Programming

Language

Quick Start Guide

Simplified Guide for Beginners

By:

R.J. KHAN
Introduction
Are you looking for a simple, complete and quick reference for programming in
C? If yes, you’ll find this book more useful than any other book out there. The
book presents the general-purpose language, step by step. The book is written
following a programmer’s approach and is therefore ideal for using as a quick
guide and reference.

The book is highly recommended for students as their first or second

programming course. It covers all the basic concepts of programming in detail
like Operators, Functions, Decision making statements, Pointers, Arrays and
Strings. The best thing about the book is the Source code along with output at
the initial stages of book. Other than students, the book is pretty helpful for
professionals as well since it has a thorough and detailed indexing of topics in
each chapter.

The book allows the audience to be selective by reducing the inter-connectivity

in the topics. We start with an overview of whole language, which involves brief
history, basic features of C, comparison and contrast with other languages.

Then we move on to familiarizing the readers with C programs and syntax. We

discuss the important components of syntax individually and in detail. This
section has source code in it, which helps building the interest, and learning of
the audience.

We study in detail about the Functions in C. The book discusses the built in
functions as well as describes the rules and basics of writing your own functions.
The chapter also includes programming examples.

Arrays, pointers and Strings are strong points of C language and hence are
discussed separately in one chapter. The topics are closely related, hence
comparisons and contrasts are worth the discussion.

We have an entire chapter dedicated to Binary Trees because of their

importance. We discussed Abstract Data types as well as studied the examples of
Stacks, Queues and Linked lists.

The book illustrates the general purpose use of programming language C,

detailed documentation of features provided by C, the working source code,
detailed documentation of features provided by C, the working source code,
along with comparison between object oriented language, C++. The differences
between ANSI C

and traditional language “C” are elaborated in detail as well.

R.J. Khan

Copyright 2015 by R.J. Khan All rights reserved.

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the publisher is not required to render accounting, officially permitted, or
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If advice is necessary, legal or professional, a practiced individual in the

profession should be ordered.

- From a Declaration of Principles which was accepted and approved equally by

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In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this

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indirectly.

Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Let’s C………………………………………………………………6

1. Background……………………………………………………………….6

2. ANSI C……………………………………………………………………...7

3. Strengths of C……………………………………………………………8

4. Programming in C……………………………………………………..9

5. Nothing is Perfect……………………………………………………..10
Chapter 2
Tokens and Syntax…………………………………………..11

1. Preprocessors…………………………………………………………….11

2. Variables……………………………………………………………………14

3. Constants…………………………………………………………………..16

4. Keywords…………………………………………………………………..17

5. Character Constants……………………………………………………18

6. Operators and Punctuators…………………………………………23

7. Precedence and Associativity………………………………………33

Chapter 3
Data Types………………………………………………………………37

1. Integral Data Types……………………………………………………38

2. Floating point……………………………………………………………38

3. Using ‘typedef’ ……………………………………………………..……39

4. Storage classes…………………………………………………………..39

5. Default Initializers…………………………………………………….43
Chapter 4
Loops and Decisions………………………………………..44

1. If else……………………………………………………………44

2. Switch case…………………………………………………….46

3. For loop………………………………………………………….48

4. While loop………………………………………………………50

5. Do while loop…………………………………………………….51

6. Nested Loops…………………………………………………….52
Chapter 5
Functions……………………………………….……………….54

1. Function Definition……………………………………………54

2. Function Prototypes ………………………………………….57

3. Alternative Declarations……………………………………..58

4. Function Invocation……………………………………………59

5. Environment……………………………………………………..60

6. Recursion………………………………………………………….61

7. Examples…………………………………………………………..62
Chapter 6
Arrays, Strings and Pointers………………………………66

1. 1-D Arrays…………………………………………………………66

2. Pointers…………………………………………………………...68

3. Strings……………………………………………………………...72

4. 2D-Arrays…………………………………………………………75

5. 3D-Arrays…………………………………………………………76
Chapter 7
Structures ……………………………………………………….77

1. Declaration……………………………………………………..77

2. Memory Allocation………………………………………….78

3. Member Access operators………………………………..79

4. Definition……………………………………………………….80

5. Abstract Data Types…………………………………………81

Chapter 8
Binary Search Tree…………………………………………..90

1. Composition…………………………………………………… 90

2. Insert Function………………………………………………..91

3. Search Function……………………………………………….92

Conclusion

Chapter 1: Let’s C

This chapter gives an overview of the C programming language. We start with a

brief background and discuss pros and cons of the general-purpose language.
After that, a series of programs follows, and the elements of each program are
carefully, line-by-line explained. We emphasize on how to use the basic
input/output functions of C. As we discuss in detail the similarities between C
and C++, you can fairly assume that the programs written are syntactically
correct for both the languages and the concepts elaborated are also common. Of
course, the C++ programmer has more capabilities using the object oriented
programming concepts. We recommend that everyone reads this chapter out so
that they know the basics about C and programming in C. Everyone should read
this chapter even if they don’t understand everything because everything is
explained in detail later on, in the book but the introduction in this chapter is
important.
1.1 Background:

C is a procedural programming language that was originally designed by Dennis

Ritchie at Bell in 1972. UNIX operating system used it as the systems language.
C was designed to overcome the shortcomings of a programming language B,
which was designed by K.

Thompson while working on initial versions of UNIX. B was a programming

language based on BCPL, a type less systems programming language, developed
by Martin Richards in 1967. Its basic data type was the machine word, and it
made heavy use of pointers and address arithmetic. It is completely different
from traditional structural programming, which involved use of typed
commands. Although C initially evolved from Band BCPL, but it included
typing.

By the early 1980s, the language has transformed itself into what it looks like
today, commonly known as the traditional C. ANSI standard C was introduced
in the later part of the same decade. The committee added the void, function
prototypes, a new function definition syntax, and more functionality for the
preprocessor, and in general made the language definition more precise.

