UNIT- I

PHYSICAL LAYER
PHYSICAL LAYER: Uses of Computer Networks: Networks for Companies –Networks for People-Network
Hardware(LAN,MAN,WAN,CAN,SAN) - Network Software: Protocol Hierarchies-Design issues for the layers-Interfaces and
Services-Connection –oriented and Connectionless Services- Reference Mode l:OSI – TCP/IP- Example Networks- Network
Standardization-Metric Units-Guided Transmission Media :Twisted pair-Baseband and Broad Band Coaxial Cable- Wireless
transmission: Electromagnetic Spectrum-Radio, Microwave, Infrared, light wave Transmission – Mobile Telephone system

DATA COMMUNICATION
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.

COMPONENTS
A data communications system has five components.

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms

of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.
 DATA REPRESENTATION

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text:

In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or

Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent
coding system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in
any language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),
developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in
Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.
Numbers:

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used
to represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.
Images:

Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed
of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but
more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is
assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. For an image
made of only blackand- white dots (e.g., a chessboard), a I-bit pattern is enough to represent a
pixel. If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, you can increase the size of
the bit pattern to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, you can use
2-bit patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel
by 10, and a white pixel by 11. There are several methods to represent color images. One
method is called RGB, so called because each color is made of a combination of three primary
colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is
assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of
 three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
Audio:

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature

different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal. In
Chapters 4 and 5, we learn how to change sound or music to a digital or an analog signal.
Video:

Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a
digital or an analog signal.
DATA FLOW
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in the
figure
Simplex:

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one

of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex:

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex
mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
Full-Duplex:

In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The
full-duplex mode is like a tW<D-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time. In full-duplex mode, si~nals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other din~c~on. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must
contain two physically separate t:nmsmissiIDn paths, one for sending and the other for
receiving; or the capacity of the ch:arillilel is divided between signals traveling in both
directions. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
NETWORK CRITERIA
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance:

Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time.Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two
criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability:

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of

failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.
Security:

Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURES:
Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications

pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is
simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur,
two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two
possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you change television channels by
infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatiallyor temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
 TOPOLOGIES (NETWORK TOPOLOGIES)

 Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

connecting various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
 A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other.
Types of network topologies :
1. Bus 3. Star 5. Tree
2. Ring 4. Mesh 6. Hybrid
BUS TOPOLOGY
  Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device
is connected to single cable.

Features:
 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable.
Advantages:
 It is cost effective (cheaper).
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages:
 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
RING TOPOLOGY
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours
for each device.
Features:
 A number of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional.
 Date is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.
Advantages:
 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.
Disadvantages:
 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR TOPOLOGY
 In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features:
 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages:
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages:
 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub is affected then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the .
MESH TOPOLOGY
 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices.
 Traffic is carried only between two devices or nodes to which it is connected.
Features:
 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible.

Advantages:
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages:
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.
TREE TOPOLOGY
 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology.
 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features:
 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
  Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages:
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages:
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails then network fails.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
 For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and
star topology).

Features:
 It is a combination of two or more topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages:
 Reliable as error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.

Disadvantages:
 Complex in design.
 Costly.
 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

LAN (Local Area Network)

 It is privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few
kilometres in size.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company
offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
 In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.
 Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star and Tree are used.
 The data transfer rates for LAN is up to 10 Gbits/s.
 They transfer data at high speeds. High transmission rate are possible in LAN
because of the short distance between various computer networks.
 They exist in a limited geographical area.

Advantages
 LAN transfers data at high speed.
 LAN technology is generally less expensive.

Figure 2: Local Area Network

MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)
 MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the covered by LAN but
smaller than the area covered by WAN.
 A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities.
 MAN connects two or more LANs.
 At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments
to wire up an entire city.
 The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK) Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network

  WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region.
 WAN links different metropolitan’s countries and national boundaries there by enabling easy
communication.
 It may be located entirely within a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the
world.
 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will
follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.
 The communication between different users of WAN is established using leased telephone lines
or satellite links and similar channels.

Figure 4: Wide Area Network

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAN, MAN AND WAN.

