CHAPTER

4
TRANSMISSION
LINE PARAMETERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of a transmission network is to transfer electric energy from generat­

ing units at various locations to the distribution system which ultimately supplies
the load. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities which permits
not only economic dispatch of power within regions during normal conditions, but
also transfer of power between regions during emergencies.
All transmission lines in a power system exhibit the electrical properties of
resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance. The inductance and capac­
itance are due to the effect's of magnetic and electric fields around the conductor.
These parameters are essential for the development of the transmission line mod­
els used in power system analysis. The shunt conductance accounts for leakage
currents flowing across insulators and ionized pathways in the air. The leakage
currents are negligible compared to the current flowing in the transmission lines
and may be neglected.
The first part of this chapter deals with the determination of inductance and
capacitance of overhead lines. The concept of geometric mean radius, GMR and
geometric mean distance GMD are discussed, and the function [GMD, GMRL,

141
142 4. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

GMRC] = gmd is developed for the evaluation of GMR and GMD. This func­
tion is very useful for computing the inductance and capacitance of single-circuit
or double-circuit transmission lines with bundled conductors. Alternatively, the
function [L, C] = gmd2LC returns the line inductance in mH per km and the
shunt capacitance in /zF per km. Finally the effects of electromagnetic and electro­
static induction are discussed. A new GUI program named lcgui is developed for
the computation of transmission line parameters. This is a user-friendly program,
which makes the data entry for various configurations very easy.

4.2 OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

A transmission circuit consists of conductors, insulators, and usually shield wires,
as shown in Figure 4.1. Transmission lines are hung overhead from a tower usually
made of steel, wood or reinforced concrete with its own right-of-way. Steel tow­
ers may be single-circuit or double-circuit designs. Multicircuit steel towers have
been built, where the tower supports three to ten 69-kV lines over a given width
of right-of-way. Less than 1 percent of the nation’s total transmission lines are
placed underground. Although underground ac transmission would present a solu­
tion to some of the environmental and aesthetic problems involved with overhead
transmission lines, there are technical and economic reasons that make the use of
underground ac transmission prohibitive.

FIGURE 4.1
Typical lattice-type structure for 345-kV transmission line.
 4.2. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES 143

The selection of an economical voltage level for the transmission line is based
on the amount of power and the distance of transmission. The voltage choice^to­
gether with the selection nTmndnrtnr .size is mainly a process of weighing
losses, audible noise, and radio interference level against fixed charges on the in­
vestment. Standard transmission voltages are established in the United States by
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines op­
erating at more than^O kV are standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV,
230 kY<345 kV; 500 kV, 765 kV line-to-line. Transmission voltages above 230 kV
are usually referred to as ex^aJu^hjvolta^e_(^y) and those at 765 kV and above
are referred to as ultra-high yaltagc.^ The most commonly used conductor
materials for high voltage transmission lines are ACSR (aluminum conductor steel-
reinforced), AAC (all-aluminum conductor), AAAC (all-aluminum alloy conduc­
tor), and ACAR (aluminum conductor alloy-reinforced). The reason for their pop­
ularity is their low relative cost and high strength-to-weight ratio as compared to
copper conductors. Also, aluminum is in abundant supply, while copper is limited
in quantity. A table of the most commonly used ACSR conductors is stored in file
acsr.m Characteristics of other conductors can be found in conductor handbooks
or manufacturer’s literature. The conductors are stranded to have flexibility. The
strands surrounded by
alnnwHMW as shown in Figure 4.2. Each layer of strands is spiraled in the opposite
direction of its adjacent layer. This spiraling holds the strands in place. The script
file acsr.m has been updated to the GUI program named acsrgui.

FIGURE 4.2
Cross-sectional view of a 24/7 ACSR conductor.

Conductor manufacturers provide the characteristics of the standard conduc­

tors with conductor sizes expressed in circular mils (cmil). One mil equals 0.001
inch, and for a solid round conductor the area in circular mils is defined as the
square of diameter in mils. As an example, 1,000,000 cmil represents an area of
a solid round conductor 1 inch in diameter. In addition, code words (bird names)
have been assigned to each conductor for easy reference.
At voltages above 230 kV, it is preferable to use more than one conductor
per phase, which is known as bundling of conductors. The bundle consists of two,
three, or four conductors. Bundling increases the effective radius of the line’s con­
ductor and reduces the electric field strength near the conductors, which reduces
corona power loss, audible noise, and radio interference. Another important ad­
vantage of bundling is reduced line reactance.

4.3 LINE RESISTANCE

The resistance of the conductor is very important in transmission efficiency eval­

uation and economic studies. The de resistance of a solid round conductor at a
specified temperature is given by

where p = conductor resistivity

I = conductor length
A = conductor cross-sectional area
The conductor resistance is affected by three factors: frequency, spiraling,
and temperature.
When ac flows in a conductor, the current distribution is not uniform over
the conductor cross-sectional area and the current density is greatest at the surface
of the conductor. This causes the ac resistance to be somewhat higher than the de
resistance. This behavior is known as skin effect. At 60 Hz, the ac resistance is
about 2 percent higher than the de resistance.
Since a stranded conductor is spiraled, each strand is longer than the finished
conductor. This results in a slightly higher resistance than the value calculated from
4.1.
The conductor resistance increases as temperature increases. This change can
be considered linear over the range of temperature normally encountered and may
be calculated from

T + t2
J?2 — Ri (4.2)
T + tx

where R<z and R\ are conductor resistances at and respectively. T is a

temperature constant that depends on the conductor material. For aluminum T ~
228.
Because of the above effects, the conductor resistance is best determined from
manufacturers’ data.
4.4 INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE CONDUCTOR

A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor. The

magnetic flux lines are concentric closed circles with direction given by the right­
hand rule. With the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers of the
right hand encircled the wire point in the direction of the magnetic field. When the
current changes, the flux changes and a voltage is induced in the circuit. By defi­
nition, for nonmagnetic material, the inductance L is the ratio of its total magnetic
flux linkage to the current I, given by

L- j (4.3)

where X = flux linkages, in Weber turns.

Consider a long round conductor with radius r, carrying a current I as shown
in Figure 4.3.

FIGURE 4.3
Flux linkage of a long round conductor.

The magnetic field intensity Hx, around a circle of radius x9 is constant and
tangent to the circle. The Ampere’s law relating Hx to the current Ix is given by

(4.4)

or

where Ix is the current enclosed at radius x. As shown in Figure 4.3, Equation

(4.5) is all that is required for evaluating the flux linkage A of a conductor. The
146 4. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

inductance of the conductor can be defined as the sum of contributions from flux
linkages internal and external to the conductor.

4.4.1 INTERNAL INDUCTANCE

A simple expression can be obtained for the internal flux linkage by neglecting the
skin effect and assuming uniform current density throughout the conductor cross
section, i.e.,

7TT2
(4.6)

Substituting for Ix in (4.5) yields

For a nonmagnetic conductor with constant permeability /zo, the magnetic flux
density is given by Bx — ^Hx, or

where is the permeability of free space (or air) and is equal to 47t x 10~7H/m.
The differential flux d(i) for a small region of thickness dx and one meter length of
the conductor is

(4.9)

The flux d(f>x links only the fraction of the conductor from the center to radius x.
Thus, on the assumption of uniform current density, only the fraction 7nr2/7rr2 of
the total current is linked by the flux, i.e.,

(4.10)

The total flux linkage is found by integrating dXx from 0 to r.

