SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

SUBJECT CODE: 19ARS112T

SUBJECT NAME: STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS & APPLIED MECHANICS

SEMESTER: IV YEAR: II SECTION: A & B

REGULATION: 2019

COURSE: B.ARCH

SPECIALISATION: ARCHITECTURE
 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

UNIT -2

Structural Form and Structural Efficiency. Simple RCC frame system

Effect of form on internal force type. Various types of loads in buildings-Static Loads

Dynamic Loads-Seismic loads as per IS1893-2016.Concept of improved shapes in cross-

section and longitudinal profile
Classification of Structural elements- complete structural arrangements

Space frame structures, Structural behavior of space frame structures

Types of Tensile structural systems .RCC folded plate roofing systems

Advantages and Disadvantages- Application with suitable examples

Arches – Types of arches. Advantages and disadvantages of arches

Foundations & Types of foundation.

Concept of thin shells. Simply curved & doubly curved shells, interpenetrating cylindrical
shells, hyper,etc

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COMPILED BY: NAME, DESIGNATION - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

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Loads, Forces & Equilibrium

We consider the loads a building must support and the forces
and reactions produced by those loads. Under normal conditions the
forces and the reactions are in equilibrium. When a part of a building
fails, the equilibrium is disturbed.

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Various types of loads in buildings

LOADS a building must support is divided into 3 groups:
➢ Stationary or Static Loads
➢ Moving or Dynamic Loads
➢ Equivalent Loads caused by
- changes in temperature,
- changes in the moisture content of the materials and
- settlement of the foundations.

➢ STATIC LOADS:
▪ Dead Load
▪ Live Load
▪ Snow Loads
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Dead Loads:
The Dead load consists of the weight of the part of the
building that is carried by the structural member under consideration,
and it includes the weight of that structural member.

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Live Loads:
-The Live loads includes furniture & equipment in the building

- people who live or work in it

-These people move around, & we must consider where they likely to
congregate & cause heavy load concentrations.

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Live Loads:
The Live loads specified in building codes are of two
kinds: an equivalent uniformly distributed load which is specified in
MPa and concentrated load in Newton.

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Snow Loads:
In cold climates snow may impose heavy live loads on roof
structures. Snow loads may be greatly increased by the effect of wind,
which can cause snow to accumulate on low roofs adjacent to higher
roofs. Snow load may be greatly increased by the effect of wind

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Snow Loads:
Solar radiation can reduce
snow loads by melting
even when air
temp.doesn’t rise above 0
degree Celsius, if suitable
drainage is provided.

On the other hand, Melting of snow,

followed by subsequent freezing can
produce an ice barrier at the edge of the
sloping roof, which increases the depth
of the snow retained.

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DYNAMIC LOADS:
➢ Wind Loads

➢ Seismic Loads

Wind Loads:
Wind Loads are important even for low rise buildings if they are
not sheltered by surrounding buildings, because the horizontal wind
pressure can push a building over if it is not adequately braced. When thin
walls are used, it is necessary to provide diagonal wind bracing for the
structural frame beneath the sheeting.

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Wind produces both pressure and suction. The wind

presses on the windward side of a building, but
suction occurs on the other three walls and also on a
flat roof. The wind produces suction not merely on
the leeward side of a sloping roof, but also on the
windward side if the angle of the slope is less than
30o.

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Wind loads are always important for tall buildings, which

form a vertical cantilever resisting the horizontal wind
pressure on one side (windward side) and horizontal
suction on the other side (leeward side).

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The building behaves like a horizontal

cantilevered beam resisting a vertical load; for
high rise buildings the span of the cantilever is
much greater than any horizontal span in a
building.

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Seismic Force:

An Earthquake is a sudden, jerky

movement of the ground, which takes the
foundation of the building with it but leaves the
upper part of the building behind because of
the high speed of the ground’s motion and the
high inertia of the building. The effect is the
same as if the building moved relative to the
ground.

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The vertical component of the earthquake’s

motion is relatively harmless, because all
buildings are designed to resist large vertical
loads, but the horizontal component of the
movement may produce serious cracking and
even collapse of the building.

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FIRE LOADS:

Unlike the other loads, fire loads do not

impose any forces on the structure unless there is a
fire. The Fire Load denotes the combustible material
per unit area; this can be stated as the mass of the
material in kilograms or as the thermal energy of the
material in joules.

