechanical, and electri-
cal. Structural components are static equipment such as the basin, tower framework, fan
deck, casing, and louvers. Mechanical parts, on the other hand, are the rotating equip-
ment: fans, driveshafts, and speed reducers. Electrical parts consist of motors and their
controls.

Fill

28
  Sometimes referred to as wet deck or surface, this increases the surface area of the
cooling tower to allow optimum contact surface and contact time between the air and the
water, while providing minimum restriction to airflow.

Distribution System

  The distribution system depends upon the type of cooling tower according to air-to-
water flow. Cross-flow cooling towers use a gravity-flow distribution system where the

water is distributed at an elevation above the fill. For counter-flow cooling towers, pres-
surized water spray systems are utilized.

Drift Eliminators

  The drift eliminators prevent the escape of water droplets by creating sudden changes
in the path of the air stream. As the air stream passes, large water droplets impact the
walls of the drift eliminator, causing the water to fall back into the cooling tower.

Louvers

  Air intake louvers are a part of the cooling tower that serves as a block for water
splash-out, noise, and debris. They are a common part of cross-flow cooling towers, and
are located above the cold water basin, at the bottom of the panel where the fill is packed,
and are placed completely around the tower.

Casing

  The function of the casing is to provide housing and to transmit loads to the tower
frame. It also acts to contain water within the cooling tower.

Fan, Motor, Driveshaft, and Speed Reducer

29
  The fans force air either in or out of the cooling tower, depending on the type of draft
required for the application. The main driver is the motor. Torque from the motor is trans-
ferred by the driveshaft to the fan or to a gearbox. Large cooling towers with big and
heavy fans require gearboxes to increase the torque, which eliminates the need for heavy
motors, and in turn eliminates the need for a stronger structure. In some cases, belt and
pulley assemblies are used instead of gear boxes.

Fan Stack

  The fan stack, also referred to as the fan cylinder or fan cover, enhances the efficiency
of the fan. This is done by a well-shaped air inlet to create smooth air flow into the fan. It
also helps the discharge of air at higher elevations minimizing recirculation and interfer-
ence.

Fan Deck

  This acts as a support to the fan cylinders and as a structural member to transmit loads
throughout the tower frame.

Valves

  Valves are needed to control the water level inside the cooling tower. Valves used in
cooling towers are isolation valves, flow-control valves, and make-up regulator valves.

•   Isolation valves are used for regulating flow from a multiple-riser tower, or for
isolating a cooling tower cell for stand-by or maintenance.
•   Flow-control valves are used to equalize flow from different distribution
basins, or water levels, on cells of a multiple-cell cooling tower.
•   Make-up regulator valves are used to automatically add water to the cooling
tower as some of it is lost due to evaporation, drift, and blowdown.

Collection Basin

  The collection basin is located at the bottom of the cooling tower. The primary pur-
pose of the basin is to collect falling water that has not evaporated or lost due to drift.
Usually, the basin also serves as the foundation of the cooling tower. This is where chem-
ical treatments for the circulating water are added.

Distribution Basin

  This is a deep pan or small basin with holes or nozzles located above the fill. This is a
part of the distribution system of a cross-flow cooling tower where gravity acts to distrib-
ute hot water evenly across the fill material.

Tower Structural Frame

30
  The tower frame supports the whole cooling tower and transmits all loads to the foun-
dation. Common materials used for the frame are concrete and wood. Fiberglass and
stainless steel are often used.

COOLING TOWERS IN OGT

Supply header for re-circulating cooling water will be sized for design flow rate of 5600
m'/hr. Bearing cooling water supply will be from cooling tower itself and bearing cooling
water return will join the return cooling water header. Hence return header also will be
sized for 5600 m /hr.
Oil in water detector on return cooling water header shall be provided within CT battery
limit.
At unit ISBL following shall be provided on cooling water return header:
——Oil in water detector in all units
——Sample connection in all units

