Name____________________________________ Section____________________

MAGMA AND ITS COMPOSITION

Magma is the molten rock which lies underneath volcanoes. It is formed at destructive plate boundaries and is
rich in silicate. These are products of crustal rocks (which are richer in silica than the rock of the mantle).
Crystal Content
Some magmas begin to crystallize as they reach the surface. High temperature minerals are formed as
magma slowly cools down followed by low temperature minerals. Magma always contains crystals of high
temperature.
Viscosity
The magma’s silica content affects its viscosity, the resistance of the fluid to flow. Low viscosity magma
has low silica content and is composed mostly of basalt. While magma with rhyolite is viscous or high in viscosity
due to its high silica content. Temperature also affects the viscosity of the magma. Magma with high temperatures
have low viscosity while magma with low temperatures have high viscosity.
Temperature
Temperature of magma reflects the melting points of their mineral components. Magmas formed by partial
melting of mantle rocks are much hotter over 1200⁰C for some basalts. Rhyolites that reached the surface have
temperature of less than 900⁰C and have a much higher viscosity.
Volatile Content
Magma contains small amounts of dissolved gas (water vapor, Carbon dioxide, etc.) which is released as
pressure is removed. Magmas formed by melting of mantle rocks have generally low volatile contents, but those
formed by partial melting of crustal rocks are often volatile-rich. The degree of concentrations of different
volcanic gases are different from one volcano to the other. Water vapor is the most abundant volcanic gas,
followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. There are other volcanic gases such as hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. Trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions and these are: hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and volatile metal chloride. The movement of this volatile content is affected by the viscosity of the
magma. As the gas continues to precipitate from the high viscosity magma, the bubbles will be prevented from
rapidly breaking out resulting to the increase in pressure on the magma column. This causes the volcano to erupt
explosively.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MAGMA
Magma can be classified into basaltic or mafic, intermediate, or andesitic and granitic or felsic.
Table 1: Magma composition and characteristics
Composition Viscosity Temperature Gas Silica Explosiveness Location of
Content content formation
Basaltic Low 1000°C-1200°C 1-2 % About 50 Least Both oceanic and
Magma % explosive continental
Andesitic Intermediate 900°C - 1000°C 3-4 % About 60 Intermediate Continental
magma % margins associated
with subduction
zones

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 Rhyolitic High 750°C-900°C 4-6 % About 70 Most Continental crust
magma % explosive

PROCESS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

High temperature inside the Earth melts the solid rocks in the mantle and turns it into a thick molten mixture
commonly known as magma. The continuous melting of solid rocks and accumulation of additional magma push
it to the vent of a volcano, called magma chamber. Magma contains dissolved gases mostly water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. As dissolved gases are released from the magma, bubbles will begin to form through
the process called vesiculation. This can occur by decompression or crystallization. In decompression, the
confining pressure is lowered when magma rises which promotes bubble formation. This process is similar to
bubble formation in soda bottles when opened. In the process of crystallization of anhydrous minerals, the vapor
pressure of the residual liquid of the cooling magma increases leading to vesiculation. Bubbles frozen in a porous
or frothy volcanic rock are called vesicles. Both decompression and crystallization can trigger an explosive
eruption.
As the magma reaches the Earth’s surface it explodes due to the presence of dissolved gases. The type of
explosion of a volcano is dependent on the composition of magma.

VOLCANIC HAZARDS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Volcanic hazards are phenomena arising from volcanic activity that poses potential threat to people and
property. During major explosive eruptions, large amounts of volcanic gas, aerosol droplets, and ash are injected
into the stratosphere. Tephra or fragmented volcanic debris are violently ejected into the atmosphere and can
extend to tens of kilometers above. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is also dispersed into the atmosphere that
leads to global warming. On the other hand, sulfur dioxide can cause global cooling, ozone destruction and air
pollution. Below is a list of volcanic hazards common in the Philippine active volcanoes.
• Ash fall – pulverized rocks, sand, gritty and harsh glasses shoot out in the air by volcano.
• Mud flow – mixture of water, molten rocks and debris flowing down from the side of volcano to the ground.
It is also called as Lahar.
• Lava flow – streams of molten rocks and other fragmented materials emitted by erupting volcano.
• Pyroclastic flow – fast moving hot mixtures of gas, ash, and molten rocks moving away from the volcano to
the ground.
But why do people live near volcanoes?