ANSI C maintained its standard in an amazing way that it is still used in many
programs as a system language. It is one of the most commonly used
programming languages of the world, and it is found in colleges and universities
for learning purposes. It is mostly the first programming course offered to any IT
students. C++ is an extension of ANSI standard C which incorporates the object
oriented programming paradigm, which kind of revolutionized the programming
world. This book describes the ANSI version of the C

language, along with some topics in C++ as well.

1.2 ANSI Standard C:

ANSI stands for "American National Standards Institute." This institute is

involved in setting standards for different systems, including programming
languages. Standards

are important in a sense that everyone can have his own perspective. For
example, while travelling in a train, what seems to be stationary for you, might
example, while travelling in a train, what seems to be stationary for you, might
be moving for someone outside the train. ANSI Committee X3Jl1 is responsible
for setting the standard for the programming language C. In the late 1980s, the
committee created draft standards for what is known as ANSI C or standard C.
In 1990, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) approved the
standard for ANSI C as well.

Thus, ANSI C, or ANSI/ISO C, is an internationally recognized standard for

programming in C. The standard specifies the form in which programs are
written in C

and defines the standards for how these programs are to be interpreted. The
standardization results in better portability, reliability, maintainability, and
efficient execution of C language programs on different machines. All the
compilers follow this standard and hence there is uniformity in interpretation of
code.

1.3 Strengths of C:

The programming languages that are being used today are so powerful that
nothing remains impossible. But this power depends directly on how vast a
language is, which is determined by number of reserved keywords. C has fewer
keywords than Pascal, but it is more powerful than it. The power of C lies in the
unrestricted structure of programming in it. Although, C has its limitations like
any other language but it comes as the best in its capacity. Because C is a small
language, hence it is ideal to start your programming career from it. It is easy to
master when compared with other languages. Once you have mastered C, you
can then easily move on to the more powerful and vast languages.

We will now briefly discuss the strong characteristics of C, which will motivate
the readers to program in C.

• UNIX is a major interactive operating system on workstations, servers, and

mainframes. C is the basic language used on UNIX platform. Many windowing
packages, database programs, graphics libraries, and other large-application
packages are written in C.

• C is portable. Code written on one machine can be easily moved to another.

The programmer is provided with a standard library of functions that work
independently of machines. Even if there is a system dependent code, the
programmer is given the capability to single it out using preprocessor provided
programmer is given the capability to single it out using preprocessor provided
by C.

• Personal Computers used C as their programming language.

• C is small but has a very powerful set of operators. Some of these operators
allow the programmer to access the machine at the bit level. For example, a
powerful increment operator “++” can manipulate the machine in the same way
as machine code does. This results in higher efficiency as other languages
require multiple statements to complete the equivalent task.

• C is modular. C uses the external functions, for which arguments are passed
using call-by-value technique. Pointers are used for passing arguments using
call-by-reference technique. The nesting of functions is not allowed. Using the
storage class static within files provides a limited form of privacy. These
features, along with tools provided by the operating system, readily support user-
defined libraries of functions and modular programming.

• C laid the basis for C++ and Java. This can be clearly seen by analyzing the
common attributes and functionalities of these languages. C++ and Java support
the basic structure of functions, methods or routines in C++ or Java. The
primitive data types are retained as well. Thus, learning C prior to learning C++

or Java is a good thing.

• Certain constructs in C are dependent on machines, implementation of these

constructs is up to the programmer to support the targeted machine(s). Thus, C

can support multiple machines.

1.4 Programming in C: Programs are set of instructions that are executed by a

computer processor. Programs are, at the lowest level, combinations of 0s and
1s. These combinations are commonly known as machine code. The 0s and 1s
are commonly known as bits or binary digits.

Machine language is closest to machine but it is away from human beings in a

way that it is very difficult to remember sequences of 0s and 1s. Therefore we
use low-level languages like Assembly Language and High Level languages like
use low-level languages like Assembly Language and High Level languages like
C, C++ and Java.

Assembly language has short labels for certain commands to do certain tasks, for
example ADD, MOV etc. High Level languages are the easiest way for a
programmer to communicate with a machine.

C is a high level language. It is important to know that computer only

understands machine language. Assembly language and High-level languages
are used for aiding programmers rather than computer. The code written by
humans in assembly and high-level languages is translated into its binary form
so that computer can understand it.

The source code for C is written in some text editor and compiler. Common
examples of such editors are Turbo C++, Borland C++ etc. We will be using
Visual Studio 2012 for coding throughout in this book.

1.4.1 First Program in C

First of all, you need to set up your IDE (Integrated Development Environment).
We recommend Borland C++. Visual Studio is for pros but is not a good choice
for students because of its helpful nature. From here onwards, we assume that
you have an IDE installed on your computer system and can compile a source
code in C.

You need to create a new file with .c or .cpp extension. This file will have your
source code, which will be compiled using your respective compiler. Let’s name
our file as “myFirstProgram.c”.

In “myFirstProgram.c”:

#include <iostream>
void main(void)

printf("This is my first Program in C\n"); }

Before going any further, let’s just try to compile and execute this code. On
doing so, you’ll realize that a black screen appears for a millisecond and then
disappears.

What actually happens is, that the computer runs the program and exits when the
source code ends. So it exits before us seeing any of the output. To stop our
program from doing it, we need to add an extra line at the end of our code.

#include <iostream>

void main(void)

printf("This is my first Program in C\n");

system("pause");

If

no

errors

are

made,

the

output
will

be

like

this:

The first line of our program includes a library in our program. This library has
the functions like printf, system and similarly others which we can use in our
program.

The next line declares our main method. The main method in any program is the
entry point for our logic. Programs start from executing this function. The word
“void” is used to indicate that the parameter under consideration is null and void.

The first void represents that the main function returns nothing. The next void
inside parenthesis indicates that the main function is passed nothing at the start.