COOLING WATER REQUIREMENTS

UNIT CONTINUOUS DEMAND TOTAL M^3/HR

GSU 532 532

31
 UNIT CONTINUOUS DEMAND TOTAL M^3/HR
GDU 8 8
DPDU 284 284
SRU 233 233
CSU 281 281
BCW 25(1) 25
Total reqd E 1363 1363
For 2 trains 1363*2-281-233=2212(2) 2212
HVAC REQ 433(3) 433
CPP 1773(4) 1773
Utiites and offsite other than CPP 170(1) 170

4 trains 4588 4588

Max reqd 5047 5047

COOLING TOWER

for two process trains operation, three (2*1) cells each of 2800 m^3/hr capacity have been
provided to meet the total requirement of 5047 m^3/hr.
The type of cooling towers will be RCC induced draft counter flow type with flare-proof
motors. Cooling tower shall be specified to cool water from 43°C to 33°C. Height al cool-
ing tower is tentatively considered as 15 m and will be finalised during detailed engineer-
ing.

32
33
Cooling Tower fan shall be made of FRP/GRP or other corrosion resistant alloy. On
skimmer will be provided in the sump to remove floating oil to OWS. HC and HaS detec-
tors will be provided at the cooling tower top. The basin of each cell will have provision
to isolate for maintenance
Blow down from this cooling tower shall be routed to ETP.

RECIRCULATING COOLING WATER PUMPS

Losses Quantity

1 Evaporation loss 98m^3/hr

2 Drift loss 6m^3/hr
3 Blow down loss 19m^3/hr
For two process train operation, the cooling water requirement of 5047 m^3/hr shall be
met by providing three pumps (2 operating + 1 standby) of capacity 2800 m^3/hr each.
The sump for all the pumps shall be common. The pumps shall be provided with auto
start facility.
Type : Horizontal centrifugal
Type of Drive : Electric motor
No. of pumps : 2 operating + 1 stand by
Capacity : 2800 m^3/hr each

COOLING WATER HEADERS

Supply header for re-circulating cooling water will be sized for design flow rate of 5600
m^3/hr Bearing cooling water supply will be from cooling tower itself and bearing cool-
ing water return will join the return cooling water header. Hence return header also will
be sized for 5600 m^3/hr Oil in water detector on return cooling water header shall be
provided within CT battery limit.
At unit ISBL following shall be provided on cooling water return header:
——Oil in water detector in all units
——Sample connection in all units

Corrosion and Scale Control

The chemical treatment shall be based on efficient corrosion inhibition. Treatment with
chemical formulations containing corrosion inhibitor and dispersant is recommended The
following general guidelines shall be followed for developing the chemical formulation:
a) The formulation shall be single (or double) and based on Zinc, Organic Phosphonate
and polymeric dispersant. The formulation containing Inorganic poly phosphate
should have neutral pH (around 7.0). The formulation shall be blended in such a way
that maintenance of 100 mg/I of the formulation in the cooling water will maintain
the following level of inhibitors:

34
 Sno pH 7.5-8.0 8.5

1 Zinc as Zn ppm 1-2 2

2 HEDP as PO4 ppm 8-10 10
3 Polyposphate as PO4 ppm 5-6 6

4 Polymeric disperant ppm 20-30 30

5 BZT ppm 0.5 1

b) HEDP = Hydroxy Ethylidene Diphosphonic Acid

c) Polymeric dispersant ——A low mol wt. (<5000) preferably, PA-SA (Poly Acrylic
Sulphonic Acid Co-polymer) or AAHAPS (Acrylic Acid hydroxy Allyloxy Propane
Sulphonate) based dispersant formulation shall be dosed to maintain a level of 20-30
mg/l in cooling water.The formulation should work in the system even at a skin tem-
perature of 70degC in some exchangers running under upset conditions.
d) Normal dosing rate will be 100 mg/I of formulation based on blow down rate Disper-
sant may be dosed separately or it can be combined with the inhibitor into a single
formulation with the addition of stabiliser. When two formulations are used total
combined dosing rate should be 100 mg/1.
e) The chemical formulation shall have sufficient proven performance data both in the
laboratory and in the field.

f) General corrosivity for carbon steel shall be less than 3 mpy and that for brass shall
be less than 0.5 mpy.