(4.11)

From (4.3), the inductance due to the internal flux linkage is

(4.12)

Note that Lint is independent of the conductor radius r.

 4.4. INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE CONDUCTOR 147

4.4.2 INDUCTANCE DUE TO EXTERNAL FLUX LINKAGE

Consider Hx external to the conductor at radius x > r as shown in Figure 4.4.

Since the circle at radius x encloses the entire current, Ix — I and in (4.5) Ix is
replaced by I and the flux density at radius x becomes

BX^^HX = ^- (4.13)

FIGURE 4.4
Flux linkage between Pi and P2.

Since the entire current I is linked by the flux outside the conductor, the flux link­
age dXx is numerically equal to the flux d(f)x. The differential flux d(j)x for a small
region of thickness dx and one meter length of the conductor is then given by

dXx = d(/)x = Bxdx • 1 = -—dx (4.14)

2tvx
The external flux linkage between two points and D? is found by integrating
dXx from D\ to Do-

—dx
27T /£>! X
2xlO“7Zln^ Wb/m
(4.15)
Pl

The inductance between two points external to a conductor is then

£2
= 2 x ICT7 In H/m (4.16)
Pl
4.5 INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE-PHASE LINES

Consider one meter length of a single-phase line consisting of two solid round
conductors of radius ri and t'2 as shown in Figure 4.5. The two conductors are
separated by a distance D. Conductor 1 carries the phasor current 1\ referenced
into the page and conductor 2 carries return current 12 = —Ii. These currents set
up magnetic field lines that links between the conductors as shown.

FIGURE 4.5
Single-phase two-wire line.

Inductance of conductor 1 due to internal flux is given by (4.12). The flux

beyond D links a net current of zero and does not contribute to the net magnetic
flux linkages in the circuit. Thus, to obtain the inductance of conductor 1 due to
the net external flux linkage, it is necessary to evaluate (4.16) from D\ = rj to
D2 = D.

LUext) = 2 x IO'7 111 ~ H/m (4.17)

The total inductance of conductor 1 is then

Li = i x 10“7 + 2 x 10“7 In — H/m

(4.18)
2 n

Equation (4.18) is often rearranged as follows:

Li = 2 x IO*7 Q+ln^

= 2 x IO'7 (lnei +ln^- +lny)

=2*’o-7(>^+‘4) (4.19)
Let Fj = ne 4, the inductance of conductor 1 becomes

Li = 2 x 10_7ln 4 + 2 x 10~7 In — H/m (4.20)

ri 1

Similarly, the inductance of conductor 2 is

L2 = 2 x IO-7 In 4 + 2 x 1(T7 In — H/m (4.21)

r2 1

If the two conductors are identical, n — = r and L\ = L2 ~ L, and the

inductance per conductor per meter length of the line is given by

L = 2 x 10”7 In 4 + 2 x l()“7ln — H/m (4.22)

r 1
Examination of (4.22) reveals that the first term is only a function of the conductor
radius. This term is considered as the inductance due to both the internal flux and
that external to conductor 1 to a radius of 1 m. The second term of (4.22) is depen­
dent only upon conductor spacing. This term is known as the inductance spacing
factor. The above terms are usually expressed as inductive reactances at 60 Hz and
are available in the manufacturers table in English units.
The term rf — re~* is known mathematically as the self-geometric mean
distance of a circle with radius r and is abbreviated by GMR. r' can be considered
as the radius of a fictitious conductor assumed to have no internal flux but with the
same inductance as the actual conductor with radius r. GMR is commonly referred
to as geometric mean radius and will be designated by Ds. Thus, the inductance
per conductor in millihenries per kilometer becomes

L = 0.21nT mH/km (4.23)

4.6 FLUX LINKAGE IN TERMS OF

SELF- AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCES

The series inductance per phase for the above single-phase two-wire line can be
expressed in terms of self-inductance of each conductor and their mutual induc­
tance. Consider one meter length of the single-phase circuit represented by two
coils characterized by the self-inductances Ln and L22 and the mutual inductance
L12. The magnetic polarity is indicated by dot symbols as shown in Figure 4.6.
The flux linkages Ai and A2 are given by

Ai — Lulx 4- L12I2
A2 — L21-Z1 4- L22I2 (4.24)
 h Ln

i?
FIGURE 4.6
The single-phase line viewed as two magnetically coupled coils.

Since 1% — —Ii,we have

Ai = (Ln - £12)A
A2 = (-£21 + £22) £ (4.25)

Comparing (4.25) with (4.20) and (4.21), we conclude the following equivalent
expressions for the self- and mutual inductances:

£n = 2 x 1 (I 7 In 7
'4
_7 1
L22 ~ 2 x 10 In -y
r2
L12 = £21 = 2 x 10“7 In T (4.26)

The concept of self- and mutual inductance can be extended to a group of n con­
ductors. Consider n conductors carrying phasor currents Ii, Ta, • • •, -Tn, such that

Il + I2 + ' * ■ + ’ + In ~ 0 (4.27)

Generalizing (4.24), the flux linkages of conductor i are

n
Aj = Lali + Lijlj j i (4.28)
7=1

or

(4.29)
4.7 INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE
TRANSMISSION LINES

4.7.1 SYMMETRICAL SPACING

Consider one meter length of a three-phase line with three conductors, each with
radius r, symmetrically spaced in a triangular configuration as shown in Figure 4.7.

FIGURE 4.7
Three-phase line with symmetrical spacing.

Assuming balanced three-phase currents, we have

la + /& + /c 0 (4.30)

From (4.29) the total flux linkage of phase a conductor is

Aa = 2 x 10~7 (la In p 4- 4 In ~ In
(4.31)

Substituting for Ib + Ic ~ —Ia

Xa = 2xlO"7^Glnp-/Jn^

7 D
— 2 x 10 7 Ia In — (4.32)
r
Because of symmetry. Xb = Ac — Aa, and the three inductances are identical.
Therefore, the inductance per phase per kilometer length is

L = 0.21n^- mH/km (4.33)

where r' is the geometric mean radius, GMR, and is shown by Ds. For a solid
round conductor, Ds — re~~ 4 for stranded conductor Ds can be evaluated from
(4.50). Comparison of (4.33) with (4.23) shows that inductance per phase for a
three-phase circuit with equilateral spacing is the same as for one conductor of a
single-phase circuit.
4.7.2 ASYMMETRICAL SPACING

Practical transmission lines cannot maintain symmetrical spacing of conductors

because of construction considerations. With asymmetrical spacing, even with bal­
anced currents, the voltage drop due to line inductance will be unbalanced. Con­
sider one meter length of a three-phase line with three conductors, each with radius
r. The Conductors are asymmetrically spaced with distances shown in Figure 4.8.

FIGURE 4.8
Three-phase line with asymmetrical spacing.

The application of (4.29) will result in the following flux linkages.