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Area covered Covers small area. Covers larger than LAN Covers large area
i.e. & smaller than WAN
within building
Error rates Lowest Moderate Highest
Transmission speed High speed Moderate speed Low speed
Equipment cost Inexpensive Moderate expensive Most expensive
Design & maintenance Easy Moderate Difficult

INTERNET

 The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.

 The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are spread across
the world.
  We can also say that, the Internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions
of computing devices throughout the world.
 It is established as the largest network and sometimes called network of network that consists of
numerous academic, business and government networks, which together carry various
information.
 Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication
facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols.
 When two computers are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of
information such as text, graphics, voice, video, and computer programs.

Figure 5: Some pieces of the Internet

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must
agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

o Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be
the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the
stream to be the message itself.
o Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For
example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
o Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast
they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
STANDARDS

Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications.
Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
o De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto standards are often
established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or
technology.
o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure
standards.
LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
 were no services available from the post office. Below Figure shows the steps in this task.

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier

In Figure we have a sender, a receiver, and a carrier that transports the letter. There is a hierarchy of
tasks.
At the Sender Site

Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
o Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the
sender and receiver addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
o Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
o Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.
0n the Way: The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post office,
the letter may actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by truck, train,
airplane, boat, or a combination of these.

At the Receiver Site

o Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
o Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
o Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.
PROTOCOLS LAYERS AND THEIR SERVICE MODEL

OSI LAYER ARCHITECTURE

 OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization
(ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the
various layers.
 It was revised in 1995.
 The model is called the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it
deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication
with other systems.
The OSI model has seven layers.

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 Figure 15: OSI Reference Model
Physical Layer
  The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission
and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
 It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical
medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:
 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to
better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and
frame synchronization.
 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by
baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signalling.
 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate
for the physical medium.

Data link Layer

 The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to
another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free
transmission over the link.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between
two nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" (stop) when no frame
buffers are available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and
recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the
physical medium.
Network Layer
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path
the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors.
 To do this, the data link layer provides:
 Routing: routes frames among networks.
 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a
sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills
up.
 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum
transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame
for transmission and re- assembly at the destination station.
 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses or names, into physical
addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded
by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.
Transport Layer
 The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and
with no losses or duplications. It relieves (release) the higher layer protocols from any
concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers.
 The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get
from the network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a
minimal transport layer is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only
supports datagrams, the transport protocol should include extensive error detection
and recovery.
 The transport layer provides:
 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the
message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units
down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles
the message.
 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
  Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message
buffers are available.
 Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict
message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the
transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a
header to each frame.
 The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as
message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to
recognize message boundaries.
 In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must
contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get
the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received message up to
the layer above.
Session Layer
 The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different
stations. It provides:
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes
on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate
over the network, performing security, name recognition, logging, and so on.
Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can
be viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may translate data from a format
used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then
translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving
station.
 The presentation layer provides:
 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
  Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.
Application Layer
 The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to
access network services.
 This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:
1. Resource sharing and device redirection
2. Remote file access
3. Remote printer access
4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management
6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as mail)
8. Network virtual terminals
TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL (INTERNET PROTOCOL STACK LAYERS)
 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the engine for
the Internet and networks worldwide.
 TCP/IP either combines several OSI layers into a single layer, or does not use certain
layers at all.
 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share
resources across the network.
 The TCP/IP model has five layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer

3. Internet Layer
4. Data Link Layer

5. Physical Network
 Figure 16: TCP/IP Reference Model

 As we can see from the above figure, presentation and session layers are not there in
TCP/IP model. Also note that the Network Access Layer in TCP/IP model combines the
functions of Data link Layer and Physical Layer.
Application Layer
 Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model.
 Application layer is present on the top of the Transport layer.
 Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface
with Transport layer services to use the network.
 Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming
System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol),
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), X
Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol) etc.
Transport Layer
 The purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts
to carry on a conversation.
 Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used when
transporting data.
 The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an
application to its remote peer.
 The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which provides:
 Reliable delivery data  Congestion control
 Duplicate data  Flow control
suppression
 Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides:
 Connectionles  Best-effort services
 Unreliable
  UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the
loss of some data.
Network Layer (Internet Layer)
 The internet layer also called the network layer.
 Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source
and destination address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to
forward the datagrams between hosts and across networks.
 The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
 Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer.
 It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does
not provide reliability, flow control or error recovery.
 IP provides a routing function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their
destination.
 These message units in an IP network are called an IP datagram.
 Example: IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.
Network Interface Layer (Network Access Layer)
 Network Access Layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network,
including how bits are electrically or optically signalled by hardware devices that
interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted
pair copper wire.
 The protocols included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25,
Frame Relay etc.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control

OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Protocol/ Internet
Protocol)
OSI provides layer functioning and also defines TCP/IP model is more based on protocols and
functions of all the layers. protocols are not flexible with other layers.
In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not
delivery of packets guarantees delivery of packets.
Follows horizontal approach Follows vertical approach.
OSI model has a separate presentation layer TCP/IP doesn’t have a separate presentation
layer
OSI is a general model. TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other
application.
 Network layer of OSI model provide both The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols
in the model TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily
replaced as the technology changes. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and
In TCP/IP it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes clear
services, interfaces and protocols.
distinction between them.
It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

DESIGN ISSUES WITH PHYSICAL LAYER

 The Physical Layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.

 The design issue has to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit and not as a 0 bit.

Typical questions here are:

 How many volts should be used to represent a 1 bit and how many for a 0?

 How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?

 Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?

 Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?

 How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for?

 The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical and timing interfaces, and
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

TECHNIQUES USED IN DATA COMMUNICATIONS TO TRANSFER DATA

1. Connection-oriented method 2. Connectionless method
CONNECTION-ORIENTED METHOD
 Connection-oriented communication includes the steps of setting up a call from one
computer to another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call, just like a
voice phone call.
 However, the network connecting the computers is a packet switched network, unlike
the phone system's circuit switched network.
  Connection-oriented communication is done in one of two ways over a packet switched
network:
1. Without virtual circuits
2. With virtual circuits.
WITHOUT VIRTUAL CIRCUITS:
 This is what TCP does in the Internet.
 The only two machines in the Internet are aware about connection which is established
between the two computers at the endpoints.
 The Internet itself, its routers and links have no information about the presence of a
connection between the two computers.
 This means that all of the packets flowing between the two computers can follow
different routes.
 One benefit of establishing the connection is that the flow of packets from the source to
the destination can be slowed down if the Internet is congested and speeded up when
congestion disappears.
 Another benefit is that the endpoints can anticipate traffic between them, and agree to
cooperate to ensure the integrity and continuity of the data transfers. This allows the
network to be treated as a "stream" of data.

WITH VIRTUAL CIRCUIT:

 This is not used in the Internet, but is used in other types of networks (eg. the "X.25"
protocol, still popular in Europe).
 The routers within the network route all packets in one connection over the same route.
The advantage is that video and voice traffic are easier to carry, because routers can
reserve memory space to buffer the transmission.

CONNECTIONLESS METHOD
 Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call establishment and
release occur.
 A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred separately. Moreover,
the packets can travel different route to the destination since there is no connection.
 Connectionless service is typically provided by the UDP (User Datagram Protocol). The
 packets transferred using UDP are also called datagrams.

Feature Connectionless Connection-oriented

How is data sent? one packet at a time as continuous stream of packets
virtual circuit: yes
Do packets follow same route? no
without virtual circuit:
no
virtual circuit: yes
Are resources reserved in no
without virtual circuit:
network?
no
Are resources reserved
no yes
in communicating
hosts?
Is connection establishment done? no yes
Is state information stored at virtual circuit: yes
no
network nodes? without virtual circuit:
no
only packets at node
What is impact of node/switch all virtual circuits through node fail
are lost
crash?
virtual circuit: a virtual
What addressing full source and circuit number
information is needed on destination without virtual circuit: full source
each packet? address and destination address
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 A transmission media can be defined as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination.
 On the basis of transmission of data, the transmission media can be classified in to two
categories:
1. Guided (Physical) transmission media
2. Unguided (Wireless) transmission media

Transmission Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic Radio Microwave Infrared

Cable Cable Cable Wave Wave

Figure 8: Classification Transmission Media

Guided Transmission Media

 Guided media are those that provide a channel from one device to another.
 The three Guided (Physical) media commonly used for data transmission are:
1. Twisted-Pair 2. Coaxial 3. Fiber Optics
1. Twisted Pair
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick.
 The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
 Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.
 When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire
radiates less effectively.
 Figure 9: Twisted Pair Cable
Why cable is twisted?