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 VOLCANIC ERUPTION DANGER

ASH FALL MUD FLOW

Towns and Farms covered by tons of ash. Ash and rain form a catastrophic river of mud.

LAVA FLOW PYROCLASTIC FLOW

Temperature between 800 to 1,200 degree A cloud of a hot gas blasts down to volcano’s
Celsius. sides at 200 km/h.

The following are list of the Precautionary measures that can be practiced to lessen the danger before,
during, and after a volcanic eruption:

BEFORE
• Know the facts about volcanoes in your area like danger zones and history of eruptions.
• Know the location of designated evacuation site.
• Listen to the announcement of your authorities.
• Stock clean and safe drinking water and other food supplies.
DURING
• Stay inside your homes and keep doors and windows close. Secure you water and food
supplies.
• Wear mask, eye googles or face shield if you need to go out.
• Do not go near the danger zones.
• Listen to the news via television or radio devices. Obey the evacuation orders of the
authorities.

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 AFTER
• Assess the situation if it is safe to go out.
• Check the perimeter of your house for any possible damage.
• Clean and remove the volcanic ashes in the roof, gutters, and windows.
• Replace contaminated water and food supplies.
• Stay updated in news and announcements from your authorities.

Energy from the Volcano

Since our country is a home to more than a hundred volcanoes, energy has been tapped from the depths
of the Earth. Actually, the Philippines ranks second in the world’s production of geothermal energy. According
to the Department of Energy, 14.4% of the country’s total power of generation is produced from the geothermal
energy. The production of electricity from geothermal energy is cheaper than the electricity production using
natural gas, coal, and hydropower.

What is Geothermal Energy?

The Earth is believed to be extremely hot from within. This heat from the Earth’s interior is a source of energy
called geothermal energy. The heat of the Earth warms up water which is trapped in rock formations beneath its
surface.

There are two Geothermal Systems:

a. Conventional Geothermal System utilizes steam from natural resources such as geysers or by drawing
water from the hot, high-pressure depths of Earth; and
b. Supercritical Geothermal System a naturally occurring hot water or steams flows heated by magma and
circulating through permeable rock. In volcanic geothermal energy, the heat comes from supercritical.
The energy from supercritical water is much higher than conventional steam.

How is geothermal energy generated?

Geothermal energy is generated in two ways: geothermal power plants and geothermal heat pumps. They differ
in the depth of heat source to produce energy.

In geothermal power plants, the heat from deep inside the Earth is used to produce steam to generate electricity.
In comparison with geothermal heat pumps, it uses the heat coming from close to the Earth’s surface to heat water
or provide heat for buildings. In the Philippines, geothermal power plants are used to generate electricity in Tiwi
(Albay), Kidapawan (North Cotabato), Calaca (Laguna), Tongonan (Leyte), Bago City (Negros Occidental),
Valencia (Negros Oriental), and Bacon (Sorsogon).

Power Plant Volcano Location

Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant Mt. Malinao Tiwi, Albay

Mindanao Geothermal Production Field Mt. Apo Kidapawan, Cotabato

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 Makiling-Banahaw (Mak- Mt. Bulalo and Mt. Laguna
Ban) Geothermal Power Plant Olilia
Leyte Geothermal Power Various Mountains Leyte
Plants (Malitbog, Upper
Mahiao, Mahanagdong, Tongonan)
Negros Occidental Power Various Mountains, Negros Occidental
Plants (Northern Negros, Northern – Mt. Kanlaon
Palinpinon, Nasulo)
Southern – Mt. Talinis
BacMan Geothermal Power Pocdol Mountains Sorsogon
Stations 1 and 2

The Geothermal Power Plant

Power plants are built in an area where it is particularly hot just below the surface or near a group of
geysers, hot springs, or volcanic activity.

The following steps are followed to generate electricity in a geothermal power plant:

1. Wells are drilled deep into the earth to pump steam or hot water to the surface.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the drop in pressure causes the water to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
4. Cooling tower cools the steam and condenses it back to water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the earth to begin the process again.

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A VOLCANO is an opening in the Earth’s crust in which
molten rock came out.

A HOT SPRING is a source of water which flows out with a

temperature higher than the average temperature of the neighboring
areas.

Fumarole releases steam

A FUMAROLE is usually found in volcanic regions. It is a

hole in the grounds where vapors and gases come out.

A GEYSER is a spring that occasionally shoots out hot water and

steam.