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Effect of temperature & settlement on buildings

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Effects of Temperature, Moisture and

Foundation Settlement:
All materials, with a few exceptions,
expand when heated and contract when cooled. The
annual change in temperature from the coldest night to
the hottest day is small on a tropical island, but it is
quite large in places remote from ocean, particularly in
a cold climate.

A change in humidity also causes expansion or

contraction in timber and masonry materials, but not in
metals.

COMPILED
COMPILED BY:
BY: Shobhana
Shobhana Suresh,
Suresh, Asst
Asst Prof
Prof (S
(S LL G)
G) -- SRM
SRM SEAD
SEAD 2019-2020
2019-2020
SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Long walls and floors in buildings are

provided with expansion joints to allow for the
expansion and contraction caused by temperature and
moisture movement. If these joints are not provided
at suitable intervals, stresses that can cause serious
damage are set up in the materials.

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SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Uneven settlement of foundations can also

create stresses in superstructure. Problems arise particularly
in buildings of varying height, which has a tower much
heavier than the wings. The soil under the tower is much
compressed more than the soil under the wings

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SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

compression and tension in structures

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SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
Structural Members are subjected to

❖ Pulling or tension (a force)

❖ Pushing or compression (a force)

❖ Cutting or shear (a force)

❖ Bending or flexure (a moment)

❖ Twisting or torsion (a moment)

❖ or to any combination of these.

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Tension Members
• Tension members are structural elements that are
subjected to axial tensile forces. They are usually
used in different types of structures.
• Examples of tension members are: bracing for
buildings and bridges, truss members, and cables in
suspended roof systems.

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SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Tension Members in Buildings

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Tension Members:

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SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

SWISS RE HEADQUARTERS –
LONDON
No of Storeys – 40
Height – 179.8 m

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39th Floor Diameter – 26.5 m; 17th Floor Diameter – 56.5 m; Base Diameter – 49.3 m
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Compression Members:

The forces acting on a compression member

are the exact opposite to those acting on a tension
member, but the behavior of the member is not the
exact opposite, because a compression member may
buckle if incorrectly designed.

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Plastic Deformation
(b) Brittle Fracture (c) Splitting failure

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• A three-dimensional structures.
• The assembled linear elements are arranged to
transfer the load.
• Takes the form of a flat surface or curve surface.
• Designed with no intermediate columns to create
large open area.
• Depth: Span/40
• Typical maximum length: 100 m

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HISTORY OF SPACEFRAMES
• Space frames were independently developed by
Alexander Graham Bell around 1900 and
Buckminster Fuller in the 1950s. Bell's interest was
primarily in using them to make rigid frames for
aeronautical engineering, with the tetrahedral truss
being one of his inventions.
• Buckminster Fuller's focus was architectural
structures; his work had greater influence.
Introduction of the first space grid system called
MERO in 1943 in Germany initiated the use of
space trusses in architecture.
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• The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab Of interlocking square pyramids
and tetrahedral built from Aluminium or tubular steel struts.
• In many ways this looks like the horizontal object of a tower crane repeated many
times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of interlocking tetrahedral in
which all the struts have unit length .
• More technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width
an octet truss .
• Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic of
the stiffness matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the angular
factors. If the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected,
simplifying the calculations.

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SPACE FRAME COMPONENTS

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• According to Curvature
• Flat covers
• Spherical domes
• Barrel vaults

(b) (c)
(a)
Fig (a) Flat cover ; (b) Spherical dome ; (c) Barrel vault

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• According to grid layers

• Single Layer
• Double layer
• Triple layer

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• Consists of axial members : which are tubes and connectors

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TUBES
1) Circular Hollow Sections

2) Rectangular Hollow Sections

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1) Tuball Node Connector

• A hollow sphere made of spheroidal graphite
• The end of the circular hollow section member to be connected is fitted at its ends by welding.
• Connection from inside the cup is using bolt and nut.

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2) Nodus Connector
• It can accept both rectangular and circular hollow sections and that the cladding can be fixed directly to the
chords.
• Chord connectors have to be welded to the ends of the hollow members on site

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3) Triodetic Connector
It consists of a hub, usually an aluminium extrusion, that has slots or key ways, which
the ends of members are pressed or coined to match the slots

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4) Hemispherical Dome Connector

• Usually use for double layer domes.
• Has a span more than 40m.
• More economical for long span.
• The jointing is connect by sliting the end of the tube or rod with the joint
fin.
• There are 2 types of joint, pentagonal joint and hexagonal joint.