(4.34)

or in matrix form

A — LI (4.35)

where the symmetrical inductance matrix L is given by

'Ini
L = 2x 10~7 Ini
lnsb (4.36)
L lllZ>n lnlfe

For balanced three-phase currents with Ia as reference, we have

(4.37)
where the operator a — 1Z1200 and a2 — 1Z2400. Substituting in (4.34) results in

= 2 x 10~7 fin + a2 In + a In
la \ r' D12 D13J
Lb = ~ = 2x ICT7 (a In —J— 4-In4-a2ln—J—
lb \ Di2 r D23J
Lc = = 2 x 10~7 fa2ln-i- +aln-|— 4-ln~) (4.38)
Ic \ D13 D23 r'J

Examination of (4.38) shows that the phase inductances are not equal and they
contain an imaginary term due to the mutual inductance.

4.73 TRANSPOSE LINE

A per-phase model of the transmission line is required in most power system anal­
ysis. One way to regain symmetry in good measure and obtain a per-phase model
is to consider transposition. This consists of interchanging the phase configuration
every one-third the length so that each conductor is moved to occupy the next phys­
ical position in a regular sequence. Such a transposition arrangement is shown in
Figure 4.9.

FIGURE 4.9
A transposed three-phase line.

Since in a transposed line each phase takes all three positions, the inductance
per phase can be obtained by finding the average value of (4.38).

(4.39)

Noting a + a2 = 1Z1200 4- 1Z2400 = — 1, the average of (4.38) becomes

2 x ICT7
L “ ln 7T- ~ ln
3 -D12 d23
or

(4.40)

or the inductance per phase per kilometer length is

L ~ 0.2 In - mH/km (4.41)

where

GMD = ^Di2D23Pi3 (4.42)

This again is of the same form as the expression for the inductance of one phase
of a single-phase line. GMD (geometric mean distance) is the equivalent con­
ductor spacing. For the above three-phase line this is the cube root of the prod­
uct of the three-phase spacings. Ds is the geometric mean radius, GMR. For
stranded conductor Ds is obtained from the manufacturer’s data. For solid con­
ductor, Ds ~ rf = re~i.
In modem transmission lines, transposition is not generally used. However,
for the purpose of modeling, it is most practical to treat the circuit as transposed.
The error introduced as a result of this assumption is very small.

4.8 INDUCTANCE OF BUNDLED OR STRANDED CONDUCTORS

In the evaluation of inductance, solid round conductors were considered. However,

in practical transmission lines, stranded conductors are used. Also, for reasons of
economy, most EHV lines are constructed with bundled conductors. In this section
an expression is found for the inductance of stranded or bundled conductors. The
result can be used for evaluating the GMR of stranded or bundled conductors. It
is also useful in finding the equivalent GMR and GMD of parallel circuits. Con­
sider a single-phase line consisting of two bundled conductors x and y as shown in
Figure 4.10. The current in x is I referenced into the page, and the return current
in y is —I. Conductor x consists of n identical strands or subconductors, each with
radius rx. Conductor y consists of m identical strands or subconductors, each with
radius ry. The current is assumed to be equally divided among the subconductors.
The current per strand is I/n in x and I/m in y. The application of (4.29) will
result in the following expression for the total flux linkage of conductor a
FIGURE 4.10
Single-phase line with two bundled conductors.

-2 x 1(T7

or

\ OkzIA—7ri L)aa'Dab'Dac> ' ' ' ^am

Aa — 2 x 10 7 In (4.43)
y/r'xDabDac ■ ■ ■ Dan
The inductance of subconductor a is

£a = Al
1 /n
= 2n x IO”7 ln l P^Dab'D<.~: Da™
\/r'TDabDac - ■ ■ Dan
(4.44)

Using (4.29), the inductance of other subconductors in x are similarly obtained.

For example, the inductance of the subconductor n is

y Dna'Dnb'Dnc> ' ' ' Dnm

Ln = — 2n x 10 7 In ________________ (4.45)
I/n ^xDnaDnb - ■ • Dnc

The average inductance of any one subconductor in group x is

t _ La + Lb + Lc + Ln
^av — 1 (4.46)
n
Since all the subconductors of conductor x are electrically parallel, the inductance
of x will be
t — ^av — La + Lb + Lc + • • • + Ln
±jx — — - (4.47)
n n~
substituting the values of L„, Lb, Lc, ■ ■ ■, Ln in (4.47) results in

Lx = 2 x ICT7 In H/meter (4.48)

J V JL Jt L ; £
where

GMD = {Daa'Dab' ■ ■ ■ Dam) • • ■ (Dna^Dnb, ~ Dnm) (4.49)

and

GMRX = n\J{DaaDab • • ■ Dan) • • • (DnaDnb- ■ • Dnn) (4.50)

where Daa = Dbb-- = Dnn = r'x

GMD is the mnth root of the product of the mnth distances between n strands of
conductor x and m strands of conductor y. GMRX is the n2 root of the product of
n2 terms consisting of r' of every strand times the distance from each strand to all
other strands within group x.
The inductance of conductor y can also be similarly obtained. The geometric
mean radius GMRy will be different. The geometric mean distance GMD, how­
ever, is the same.

Example 4.1 (chp4ex 1)

A stranded conductor consists of seven identical strands each having a radius r as
shown in Figure 4.11. Determine the GMR of the conductor in terms of r.

FIGURE 4.11
Cross section of a stranded conductor.

From Figure 4.11, the distance from strand 1 to all other strands is:

D12 — Die — Di7 ~ 2r

Du = 4r
£>13 = £>15 = \/D?4 - D25 ~ 2\/3r

From (4.50) the GMR of the above conductor is

GMR ~ 4y/(r' • 2r • 2\/3r • 4r • 2V*ir • 2r • 2r)6 • r'(2r)6

 = ryj(e) 4 (2)6 (3)? (2)t

= 2.1767r

With a large number of strands the calculation of GMR can become very tedious.
Usually these are available in the manufacturer’s data.

4.8.1 GMR OF BUNDLED CONDUCTORS

Extra-high voltage transmission lines are usually constructed with bundled con­
ductors. Bundling reduces the line reactance, which improves the line performance
and increases the power capability of the line. Bundling also reduces the voltage
surface gradient, which in turn reduces corona loss, radio interference, and surge
impedance. Typically, bundled conductors consist of two, three, or four subcon­
ductors symmetrically arranged in configuration as shown in Figure 4.12. The sub­
conductors within a bundle are separated at frequent intervals by spacer-dampers.
Spacer-dampers prevent clashing, provide damping, and connect the subconductors
in parallel.

ft

d ) d d

FIGURE 4.12
Examples of bundled arrangements.

The GMR of the equivalent single conductor is obtained by using (4.50). If

Ds is the GMR of each subconductor and d is the bundle spacing, we have

for the two-subconductor bundle

s = tf(Ds x d)2 = J), x .

Db (4.51)

for the three-subconductor bundle

Dbs = y/(Da xdxd)3 = y/Ds x d2 (4.52)

for the four-subconductor bundle

s=
Db xdxdxdx2-i)i= 1.09 ^Ds x d3 (4.53)
4.9 INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE
DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINES

A three-phase double-circuit line consists of two identical three-phase circuits. The

circuits are operated with «i~a2, b\-b2, and C1-C2 in parallel. Because of geomet­
rical differences between conductors, voltage drop due to line inductance will be
unbalanced. To achieve balance, each phase conductor must be transposed within
its group and with respect to the parallel three-phase line. Consider a three-phase
double-circuit line with relative phase positions <216101-0262^2, as shown in Figure
4.13.
dl C2
O— Si 1 —0
1
1
1
1
6l0-------------- S22 -------------- ©^2

I
I

0--------- ^33 --------- 0

Ci a2
FIGURE 4.13
Transposed double-circuit line.

