METHOD OF DIFFERENTIATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION :
The essence of calculus is the derivative. The derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a function
with respect to one of its variables. This is equivalent to finding the slope of the tangent line to the function
at a point. Let us use the view of derivatives as tangents to motivate a geometric definition of the derivative.

1.1 GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF A DERIVATIVE :

Let P x 0 , f ( x 0 )  and Q(x0 + h, f(x0+ h)) be two points very close to each other on the curve y = f(x).
Draw PM and QN perpendiculars from P and Q on x-axis, and draw PL as perpendicular from P on
QN. Let the chord PQ produced to meet the x-axis at R and QRN = QPL = .

Now in right-angled triangle QPL

QL NQ  NL NQ  MP f (x0  h)  f (x0 )
tan  =   =
PL MN ON  OM (x 0  h)  x 0

f (x0  h)  f (x0 )
= .........(1)
h
when h  0, the point Q moving along the curve tends to P, i.e., Q  P. The chord PQ approaches the
tangent line PT at the point P and then  . Now applying Lim in equation (1), we get
h 0

f (x 0  h )  f (x 0 )
Lim tan   y
h0 h Q

f (x0  h)  f (x0 ) 
 tan   Lim y = f(x) P
L
h 0 h
f (x 0  h)  f (x 0 )
 f '(x0) = Lim
h0 h
 
x
O T R M N
This definition of derivative is also called the first
principle of derivative. Clearly, the domain of
definition of f '(x) is wherever the above limit exits.

Note that if y = f (x) then the symbols

dy
= Dy = f ' (x) = y1 or y' have the same meaning.
dx

However a dot, denotes the time derivative.

• dS • d
e.g. S ;  etc.
dt dt

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 1.2 STANDARD DERIVATIVES :
d n d x
(i) x  nx n  1 , x  R, n  R, x > 0 (ii) (e ) = ex
dx dx
d x d
(iii) (a ) = ax ln a (iv) ln | x | = 1
dx dx x

(v)
d
loga x  = 1 logae (vi)
d
(sin x ) = cos x
dx x dx
d d
(vii) (cos x ) = – sin x (viii) (tan x ) = sec2x
dx dx
d d
(ix) (cot x ) = – cosec2x (x) (sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d
(xi) (cosec x ) = – cosec x cot x
dx

2.0 THEOREM ON DERIVATIVES :

d
T-1 : f1x   f 2 x   d f1( x )  d f 2 ( x ) .
dx dx dx
d
T-2 : kf x   k d f ( x ), where k is any constant.
dx dx

T-3 : PRODUCT RULE :

d
f1 ( x ) f 2 x   f1 ( x ) d f 2 ( x )  f 2 ( x ) d f1 ( x ) .
dx dx dx
Note : If 3 functions are involved then remember
D f ( x ) · g( x ) · h ( x )  = f (x)·g (x)·h '(x) + g (x)·h (x)·f '(x) + h (x)·f (x)·g '(x)
(fg )' ( h )  (gh )' (f )  ( hf )' (g )
=
2
This result can be generalised to the product of n functions

T-4 QUOTIENT RULE :

f (x )
y=
g( x )

 f ( x )  g( x ) · f ' ( x )  f (x ) · g ' (x )
D   = , to be remembered as
 g(x)  g2 (x)

d d
 Nr  Dr (Nr )  Nr (D r )
 
D r  = dx dx ;
D  (Dr )2

1 f ' (x)
Note: If y = then D(y) = – 2
f (x) f (x)

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 T-5 DIFFERENTIATION OF COMPOSITE FUNCTION (CHAIN RULE) :
If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, then fog is also differentiable and (fog)' (x) = f '(g(x)).g'(x).
d d d
or, {fog(x)} = d g ( x ) {(fog) (x)} (g(x))
dx dx
or
If y is a function of t and t is a function of x, then
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx
Thus, if y = f(t) and t = (x)
dt
=  '(x)
dx
dy dy dt
 = × = f '(t)  '(x). This rule is called Chain Rule.
dx dt dx
This chain rule can be extended as follows
Let y = f(t), t = (z), z = (x)
dy dy dt dt
then = × × = f '(t) '(z) '(x)
dx dt dz dx
Let y = log sin x3 = log t
Putting t = sin x3 = sin z, z = x3
dy dy dt dz  1 
 = × × = (1/t) cos z 3x2 =  3 2 2
3  (cos x ) × 3x = 3x cot x
3
dx dt dz dx  sin x 
dy dy du
Note : If y = f (u) and u = g (x) then = · .
dx du dx
It can be extended for any number of functions. In general if y = (E)C where E = function of x and
C = constant then
dy d
= C(E)C – 1 · ( E )
dx dx

T-6 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION :

To find the derivative of :

(i) a function which is the product or quotient of a number of functions

f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) f3 ( x ).....
y = f1(x) f2(x) f3(x) ........ or y = g ( x ) g ( x ) g ( x )..... .
1 2 3
(ii) a function of the form [f(x)]g(x) where f & g are both derivable, it will be found convenient to take the
logarithm of the function first & then differentiate
OR
y = f ( x ) g ( x )  eg ( x ).ln f ( x )  and then differentiate.