We’ll see how these two void types can be replaced by other data types as
demanded by our program logic.

It is important to note that braces are used to represent blocks in our code. For
now, you need to know that the body of our main function lies within braces.
Anything outside these braces is not executed when main function is executed.

Inside our main function, we have two statements; printf and system. Printf takes
a String, a stream of characters as input and displays it on the screen. The ‘\n’ at
the end of our line in printf statement indicates the start of new line. The next
line uses the system to pause the program, so that we can see the output as
explained earlier.

A semi-colon ends each statement. Semi-colon is commonly known as statement

terminator.

So, we stop here for now. Coding or programming isn’t a difficult thing at all.
So, we stop here for now. Coding or programming isn’t a difficult thing at all.
All it demands is a little practice. We strongly believe you will be an efficient
coder in C

after finishing this book.

1.5 Nothing is perfect: Like every other language, C has its shortcomings. It has
a complicated syntax. For example, a common programming error is to use
different operator instead of the operator ==. Nevertheless, C is still a decent
language. It doesn’t restrict the programmer to access the machine. Some can
consider the lifting of restrictions as an imperfection, but I personally think it has
more pros than cons. C attracts programmers because of these “imperfections”.
Modularity in the source code is often considered critical. In C, it is actually
dependent on programmers, which always prefer that there is minimal
dependency between functions. A C programmer welcomes experimentation and
interaction as well, depending upon certain situations.

Chapter 2:Tokens and Syntax
In this chapter, we explain the syntax and lexical elements of the C programming
language. C is a high level programming language. Like other high level
languages, it has rules and principles for putting together different components
to create legal and working programs. These rules and principles define the
syntax of the language.

The program that checks on the legality of C code is called the compiler. The
compiler translates each line of code into machine language to see if there are
any errors. If there is an error, the compiler will print an error message and stop.
If the compiler finds no errors, then the source code is correct, and the code is
translated into object code. The object code is used by loader to create an
executable file.

As we discussed earlier, the preprocessors are processed prior to execution of

remaining code. We can think of the preprocessor as being built into the
compiler. This is what actually happens on some systems, whereas on others the
preprocessor is separate. This might not concern us at this stage but we have to
be aware, however, that preprocessors and compiler can both cause various
errors in our programs. Let us discuss preprocessors in a bit of detail now.

2.1 Preprocessors C compiler has a preprocessor built into it. Lines that begin
with a # are called preprocessors. We have so far used #define and #include. The
compiler processes these preprocessors before actually compiling a code. For
example, when we defined a constant using #define in section 2.2, the compiler
replaced all the instances of PI with the value specified at the start before
compiling the code. Such constants are usually known as Symbolic constants.

We write all the #define statements at the top of our file. It is a convention to
write all the letters of a constant in capital. Following this convention enables
programmers to easily identify Symbolic constants or any other constants as
well. It is important to note that though, the preprocessor never changes the
contents of quoted strings. For example, in the following statement, only second
PI will be replaced by the value defined by preprocessor PI.

printf(" PI == %f\n ", PI);

The program becomes more readable by using preprocessors. It makes easy to

The program becomes more readable by using preprocessors. It makes easy to
follow the flow of program. More importantly, if a constant has been defined
symbolically by means of the #define facility and used throughout a program, it
is easy to change it later, if necessary. For example, the letter c is universally
accepted to be used to represent the

speed of light, which is approximately 299792.458 lan/sec. If we write the

following preprocessor and then use the letter C throughout tens of thousands of
lines of code to represent symbolically the constant 299792.458, it will be easy
to change the code when a new physical experiment produces a better value for
the speed of light. All the code is updated by simply changing the constant in the
#define line. Such are the advantages of using preprocessors.

#define C 299792.458

#include filename.h is a preprocessing directive that causes a copy of the file

filename.h to be included at the point in the file when it is compiled. A #include
line can occur anywhere in a file, though it is typically at the head of the file as a
convention. It is necessary to specify the filename in quotes as it indicates that it
is a predefined file. The file specified in such directives, is also called a header
file. These header files can contain #define lines and other #include lines. The
names of header files end in .h extension.

The C system provides a number of standard header files. Some examples are
stdio.h, string.h, and math.h. These files contain the declarations of functions in
the standard library, macros, structure templates, and other programming
elements that are commonly used. Common examples of such header files are
conio.h, stdio.h, stdfx.h, math.h and others. These files contain certain system
functions such as stdio provides the coder with functions as printf and scanf. We
must include this header file before we can use these functions in our program.
We, so far have used iostream, which is short form of input/output stream
included using the #include directive.

Let us just see an example demonstrating how using a header file works.
Following is code written in a header file named as “myFirstHeaderFile.h”

#include "iostream"

#define PI 3.14159265359
#define PI 3.14159265359

#define LENGTH 200

#define WIDTH 300

#define HEIGHT 400

#define PERIMETER 2400

#define OWNER "EMMA WATSON"

The following is the code to be written in a .cpp file which includes our header
file in it.

If you are using Visual Studio, simply add the header file in the same project as
the .c or .cpp) file is in.

#include "myFirstHeaderFile.h"

void main(void)

float Area=PI*LENGTH*HEIGHT*HEIGHT*WIDTH;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Header Files in C\n");

printf("List of Constants to follow\n");

printf("Owner: %s\n", OWNER);

printf("Length: %d\n", LENGTH);

printf("Width: %d\n", WIDTH);

printf("Height: %d\n", HEIGHT);

printf("PI: %f\n", PI);

printf("Area of whatever shape it becomes is: %f\n", Area);

system("pause");

The output for the above program is as follows:

As you can see, the program works just as the code in the header file was written
in our c file. This is just a simple example to demonstrate the use of header files.
We actually use header files because programs become too complex and it’s
better to handle them in smaller files with lesser complexity. We divide the
functionality into different categories and write code and functions for each
category in a separate file. In this way, it becomes easier to digest each smaller
chunk of a code.