MODULE 4: FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

You have probably experienced waking up to a rainy morning but spending the rest of the day sweating
because of the sun’s glaring heat. Changes in the atmospheric condition over a brief period of time such as a
day or a week are weather. These changes are part of a larger pattern of atmospheric conditions called climate.
Climate is the general pattern of the weather that occurs for a region over a number of years. Climate determines
what type of houses people build in a particular region, the plants and animals that inhabit in a location, and
even the livelihood of the people and community. Both weather and climate are the result of the interaction
of several Earth systems; 1) the movement of moisture in the water cycle that evaporates ocean water into the
air where it condenses into travelling clouds or storms that eventually cause rain or snow; 2) the movement of
heat that begins at the sun-soaked equator and moves warm air toward the north and south poles; and 3) the
movement of the oceans that takes icy-cold water from the poles to the tropics, warming or cooling the air
above the water. These factors, including the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, combine to form the high-
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and low-pressure systems and the climate of the location you live in. To understand the complex interactions
and patterns of weather and climate, scientists collect as much observational data as they can on precipitation,
temperatures, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions.

Different Factors that Affect Climate

There are different factors that affect the climate of a place. These five factors greatly influence the
temperature of an area. Latitude. Latitude is the main factor affecting global climate. The further we go from
the equator; the temperature drops and the cooler it gets. This is because we know that earth is curved which
means that the sun’s energy is more concentrated at the equator. This means
earth gets hotter at equator and places near equator.

Altitude. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude at an average

rate of 6.5°C for every 1000m increase in altitude, as the atmosphere
receives less heat through terrestrial radiation. For this reason, we know that
the mountains are always cooler compared to lower places.
The lower layers of atmosphere
are denser, have water vapor and dust
particles that absorb heat, which is not
prevalent in the higher altitude. At higher altitudes, the air is less dense and
air molecules are spread out and less likely to collide. Therefore, a higher
location in the mountains has lower average temperatures than one at the
base of the mountains. Distance from the sea. Land absorbs and
releases heat faster than water. This phenomenon has strong effect on the
temperature as well as the climate. Seas and oceans are the large bodies of
water on Earth, serve as the moderator of climate. In summer, large amount of water evaporates but dries up
quickly before it reaches the land because of temperature. Coastal areas are cooler in summer and warmer in
winter compared in inland at the same coordinate system. Places located on the coast have moderate
temperature as they are affected by land and sea breezes. Land and sea breeze can only be experienced in
coastal areas. The continuous movement of air from land to sea or vice versa balance the temperature and
climate on Earth. A sea breeze is a wind blowing from body of water toward the land while a land breeze is a
wind blowing from the land onto a body of water. This local wind system occurs along coastlines near large
bodies of water due to temperature differences between land surface and water surface.

Figure 3: Diurnal Wind Change in Coastal Area

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 During daytime, land surface heats up faster than the surface of ocean. The air above the land is warmer
causing it to rise. As the warm air over the land rises, the cooler air over the ocean is blowing toward the land
surface to replace the rising warm air. At nighttime, the land surface cools faster than the surface of ocean.
Therefore, the warm air over the ocean is rising while the denser and cooler air over the land is blowing toward
the ocean to replace the warmer presence air rising.

The effects of land and sea breezes extends inland from the coast. The higher temperature differences
between land and sea, the breezes are the stronger. The land breezes and sea breezes resulted in elevated
humidity levels, high precipitation, and temperature moderation in coastal areas and nearby lands.

In some places with no distinct summer and winter, these are due to its geographical location and the
presence of bodies of water. In places near the coastal, summer is cooler and winter is warmer. For example,
in Moscow and Glasgow in Russia, winter is moderate in Glasgow than in Moscow because it is near the coast.
People in London also experienced the same, even though its latitude is similar with Moscow, because it is
closer to the sea. In the Philippines, the climate is tropical with relatively high temperature, high humidity, and
abundant rainfall. The surrounding bodies of water and high temperature brings a high relative humidity to the
archipelago.