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ADVANTAGES
• Light
• Elegant & Economical
• Carry load by three dimensional action
• High Inherent Stiffness
• Easy to construct
• Save Construction Time & Cost
• Services (such as lighting and air conditioning) can be integrated with
space frames
• Offer the architect unrestricted freedom in locating supports and
planning the subdivision of the covered space.

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EXAMPLES

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 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

SAN SIRO STADIUM, MILAN

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STANSTED AIRPORT, LONDON

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Foundation
• Introduction :
• A structure essentially consists of two parts, namely the super
structure which is above the plinth level and the substructure which is
below the plinth level.
• Substructure is otherwise known as the foundation and this forms the
base for any structure. Generally about 30% of the total construction
cost is spent on the foundation.
• The soil on which the foundation rests is called the “foundation soil”.

• Objectives of a foundation :
A foundation is provided for the following purposes:
• To distribute the total load coming on the structure on a larger
area.
To support the structures.
• To give enough stability to the structures against various
• disturbing forces, such as wind and rain.

• To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.

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Foundation…
• Types of foundation : Types of Pile foundation :
• Friction pile
The two main types of foundation • Load bearing pile
are :
• Shallow foundation (spread
foundation) and
• Deep foundation
Note : Under-reamed piles is a
Types of Shallow foundation : type of load bearing pile
• Isolated footing (single footing,
Column footing)
• Combined footing
Types of Deep foundation :
• Pile foundation
• Pier foundation

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Foundation…
• Shallow foundation (spread
foundation):
• Depth of foundation is less than
or equal to its width.

• Isolated footing (single footing,

column footing):
• In framed structures where
several columns are to be
constructed, isolated footings
can be adopted.
• The columns involved can be • In case of masonry footing, the
projection of each step must be ½
provided with masonry or
brick thick and each step is made
concrete footing.
• If masonry footing is provided, of 1 or 2 bricks put together.
• Concrete can be moulded to any
steps are given and the
shape and hence a concrete
foundation area is thus
footing may be a sloping one to
increased so that the stresses
developed at the base is within provide sufficient spread.

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Foundation…
• Isolated footing (single footing, column footing)…

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Foundation…
• Isolated footing (single footing, column footing)…

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Foundation…
• Isolated footing (single footing, column footing)…
wall footing

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Foundation…
• Combined footing:

• This type of footing is

adopted when the space
between two columns is so
small that the foundation for
individual columns will
overlap.
Footing :
• Combined footings are Footings are structural members
used to support columns and walls
proportioned in such a way
and to transmit and distribute their
that the centre of gravity of
loads to the soil in such a way that
the loads coincides with the
centre of gravity of the the load bearing capacity of the
foundation. Hence these soil is not exceeded. Also
footings have either a excessive settlement, differential
trapezoidal or a rectangular settlement or rotation are
shape. prevented and adequate safety
against overturning or sliding is
maintained.
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• Size of footing :
• The area of footing can be determined from the actual
external loads, such that the allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.

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Foundation…

• Pile :
•A slender, structural member
consisting steel or concrete or
timber.
• It is installed in the ground to
transfer the structural loads to
soils at some significant depth
below the base of the structure.

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Pile caps are thick slabs used

to tie a group of piles together
to support and transmit column
loads to the piles.

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FORM ACTIVE STRUCTURE SYSTEM

➢Non rigid, flexible matter, shaped in

a certain way & secured at the ends
which can support itself and span
space.

➢Form active structure systems

develop at their ends horizontal
stresses.

➢The bearing mechanism of a form

active systems rests essentially on
the material form.

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Arch

❑ A curved structure designed to carry loads across a gap

mainly by compression.
❑ The mechanical principle of the arch is precisely the same
as that of the portal frame. The straight pieces of material
joined by sharp bends are smoothened into a continuous
curve. This increases the cost of construction but greatly
reduces the stresses.

❑ The geometry of the curve

further affects the cost and
stresses. The circular arch is easiest
to construct, the catenary arch is
the most efficient.
❑ Arches can be three pinned, two
pinned or rigid.

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Arch Terminology

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◼ It is important to minimize the arch THRUST so as to reduce the

dimensions of the tie rod, or to ensure that the soil will not move under
the pressure of the abutments.

◼ The THRUST is proportional to the total LOAD & to the SPAN, and
inversely proportional to the RISE of the arch.