 If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relatives to the noise or crosstalk sources.
 This results in a difference at the receiver.
 By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained.

Types of Twisted-Pair Cable

1) Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
 Twisted pair cabling comes in several varieties, two of which are important for

computer networks.
 Category 3 twisted pairs consist of two insulated wires gently twisted together.

 Most office buildings had one category 3 cable running from a central wiring closet on
each floor into each office.
 Category 5 is the more advanced twisted pairs were introduced.
 They are similar to category 3 pairs, but with more twists per centimetre, which results

in less crosstalk and a better-quality signal over longer distances, making them more
suitable for high- speed computer communication.
 Up-and-coming categories are 6 and 7, which are capable of handling signals with
bandwidths of 250 MHz and 600 MHz, respectively (versus a mere 16 MHz and 100 MHz
for categories 3 and 5 respectively).
 Figure 10: Unshielded twisted-pair
2) Shielded twisted-pair
(STP).

 STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated

conductors.
 Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk.
 It is bulkier and more expensive.
 Applications:

 Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.

 The DSL lines uses by telephone companies use the high-bandwidth capability

of UTP cables.
 LANs, such as 10Base-T, 100Base-T also uses twisted-pair cables.

2. Coaxial Cable
 It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher

speeds.
 Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used. One kind is 50-ohm cable which is

commonly used when it is intended for digital transmission from the start.
 The other kind is 75-ohm cable which is commonly used for analog transmission

and cable television but is becoming more important with the advent of Internet
over cable.
 A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core surrounded by an
insulating material.
 The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-woven
braided mesh.
 The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
 The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of
 high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.
 The bandwidth possible depends on the cable quality, length and signal-to-noise

ratio of the data signal. Modern cables have a bandwidth of close to 1 GHz.
 Coaxial cables used is widely used within the telephone system for long-distance

lines but have now largely been replaced by fiber optics on long-haul routes

Figure 11: Coaxial Cable

 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of

light.
 Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

 The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light

moving through a core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into
it.
3. Fiber Optics

Figure 12: Fiber Optic Cable

  Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
 Figure shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the centre is the glass core

through which the light propagates.

 The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than

the core, to keep all the light in the core.

 Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding. Fibers are typically

grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath. Figure shows a sheath with

three fibers.
4. UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION MEDIA

 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
1. Radio Transmission 3. Infrared
2. Microwave 4. Light wave Transmission
Transmission
5. RADIO TRANSMISSION
 Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can
penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication,
both indoors and outdoors.
 Radio waves also are Omni directional, meaning that they travel in all

directions from the source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have
to be carefully aligned physically.
 The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent.
 At low frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the

power falls off sharply with distance from the source, roughly as 1/r2 in
air.
 At high frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and
bounce off obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain.
 At all frequencies, radio waves are subject to interference from motors
and other electrical equipment.

 In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the
earth.
 In the HF they bounce off the ionosphere
2. Microwave Transmission
 Since the microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far
apart, the earth will get in the way. Consequently, repeaters are needed
periodically.
 Unlike radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not pass

through buildings well. In addition, even though the beam may be well
focused at the transmitter, there is still some divergence in space.
  Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be
narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using
a parabolic antenna gives a much higher signal to noise ratio.
Advantages:
 No right way is needed (compared to wired media).
 Relatively inexpensive.

 Simple to install.

Disadvantages:
 Do not pass through buildings well.

 Multipath fading problem (the delayed waves cancel the signal).

 Absorption by rain above 8 GHz.