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 T-7 IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS :

If the variables x and y are connected by a relation of the form f(x, y) = 0 and it is not possible to express
y as a function of x in the form y = (x), then such functions are said to be implicit functions.
For example,
(i) x2 + xy + y3 = 1 (ii) x + y + sin (xy) = 1 (iii) xy + yx = 1
2 2
y
(iv) 16x  16x  y  1

DERIVATIVE OF IMPLICIT FUNCTION :

(i) In order to find dy/dx, in the case of implicit functions, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x regarding
y as a functions of x & then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally find dy/dx.

(ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit functions, both x & y are present.

A DIRECT FORMULA FOR IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS :

Let f(x, y) = 0. Take all the terms of left side and put left side equal to f(x, y).
dy diff. of f w.r.t. x keeping y as constant
Then =–
dx diff. of f w.r.t. y keeping x as constant

T-8 DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS :

Theorem :

If the inverse functions f & g are defined by y = f(x) & x = g(y) & if f(x) exists & f(x)  0 then
1 dy dy
g (y) = . This result can also be written as,if exists &  0,
f ( x ) dx dx

dx 1 dy dx dy 1 dx
then  or . =1 or  [  0]
dy dy dx dy dx dx dy
dx dy

DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS :

d 1 d 1
(i) (sin 1 x ) = (ii) (cos 1 x ) =
dx 2
(1  x ) dx (1  x 2 )

d 1 d 1
(iii) (tan 1 x ) = (iv) (cot 1 x ) =
dx 1 x2 dx 1 x2
d 1 d 1
(v) (sec1 x ) = (vi) (cosec1x ) =
dx | x | x 1 dx | x | x 1

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 The following table gives the derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions.

f (x) sin 1 x cos 1 x tan 1 x cot 1 x sec 1 x cosec 1 x

1 1 1 1 1 1
f ' (x )
(1  x 2 ) 1 x2 (1  x 2 ) 1 x2 | x | x2 1 | x | x2 1
Domain of f ' (1, 1) (1, 1) R R ( ,1)  (1,  ) ( ,1)  (1, )

Note : Some Standard Substitutions

Expressions Substitution
a2  x2 x = a sin  or a cos 

a2  x2 x = a tan  or a cot 

x2  a2 x = a sec  or a cosec 

ax ax
or x = a cos  or a cos 2
ax ax

 2x   1 x2 
Derivative of sin–1   –1   –1  2 x  ; sin–1(3x – 4x3); cos–1(4x3 – 3x)
2 ; cos  2  ; tan  
1 x  1 x  1 x2 

 2 tan 1 x x 1
 2x  
(i) y = f(x) = sin1  
2 =
  2 tan 1 x x 1

 1x     2 tan 1 x

 x  1

Highlights :

(a) Domain is x  R & Note: f is odd, aperiodic bound

  
range is  , 
 2 2

(b) f is continuous for

all x but not differentiable
at x = 1 , – 1

 2 for x 1
dy  1 x2
x 1
dx = 
(c) non existent for
  2 for x 1
 1 x 2

(d) Increasing in (–1 , 1) & decreasing in (–  , – 1)  (1 , )

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  1  x 2   2 tan 1 x if x  0
(ii) Consider y = f (x) = cos–1  
2 =  1
 1  x   2 tan x if x  0
Highlights :

(a) Domain is x  R &

range is (0 , )
(b) Continuous for all x
but not differentiable at x = 0

 2 for x  0
dy  1 x2
nonexistent for x  0
(c) dx = 
  22 for x  0
 1x

(d) Increasing in (0 , ) & decreasing in (–  , 0) Note: f is even, a periodic bound.