Prevailing winds. Prevailing winds are wind directions over a particular location on Earth due to uneven
heating from the sun and the rotation of earth on its axis. The equator receives most direct sunlight and greatest
concentration of heat resulting to a warm temperature while at the poles, there is a lower concentration of heat
resulting to a cold temperature. The warm air in the equator expands, become less dense, and rises. As the air
rises, it cools, decreases its pressure, and loses water vapor forming a low-pressure area at the equator. The
rising air at the equator does not flow directly to the poles because the Earth rotates on its axis causing an air
build up at 30˚ north or south latitudes. This rotation creates three belts of highpressure circulations cells: the
Hadley cell, Ferrel cell, and Polar cell. The Hadley cell is the air moving toward the equator. It is responsible
for the dry climate at 30˚ latitudes or the tropical and subtropical regions and drives circulation of air north and
south of the equator. The Ferrel cell is created when the air between 30˚ and 60˚ latitudes meets the cold air
from the poles. These winds are called westerlies that characterize weather patterns in the temperate zones. The
Polar cell is formed between 60˚ and 90˚ latitude. The air cools over the poles and sinks to the Earth’s surface.
These surface winds in the polar cell are called easterlies. The area where these three circulation cells come
together is called intertropical convergence zone. At intertropical convergence zone the trade winds from the
northern and southern hemispheres converge. The Earth’s rotation affects the air moving towards its surface,
it is deflected by the Coriolis force to the right in the northern hemisphere producing polar easterlies and to the
left in the southern hemisphere. The easterlies are created when the winds blow toward the equator and
deflected to the west. The westerlies are created when the winds blow toward the pole and deflected to the east.

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 Figure 4: Prevailing Winds

Ocean currents. Ocean currents are the continuous and directional movement of ocean created by the wind
friction, water density, earth’s rotation, solar energy, and gravity variation in different parts of the ocean. The
direction of water movement is either horizontal or vertical. The ocean current systems flow clockwise in the
northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere in circular patterns. The ocean currents
transport warm water and precipitation from the equator to the poles and cold water from the poles back to the
equator. These regulate the global climate, and uneven distribution of heat reaching earth’s surface.

Topography. The topography of earth's surface is one of the factors that affects weather system and climate.
The difference in elevation and mountain ranges determine the distribution of precipitation on earth. The bodies
of water shape the climates and create the high- and low-pressure systems that cause weather events. The
mountainous areas tend to have extreme weather because it acts as a barrier to air movements and moisture.

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 Leeward

Windward

Figure 6: Rain Shadow Effect

The windward side of the mountain faces the wind and receives warm, and moist air. As the wind hits the
mountain, the air is forced to move upward along the slope of the mountain and begins to cool due to decrease in
atmospheric pressure. The cooling of air results in the formation of clouds and precipitation. Because of this, the
windward side of the mountain is cooler and rich in vegetation. The leeward side of the mountain is the opposite
side of the windward. The air that goes down the leeward slope has lost its moisture on the windward side resulting
to warm air and low relative humidity. As the dry air descends the leeward slope, it expands and reduces the
possibility of precipitation forming a rain shadow effect. This side of the mountain is the driest place.

Module 5: Climatic Phenomena Occurring on a Global Level

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the natural warming process of the Earth that results when gases in the
atmosphere trap heat from the earth that would otherwise escape into space. Sunlight makes the earth habitable.
While 30 percent of the solar energy that reaches our world is reflected to space, approximately 70 percent passes
through the atmosphere to the earth’s surface, where it is absorbed by the land, oceans, and atmosphere, and heats
the planet. This heat is then radiated back up in the form of invisible infrared radiation. While some of this infrared
radiation continues on into space, the vast majority—indeed, some 90 percent—gets absorbed by atmospheric
gases, known as greenhouse gases, and redirected back toward the earth, causing further warming.

The different greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs),
per fluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride, and water vapor. These gases can be naturally occurring, or man-
made. The effect of each greenhouse gas on earth’s climate depends on its chemical nature and its relative
concentration in the atmosphere. Some gases have a high capacity for absorbing infrared radiation and occur in
significant quantities, whereas others have considerably lower capacities for absorption and occur only in traces.
Among the different greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide absorbs the least amount of energy.

For most of the past 800,000 years, much longer than human civilization has existed, the concentration of
greenhouse gases in our atmosphere was between about 200 and 280 parts per million. But in the past century,
that concentration has jumped to more than 400 parts per million, driven up by human activities such as burning
of fossil fuels and deforestation. The higher concentrations of greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide is causing
extra heat to be trapped and global temperatures to rise.