 Severe shortage of spectrum.
6. Infrared
 Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for short-range

communication.
 The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared

communication.
 They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but have a major

drawback: they do not pass through solid objects (try standing between your
remote control and your television and see if it still works).
 In general, as we go from long-wave radio toward visible light, the waves
behave more and more like light and less and less like radio.
 On the other hand, the fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls
well is also a plus.
 It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere
with a similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings.
 Furthermore, security of infrared systems against eavesdropping is better than
that of radio systems precisely for this reason.

Therefore, no government license is needed to operate an infrared system, in

contrast to radio systems, which must be licensed outside the ISM bands.
LIST OF TOP NETWORKING COMPANIES IN INDIA:
1. CISCO
2. IBM INDIA PVT LTD
3. TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES
4. Larsen and Toubro
5. Infosys Technologies
6. Wipro
7. TATA Communications
8. Verizon
9. AT&T
10. Dimension Data
11. Velocis
12. Orange
13. BT India Pvt Ltd
14. Bharti Airtel
15. Sophos
16. CSS Corp
17. HCL
18. Juniper

Let’s have a look at each of the top companies you can aim for individually.

1. Cisco

About the company:

Len Bosack and his then-wife Sandy Lerner, both working for Stanford University wanted to
send an email to one another from their offices but could not do so because of unavailable
technology. As a result to overcome this network challenge they founded Cisco Systems in
1984. Cisco focuses on solving business challenges and provides network solutions to its clients
to assure their business success. There are about 74,200 employees working at Cisco. Cisco has
been one of the networking company among the top networking companies you can aim for. 
Website: https://www.cisco.com/

Products and Services:

 Routing and Services – Switches and Routers; Network Management; Interfaces and

Modules; Optical Networking
 Wireless – Controllers, Outdoor and Industrial Access Points
 Security – Next-Generation Firewalls; Advanced Malware Protection; VPN Security Clients;
Email Security; Web Security
 Collaboration – Collaboration Endpoints; Conferencing; Customer Care; Unified
Communications
 Data Center Servers – Unified Computing; Data Center Management and Automation; Data
Center Security; Data Center Switches; Hyper converged Infrastructure; Storage Networking;
Data and Analytics; Data Center Analytics; Data Center Analytics
 Video – Video Endpoints; Video Entertainment; Video Intelligence; Digital Signage
 Internet Of Things – Connectivity; Internet of Things Analytics; Embedded Networks; Internet
of Things Management; IOx and Fof Applications
 Software – Cisco ONE for Advanced Security; Cisco ONE for Data Center Compute; Cisco ONE
for Data Center Networking; Cisco ONE for Access and IOS & NX-OS

Locations:
Bangalore Hyderabad Gurugram Chennai

Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Pune

2. International Business Machines (IBM)

About the company:

Founded in the 1980s by Charles Ranlett Flint, IBM is one of the top networking companies you
can aim for. IBM is a Computer Technology and IT consulting company with its headquarters in
New York, United States. IBM founded IBM India Private Limited in 1992. Karan Bajwa is the
CEO of IBM India. This company has over 350,000 employees.
Website: https://www.ibm.com/in-en/?ar=1

IBM on Networking:

 Network services at IBM support your company in terms of agility, scalability, and security.
 It provides guidance and knowledge using a life cycle approach which plans, designs,
implements, assess and manages strategy.

Products and Services: 

 Manage Network Services

 Improve agility while reducing cost across all the networks.
 Manage Infrastructure for Networking
 Network Transformation and Outsourcing Services
 Network Connectivity Consultation and Integration
 Network Consulting Services
 Network Integration Services
 Network Services for Communication Service Provider
 Next-Gen Campus Networks
 Software Defined Networking
 Future Infrastructure
 Reduces Hardware and Operating Costs
 Centralized Network Management

Locations:
Vishakhapatnam Coimbatore Bhubaneshwar Hyderabad Ahmedabad

Chennai Mumbai Bangalore Gurgaon  Kolkata

Noida Delhi Pune

3. TATA Consultancy Services (TCS)

About the company:

TATA Consultancy Services is an Indian Multinational Company founded by JRD Tata and F.C
Kohli in 1968. It is an Information Technology Service and Consulting Company headquartered
in Mumbai, Maharashtra. TCS operates in 46 countries globally with total work strength of
417,929 employees. This company provides products and services including application
development, consulting, business processing outsourcing, etc. TCS is one the top networking
companies you can aim for in 2019.
Website: https://www.tcs.com/