The method of GMD can be used to find the inductance per phase. To do
this, we group identical phases together and use (4.49) to find the GMD between
each phase group

■Gab Gd^^D^^2 Gd2bxGa2b2

DbC Gb±Ci -^&lC2 -^^>2^1

Dac \jDaiCxDaiC2Da2C\Da2C2 (4.54)

The equivalent GMD per phase is then
GMD == \ZDabDbcDac (4.55)
Similarly, from (4.50), the GMR of each phase group is
DSA = y(»Mia2)2 = DbsDaia2

Dsb = {DbDbyb2)2 = ^DbDblb2

DSC = ^DbsDClC2y = \j DbDClC2

(4.56)
where Db is the geometric mean radius of the bundled conductors given by (4.51 )-
(4.53). The equivalent geometric mean radius for calculating the per-phase induc­
tance to neutral is

GMRl - VDsaDsbDsc (4.57)

The inductance per phase in millihenries per kilometer is

L — 0.2 In mH/km (4.58)

GMRl

4.10 LINE CAPACITANCE

Transmission line conductors exhibit capacitance with respect to each other due to
the potential difference between them. The amount of capacitance between con­
ductors is a function of conductor size, spacing, and height above ground. By defi­
nition, the capacitance C is the ratio of charge q to the voltage V, given by

C = ~ (4.59)

Consider a long round conductor with radius r, carrying a charge of q coulombs

per meter length as shown in Figure 4.14.

FIGURE 4.14
Electric field around a long round conductor.

The charge on the conductor gives rise to an electric field with radial flux
lines. The total electric flux is numerically equal to the value of charge on the
conductor. The intensity of the field at any point is defined as the force per unit
charge and is termed electric field intensity designated as E. Concentric cylinders
surrounding the conductor are equipotential surfaces and have the same electric
flux density. From Gauss’s law, for one meter length of the conductor, the electric
flux density at a cylinder of radius x is given by

(4.60)

The electric field intensity E may be found from the relation

(4.61)
co

where £q is the permittivity of free space and is equal to 8.85 x 10 12 F/m. Substi­
tuting (4.60) in (4.61) results in
7 (4.62)
27TS0#

The potential difference between cylinders from position D\ to Dz is defined as

the work done in moving a unit charge of one coulomb from D% to Di through the
electric field produced by the charge on the conductor. This is given by

Via = [D2 Edx = fD2 ^—dx = -i- In (4.63)

JDi JDt 27T6o E>i

The notation V12 implies the voltage drop from 1 relative to 2, that is, 1 is under­
stood to be positive relative to 2. The charge q carries its own sign.

4.11 CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE-PHASE LINES

Consider one meter length of a single-phase line consisting of two long solid round
conductors each having a radius r as shown in Figure 4.15. The two conductors are
separated by a distance D. Conductor 1 carries a charge of q± coulombs/meter
and conductor 2 carries a charge of qz coulombs/meter. The presence of the sec­
ond conductor and ground disturbs the field of the first conductor. The distance of
separation of the wires D is great with respect to r and the height of conductors
is much larger compared with D. Therefore, the distortion effect is small and the
charge is assumed to be uniformly distributed on the surface of the conductors.
Assuming conductor 1 alone to have a charge of q-^ the voltage between
conductor 1 and 2 is

v qi 1 D (4.64)
Vl2(9l) - 2^ln 7
 qi

FIGURE 4.15
Single-phase two-wire line.

Now assuming only conductor 2, having a charge of q<z, the voltage between con­
ductors 2 and 1 is

TZ ® . D
V2'i«> = 2^ln7

Since = -^2i(92). we have

tz Q2 , r
- 2^ln D (4.65)

From the principle of superposition, the potential difference due to presence of

both charges is

(4.66)

For a single-phase line t/2 = ~qi = ~q> and (4.66) reduces to

(4.67)

From (4.59), the capacitance between conductors is

(4.68)

Equation (4.68) gives the line-to-line capacitance between the conductors. For the
purpose of transmission line modeling, we find it convenient to define a capacitance
C between each conductor and a neutral as illustrated in Figure 4.16. Since the

1 C12 2 1 c 2
o------ 11------- o o ■o
FIGURE 4.16
Illustration of capacitance to neutral.
voltage to neutral is half of V12, the capacitance to neutral C = 2C12, or

C= F/m (4.69)
ln^

Recalling so = 8.85 x 10~12 F/m and converting to /iF per kilometer, we have
0.0556
C =----- /iF/km (4.70)
T

The capacitance per phase contains terms analogous to those derived for inductance
per phase. However, unlike inductance where the conductor geometric mean radius
(GMR) is used, in capacitance formula the actual conductor radius r is used.

4.12 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN A

MULTICONDUCTOR CONFIGURATION

Consider n parallel long conductors with charges qi, q2,... ,qn coulombs/meter as
shown in Figure 4.17.

710 O

FIGURE 4.17
Multiconductor configuration.

Assume that the distortion effect is negligible and the charge is uniformly
distributed around the conductor, with the following constraint

Ql + q2 + • • • 4- qn — 0 (4.71)
Using superposition and (4.63), potential difference between conductors i and j
due to the presence of all charges is
n Dkj
1
In (4.72)
27T£0 Dki
fc=i
When k ~ i, Da is the distance between the surface of the conductor and its center,
namely its radius r.
4.13 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE LINES

Consider one meter length of a three-phase line with three long conductors, each
u ith radius r, with conductor spacing as shown Figure 4.18.

FIGURE 4.18
Three-phase transmission line.

Since we have a balanced three-phase system

Qa + qb + qc = 0 (4.73)

We shall neglect the effect of ground and the shield wires. Assume that the line is
transposed. We proceed with the calculation of the potential difference between a
and b for each section of transposition. Applying (4.72) to the first section of the
transposition, Vab is

(4.74)

Similarly, for the second section of the transposition, we have

(4.75)
r

and for the last section

1
= 2«„ (4.76)

The average value of is

( , ^12-D‘23f7i3 r3
X'ab (3)27r£0 ^ln—+

, ^12^23^13^
+</c n r>i2£>23/W (4.77)
or
/ , (^12^23-C>13)3 , j r
Vab o (4.78)
2tt60 \ r (D12D23Dl3y3 J

Note that the GMD of the conductor appears in the logarithm arguments and is
given by

GMD = VDl2D23D13 (4.79)

Therefore, Vab is
TZ 1 / GMD r
Vab = z----- Qa In-------- + qb In gmd) (4.80)
27T£0 \ r
Similarly, we find the average voltage Vac as

/ , GMD
Vac = \Qa In —- ----- 1- qc In (4.81)
27T£0 GMD J

Adding (4.80) and (4.81) and substituting for qb 4- qc ~ ~qa^ we have

T7 1 1 GMD 1 r \ 3qa GMD

ab + Vac - (2qa In qa In J ------jn----------- (4.82)
r 27T£o

For balanced three-phase voltages,

(4.83)

Therefore,

Kit + Kic — 3 Km (4.84)