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 Figure 1. The Greenhouse Effect

Global Warming

Global warming is caused by several factors such as man-made, anthropogenic, or natural. One example
of natural causes is the released of methane gas from arctic tundra and wetlands. Burning fossil fuels is one of
the man-made causes of global warming resulting to pollution. When fossil fuel is burned it gives off carbon
dioxide. Global warming can bring sea level to rise due to the melting of ice caps and glaciers. Consequently,
people may experience severe weather disturbances like strong typhoons, heavier rainfalls, and climate change.
Normally, sunlight enters the earth’s atmosphere, absorbed and then reradiated by back into space. However,
because of the greenhouse effect where the earth’s atmosphere is accumulating additional greenhouse gases and
trapping the earth’s infrared radiation from leaving into space raises the earth’s temperature and causes climate
change.
Climate Change

Climate Change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns. It is incorporated with the two
phenomena, the global warming and large – scale change in weather patterns. Changes in Earth’s climate since
the start of the twentieth century are mainly caused by human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels for energy
and transportation, agricultural and industrial activities, deforestation and others. Deforestation is the primary
cause of carbon dioxide release because forest and trees store carbon dioxide and commonly known as “carbon
sinks”. The average temperature of the Earth is determined by greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases in the lower
atmosphere trap the heat, that should be reflected back to the outer space, and contributed much to the increase
of the Earth’s average surface temperature. Natural processes also contribute to global climate change such as
volcanic activity, changes within the Sun’s energy output, and variations in Earth’s orbit. Climate records give
proof of global climate change key indicators, like land and ocean temperature increase, rising ocean levels,
melting of ice at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers, severe and frequent change in extreme weather
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phenomena like hurricanes, heat waves, wildfires, droughts, floods and precipitation, and cloud and vegetation
cover changes.

El Niño

Some parts of the world may experience two cyclical events the El Niño or the La Niña and may lead to the
extinction of some fauna and flora. El Niño is a lengthy warming in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. This
natural phenomenon occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and lasts for nine months or two years at
most.
Normally, as trade wind moves from east to
west, it collects warm air. But when trade winds are
weakened, it causes the piling up of warm surface
water and making the part of the Pacific Ocean warmer
leading to El Niño phenomenon. This happens when
the upwelling of colder water is blocked by the large
quantities of warm surface water. El Niño will most
likely bring severe drought. It is believed that it causes
stronger thunderstorm disturbance and massive storms.
It also causes the decrease of the population of some
species.

Figure 3. Drought

La Niña

La Niña is the opposite climatic disturbance to El

Niño. This natural phenomenon may but does not always
follow El Niño events. It may last for nine to twelve months
but in some cases, it lasts for two years. This event is
triggered by the cooling of the eastern part of the Pacific
Ocean. Trade winds that move from east to west are
strengthened.
Moving air brings along too much water vapor.
Areas that experienced severe drought which was caused
by El Niño may encounter above normal rainfall. But in
some cases, areas that experience dry season will be drier
than normal conditions. La Niña’s effects are the opposite
of El Niño. Figure 4. Floods

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 Figure 2. Impact of Global Warming

Module 6 Constellations at Different Times of the Year

Do you know that a person can see approximately 3,000 stars on the average? These stars differ in
brightness, size, and color. The colors of stars are blue, oranges, red, white, and yellow. Each color indicates its
approximate surface temperature as shown in the table below.

Colors of Star and the Approximate Surface Temperatures

Color Surface Temperature Example

Red 3000 K Betelgeuse

Orange 4000 K Aldebaran

Yellow 6000 K Sun

White 10,000 K Vega

Blue 25,000 K Spica

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 The brightness of stars as seen from Earth is based on the apparent magnitude or brightness of stars as
observed from Earth and the absolute magnitude or brightness of stars at a standard distance of 10 parsecs or 32.6
light-years from Earth. The apparent brightness depends on the location of the observer.

Have you seen patterns in the sky at night? Due to the difference in apparent magnitude of the stars, you
are able to see patterns in the sky and these patterns are called constellations. The word constellation from the
Latin word “con” means Group and “stella” means stars. However, constellations are more than just patterns in
the sky. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined constellations as boundaries in the sky to aid
determining locations of newly discovered astronomical objects. The more recognizable patterns of stars are
known as asterism. Big Dipper is an example of an asterism that is in the constellation Ursa Major. This history
of constellation is passed from generation to generation including the beliefs about sun and moon, however due
to some circumstances this information about stars were not preserved. As of today, we have 88 constellations
that astronomers studied and most of these stars are based on Greek groups and there are also 48 accredited
constellations recorded in Ptolemy's almagest.