TCS on Networking:

 TCS helps their clients to embrace new technologies and optimize transformation
expenditure.
 They offer end to end network services like network engineering, orchestration, network
transformation, assurance, operation centers, etc.
 They help clients maximize ROI and improve the quality of services delivered.
 TCS also manages network infrastructure while providing the quality end-user experience

Products and Services:

Products:
 Customer Intelligence and Insights
 TCS Ignio Intelligent Automation
 TCS Ion Cloud-Based Solution
 Quartz Block Chain Solutions
 Intelligent Urban Exchange
 TCS Optumera
 TCS BANCS
 TCS TAP
 TCS Jile
Services:
 Cloud Infrastructure and Applications
 Cognitive Business
 Automation and AI
 Internet Of Things
 Cyber Security
 Consulting
 Analytics
Platforms:
 Advanced Drug Development
 Intelligent Platform
 ERP in Cloud
 HOBS

Locations:
Thiruvananthapuram Jamshedpur Lucknow Mumbai Delhi

Bhubaneshwar Coimbatore Gurgaon Noida Goa

Gandhinagar Hyderabad Chennai Kochi  

Ahmedabad Bangalore Kokata Pune  

4. Larsen and Toubro (L&T)

About the company:

Larsen and Toubro (L&T) is a Manufacturing, Construction, Engineering, Financial Services
Indian Firm. Founded in 1938 by two Danish Engineers Henning Holck-Larsen & Søren Kristian
Toubro taking refuge in India, this company is running with an employee strength of 10,04,027
employees and headquartered in Mumbai.
Website: http://www.larsentoubro.com/
Larsen and Toubro on Networking:
Larsen & Toubro Infotech(LTI), a subsidiary of Larsen and Toubro is a technology consultant and
digital solutions firm operating in 27 countries. LTI has a team of 20,000 LTites. LTI operates
across Digital platforms, Cloud IoT platforms, Analytics & Information Management Strategy,
Mobile Services, Enterprise Integration, etc.

Products and Services:

 Analytics & Information Management  Internet of Things

 Geographical Information System (GIS)  Cloud Computing
 Infrastructure Management  Sales force
 Applications Management  Testing
 Enterprise Integration  Oracle
 Microsoft Dynamics  SAP
 System Integration

Locations:
Bhubaneshwar Chandigarh Ahmedabad Lucknow Nagpur

Jamshedpur Bangalore Vadodara Mumbai Bhopal

Coimbatore Hyderabad Chennai Kolkata Jaipur

Bhopal Nagpur Jaipur Delhi Pune

Kochi        

5. Infosys

About the company:

Infosys is the leader in next-generation digital services and Consulting. Founded on 7th July
1981 by seven engineers N. R. Narayana Murthy, Nandan Nilekani, S. Gopalakrishnan, S. D.
Shibulal, K. Dinesh, N. S. Raghavan and Ashok Arora in Pune, started with an investment of
$250. In 1983, Infosys relocated to Bangalore, and it has been their head office since then.
Infosys has 123 development centers and 82 marketing and sales offices across the globe.
Infosys provides business consulting, information technology and outsourcing services. It has
over 225,000 employees. Infosys is a dynamic company and one of the top networking
companies you can aim for.

Website: https://www.infosys.com/

Infosys on Networking:

 Infosys focuses on AI to build automated roots for the enterprises that provide insights for
executing change.
 Digital transformation to provide business performance and customer delight.
 Drive improvement by learning digital skills and knowledge.

Products and Services

Insights Accelerate
 AI and Automation  Digital Process Automation
 Data Analytics  Microsoft Dynamics
Innovation  Source Development
 Blockchain
 Oracle
 Engineering Services
 SAP
 Internet Of Things(IoT) Assure
 Cloud  Cyber Security
 Testing

Locations:
Thiruvananthapuram Chandigarh Gurgaon Nagpur Indore

Bhubaneswar Mangalore Mumbai Mysore Jaipur

Hyderabad Bangalore Chennai Mohali Pune