◼ In arches rise to span ratio should not be less than 1/8

◼ Riser minimum should be 1/8 of the span & 2/3rd maximum.

◼ Lesser rise takes compression but not tensile load.

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◼ In masonry design the arch is

heavy & loaded by the weight of
walls, its shape is usually the
funicular of the dead load, & some
bending is introduced in it by live
loads.

◼ In large steel arches, the live load

represents a greater share of the
total load & introduces a large
amount of bending but it is seldom
in view of the tensile strength of
steel.

◼ The SHAPE of the arch may be

chosen to be as close as possible
to the FUNICULAR of the heaviest
loads, so as to minimize BENDING.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

◼ The arch thrust is absorbed by a

tie-rod whenever the foundation
material is not suitable to resist
it.

◼ When it must allow the free

passage of traffic under it, its
thrust is asorbed either by
buttresses or by tie-rods buried
under ground.

◼ The stationary or moving loads

carried by the arch are usually
supported on a horizontal
surface.

◼ This surface may be above or

below the arch, connected to it
by compression struts or tension
hangers.
COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020
 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

MATERIALS USED

STEEL-takes more tension

WOOD-both evenly

CONCRETE-takes more compression

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020
 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

LOAD APPLICATIONS
FUNICULAR ARCHES – CONCENTRATED LOADS

❖ The sum total of all rotational effects produced about any

such location by the external and internal forces must be zero.
In three hinged arch having a non-funicular shape, this
observation is true only at three hinged conditions.
❖ The external shear at a section is balanced by an internal
resisting shear force that is provided by vertical component of
the internal axial force.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

DESIGN OF ARCH STRUCTURES

The first important consideration when designing a brick arch is

whether the arch is structural or non-structural. That is, will the
arch be required to transfer vertical loads to abutments or will it
be fully supported by a steel angle. While this may seem
obvious, confusion often develops because of the many
configurations of arch construction. To answer this question, one
must consider the two structural requirements necessary for a
brick arch to adequately carry vertical loads. First, vertical loads
must be carried by the arch and transferred to the abutments.
Second, vertical load and lateral thrust from the arch must be
resisted by the abutments.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

If either the arch or the abutment is deficient, the arch must be considered as non-
structural and the arch and its tributary load must be fully supported by a steel
angle or plates. Alternately, reinforcement may be used to increase the strength of
either or both the arch and the abutments.

[A] DESIGNING FOR LOAD VARIATIONS

❑ One of the most significant aspect of the modern arch is that it can be designed to
sustain some amount of variation in load without either changing shape or experiencing
damage.
❑ The shape of an arch is initially determined as a response to its primary loading
condition (e.g.: parabolic for uniformly distributed loads)

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

[B] SUPPORT ELEMENTS

❑A basic issue is that whether or not to absorb the horizontal

thrusts by some interior element (a tie rod or by the foundations).
When it is functionally possible the rods are frequently used.
❑The rod is a tension element and highly efficient to take up the
outward arch thrusts.
❑Usually there is less need to support an arch on the top of vertical
elements, the use of buttressing elements is generally preferable as
head room has to be maintained.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

[C] CHOICE OF END CONDITIONS

▪ There are 3 primary types of arches used that are normally described in terms of
end conditions :-

Three hinged arch

Fixed end arch

Two hinged arch

❑Different end conditions are preferable with respect to different phenomenon.

❑The presence of hinges is very important when supports, settlements and thermal
expansions are considered.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Lateral Behavior Of Arches

❑ To deal with behaviour of arch in the lateral

direction, there are two methods-
❑ Provide fixed base connections
❑ Commonly used is by relying on members
placed transversely to the arch.
# a pair of arches is stabilized through use of
diagonal elements.
# interior arches are stabilized by being
connected to the end arches by connecting
transverse members

❑ Lateral buckling can be solved by laterally bracing arches with other

elements.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26
Flashing

❑ In residential construction, the presence of eaves, overhangs and small

wall areas above openings will reduce the potential for water penetration
at arch locations. However, flashing at an arch is just as important as
over any other wall opening.

❑ Flashing an arch can be difficult, depending on the type of arch and the
type of flashing material. Jack arches are the easiest to flash because
they are flat.

❑ Flashing may be placed below the arch on the window framing for
structural arches or above the steel lintel for non-structural arches.