A C program is a sequence of characters. This sequence of characters is

transformed into object code by compiler. The object code is translated into a
target language depending upon the machine. Target language, on most of the
systems is the machine language that can be interrupted. The program must be
correct in its syntax. The compiler takes each character as a token. Token is
considered as the basic unit of vocabulary in the language.

In ANSI C, there are six kinds of tokens: keywords, identifiers, constants, string
constants, operators and punctuators. We will discuss each of these tokens in this
constants, operators and punctuators. We will discuss each of these tokens in this
chapter. The role of a compiler is to check if all the tokens can be translated into
proper understandable strings according to the compiler requirements. Most
compilers are very precise in their requirements.

Computers are dumb. We, the humans have the capability to understand a line
more efficiently if an extra punctuation mark is used in a sentence but computers
on the other hand will not be able to understand a sentence if it has an extra
punctuation mark called token, it is not familiar with. Hence, the programmer
must be familiar with which tokens can be used and which cannot be.

In the remaining part of this chapter, we will be covering the basic structure
elements of any C program. Every large thing in the universe comprises of
smaller components.

These smaller components might not be that effective individually, but

assembling them in a right way certainly leads to a greater success.

The scenario mentioned above is true for the language C as well. C consists of
individual components called Functions. Functions are considered as basic
structural element in C

programming. The Functions themselves comprise of smaller components like

Variables, constants, operators and other functions as well. We will study
Functions in detail in another chapter. In this chapter, we will discuss these
individual components one by one.

2.2 Variables

A variable name, also known as an identifier, consists of a sequence of letters,

digits, and underscores, but may not start with a digit. These variables are
usually declared at the start of program but you can declare one anywhere in
your program before using it. You can store values in these variables depending
upon their data types and “vary” them at any stage of your program. Identifiers
should be chosen to reflect their use in the program. In this way, they serve as
documentation, making the program more readable.

There is a code for everything we do in life. Similarly, we have rules for writing
variable name in C. Variable name can be composed of uppercase and/or
variable name in C. Variable name can be composed of uppercase and/or
lowercase letters, digits and only one special character that is ‘_’. The first letter
of a variable must be either a letter or an underscore. But, it is discouraged to
start variable name with an underscore though it is legal because, variable name
that starts with underscore can conflict with system names and compiler may
complain. The length of a variable name has no restrictions. However, the first
31 characters of a variable are discriminated by the compiler. So, the first 31
letters of two variables in a program should be different by at least one character.

Let us get to know the use of variables by quoting some practical applications.
Here is a program to calculate sum of two numbers: #include <iostream>

void main(void)

int firstNumber=10;

int secondNumber=5;

int sum=firstNumber+secondNumber;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of variables in C\n");

printf("First number is: %d\n", firstNumber);

printf("Second number is: %d\n", secondNumber);

printf("Their sum is: %d\n", sum);

printf("Their sum is: %d\n", sum);

system("pause");

The output for above program is as follows:

Some of you might be wondering why use the variables here instead of just
using the numbers. That would be easy but it will have limited use as well as a
bad programming approach. Let us add a few more lines to the above code to
prove these two points: #include <iostream>

void main(void)

int firstNumber=10;

int secondNumber=5;

int sum=firstNumber+secondNumber;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of variables in C\n");

printf("First number is: %d\n", firstNumber);

printf("Second number is: %d\n", secondNumber);

printf("Their sum is: %d\n", sum);

firstNumber=3;
firstNumber=3;

secondNumber=4;

sum=firstNumber+secondNumber;

printf("First number is: %d\n", firstNumber);

printf("Second number is: %d\n", secondNumber);

printf("Their sum is: %d\n", sum);

system("pause");

As you can see that the print statements are duplicated in the second code, but
the values are changed by just changing the variables. So, we can use same code
to get different output by just changing variables. This gives us a huge
advantage. For example, consider a scenario that you have a list of 300 students
with their obtained marks in a uniform C programming test. What would be the
best way to represent total marks for this list? Would you recommend writing
total marks with each entry? Absolutely not but just consider for a second that
you do that and then you find out that total marks are 50
instead of hundred. You are bound to make a change i each entry. To avoid all
this, you could just assign a value to a variable and use that variable in each
entry. This is what variables are actually used for. Variables are a critical
component of any program.

2.3 Constants

A constant is something whose value does not change throughout the program
execution. These are fixed for a purpose though. For example, using standard
values for certain entities, for having not to type a long digit or value like
3.141517... or making the program easy to follow by mentioning all the constant
values in one place.

Let us just go through a C program using constants:

#include <iostream>

#define PI 3.14159265359

void main(void)

int radius=10;

float Area=PI*radius*radius;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Constants in C\n");

printf("Radius of circle is: %d\n", radius);

printf("Area of circle is: %f\n", Area);

system("pause");

We used preprocessor #define to declare a constant PI in this program. This is a

flexible and recommended way to use constants in C. There is another way to
use constants as well using the keyword ‘const’. Let us see how that works too:
#include <iostream>

void main(void)

int radius=10;

const float PI=3.14159265359;

float Area=PI*radius*radius;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Constants in C\n");

printf("Radius of circle is: %d\n", radius);

printf("Area of circle is: %f\n", Area);

system("pause");

}
2.4 Keywords

Keywords are reserved words in any language. These words are already reserved
for a particular functionality so programmers cannot use them. These keywords
represent primitive data types, pre-built functions and other programming
components.