 2 tan 1 x x 1
2x  1
(iii) y = f (x) = tan–1 2 =    2tan x x  1
1 x

   2tan 1 x

 x 1
Highlights :

(a) Domain is R – {1 , – 1} &

range is    ,  
 2 2
(b) f is neither continuous
nor differentiable at x = 1 , – 1

dy  2 x 1
 1 x2
(c) =
dx nonexistent x 1
(d) Increasing  x in its domain
(e) It is bound for all x



   3 sin 1 x  if  1  x   12
1
(iv) y = f (x) = sin1 (3 x  4 x3) =  3 sin x if  12  x  12
   3 sin 1 x if 1  x 1
 2
Highlights :

(a) Domain is x  [ 1 , 1] &

  
range is  , 
 2 2
1
(b) Not derivable at x 
2
 3 2 if x   12 , 12 
dy  1 x
(c) dx =  3 if x   1,  12   12 , 1
 1 x 2
(d) Continuous everywhere in its domain

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 3 cos 1 x  2 if  1  x   12
 1
(v) y = f (x) = cos-1 (4 x3 – 3 x) = 2  3 cos x if  12  x  12
 3 cos 1 x if 1  x 1
 2

Highlights :

(a) Domain is x  [– 1 , 1] &

range is [0 , ]

(b) Continuous everywhere in its domain

1 1
but not derivable at x = , 
2 2

 1 1
(c) Increasing in   ,  &
 2 2
1   1
Decreasing in  , 1    1,  
2   2

 3 2 if x    12 , 1 
dy 2
(d) =  1 x3
dx  if x    1,  12   12 , 1
 1 x
2

T-9 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION :

In some situation curves are represented by the equations e.g. x = sin t & y = cos t
If x = f (t) and y = g (t) then
dy dy dt g' ( t )
= · =
dx dt dx f ' (t )

T-10 DIFFERENTIATION OF ONE FUNCTION W.R.T. OTHER

FUNCTION :

If y = f (x) and z = g (x) then derivative of f (x) w.r.t. g (x) is given by

dy dy dx f ' (x )
= · =
dz dx dz g' ( x )
derivative of f(x) w.r.t. x f ' ( x )
 Differential coefficient of f (x) w.r.t. g(x) = =
derivative of g(x) w.r.t. x g' ( x )

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 T-11 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION :
y = f (x) ; the popular symbols used to denote the derivatives
dy
are = Dy = f ' (x) = y1 = y'. Higher order derivatives are
dx
d  dy  d 2 y
denoted as  = = D2y = f '' (x) = y2 or y'' etc.
dx  dx  dx 2
Note :
A homogeneous equation of degree n represents 'n' straight lines passing through the origin, hence
dy y d2y
= and =0
dx x dx 2

d2y 
e.g. If x3 + 3x2y – 6xy2 + 2y3 = 0, then  0
dx 2  (1,1)

DEDUCTION OF NEW IDENTITIES BY DIFFERENTIATING A GIVEN

IDENTITY :
x x x x sin x
(i) If cos · cos 2 · cos 3 ....... cos n  , then prove that
2 2 2 2 2n sin x 2n  
n
1 x 1 x
 2r tan 2r =
2 n
cot n  cot x
2
r 1

(ii) (1 + x)n = C0 + C1x + C2x2 + ....... + Cnxn, prove that

D(1+x)n = C1 + 2C2 + 3C3 + ....... + nCn = n2n – 1
C0 + 2C1 + 3C2 + ....... + (n + 1)Cn = (n + 2)2n – 1

DERIVATIVE OF FUNCTIONS EXPRESSED IN THE DETERMINANT

FORM :
f g h
Let F (x) = u v w where all functions are differentiable then
l m n

f ' g' h ' f g h f g h

D'(x) = u v w + u ' v ' w ' + u v w
l m n l m n l ' m' n '
This result may be proved by first principle and the same operation can also be done column wise.

Note :
(i) If (x  r) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) = anxn + an1xn  1+ an2xn2 +....+ a0 repeated m times
where 1  m  n then r is a root of the equation f  (x) = 0 repeated (m  1) times.

(ii) The derivative of even differentiable function is odd function and vice-versa.

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 L' HOSPITAL'S RULE FOR EVALUATING LIMITS :

0 
(1) Indeterminate forms of the type , . If the functions f (x) and g(x) are differentiable in a certain
0 
neighbourhood of the point a, except, may be the point a itself, and g'(x)  0, and if
Lim f ( x ) = Lim g( x ) = 0 or Lim f ( x ) = Lim g( x ) =  ,
xa xa xa xa

f (x ) f ' (x )
then Lim  Lim
x a g ( x ) x a g ' ( x )
f ' (x )
provided the limit Lim exists (L' Hospital rule). The point a may be either finite or
xa g' ( x )
improper + or –.
0 
(2) Indeterminate forms of the type 0· or  – are reduced to forms of the type or by algebraic
0 
transformations.

(3) Indeterminate forms of the type 1x, 0 or 00 are reduced to forms of the type 0 ·  by taking
logarithms or by the transformation [f (x)](x) = e (x) ln i(x).

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