❑ Alternately, flashing may be placed in the mortar joint above the arch or
keystone. Attachment of the flashing to the backing and end dams should
follow standard procedures.

❑ A segmental or semi-circular arch is more difficult to flash properly. This

is because flashing materials such as metal flashings are very rigid and
may be hard to work around a curved arch.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

FAILURE MODES

1. Rotation of the arch about the abutment-

Rotation occurs when tension develops in the arch. Tension can be reduced
by increasing the depth or rise of the arch. If tension develops in the arch,
reinforcement can be added to resist the tensile forces.

2. Sliding of the arch at the skewback-

Sliding of the arch will depend on the angle of skewback (measured from
horizontal) and the vertical load carried by the arch. Reinforcement can be
added to avoid sliding at the skewback, as the reinforcement acts as a shear
key.

3. Crushing of the masonry-

Crushing will occur when compressive stresses in the arch exceed the
compressive strength of the brick masonry. If compressive stresses are too
large, the arch must be redesigned with a shorter span or a greater arch
depth. Compression failure seldom occurs.
COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020
 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

EARLY CURVED ARCHES

❑ Structure was often made more stable

by the superimposition of additional
weight on its top, thus firming up the
arch.

❑ SHAPE OF ARCH is not chosen for

purely structural reasons. The HALF
CIRCLE, used by the Romans, has
convenient construction properties that
justify its use.

❑ Similarly, the POINTED gothic arch has

both visual & structural advantages,
while the arabic arch, typical of the
mosques & of some venetian
architecture is ‘incorrect’ from a purely
structural viewpoint.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Notre-Dame Cathedral- Fine example of

Gothic architecture, built in mid-13th century.
Ornate west entrance shows the use of arches
in early building construction. (Chartres,
France)

Notre-Dame Cathedral- (South entrance) Note

the use of heavy ornate pinnacles to increase the
stability of the piers against overturning from
horizontal thrust component of the arch.
(Chartres, France)

King's College Chapel- One of the finest examples of

medieval architecture in England. Built in 1446-1515,
Fan vaulting in the ceiling is essentially a series of
pointed arches that require external buttresses to react
to the horizontal thrust. (Cambridge, England)

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

APPLICATIONS & ADVANTAGES

❑ Roman & romanesque architecture are immediately recognized by the circular arch
motif. Romans were pioneers in the use of arches for bridges, buildings, and
aqueducts. This bridge, the Ponte Fabricio in Rome, spans between the bank of the
River Tiber and Tiber Island. Built in 64 B.C. (Rome, Italy.)
❑ The gothic high rise arch & the buttresses required to absorb its thrust are typical of
one of the greatest achievements in architectural design.
❑ Roman circular arches spanned about 100’ & medieval stone bridges up to 180’.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

❑ The NEW RIVER GORGE BRIDGE in west virginia, the longest steel arch spans 1700’
(1986).
❑ The largest single arch span in reinforced concrete built to date is the 1280feet span
KRK BRIDGE , yugoslavia.

❑ Combinations of trussed arches with cantilevered half arches connected by trusses

were built to span as much as 1800feet in THE QUEBEC BRIDGE in 1917.

❑ To this day no other

structural element is as
commonly used to span
large distances as the arch.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

SHELLS
• Shell is a type of building enclosures.
• Shells belong to the family of arches . They can be defined as curved or
angled structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two directions
to supports.
• A shell with one curved surface is known as a vault (single curvature ).
• A shell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome (double curvature).

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Classification of shells

• There are many different ways to classify shell structures but two
ways are common:

1. The material which the shell is made of: like reinforced

concrete, plywood or steel, because each one has different
properties that can determine the shape of the building
and therefore, these characteristics have to be considered
in the design.

2. The shell thickness: shells can be thick or thin.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Thin Concrete Shells

The thin concrete shell structures are a lightweight construction composed of a
relatively thin shell made of reinforced concrete, usually without the use of
internal supports giving an open unobstructed interior. The shells are most
commonly domes and flat plates, but may also take the form of ellipsoids or
cylindrical sections, or some combination thereof. Most concrete shell
structures are commercial and sports buildings or storage facilities.
There are two important factors in the development of the thin concrete shell
structures:
• The first factor is the shape which was was developed along the history of
these constructions. Some shapes were resistant and can be erected easily.
However, the designer’s incessant desire for more ambitious structures did not
stop and new shapes were designed.
• The second factor to be considered in the thin concrete shell structures is the
thickness, which is usually less than 10 centimeters. For example, the thickness
of the Hayden planetarium was 7.6 centimeters.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Types of Thin Concrete Shells