Here is a list of keywords in C, predefined by ANSI: Keywords

Functionality

auto

Defines a local variable as having a local lifetime.

break

Passes control out of the compound statement.

case

Used to program a logic based decision on input through Switch.

char

Used to define a character type variable.

const

Makes variable value or pointer parameter unmodifiable.

continue

Passes control to the beginning of the loop.

default

Used in switch-case statements for defining default operation.

do

This keyword along with ‘while’ is used for a special kind of loop.

double

This keyword is used for defining a variable of type ‘double’.

else

Used along with ‘if’ for defining an alternate for a certain condition.

enum

Defines a set of constants of type integer.

extern

Used to indicate that a variable is defined outside current program.

float

Used to define a floating type variable.

for

Used to program a ‘for’ loop.

goto

Used to move compiler in a program, unconditionally.

if

Define a decision statement.

int

Defines an integer type variable.

long
Defines a long type variable of required type, e.g. int.

register

To store a value in a variable into a CPU register return

return control to the previous block in CPU register short

Used to modify a variable of data type mentioned with ‘short’.

signed

Used as a data type modifier

sizeof

Returns the size of the expression or type.

static

Used to save a variable even after its scope ends.

struct

To define a customized Data Structure according to requirements.

switch

Used as a decision making statement, Switch-case.

typedef

Defines a new data type.

union

Groups variables that share same storage.

unsigned

Used as a data type modifier.

void

Empty data type.

volatile

Opposite of the keyword, ‘const’.

while

Used to define repetition loops.

2.5 Character Constants This section addresses the character constants which
have a certain meaning in certain situations. Character literals are enclosed in
single quotes, e.g., 'a' and can be stored in a simple variable of char type.

A character literal can be a plain character, an escape sequence, or a universal

character.

A closely related topic, string constant, or a string literal is a sequence of

characters enclosed in a pair of double-quote marks, such as “Khan”.
Interestingly, a string constant consists of multiple characters bt is taken as a
single token by compiler. Strings are stored as arrays of characters. It is
important to note though that string constants are different from character
constants. For example, 'a' and "a" are not the same. “a”

consists of two characters actually. First one is ‘a’ and the next one is ‘0/’. The
second one represents NULL.

C language provides certain character constants whose meanings are predefined

like we have used “\n” a number of times to indicate the tart of new line. Such
characters are known as Escape Sequences. Remember, these characters and
these meanings are applicable when written inside double quotes as a string.
Here is a list of the common escape sequence characters:

Escape
sequence

Meaning

\\

\ character

\'

' character

\"

" character

\?

? character

\a

Alert or bell

\b

Backspace

\f

Form feed

\n

Newline

\r

Carriage return

\t
Horizontal tab

\v

Vertical tab

\ooo

Octal number of one to three digits

\xhh . .

Hexadecimal number of one or more digits Then we have ASCII characters, that
are listed below: Char Dec Action

NUL

Null character

SOH

Start of heading, = console interrupt STX

Start of text, maintenance mode on HP console ETX

End of text

EOT

4
End of transmission, not the same as ETB

ENQ

Enquiry, goes with ACK; old HP flow control ACK

Acknowledge, clears ENQ logon hand

BEL

Bell, rings the bell...

BS

Backspace, works on HP terminals/computers HT

Horizontal tab, move to next tab stop LF

10

Line Feed

VT

11

Vertical tab

FF

12
Form Feed, page eject

CR

13

Carriage Return

SO

14

Shift Out, alternate character set

SI

15

Shift In, resume defaultn character set DLE

16

Data link escape

DC1

17

XON, with XOFF to pause listings

DC2

18

Device control 2, block-mode flow control DC3

19

XOFF, with XON is TERM=18 flow control DC4

20
Device control 4

NAK

21

Negative acknowledge

SYN

22

Synchronous idle

ETB

23

End transmission block, not the same as EOT

CAN

24

Cancel line, MPE echoes!

EM

25

End of medium, ControlY interrupt

SUB

26

Substitute

ESC

27
Escape, next character is not echoed FS

28

File separator

GS

29

Group separator

RS

30

Record separator, block-mode terminator US

31

Unit separator

The above is list of all the control ASCII characters. Following is the list of
printable ASCII characters in ASCII.

Char Dec Description SP

32 Space

33 Exclamation mark

"

34 Quotation mark
 #

35 Cross hatch (number sign)

36 Dollar sign

37 Percent sign

&

38 Ampersand

39 Closing single quote (apostrophe) (

40 Opening parentheses

41 Closing parentheses

42 Asterisk (star, multiply)

43 Plus

44 Comma

45 Hyphen, dash, minus

45 Hyphen, dash, minus

46 Period

47 Slant (forward slash, divide)

48 Zero

49 One

50 Two

51

Three

52 Four

53 Five

54 Six

55 Seven
55 Seven

56 Eight

57 Nine

58 Colon

59 Semicolon

<

60 Less than sign

61 Equals sign

>

62 Greater than sign

63 Question mark

64 At-sign

65 Uppercase A

B
B

66 Uppercase B

67 Uppercase C

68 Uppercase D

69 Uppercase E

70 Uppercase F

71

Uppercase G

72 Uppercase H

73 Uppercase I

74 Uppercase J

75 Uppercase K


76 Uppercase L

77 Uppercase M

78 Uppercase N

79 Uppercase O

80 Uppercase P

81 Uppercase Q

82 Uppercase R

83 Uppercase S

84 Uppercase T

85 Uppercase U
V

86 Uppercase V

87 Uppercase W

88 Uppercase X

89 Uppercase Y

90 Uppercase Z

91 Opening square bracket

92 Reverse slant (Backslash)

93 Closing square bracket

94 Caret (Circumflex)

95 Underscorè

96 Opening single quote

a

97 Lowercase a

98 Lowercase b

99 Lowercase c

100 Lowercase d

101 Lowercase e

102 Lowercase f

103 Lowercase g

104 Lowercase h

105 Lowercase i

106 Lowercase j

k
107 Lowercase k

108 Lowercase l

109 Lowercase m

110 Lowercase n

111 Lowercase o

112 Lowercase p

113 Lowercase q

114 Lowercase r

115 Lowercase s

116 Lowercase t

117 Lowercase u
v

118 Lowercase v

119 Lowercase w

120 Lowercase x

121 Lowercase y

122 Lowercase z

123 Opening curly brace

124 Vertical line

125 Closing curly brace

126 Tilde (approximate)

DEL 127 Delete (rubout), cross-hatch box

2.6 Operators and Punctuators Like every other programming language, C has
many characters with certain meanings.

Examples include the Arithmetic operators which stand for the usual arithmetic
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus,
respectively.