Substituting in (4.82) the capacitance per phase to neutral is

Qa 27T€q
c ^. (4.85)

or capacitance to neutral in /rF per kilometer is

0.0556 r,„
— ln gmd Mf/km (4.86)
r

This is of the same form as the expression for the capacitance of one phase of
a single-phase line. GMD (geometric mean distance) is the equivalent conductor
spacing. For the above three-phase line this is the cube root of the product of the
three-phase spacings.
4.14 EFFECT OF BUNDLING

The procedure for finding the capacitance per phase for a three-phase transposed
line with bundle conductors follows the same steps as the procedure in Section
4.13. The capacitance per phase is found to be

C ~ [n CMP F/m (4.87)

The effect of bundling is to introduce an equivalent radius rb. The equivalent ra­
dius rb is similar to the GMR (geometric mean radius) calculated earlier for the
inductance with the exception that radius r of each subconductor is used instead of
Ds. If d is the bundle spacing, we obtain for the two-subconductor bundle

rb = Vrxd (4.88)

for the three-subconductor bundle

rb = y/rx d2 (4.89)

for the four-subconductor bundle

rb = 1.09 yV x d3 (4.90)

4.15 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE

DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINES

Consider a three-phase double-circuit line with relative phase positions aifeiCi -

as shown in Figure 4.13. Each phase conductor is transposed within its
group and with respect to the parallel three-phase line. The effect of shield wires
and the ground are considered to be negligible for this balanced condition. Fol­
lowing the procedure of section 4.13, the average voltages Vac and Van are
calculated and the per-phase equivalent capacitance to neutral is obtained to be
27TcQ
C=^d F/m (4.91)
111 GMRC

or capacitance to neutral in //F per kilometer is

0.0556
C ~ in GMD F^/km (4.92)
111 GMRC

The expression for GMD is the same as was found for inductance calculation and
is given by (4.55). The GMRC of each phase group is similar to the GMRl, with
166 4. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

the exception that in (4.56) rb is used instead of Db. This will result in the following
equations

where rb is the geometric mean radius of the bundled conductors given by (4.88) -
(4.90). The equivalent geometric mean radius for calculating the per-phase capaci­
tance to neutral is

GMRC = ^/rA rs rc (4.94)

4.16 EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE CAPACITANCE

For an isolated charged conductor the electric flux lines are radial and are orthog­
onal to the cylindrical equipotential surfaces. The presence of earth will alter the
distribution of electric flux lines and equipotential surfaces, which will change the
effective capacitance of the line.
The earth level is an equipotential surface, therefore the flux lines are forced
to cut the surface of the earth orthogonally. The effect of the presence of earth
can be accounted for by the method of image charges introduced by Kelvin. To
illustrate this method, consider a conductor with a charge q coulombs/meter at a
height H above ground. Also, imagine a charge -q placed at a depth H below
the surface of earth. This configuration without the presence of the earth surface
will produce the same field distribution as a single charge and the earth surface.
Thus, the earth can be replaced for the calculation of electric field potential by a
fictitious charged conductor with charge equal and opposite to the charge on the
actual conductor and at a depth below the surface of the earth the same as the
height of the actual conductor above earth. This imaginary conductor is called the
image of the actual conductor. The procedure of Section 4.13 can now be used for
the computation of the capacitance.
The effect of the earth is to increase the capacitance. But normally the height
of the conductor is large as compared to the distance between the conductors,
and the earth effect is negligible. Therefore, for all line models used for balanced
steady-state analysis, the effect of earth on the capacitance can be neglected. How­
ever, for unbalanced analysis such as unbalanced faults, the earth’s effect as well
as the shield wires should be considered.
 4.16. EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE CAPACITANCE 167

Example 4.2 (chp4ex2)

A 500-kV three-phase transposed line is composed of one AC SR 1,272,000-
cmil, 45/7 Bittern conductor per phase with horizontal conductor configuration as
shown in Figure 4.19. The conductors have a diameter of 1.345 in and a GMR of
0.5328 in. Find the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the line.

a b c
Q— r»i2 = 35'---- 0— d23 = 35'----- 0

*--------------------- Pi3 = 70'--------------------- >

FIGURE 4.19
Conductor layout for Example 4.2.

Conductor radius is r = = 0.056 ft, and GMRl — 0.5328/12 = 0.0444 ft.

GMD is obtained using (4.42)

GMD = ^35 x 35 x 70 = 44.097 ft

From (4.58) the inductance per phase is

44 097
L — 0.2 In = 1.38 mH/km
0.0444
and from (4.92) the capacitance per phase is

0 0556
C = f 44.097 0 0083 /iF/km
ln 0.056

Example 4.3 (chp4ex3)

The line in Example 4.2 is replaced by two AC SR 636,000-cmil, 24/7 Rook
conductors which have the same total cross-sectional area of aluminum as one
Bittern conductor. The line spacing as measured from the center of the bundle is
the same as before and is shown in Figure 4.20.

a b c
0,0 O|O O|O
*18"*
r—P12 = 35'- ~------ 7^23 = 35z
-D13 = 70'-
FIGURE 4.20
Conductor layout for Example 4.3.
The conductors have a diameter of 0.977 in and a GMR of 0.3924 in. Bundle
spacing is 18 in. Find the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of
the line and compare it with that of Example 4.2.
Conductor radius is r — = 0.4885 in, and from Example 4.2 GMD =
44.097 ft. The equivalent geometric mean radius with two conductors per bundle,
for calculating inductance and capacitance, are given by (4.51) and (4.88)

„. x/d x Ds x/18 x 0.3924

GMR,. 12 = ------------------ = 0.22147 ft
12
and
x/18 x 0.4885
GMRC = = 0.2471 ft
12
From (4.58) the inductance per phase is
44 097
L = 0'2 ln 0~22147 = 1'°588 mH/km

and from (4.92) the capacitance per phase is

0.0556
C = f 44?097 = 0-0107 /iF/km
ln 0.2471

Comparing with the results of Example 4.2, there is a 23.3 percent reduction in
the inductance and a 28.9 percent increase in the capacitance.
The function [GMD, GMRL, GMRC] = gmd is developed for the computa­
tion of GMD, GMRl, and GMRc for single-circuit, double-circuit vertical, and
horizontal transposed lines with up to four bundled conductors. A menu is dis­
played for the selection of any of the above three circuits. The user is prompted
to input the phase spacing, number of bundled conductors and their spacing, con­
ductor diameter, and the GMR of the individual conductor. The specifications for
some common AC SR conductors are contained in a file named acsr.m. The com­
mand acsr will display the characteristics of AC SR conductors. Also, the function
[L, C] = gmd21c in addition to the geometric mean values returns the inductance
in mH per km and the capacitance in /zF per km.
A new GUI program named lcgui is developed for the computation of trans­
mission line parameters. This is a user-friendly program, which makes the data
entry for various configurations very easy.

Example 4.4 (Run lcgui)

A 735-kV three-phase transposed line is composed of four ACSR, 954,000-cmil,
45/7 Rail conductors per phase with horizontal conductor configuration as shown
in Figure 4.21. Bundle spacing is 46 cm. Use acsrgui in MATLAB to obtain the
conductor size and the electrical characteristics for the Rail conductor. Find the
inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer of the line.
 r*—Z?i2 = 44.5'—*-*—i?23 — 44.5-

- ------------------- P13 - 89'---------------

FIGURE 4.21
Conductor layout for Example 4.4.

The command acsr displays the conductor code name and the area in cmils for the
ACSR conductors. The user is then prompted to enter the conductor code name
within single quotes.