Microbiological Control
a) Chlorination shall be done continuously to maintain free residual chlorine of
0.3- 0.6 ppm in the cooling tower return header.

b) In addition to chlorination, shock dosing of following two biocides @ 50 mg/ based on

hold- up shall be given alternately once in a fortnight:
.Quarternary Ammonium compound based biocide formulation containing a minimum of
25% of active ingredients.
•Carbamate / Isothlazolene Bisphane based biocide formulation containing a minimum of
25% of active ingredients.
During biocide dosing, chlorination shall be stopped for 6 hrs. Thereafter chlorination
shall be given at maximum possible rate.
c) Microbiological control shall ensure:
Total bacterial count <10°/ml
SRB count <100 / 100ml.
Hence return header also will be sized for 5600 m /hr.
Oil in water detector on return cooling COOLING TOWERS

Factors Affecting Performance

In designing a cooling tower, there is a myriad of properties to consider, from psychrome-

try to heat and mass balance. Aside from studying the properties of air and water coming

35
in and out of the system, one must also consider the resulting physical characteristics of
the tower can the tower create a natural draft, or will the tower be structurally sound, and
are parts susceptible for fouling and corrosion? This chapter focuses on the common pa-
rameters that affect the performance of cooling towers.

• Cooling Range and Approach From chapter 1, range is defined as the tempera-
ture difference between water entering (CW return) and leaving (CW supply) the
tower, while approach is the difference between the temperature of the water leav-
ing and the wet-bulb temperature of air entering. The cooling tower efficiency is
simply expressed as, Cooling tower efficiency = (CW return temperature - CW
supply temperature) / (CW return temperature - Air wet bulb temperature) × 100%
Consequently,
Cooling tower efficiency = Range / (Range + Approach) × 100%
From these, it can be seen that a cooling tower with a smaller approach is more ef-
ficient. Cooling towers usually have a 5 to 10⁰F approach. While a small approach
is desired, investment cost may be impractical since the size of the cooling tower
increases exponentially as the approach is being lowered.
Usually, the range and cooling water flow rate are the parameters being balanced.
This is because the heat load is already given from consumer demand, and ambi-
ent air wet-bulb temperature may not be manipulated. Increasing the range will
make the cooling tower efficient. This can be done by increasing the cooling water
return temperature, or by lowering the cooling water supply temperature. In either
of the cases, usually, one temperature is constant due to the requirement of end
users. Of these two options, increasing the cooling water return temperature is
more practical since the temperature difference between air and water in contact
will be much larger. The larger the temperature difference, the more heat can be
dissipated.
If the only option is to lower the cooling water supply temperature, the result will
also lower the approach. In turn, the design will require a much larger tower.

• Wet-bulb Temperature. This is a significant parameter for cooling towers rely-

ing on evaporative cooling. Design wet-bulb temperatures depend on existing site
conditions. Thus, careful site surveys must be conducted, especially during sum-
mer months when the ambient temperature and relative humidity are high. A de-
signer must consider publications from engineering and scientific organizations
such as the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning En-
gineers (ASHRAE) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for
the unique, worst-case design conditions for a given location. From the previous
point, it is seen that a high ambient wet-bulb temperature will decrease the ap-
proach. Thus, at locations where there are high wet-bulb temperature conditions
present, larger cooling towers are required for a given cooling load.
• Consumer Heat Load. The size and cost of a cooling tower is proportional to the
heat load. Cooling towers are usually designed using the maximum consumer heat
load or cooling demand. They will then be the rated capacity of the cooling tower.
However, there are times when there is low demand for cooling. In these cases,
the tower will operate at a lower efficiency. In order to save energy, one method is
to use fan speed control. Heat transfer rate is increased by higher air velocity. If
not much heat transfer or evaporative cooling is needed, fan speeds can be re-
duced. This can be done by using variable speed drive motors, two-three speed fan

36
 motors, and adjustable pitch fan blades. Another option is to design a multi-cell
cooling tower. In this case, one cell may be on standby during off-hours or at
times of low demand.

Mechanical Maintenance Practices

Cooling towers, like any other equipment, must be routinely inspected and maintained to
ensure adequate and efficient delivery of required cooling while maintaining (or even ex-
tending) their expected service life. The following are some maintenance inspection prac-
tices for cooling towers.