Modulus in mathematics returns the remainder after dividing a number by

another. For example, the value of “a modulus b” is obtained by taking the
remainder after dividing a by b. % is the character used for Modulus opertion in
C. Thus, 15%7 has the answer 1, and 7 % 5 results in 2.

In a program, operators can be used to separate identifiers that are involved in an

expression. Remember, an expression is a statement that ends with a semicolon.
It is good practice to give whitespaces between each identifier and operators to
give better readability but it is not necessary. Compiler ignores Whitespaces
unless they are quoted in the code. So, the following statements are identical to
the compiler, X=A+B;

X = A + B ;

Context is very important in almost everything. Symbols change their meaning

depending upon where and how they are used. For example consider the
following two statements which use % symbol in two different contexts.

printf("Owner: %s\n", OWNER);

int x = 15 % 4 ;

The first % symbol is the start of a conversion specification, or format which is

related to the identifier in the later part of the expression, whereas the second %
symbol represents the modulus operator of mathematics.

Examples of punctuators include parentheses, braces, commas, and semicolons.

Consider the following code:

void main(void)
void main(void)

int a, b = 2, c = 3;

a = (b * (b + c));

The parenthesis used right after main are used as an operator. By rules, they are
used to indicate that main is a function. After the parenthesis, the symbols “{” ,
“,”, “,”, “;”, “(”, “(”, “)”, “)” and “;” are all punctuators. Both operators and
punctuators are collected by the compiler as tokens (characters), and along with
white space, they serve to separate language elements like identifiers, constants,
functions, keywords, operators and others.

Tokens depend on their context a lot. For example, as explained in the previous
paragraph, the parentheses are sometimes used to indicate a function name while
they can be used as punctuators as well. Another example is given by the
expressions C= a + b ;

++ a ;

a + = b ;

They all use + as a character, but ++ and += are increment and assignment
operators respectively while the first one is a simple arithmetic operator. This
dependency of symbols meaning on context leads to the short but more effective
programming language C.

C language has rules of precedence and associativity in operators. It is critical in

nature as we do not want one statement to result in two different outputs. These
rules do not fully determine evaluation because we give user the power to
achieve the result of desire by mastering these rules. Since expressions inside
parenthesis are evaluated first, parentheses can be used to clarify or change the
order operations are performed.

Consider the expression:

Answer = 30 + ( 4 * 10 / 5 -20 ) ;

The operator “(” has the highest parenthesis in this expression so we dissect it
before anything else. Then we have three operators inside parenthesis.
Multiplication and division have equal precedence so we perform whatever
comes first in the expression. In this case, we perform 4 * 10 and have a result of
40. We divide 40 by 5 and result is 8.

We subtract 20 from 8 and the result is -12. Now that parenthesis are closed, we
compute the operations outside it. We add -12 to 30 and the result is 18.

Humans with good mathematics will always find the answer to be 18. But guys,
who are not familiar with DMAS rule will have different answers. We want our
computer to be good with mathematics, so we have made it familiar with the
precedence of operators in the standard way so it always leads to one correct
answer.

Let us now discuss various types of operators provided by language C: 2.6.1

Arithmetic and Bitwise Operators

Operator Name

Operations

Add

Used to add two numbers

Subtract

Used to subtract two numbers

Multiply
Multiply

Used to multiply two numbers

Divide

Used for division of two numbers

Modulus

Used to find remainder after division of 2 numbers ~

Negation

Binary operator, used to invert the boolean value &

Bitwise AND Used to perform logical AND on every bit |

Bitwise OR

Used to perform logical OR on every bit ^

Power

Used to compute power of a number

<<

Left Shift

Used to shift bits to the left

>>

Right Shift

Used to shift bits to the tight

Let us now see an example of using these operators in a program: #include

Let us now see an example of using these operators in a program: #include
"iostream"

void main(void)

int A = 50, B = 17;

bool Alive =false;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Arithmetic Operators in C\n");

printf("Sum: %d\n", A + B);

printf("Difference: %d\n", A - B);

printf("Product: %d\n", A * B);

printf("Division: %d\n", A / B);

printf("Modulus: %d\n", A % B);

printf("Negation: %s\n", ~Alive? "true": "false");

printf("Bitwise AND: %d\n", A & B);

printf("Bitwise OR: %d\n", A | B);



printf("Bitwise XOR: %d\n", A^B);

printf("Left Shift: %d\n", A<<2);

printf("Right Shift: %d\n", A>>2);

system("pause");

The first four operators are pretty common and straightforward so we’ll not
discuss them here. Modulus returns us the remainder after dividing one number
by the other. A % B returns the remainder after dividing A by B. For instance,
the example in our code divides 50 by 17, 2 is quotient while 16 is the
remainder. The remainder is returned and printed. Remember, we can always
assign this value by using assignment operators.

Here, we just used the returned value to be printed once.

Negation operator is used to invert a binary number using 2’s complement form.
If the input is boolean, as is in our program, the result is inverted.

Then we have 5 Bitwise operators, starting with Bitwise AND operation. It

performs logical AND on each bit of the numbers provided. For example, in our
program, we have 50 and 17. The binary conversions of these two numbers will
be 00110010 and 00010001 respectively.
00110010

00010001

00010000

The answer, after converting to decimal is 16.

Similarly, Bitwise OR operation performs OR on every bit of the numbers

provided. For example, in our program 50 and 17 are operated and result in 51 as
explained as follows.

00110010

00010001

00110001

Similarly, Bitwise XOR operation performs XOR on every bit of the numbers
provided.