Enter ACSR code name within single quotes -> ’rail’

Al Area Strand Diameter GMR Resistance Ohm/km Ampacity
cmil Al/St cm cm 60Hz 25C 60Hz 50C Ampere
954000 45/7 2.959 1.173 0.0624 0.0683 1000

The following commands

[GMD, GMRL, GMRC] = gmd;

L=0.2*log(GMD/GMRL) % mH/km Eq. (4.58)
C = 0.0556/log(GMD/GMRC) % micro F/km Eq. (4.92)

result in

Number of three-phase circuits Enter

Single-circuit 1
Double-circuit vertical configuration 2
Double-circuit horizontal configuration 3
To quit 0

Select number of menu —> 1

Enter spacing unit within quotes ’m? or ’ft’ —> ’ft’
Enter row vector [D12, D23, D13] = [44.5 44.5 89]
Cond. size, bundle spacing unit: ’em’ or ?inJ —> ’em’
Conductor diameter in cm = 2.959
Geometric Mean Radius in cm - 1.173
No. of bundled cond. (enter 1 for single cond.) = 4
Bundle spacing in cm = 46
GMD = 56.06649 ft
GMRL = 0.65767 ft GMRC = 0.69696 ft
L = 0.8891
C = 0.0127
Example 4.5 (Run lcgui)
A 345-kV double-circuit three-phase transposed line is composed of two AC SR,
1,431,000-cmil, 45/7 Bobolink conductors per phase with vertical conductor con­
figuration as shown in Figure 4.22. The conductors have a diameter of 1.427 in and
a GMR of 0.564 in. The bundle spacing in 18 in. Find the inductance and capaci­
tance per phase per kilometer of the line. The following commands

a c'
OraSn = n m-o-o

Hy — 7 m

b QO| * -S22 = 16.5 m-------0-0 b'

H23 = 6.5 m
0^0— S33 = 12.5 m —0-0

c a'
FIGURE 4.22
Conductor layout for Example 4.5.

[GMD, GMRL, GMRC] = gmd;

L=0.2*log(GMD/GMRL) % mH/km Eq. (4.58)
C = 0.0556/log(GMD/GMRC) % micro F/km Eq. (4.92)

result in

Number of three-phase circuits Enter

Single-circuit 1
Double-circuit vertical configuration 2
Double-circuit horizontal configuration 3
To quit 0
Select number of menu -> 2
Circuit Arrangements
(1) abc-c’b’a’
(2) abc-a’b’c’

Enter (1 or 2) -> 1
Enter spacing unit within quotes ’m’ or ’ft’ —> ’m’
Enter row vector [Sil, S22, S33] = [11 16.5 12.5]
Enter row vector [H12, H23] = [7 6.5]
Cond. size, bundle spacing unit: ’em’ or ’in’ -» ’in’
 Conductor diameter in inch = 1.427
Geometric Mean Radius in inch = 0.564
No. of bundled cond. (enter 1 for single cond.) = 2
Bundle spacing in inch = 18
GMD = 11.21352 m
GMRL = 1.18731 m GMRC = 1.25920 m
L = 0.4491
C = 0.0254

Example 4.6 (Run lcgui)

A 345-kV double-circuit three-phase transposed line is composed of one AC SR.
556,500-cmil, 26/7 Dove conductor per phase with horizontal conductor configu­
ration as shown in Figure 4.23. The conductors have a diameter of 0.927 in and a
GMR of 0.3768 in. Bundle spacing is 18 in. Find the inductance and capacitance
per phase per kilometer of the line. The following commands

a b c a1 2 b' d
0— 8 m ■0 8m -0 Sn = 9 m 0 8m 0• 8 m —0

FIGURE 4.23
Conductor layout for Example 4.6.

[GMD, GMRL, GMRC] = gmd;

L=0.2*log(GMD/GMRL) 70 mH/km Eq. (4.58)
C = 0.0556/log(GMD/GMRC) % micro F/km Eq. (4.92)

result in

Number of three-phase circuits Enter

Single-circuit 1
Double-circuit vertical configuration 2
Double-circuit horizontal configuration 3
To quit 0
Select number of menu —> 3
Circuit Arrangements
(1) abc-a’b’c’
(2) abc-c’b’a’
Enter (1 or 2) —> 1
Enter spacing unit within quotes 'm’ or ’ft’ ’m’
Enter row vector [D12, D23, S13] =[88 16]
Enter distance between two circuits, Sil = 9
 Cond. size, bundle spacing unit: ’em’ or ’in’ —> ’in’
Conductor diameter in inch = 0.927
Geometric Mean Radius in inch = 0.3768
No. of bundled cond. (enter 1 for single cond.) = 1
GMD = 14.92093 m
GMRL = 0.48915 m GMRC = 0.54251 m
L = 0.6836
C = 0.0168

4.17 MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION

Transmission line magnetic fields affect objects in the proximity of the line. The
magnetic fields, related to the currents in the line, induces voltage in objects that
have a considerable length parallel to the line, such as fences, pipelines, and tele­
phone wires.
The magnetic field is affected by the presence of earth return currents. Car-
son [14] presents an equation for computation of mutual resistance and inductance
which are functions of the earth’s resistivity. For balanced three-phase systems the
total earth return current is zero. Under normal operating conditions, the magnetic
field in proximity to balanced three-phase lines may be calculated considering the
currents in the conductors and neglecting earth currents.
Magnetic fields have been reported to affect blood composition, growth, be­
havior, immune systems, and neural functions. There are general concerns regard­
ing the biological effects of electromagnetic and electrostatic fields on people.
Long-term effects are the subject of several worldwide research efforts.

Example 4.7 (chp4ex7)

A three-phase untransposed transmission line and a telephone line are supported on
the same towers as shown in Figure 4.24. The power line carries a 60-Hz balanced
current of 200 A per phase. The telephone line is located directly below phase
b. Assuming balanced three-phase currents in the power line, find the voltage per
kilometer induced in the telephone line.
From (4.15) the flux linkage between conductors 1 and 2 due to current Ia is

^i2(/a) ~ ln 77^ mWb/km

Since A12 due to It, is zero. The flux linkage between conductors 1 and
2 due to current Ic is

W)-0.24 In mWb/km
Z-'cl
 a b c
3.6 m Q 3.6 m -0

\ \ / /
Dai Da2 Dci DC2 4 m
' \ z'
\b\2/
® ® +
—H 1.2 mH—

FIGURE 4.24
Conductor layout for Example 4.6.