1. Barrels shells
The cylindrical thin shells, also called barrels,
should not be confused with the vaults even with
the huge similarity in the shape of both structures,
because each of these structures has a different
structural behavior as well as different
requirements in the minimum thickness and the
shape.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Barrels shells
• On one hand, the structural behavior of the vault is
based on connected parallel arches, which transmit the
same effort to the supports . Therefore, the materials
used in these structures have to be able to resists
compressions (e.g. stone) and the thickness is usually
higher. Furthermore, the shape of the vaults must be
as similar as possible to the arch in order to achieve the
optimum structural behavior.

• On the other hand, the structural behavior of the

barrels shell is that it carries load longitudinally as a
beam and transversally as an arch. and therefore, the
materials have to resist both compression and tension
stresses. This factor takes advantage of the bars of the
reinforced concrete, because these elements can be
placed where tension forces are needed and therefore,
the span to thickness Ratios can be increased.
Furthermore, the shape has fewer requirements than
the vaults and therefore, new curves like the ellipse or
the parabola can be used improving the aesthetic
quality of the structure.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Types of Thin Concrete Shells

2. Folded plate
A thin-walled building structure of
the shell type.

Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Movable form work can be employed.
(b) Form work required is relatively simpler.
(c) Design involves simpler calculations.

Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Folded plate consumes more material than shells.
(b) Form work may be removed after 7 days whereas in
case of shells it can be little earlier.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Folded Plates system

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 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26
Types of Thin Concrete Shells

3. Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Hypar)

A Hypar is a surface curved in two
directions that can be designed as a shell
or warped lattice.

A hypar is triangular, rectangular or

rhomboidal in plan, with corners raised to
the elevation desired for use and/or
appearance. The edges of Hypars are
typically restrained by stiff hollow beams
that collect & transfer roof loads to the
foundations.

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 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Types of Thin Concrete Shells

5. Dome
A rounded roof, with a circular base, shaped like an arch in all directions.. First
used in much of the Middle East and North Africa whence it spread to other
parts of the Islamic world, because of its distinctive form the dome has, like the
minaret, become a symbol of Islamic architecture.

Dome has double curvature and the resulting structure is much stiffer and
stronger than a single curved surface, such as a barrel shell.

6. Translation Shells
A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. The shape is
different from a spherical dome and is generated by a vertical
circle moving on another circle. All vertical slices have the same
radius. It is easier to form than a spherical dome.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26
• Advantages of Concrete Shells
The curved shapes often used for concrete shells are naturally
strong structures, allowing wide areas to be spanned without
the use of internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed
interior. The use of concrete as a building material reduces both
materials cost and the construction cost, as concrete is
relatively inexpensive and easily cast into compound curves.

• Disadvantages of Concrete Shells

Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often have
issues with sealing. If not treated, rainwater can seep through
the roof and leak into the interior of the building. On the other
hand, the seamless construction of concrete domes prevents air
from escaping, and can lead to buildup of condensation on the
inside of the shell. Shingling or sealants are common solutions
to the problem of exterior moisture, and ventilation can address
condensation.

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020

 SRM SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN – TN 26

Learning resources:

1. Henry .J.Cowan, Forrest Wilson, Structural Systems, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.

2. S.Ramamrutham, R.Narayanan, Strength of Materials, DhanpatRai Publishing Company(P)

Ltd.,2014.

3. SK.Duggal, Design of Steel Structure, Mc Graw hill Education,2017

4. Mario Salvadori, Robert Heller, Structure in Architecture, Prentice International Series in

Architecture, New Jersey, 1963.

5. S.UnniKrishna Pillai, Devdas Menon, Reinforced Concrete Design, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Limited, New Delhi,2010

6. Angus-J.Macdonal, Structural in Architecture, Archil Press, 2001

7. Curt Siegel, Structure and Form in Modern architecture, Reinhold publishing corporation, Newyork,
1962.

8. Dr.R.K.Bansal, Strength of Material, Laxmi Publication (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2012.

9. N.Subramanian, Space Structures: Principles and Practice,Multi Science Publishing Co Ltd,2007

COMPILED BY: Shobhana Suresh, Asst Prof (S L G) - SRM SEAD 2019-2020