In XOR, the result is high bit only if there are odd number of high bits in the
operation.

For example, in our program 50 and 17 are operated and result in 51 as

explained as follows.

00110010

00010001

00100011

The result, when converted into decimal gives us 35.

Shift operators are used to shift binary digits to the left or right. By using left
shift operators, the left operands value is moved left by the number of bits
specified by the right operand. For example, in our program we used A<<2. It
means that bits in A must be shifted to left by two digits:
means that bits in A must be shifted to left by two digits:

00110010

00110010<<2

11001000

Left Shift operator shifts bits to the left and add 2 zeros to the right and hence
the value is changed to 200 as clear from above explanation.

By using right shift operators, the left operands value is moved right by the
number of bits specified by the right operand. For example, in our program we
used A>>2. It means that bits in A must be shifted to right by two digits:
00110010

00110010>>2

00001100

Right Shift operator shifts bits to the right and add 2 zeros to the left and hence
the value is changed to 12 as clear from above explanation.

2.6.2 Assignment Operators Operator Equivalent Operations a = b

Equal to

Assigns the value stored in b to a

a += b

a = a + b

Adds b into a and stores result in a a -= b

a = a - b

Subtracts b from a and stores result in a a *= b

a = a * b

Stores product of a and b in a

Stores product of a and b in a

a /= b

a = a / b

Divides a b b and stores result in a a %= b

a = a % b

Takes a % b and stores the result in a a &= b

a = a & b

Performs bitwise AND on a and b, stores in a a |= b

a = a | b

Performs bitwise OR on a and b, stores in a a ^= b

a = a ^ b

Performs bitwise XOR on a and b, stores in a Here’s a program to show the use
of these assignment operators with output: #include "iostream"

void main(void)

int A = 10, B = 3, simpleAssignment = 0;

simpleAssignment = A + B;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Assignment Operators in C\n");

printf("Simple assignment: %d\n", simpleAssignment);

A += B;

printf("Plus and Equal to: %d\n", A);

A = 10, B = 3;

A -= B;

printf("Minus and Equal to: %d\n", A );

A = 10, B = 3;

A *= B;

printf("Multiply and Equal to: %d\n", A );

A = 10, B = 3;

A /= B;

printf("Modulus and equal to: %d\n", A );

A = 10, B = 3;

A %= B;


printf("Bitwise AND and equal to: %d\n", A );

A = 10, B = 3;

A &= B;

printf("Bitwise OR and equal to: %d\n", A );

A = 10, B = 3;

A |= B;

printf("Bitwise XOR and equal to: %d\n", A);

system("pause");

2.6.3 Increment Decrement Operators Operator Name

Operations
++a

Prefix increment

Adds 1 to the value of a, before any assignment --a

Prefix decrement

Subtracts 1 to the value of a, before any assignment a++

Postfix increment Adds 1 to the value of a, after any assignment a--

Postfix decrement Subtracts 1 to the value of a, after any assignment

The increment operator ++ and the decrement operator -- are unary operators. ++
and -

- can be applied to identifiers, but not to constants or ordinary expressions.

Moreover, different effects may occur depending on whether the operators occur
in prefix or postfix position.

Clearly, Increment and decrement operators can be tricky to work with. In

simple situations, one can consider ++ and -- as operators that provide concise
notation for the incrementing and decrementing of a variable. In other situations,
careful attention must be paid as to whether prefix or postfix position is desired.
They are pretty simple once you know the purpose and use of each and the best
way to make you familiar with purpose of each of these operators is the
practical. So here is a program which describes usage of these operators:

#include "iostream"

void main(void)

int A = 10;

printf("This is a Program to demonstrate use of Increment Decrement Operators

in C\n");
printf("Before Prefix Increment, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Prefix Increment, A = %d\n", ++A);

printf("After Prefix Increment, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Before Postfix Increment, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Postfix Increment, A = %d\n", A++);

printf("After Postfix Increment, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Before Prefix Decrement, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Prefix Decrement, A = %d\n", --A);

printf("After Prefix Decrement, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Before Postfix Decrement, A = %d\n", A);

printf("Postfix Decrement, A = %d\n", A--);

printf("After Postfix Decrement, A = %d\n", A);

system("pause");

So, the initial value of A is 10. Prefix increment increments the value to 11
So, the initial value of A is 10. Prefix increment increments the value to 11
before assignments and thus prints 11 in 3rd line of output. Fourth line just prints
and shows that A has been assigned the value 11. Sixth line of output has a
postfix increment which means A will be incremented after any assignments in
the expression. Thus, the same value, 11 is printed and then A is incremented to
12 which can be seen in the next line.

Prefix decrement decrements the value to 11 before assignments and thus prints
11 in 9th line of output. Next line just prints and shows that A has been assigned
the value 11.

12th line of output has a postfix decrement which means A will be decremented
after any assignments in the expression. Thus, the same value, 11 is printed and
then A is decremented to 10 which can be seen in the next line.

2.6.4 Logical Operators Logical operators are used to get a binary output
depending upon certain operations between one or more operands. They are
handy when developing decision statements.

Operator Name

Operations

!a

Negative

Inverts the value of a

a && b

Logical AND Returns true if both a, b are true a || b

Logical OR
Returns true if a or b or both are true Following is an example illustrating the use
of these logical operators: #include "iostream"

void main(void)

bool A = true, B = false, C = true;

printf( !A? "True\n": "False\n");

printf( (A&&B)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf( (A&&C)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf( (A||B)? "True\n": "False\n");

system("pause");

2.6.5 Comparison Operators The comparison operators are used to compare

two numbers or characters. For binary and string comparisons, we have separate
operators and functions so avoid comparing two strings or binary numbers using
these operators. It is not recommended.