Total flux linkage between conductors 1 and 2 due to all currents is

0,9 0^9
An = 0.2Ia In 0 0.21c In mWb/km
Dal Dcl
For positive phase sequence, with Ia as reference, Ic = Ia/.—240° and we have
Ax2 = 0.24 (ln=^ + lZ-240°ln^) mH/km
\ Dai Dcx J
With Ia as reference, the instantaneous flux linkage is
Ai2(t) — v/2 |A121 cos(W + a)

Thus, the induced voltage in the telephone line per kilometer length is

v — __ -y/2 cu| A12I cos(cut 4- a + 90°)

(IL

The rms voltage induced in the telephone line per kilometer is

V — cu|Ai21 Zee + 90° = jcuAi2
From the circuits geometry
Dai = DC2 = (32 + 42)5 = 5 m
Da2 = Dcl = (4.22 + 42)i = 5.8 m

The total flux linkage is

A12 = 0.2 x 2OOZO0 In — + 0.2 x 200Z—240° In

5 5.8
- 10.283Z - 30° mWb/km
The voltage induced in the telephone line per kilometer is
v = >A12 = j2tt60(10.283Z-30°)(10^3) = 3.88Z600 V/km
4.18 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

Transmission line electric fields affect objects in the proximity of the line. The
electric field produced by high voltage lines induces current in objects which are
in the area of the electric fields. The effects of electric fields becomes of increasing
concern at higher voltages. Electric fields, related to the voltage of the line, are the
primary cause of induction to vehicles, buildings, and objects of comparable size.
The human body is affected with exposure to electric discharges from charged
objects in the field of the line. These may be steady current or spark discharges.
The current densities in humans induced by electric fields of transmission lines are
known to be much higher than those induced by magnetic fields.
The resultant electric field in proximity to a transmission line can be obtained
by representing the earth effect by image charges located below the conductors at
a depth equal to the conductor height.

4.19 CORONA

When the surface potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength
of the surrounding air, ionization occurs in the area close to the conductor surface.
This partial ionization is known as corona. The dielectric strength of air during fair
weather and at NTP (25°C and 76 cm of Hg) is about 30 kV/cm.
Corona produces power loss, audible hissing sound in the vicinity of the line,
ozone and radio and television interference. The audible noise is an environmental
concern and occurs in foul weather. Radio interference occurs in the AM band.
Rain and snow may produce moderate TVI in a low signal area. Corona is a func­
tion of conductor diameter, line configuration, type of conductor, and condition of
its surface. Atmospheric conditions such as air density, humidity, and wind influ­
ence the generation of corona. Corona losses in rain or snow are many times the
losses during fair weather. On a conductor surface, an irregularity such as a con­
taminating particle causes a voltage gradient that may become the point source of
a discharge. Also, insulators are contaminated by dust or chemical deposits which
will lower the disruptive voltage and increase the corona loss. The insulators are
cleaned periodically to reduce the extent of the problem. Corona can be reduced by
increasing the conductor size and the use of conductor bundling.
The power loss associated with corona can be represented by shunt conduc­
tance. However, under normal operating conditions g, which represents the resis­
tive leakage between a phase and ground, has negligible effect on performance and
is customarily neglected, (i.e., g = 0).
PROBLEMS
4.1. A solid cylindrical aluminum conductor 25 km long has an area of 336,400
circular mils. Obtain the conductor resistance at (a) 20°C and (b) 50°C. The
resistivity of aluminum at 20°C is 2.8 x 10-8 Q-m.

4.2. A transmission-line cable consists of 12 identical strands of aluminum, each

3 mm in diameter. The resistivity of aluminum strand at 20°C is 2.8 x
10-8 Q-m. Find the 50°C ac resistance per km of the cable. Assume a skin­
effect correction factor of 1.02 at 60 Hz.

4.3. A three-phase transmission line is designed to deliver 190.5 MVA at 220 kV

over a distance of 63 km. The total transmission line loss is not to exceed
2.5 percent of the rated line MVA. If the resistivity of the conductor material
is 2.84 x IO"8 Q-m, determine the required conductor diameter and the
conductor size in circular mils.

4.4. A single-phase transmission line 35 km long consists of two solid round con­
ductors, each having a diameter of 0.9 cm. The conductor spacing is 2.5 m.
Calculate the equivalent diameter of a fictitious hollow, thin-walled conduc­
tor having the same equivalent inductance as the original line. What is the
value of the inductance per conductor?

4.5. Find the geometric mean radius of a conductor in terms of the radius r of an
individual strand for
(a) Three equal strands as shown in Figure 4.25(a)
(b) Four equal strands as shown in Figure 4.25(b)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.25
Cross section of the stranded conductor for Problem 4.5.

4.6. One circuit of a single-phase transmission line is composed of three solid 0.5-
cm radius wires. The return circuit is composed of two solid 2.5-cm radius
wires. The arrangement of conductors is as shown in Figure 4.26. Applying
the concept of the GMD and GMR, find the inductance of the complete line
in millihenry per kilometer.
4.18 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

Transmission line electric fields affect objects in the proximity of the line. The
electric field produced by high voltage lines induces current in objects which are
in the area of the electric fields. The effects of electric fields becomes of increasing
concern at higher voltages. Electric fields, related to the voltage of the line, are the
primary cause of induction to vehicles, buildings, and objects of comparable size.
The human body is affected with exposure to electric discharges from charged
objects in the field of the line. These may be steady current or spark discharges.
The current densities in humans induced by electric fields of transmission lines are
known to be much higher than those induced by magnetic fields.
The resultant electric field in proximity to a transmission line can be obtained
by representing the earth effect by image charges located below the conductors at
a depth equal to the conductor height.

4.19 CORONA

When the surface potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength
of the surrounding air, ionization occurs in the area close to the conductor surface.
This partial ionization is known as corona. The dielectric strength of air during fair
weather and at NTP (25°C and 76 cm of Hg) is about 30 kV/cm.
Corona produces power loss, audible hissing sound in the vicinity of the line,
ozone and radio and television interference. The audible noise is an environmental
concern and occurs in foul weather. Radio interference occurs in the AM band.
Rain and snow may produce moderate TVI in a low signal area. Corona is a func­
tion of conductor diameter, line configuration, type of conductor, and condition of
its surface. Atmospheric conditions such as air density, humidity, and wind influ­
ence the generation of corona. Corona losses in rain or snow are many times the
losses during fair weather. On a conductor surface, an irregularity such as a con­
taminating particle causes a voltage gradient that may become the point source of
a discharge. Also, insulators are contaminated by dust or chemical deposits which
will lower the disruptive voltage and increase the corona loss. The insulators are
cleaned periodically to reduce the extent of the problem. Corona can be reduced by
increasing the conductor size and the use of conductor bundling.
The power loss associated with corona can be represented by shunt conduc­
tance. However, under normal operating conditions g, which represents the resis­
tive leakage between a phase and ground, has negligible effect on performance and
is customarily neglected, (i.e., g = 0).
PROBLEMS
4.1. A solid cylindrical aluminum conductor 25 km long has an area of 336,400
circular mils. Obtain the conductor resistance at (a) 20°C and (b) 50°C. The
resistivity of aluminum at 20°C is 2.8 x 10~8 Q-m.

4.2. A transmission-line cable consists of 12 identical strands of aluminum, each

3 mm in diameter. The resistivity of aluminum strand at 20°C is 2.8 x
10-8 Q-m. Find the 50°C ac resistance per km of the cable. Assume a skin­
effect correction factor of 1.02 at 60 Hz.

4.3. A three-phase transmission line is designed to deliver 190.5 MVA at 220 kV

over a distance of 63 km. The total transmission line loss is not to exceed
2.5 percent of the rated line MVA. If the resistivity of the conductor material
is 2.84 x 10~8 Q-m, determine the required conductor diameter and the
conductor size in circular mils.

4.4. A single-phase transmission line 35 km long consists of two solid round con­
ductors, each having a diameter of 0.9 cm. The conductor spacing is 2.5 m.
Calculate the equivalent diameter of a fictitious hollow, thin-walled conduc­
tor having the same equivalent inductance as the original line. What is the
value of the inductance per conductor?