• Inspect the cooling tower on a regular basis. Follow inspection schedules as rec-
ommended by the manufacturer or by the company policies and best practices.
These may be done during plant turn-around or complete shut-down when there is
minimal or no demand for cooling water.
• During the inspection, check for the following:
• Drift eliminators for overall good condition (proper position, cleanliness,
etc.);
• Proper lubrication of bearings of rotating equipment;
• Proper tension of belt-and-pulley assembly;
• Operation of the level controller;
• Condition of the fill and distribution system from scale, fouling, or clog-
ging;
• Condition of metal piping, structures, and appurtenances from corrosion;
• Any leaks on the piping and isolation valves;
• Any cracks or damage on the basin, casing, fan deck, and tower frame.
Address all inspection findings accordingly.
• Remove, if possible, all scales, fouling, and deposits. For the corroded metal sur-
faces, apply the appropriate coatings to prevent further deterioration.
• Clean the strainers and remove any debris from the basin.
• For cooling towers with side stream filters, implement regular backwashing.

Cooling Technology Institute Certification

CTI Standard 201 "sets forth a program whereby the Cooling Technology Institute will
certify that all models of a line of Evaporative Heat Rejection Equipment offered for sale
by a specific Manufacturer will perform thermally in accordance with the Manufacturer's
published ratings" (CTI.org, 2018). A CTI certification guarantees that a cooling tower
has been inspected by a CTI licensed testing agent and found to perform up to CTI stan-
dards and manufacturer specifications.

Cooling Tower Certification Tests

• Drift Emissions Test: Cooling towers emit particulate matter (PM) drift that
cause corrosion, icing, transmission of legionella, and safety concerns. The Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency considers cooling towers as a source of drift and re-
quires that they meet local area permit standards.

37
 • Particle Size Testing: The size of drift particles is a function of their distribution
and water chemistry. Particles are measured in microns (µ) and can be detected
with various forms of technology. The size of particles can range from 7 microns
up to several thousand microns but are invisible to the naked eye.
• Sound Testing: Cooling towers can be a significant source of noise emissions.
Sound testing is performed in accordance with CTI ATC-128.
• Thermal Certification: Thermal certification is based on STD-201, which re-
quires a qualifying test and annual test. Additionally, CTI ATC-105 outlines ther-
mal testing processes and procedures.
• Plume and Abatement Testing: Cooling towers can produce a visible plume that
may be in violation of local standards. They are considered to be a safety hazard
and nuisance. Clean Air evaluations are conducted under CTI standard ATC-150
to determine if plume abatement performance has been met.

Water Treatment

As the water evaporates, impurities dissolve in the water and become more concentrated.
Make-up water is added, which will later evaporate and leave behind more impurities.
These are dissolved minerals that will later build scale to the parts of the cooling tower in-
contact with water. Not only is the cooling tower affected, but also the consumers, such as
heat exchangers and condensers.

Aside from scale build-up, biological fouling tends to form on surfaces. Evaporative cool-
ing towers are particularly prone to biological fouling where an air stream carrying mi-
crobes is scrubbed by the water. Concentrated minerals present in the water due to evapo-
ration provide a favorable environment for these microbes to grow.

Depending on the application and water parameters, methods of water treatment largely
vary. There are proprietary water treatment chemicals and filtrations systems being sold
on the market targeting a range of problems. The following are some common cooling
water treatment methods.

• Blowdown and make-up water;

• Filtration;
• Water softening;
• Chemical treatment (corrosion inhibitors, pH control, biocides)

Cooling Tower Applications

In any industrial plant, heat is generated from equipment used in different processes. The
need to remove undesirable heat is a common occurrence in the industrial manufacturing
processes. The same is true for commercial and residential buildings, where comfort cool-
ing, refrigerated storage, and equipment preservation are required. If the undesirable gen-
erated heat is not removed or rejected, the machinery, equipment, and air conditioning
systems will not work properly.