There are billions of stars in the night sky and stargazing could be an exceptional way to explore it. Many people
are having difficulty on recognizing stars and constellations. Ursa Major is an easily recognizable constellation

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in the night sky that looks like a large spoon. It is composed of seven bright stars. Another constellation is Ursa
Minor, composed also of seven stars that resembled a small spoon.

Stars are distant celestial bodies from Earth and Sun is the nearest star. Stars and constellations are visible
depending on the location of an observer and the season in that place. Some stars and constellations are only
visible at a specific month. Why do stars appear to move to move in the sky? This is because Earth rotates on its
axis, thus the stars appear to move across the night sky from east to west, and the sun seems to rise in the east and
set in the west. The stars that are close to celestial poles, appears to move a little in the night sky. Polaris is the
North star because it is located close to the north celestial pole. Stars that are around a celestial pole are called
circumpolar stars forming recognizable patterns known as circumpolar constellations. The northern circumpolar
constellations are Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Cassiopeia, and Draco. The southern circumpolar constellations are
Carina, Centaurus, and Crux. The circumpolar stars remain in the night sky and stay visible all year from the
northern hemisphere. All stars observed from the equator are not circumpolar for it appears to rise in the east and
set in the west.

Ursa Minor

Scorpius
Orion

Celestial Sphere

People living in the northern or southern hemisphere can observe constellation that are to the north or
south of Earth while those in the equator can observe constellations depending on their distance to the equator.
As the Earth rotates around the sun the visibility of constellations changes throughout the year. As shown in the
illustration of celestial sphere, people in the northern hemisphere can see Ursa Minor throughout the year but this
constellation not visible to those in the southern hemisphere.

Why do we see different constellations at different times of the year? This is because the Earth orbits
around the sun from west to east making the star seems to rise in the east and set in the west. The rotation of the
Earth on its axis causes the observed movement of the stars in the night sky while the revolution allows the
observer to see a certain part of the sky at different months of the year.

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 There are some constellations in Northern and Southern Hemisphere that varies from March to
December. The constellations that are visible from late March to late June (Northern Spring/Southern Autumn)
are listed as follows:

Antlia Centaurus Leo Sextans

Bootes Corvus Lynx Ursa Major
Cancer Crux Musca Ursa Minor
Canes Venatici Hydra Pyxis Virgo

Late June to late September (Northern Summer/Southern Winter):

Apus Circinus Pavo Scutum

Aquila Draco Sagitta Serpens
Ara Equuleus Sagittarius Telescopium
Capricornus Hercules Scorpius Delphinus

Late September to late December (Northern Autumn/Southern Spring):

Andromeda Cepheus Octans Sculptor

Aquarius Cetus Pegasus Triangulum
Aries Grus Perseus Tucana
Cassiopeia Lacerta Phoenix

Late December to late March (Northern Winter/Southern Summer):

Auriga Eridanus Hydrus Reticulum

Caelum Fornax Lepus Taurus
Camelopardalis Gemini Orion Vela
Canis Major Horologium Pictor Volans

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 Try finding the constellation mentioned above in this illustration.

Constellations of Summer

In ancient times, people believed that constellations have practical uses such as relating their God’s message of
love, care, blessing, and anger on the different positions of stars in the sky. They also used constellations to keep track on
the calendar of when to plant and harvest the crops, for example if the constellation Orion is visible then, the winter season
is coming while the appearance of summer triangle indicates the summer season. These patterns allowed farmers to plan
ahead for agriculture. The constellations helped in navigation and aided sailors to travel across the oceans by finding the
Polaris or North star and estimating its height to figure out the north and south latitude. This allowed the discovery of known
great civilizations and cultures.

Here in the Philippines, Filipino ancestors considered observing the stars as guide towards making major decisions
such as selecting the right month to plant and harvest, warning for the coming of kaingin period, and other sacrifices. This
belief was passed through generations and made every citizen unique. The Balatik and Moroporo are among the
constellations and asterisms that were recognized in the archipelago. The Balatik constellation appears in December. It was
used by the tribal hunters in the country to foretell the coming of kaingin period and time for planting while other tribes
used the constellation as a reminder of the time of sacrifices. The Moroporo was used for sea navigation and to signal the
beginning of the planting season. History reminds people that our ancestors believed on the patterns of stars in the sky.

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