4.5. Find the geometric mean radius of a conductor in terms of the radius r of an
individual strand for
(a) Three equal strands as shown in Figure 4.25(a)
(b) Four equal strands as shown in Figure 4.25(b)

FIGURE 4.25
C ross section of the stranded conductor for Problem 4.5.

4.6. One circuit of a single-phase transmission line is composed of three solid 0.5-
cm radius wires. The return circuit is composed of two solid 2.5-cm radius
wires. The arrangement of conductors is as shown in Figure 4.26. Applying
the concept of the GMD and GMR, find the inductance of the complete line
in millihenry per kilometer.
0-5 m—0—5 m—0 10 m 0-5 m-0
s------------- v-------------/

Conductor x Conductor y

FIGURE 4.26
Conductor layout for Problem 4.6.

A three-phase, 60-Hz transposed transmission line has a flat horizontal con­

figuration as shown in Figure 4.27. The line reactance is 0.486 Q per kilo­
meter. The conductor geometric mean radius is 2.0 cm. Determine the phase
spacing D in meters.

a b c
0— D 0 D —0
- ------------------- 2D ------------------- -
FIGURE 4.27
Conductor layout for Problem 4.7.

4.8. A three-phase transposed line is composed of one ACSR 159,000-cmil, 54/19

Lapwing conductor per phase with flat horizontal spacing of 8 m as shown
in Figure 4.28. The GMR of each conductor is 1.515 cm.
(a) Determine the inductance per phase per kilometer of the line.
(b) This line is to be replaced by a two-conductor bundle with 8 m spacing
measured from the center of the bundles as shown in Figure 4.29. The spac­
ing between the conductors in the bundle is 40 cm. If the line inductance per
phase is to be 77 percent of the inductance in part (a), what would be the
GMR st each new conductor in the bundle?

a 6 c
Q— D12 -8m —Q— £>23 = 8 m —Q

----------------- -D13 = 16 m---------------- *-

FIGURE 4.28
Conductor layout for Problem 4.8 (a).
a b C
O|O O|O O|O
* 40 * | i
r— I>12 = 8 m ——— £>23 -8m —
---------------- D13 = 16 m---------------- J

FIGURE 4.29
Conductor layout for Problem 4.8 (b).
4.9. A three-phase transposed line is composed of one ACSR, 1,431,000-cmil,
47/7 Bobolink conductor per phase with flat horizontal spacing of 11 m as
shown in Figure 4.30. The conductors have a diameter of 3.625 cm and a
GMR of 1.439 cm. The line is to be replaced by a three-conductor bun­
dle of ACSR, 477,000-cmil, 26/7 Hawk conductors having the same cross-
sectional area of aluminum as the single-conductor line. The conductors have
a diameter of 2.1793 cm and a GMR of 0.8839 cm. The new line will also
have a flat horizontal configuration, but it is to be operated at a higher volt­
age and therefore the phase spacing is increased to 14 m as measured from
the center of the bundles as shown in Figure 4.31. The spacing between the
conductors in the bundle is 45 cm. Determine
(a) The percentage change in the inductance.
(b) The percentage change in the capacitance.

a b c
Q— £>12 = 11 m —— £>23 = 11 m —

-----------------------Du — 22 m------------------------ *•

FIGURE 4.30
Conductor layout for Problem 4.9 (a).

FIGURE 4.31
Conductor layout for Problem 4.9 (b).

4.10. A single-circuit three-phase transposed transmission line is composed of four

ACSR, 1,272,000-cmil conductor per phase with horizontal configuration as
shown in Figure 4.32. The bundle spacing is 45 cm. The conductor code
name is pheasant. In MATLAB, use command acsrgui to find the conductor
diameter and its GMR. Determine the inductance and capacitance per phase
per kilometer of the line. Use function [GMD, GMRL, GMRC] =gmd,
(4.58) and (4.92) in MATLAB to verify your results.
 a b c
0 0 O O 0 0
O|O O|O O|O
- 45 - 1 1
----- D12 = 14 m- - D23 — 14 m——1

*<-------------------- Dis — 28 m
FIGURE 4.32
Conductor layout for Problem 4.10.

4.11. A double circuit three-phase transposed line is composed of two ACSR, 2,

167, 000-cmil, 72/7 Kiwi conductor per phase with vertical configuration as
shown in Figure 4.33. The conductors have a diameter of 4.4069 cm and a
GMR of 1.7374 cm. The bundle spacing is 45 cm. The circuit arrangement is
ai^ici, C2b2fl2- Find the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer
of the line. Find these values when the circuit arrangement is aiftici, azb^z-
Use function [GMD, GMRL, GMRC] =gmd, (4.58) and (4.92) in MATLAB
to verify your results.
ai C2
OrO~ Saia2 = 16 m O

Hu — 10 m

&i O * ^162 — 24 m e-o b2

H'23 — 9m
O^e— SC1C2 17 m

ci
FIGURE 4.33
Conductor layout for Problem 4.11.

4.12. The conductors of a double-circuit three-phase transmission line are placed

on the comer of a hexagon as shown in Figure 4.34. The two circuits are
in parallel and are sharing the balanced load equally. The conductors of the
circuits are identical, each having a radius r. Assume that the line is sym­
metrically transposed. Using the method of GMD, determine an expression
for the capacitance per phase per meter of the line.
4.13. A 60-Hz, single-phase power line and a telephone line are parallel to each
other as shown in Figure 4.35. The telephone line is symmetrically posi­
tioned directly below phase b. The power line carries an rms current of 226
A. Assume zero current flows in the ungrounded telephone wires. Find the
magnitude of the voltage per km induced in the telephone line.

FIGURE 4.35
Conductor layout for Problem 4.13.

4.14. A three-phase, 60-Hz untransposed transmission line runs in parallel with

a telephone line for 20 km. The power line carries a balanced three-phase
rms current of Ia ~ 320/0° A, 4 = 3202-120° A, and Ic — 3202-240°
A. The line configuration is as shown in Figure 4.36. Assume zero current
flows in the ungrounded telephone wires. Find the magnitude of the voltage
induced in the telephone line.

4.15. Since earth is an equipotential plane, the electric flux lines are forced to cut
the surface of the earth orthogonally. The earth effect can be represented by
placing an oppositely charged conductor a depth H below the surface of the
earth as shown in Figure 4.37(a). This configuration without the presence
a b c
Q----- 4 m ------ @----- 4 m------- Q

5m

d e
G-2in-e
FIGURE 4.36
Conductor layout for Problem 4.14.

of the earth will produce the same field as a single charge and the earth sur­
face. This imaginary conductor is called the image conductor. Figure 4.37(b)
shows a single-phase line with its image conductors. Find the potential dif­
ference Vab and show that the equivalent capacitance to neutral is given by

27T6

q qa qb = ~qa

✓ ' I ' X
/ X
/ >' I ' ' X
/
/ f
i I V \

/
f
I
f'
I
1
h\ '
\
\

I I I I » \
i I I I ‘
I I I I
) I V
I I I
i t 1

I I i I
Hi2
I
I X I I I
1 I / t
\ t I I I
\ / !
\ I J
/
I
/
I 1
/

~q q<i qb
(a) Earth plane replaced (b) Single-phase line and its image
by image conductor

FIGURE 4.37
Conductor layout for Problem 4.15.