38
Because of their high efficiency, cooling towers are a widely used heat rejection system.
Cooling towers vary in size depending on the application; from small chiller units for res-
idential cooling, to 200-meter tall structures serving power generating plants. Below are
some cooling tower applications.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

HVAC is used for comfort cooling of residential and commercial areas. Heat generated
from people, equipment (computers, servers, etc.), lighting, solar radiation, and outdoor
ambient air is absorbed by the cooling system and rejected to the cooling tower.

Refrigeration

This is for cold storage in the food and beverage industry, pharmaceuticals, air and gas
generation, etc. This is similar to an HVAC system where a refrigerating unit absorbs heat
from a closed space and rejects that heat to the cooling tower.

Power Generation Plants

Power generation plants use steam as the working fluid. In order to generate power, water
is heated to steam by coal, natural gas, or even nuclear radiation. This heat is then con-
verted to mechanical energy. However, some of this heat cannot be converted to energy
and must be removed to complete the steam cycle. This is where cooling towers come
into play.

Industrial Plant (Oil and Gas, Petrochemicals, etc.)

This is similar to a power plant. Condensers, heat exchangers, and cooling jackets all ab-
sorb heat from processes. This heat is then carried by water to be rejected through the
cooling tower

Conclusion:

• Cooling towers are specialised heat exchangers, but instead of the usual conduc-
tion - convection heat transfer of shell and tube heat exchangers, it generates cool-
ing by bringing water and air into contact.
• This cooling is achieved through evaporative cooling and sensible heat transfer.
• There are different types of cooling towers depending on their air flow generation,
air-to-water flow, heat transfer method, and construction. Each of these types has
its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
• There are three important factors that determine cooling tower efficiency: relation-
ship between range and approach, wet-bulb temperature, and cooling load.
• Because of the continuous evaporation of water, several problems arise, such as
scaling and biological fouling. Common water treatment methods are water blow-
down, filtration, water softening, and chemical addition.

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Definitions

The approach is the difference between the temperature of the cold water leaving the
tower and the air's wet-bulb temperature. The establishment of the approach fixes the op-
erating temperature of the tower and is the most important parameter in determining both
tower size and cost.
Bleed Off: is the circulating water in the tower which is discharged to waste to help keep
the dissolved solids concentration of the water below a maximum allowable limit. As a
result of evaporation, dissolved solids concentration will continually increase unless re-
duced by bleed-off.
Biocide: a chemical that is designed to control the population of troublesome microbes by
killing them.
Blowdown: is the water purposely discharged from the system to control concentrations
of salts or other impurities in the circulating water. Units % of circulating water rate or
GPM.
British Thermal Unit (BTU): is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water one degree Fahrenheit in the range from 32° F to 212° F
Cooling Range: is the difference in temperature between the hot water entering the tower
and the cold water leaving the tower.
Cycles of Concentration: compares dissolved solids in makeup water with solids con-
centrated through evaporation in the circulating water. For example, chlorides are soluble
in water so the cycles of concentration are equal to the ratio of chlorides in circulating
water to chlorides in makeup water.
Dissolved Solids: total solids that have been dissolved into a liquid. They may be ionic
and/or polar in nature.
Drift: is the water entrained in the airflow and discharged into the atmosphere. Drift loss
does not include water lost by evaporation. Proper tower design can minimise drift loss.
Heat Exchanger: is a device for transferring heat from one substance to another. Heat
transfer can be by direct contact, as in a cooling tower, or indirect, as in a shell and tube
condenser. Can also be the tube or fin tubed bundles in a wet/dry tower.
Heat Load: The amount of heat to be removed from the circulating water within the
tower. Heat load is equal to water circulation rate (GPM) times the cooling range times
500 and is expressed in BTU/hr. Heat load is also an important parameter in determining
tower size and cost.
Makeup: is the amount of water required to replace normal losses caused by bleed-off,
drift, and evaporation.
Pumping Head: The pressure required to pump the water from the tower basin through
the entire system and return to the top of the tower.
Ton: An evaporative cooling ton is 15,000 BTU’s per hour.
Wet Bulb: is the lowest temperature that water theoretically can reach by evaporation.
Wet-Bulb temperature is an extremely important parameter in tower selection and design
and should be measured by a psychrometer.

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