Structure of the gas exchange system 

We need to breathe air into our lungs in order to get oxygen. We breathe air out of our lungs to
get rid of carbon dioxide. The lungs are two spongy organs found inside the chest (thorax). They
are surrounded and protected by the ribs and the sternum (breastbone). The diaphragm is a
sheet of fibrous tissue and muscle that separates the thorax from the abdomen. Its movement up
and down changes the volume of the lungs to move air when you breathe out and in. The
intercostal muscles between the ribs move the ribs during breathing. 

The external intercostal muscles (on the outside) contract to raise the ribs upwards and
outwards. The internal intercostal muscles (on the inside) contract to lower the ribs downwards
and inwards. 

Air enters the mouth or nose and passes through

the throat to the larynx (voice box). It then
enters the trachea (windpipe), which connects
the throat to the lungs. It branches to form two
bronchi, which each enter a lung. They continue
to divide to form many small bronchioles, which
end in tiny air sacs called alveoli. It is here that
gas exchange takes place. The tubes through
which air moves are often called airways. 

The
larynx
contains
the
vocal
cords. When air passes over these you make sounds. You cannot breathe and swallow at the
same time. This is because when you swallow, a flap called the epiglottis moves to cover the
opening to your larynx. This stops any food from going down your trachea. The trachea is kept
open by C - shaped rings of cartilage. The ' arms ' of the Care joined by muscle at the back of
the trachea. The cartilage prevents the trachea from collapsing as you breathe in when the air
pressure decreases. 

Deeper into the lungs 

There are a very large number of alveoli in the

lungs to give a huge surface area for diffusion
Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of blood
capillaries for efficient gas exchange into and out
of the blood. The alveoli have thin walls made of a
single layer of cells, so there is a short distance for
diffusion. They are moist so oxygen dissolves in
this watery fluid before diffusing through the walls
into the blood.
Breathing out carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide gas is a waste product made in respiration. It can become toxic if it builds up in
cells. We breathe out in order to get rid of the carbon dioxide.
We breathe out more carbon dioxide than the air that we breathe in and we breathe in more
oxygen than we breathe out also the air we breathe out has a lot more water vapour.

Gas exchange surfaces 

Gas exchange surfaces, such as the gills of a fish and the alveolar sacs of a human, have features
in common that adapt them for efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
 A very large surface area for the diffusion of gases 
 Moist surfaces so that gases can dissolve before diffusion
 A thin surface (only one cell thick in each alveolus) so the gases do not have to diffuse
very far 
 A good blood supply so that lots of oxygen is removed quick and lots of carbon dioxide is
supplied quickly. This maintains the concentration gradients for these gases. 

Ventilation of the lungs ensures that the air in the air passages is changed- this helps maintain
the gas concentration gradients between air in the alveoli and that in the blood.

Gas exchange at the alveolus 

When inspired (breathed in) air reaches the alveoli (air sacs) it contains a lot of oxygen. Oxygen
dissolves in the water lining each alveolus. It then diffuses through the wall of the alveolus and
through the capillary wall into the blood. Although this involves diffusing through two cells, the
distance is very small. 

Each alveolus has a network of capillaries around it. Oxygen molecules from the alveolus
diffuse into the red blood cells and combine with haemoglobin. The blood cells can then
transport this oxygen to the body tissues. 

There is a lot of carbon dioxide in the

capillary. It has been carried there
from the respiring tissues in the blood
plasma. The carbon dioxide diffuses in
the opposite direction, through the
capillary wall across the alveolar wall
into the space inside the alveolus. From
here it is breathed out. 

Alveoli are surrounded by elastic

tissue. This stretches when you breathe
in and recoils when you breathe out to
help remove air from the lungs. 

As a result of respiration, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is produced. So expired air
has less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than inspired air. The air we breathe out is
also saturated with water vapour that has evaporated from the moist walls of the
alveoli 
 When you breathe it feels as if the lungs are expanding to push your ribs outwards. This
is not so. When you breathe in, movements of your diaphragm and ribcage move the
chest cavity and pull on the lungs so they occupy a larger volume. This decreases the air
pressure inside the lungs to below the pressure of atmospheric air so that air moves in
through your nose and/ or mouth. When you breathe out, the diaphragm and
intercostal muscles relax and this causes the chest cavity to decrease in volume. The air
pressure in the lungs increases to above atmospheric pressure so air is forced out. You
can do this just by movement of your diaphragm alone.

This is fine for quiet breathing but during deep breathing and when you exercise the
intercostal muscles contract to move the ribs- Intercostal means between the ribs. There
are two layers of these muscles: the external muscles that are closer to the skin and the
internal muscles that are deeper into the chest wall. The diaphragm is made of tough
fibrous tissue in the centre and strong muscles that connect to the backbone, the lower
ribs and the sternum (breastbone). 

~The external intercostal muscles contract ~The internal intercostal muscles contract and
and the internal intercostals muscles relax, the external intercostal muscles relax. 
raising the ribs upwards and outwards.  ~This lowers the ribs downwards and inwards. 
~At the same time, the diaphragm contracts ~The muscle in the diaphragm relaxes and it
and flattens bulges up due to pressure from the organs below,
for example the liver and stomach, and
~Both of these actions increase the volume
contraction of the abdominal muscles. 
inside the thorax, causing the pressure ~Both of these actions decrease the volume inside
inside the thorax to decrease. the thorax, causing the pressure inside the thorax
~Since atmospheric pressure is greater, air to increase. 
moves into the lungs and they inflate ~Elastic recoil of the alveoli helps to force air out
of the lungs 

Cleaning the air 

As you breathe in through your nose, air is warmed and moistened by evaporation of water
from the lining. Hairs inside the nose filter the air, removing particles and some pathogens. 
The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are lined with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells,
which secrete mucus. Dust particles and pathogens become trapped in the slimy mucus. The
cilia beat to carry a stream of mucus up to your nose and throat, removing the particles and
pathogens, which you then swallow 
At rest a person probably takes 12 to 16 breaths per minute. When you exercise this breathing
rate changes

The rate and depth of breathing increase with exercise. When your muscles are working hard,
they need more oxygen, they also produce more carbon dioxide in respiration. 

Increasing the rate and depth of breathing gets more oxygen into the blood and gets rid of more
carbon dioxide from the blood. Muscles continue to respire quite fast after exercise finishes.
They still need a good supply of oxygen and they still have carbon dioxide to be removed. Your
pulse rate remains high after exercise because your heart is beating fast to deliver plenty of
blood to your muscles so they gain this extra oxygen and have their carbon dioxide removed. 

rate of respiration in rate and depth of oxygen delivered to

muscles more quickly 
exercise muscles increase breathing increases 
  carbon dioxide removed 
  from muscles more
quickly
Depth of breathing 

An adult can take in about 5 litres of air in their deepest breath. This is their vital capacity - the
maximum volume of air that is breathed out after breathing in as much air as possible. At rest,
about half a litre of air is breathed in and out. During exercise approximately four and a half
litres of extra air can be taken in during a deep breath. 

Control of breathing 

The brain has a special part for controlling breathing, when you exercise the tissues respire
more quickly and make more carbon dioxide, which lowers the pH in the tissues and the blood.
They may also make lactic acid.

The brain detects this rise in carbon dioxide and the lowering of the pH of the blood reaching it.
The brain sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and to the intercostal muscles so they contract
faster and further to increase the rate and depth of breathing. By breathing deeper and more
rapidly, you lower the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and this raises the blood pH
back to normal. In turn this has the same effect on the tissues because the blood flows through
them. This is an example of homeostasis.