Operator Name

Operations

a == b

Equals

Returns true if contents of a equal to that of b a != b

a < b
Not equal to

Returns true if a is not equal to that of b a > b

a <= b

Less than

Returns true if a is less than b

a >= b

Greater than

Returns true if a is greater than b

Less than or equal to

Returns true if a is less than or equal to b Greater than or equal to Returns true if
a is greater than or equal to b

Following is an illustration of usage of Comparison operators in C with output.

#include "iostream"

void main(void)

int a = 10, b = 5;

printf((a==b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a==b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a!=b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a<b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a>b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a<=b)? "True\n": "False\n");

printf((a>=b)? "True\n": "False\n");

system("pause");

The output is pretty straightforward, so we trust the audience for understanding.

2.6.6 Special Operators

The ternary operator, the one we have consistently used in previous examples is
quite useful. Its syntax is as follows:

Condition ? (In case of true) : (In case of false)

So, ternary operator checks a certain condition and depending upon the boolean
output, selects one of the alternative cases.

Another useful operator is typecasting operator. It takes an operand and converts

it into the desired data type. Its syntax is as follows: (Type) operand;

For example, (int) 3.14 yields 3.

C provides the unary operator sizeof to find the number of bytes needed to store
an object. It has the same precedence and associativity as all the other unary
operators. The syntax of expression is as follows:

sizeof(object)
2.7 Precedence and Associativity As we discussed earlier as well, we have
rules of precedence and associativity that are used to determine how certain
expressions are evaluated. Let us briefly discuss how precedence rules are used
by a C compiler to compute the unique and correct answer of an expression.

The following is a table representing the precedence of operators in C. The

operators at the top have highest precedence while the operators at bottom have
the least precedence in an expression. The operators with higher precedence are
computed first in an expression.

Category

Operator

Associativity

Postfix

() [] -> . ++ - -

Left to right

Unary

+ - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof

Right to left

Multiplicative * / %

Left to right

Additive

+ -

Left to right

Shift

<< >>
Left to right

Relational

< <= > >=

Left to right

Equality

== !=

Left to right

Bitwise AND

&

Left to right

Bitwise XOR

Left to right

Bitwise OR

Left to right

Logical AND

&&

Left to right

Logical OR
Logical OR

||

Left to right

Conditional

?:

Right to left

Assignment

= += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |=

Right to left

Comma

Left to right

Consider the following code and try to compute the results. We will discuss the
output but it is better if you try it yourself before matching our results.

#include "iostream"

void main(void)

int a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

a = b = c += 2;


printf("a= %d\n",a);

printf("b= %d\n",b);

printf("c= %d\n",c);

a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

a = ++b -= c = 2;

printf("a= %d\n",a);

printf("b= %d\n",b);

printf("b= %d\n",c);

system("pause");

The initial values of a, b and c are 20, 10 and 5 respectively. The equivalent
expression for the first expression can be: (a = (b = ( c = c + 2 ))); The inner
most parentheses assigns the value 5 to c. The other two parenthesis simply
assign c to b and b to a. So, all the variables contain 7 after the execution of first
assign c to b and b to a. So, all the variables contain 7 after the execution of first
assignment.

Then, we re initialize values of a, b and c with 20, 10 and 5 respectively. The

equivalent expression for the second assignment would be:

(a=((b=b+1)=b-(c=2)));

The inner most parenthesis stores 2 in variable c. The next parenthesis then
compute b-c, equivalent to 10-2, and results 8 which is stored in b. Then b is
incremented by 1

which gives b the value 9. Then a is assigned the value of b, which is 9.

All the operators on a given line, such as * / % have equal precedence with
respect to each other, but have higher precedence than all the operators that
occur on the lines below them. We have associativity for all the operators in the
rightmost column. For every operator, we will declare its precedence and
associativity so that there is a standard to compute a mathematical expression.
These rules are to be remembered by every C programmer for efficient
programming.

In traditional C, the increment and decrement operators have the same

precedence as the unary operators. In ANSI C, however they have the very
highest pre-and left-to-right associativity as postfix operators, and they have the
same pre-as the other unary operators and right-to-Left associativity as prefix
operators.

Chapter 3:Data Types
Data types refer to various categories of data that is to be manipulated. C
provides several default data types. We need to discuss limitations on what can
be stored in each type.

The keywords signed char, unsigned char, char, signed long int, signed short int,
signed int, unsigned int, unsigned short int, unsigned long int, float, double, and
long double are the default data types but for programmers’ ease, it is allowed to
use the short forms.

The next paragraph has those legal shortened forms of data types in C.

Fundamental data types include long, short, signed char, unsigned char, char, int,
float, double, long double, unsigned, unsigned short and unsigned long.

These are all keywords which means that they cannot be used as names of
variables.

Usually, the keyword signed is not used. The reason is that the signed int is
equivalent of int, and because shorter names are easier to type, int is used on
most of the occasions.

The type char, however, is special in this regard as we’ll see in the later parts of
this
chapter
Let us assume that the category type is defined to be anyone of the types given in
the preceding paragraph. Using this category, we can provide the syntax of
declaring a variable of any type:

type identifier;

For example, this can represent int x or double a or char alphabet etc.

It is always easy to understand things when they are grouped (except cats). The
default data types can also be grouped according to their functionality. The
integral types can be used to hold integer values; the floating and double types
are those that be used to hold real values in them. These both categories, when
combined form Arithmetic data types.

Integral Data Types Floating Point Data Types char

float

signed char

double

unsigned char

long double

short

int

long

unsigned short

unsigned


unsigned long

3.1 Integral Data Types The data type int, the short for integer is the most used
integral data type in C. This type, along the other integral types such as char,
short, and long, is designed for working the integer values that are representable
on a machine. Mathematics define integers as positive and negative whole
numbers such as -11, 13, 66 etc.

Since machines are designed within bounds, we can have integers up to a certain
limit.

Typically, an integer is stored in either 16 bits or in 32 bits. There are other

possibilities, but this is what happens in most C systems. On older PCs, an
integer is typically stored in 16 bits while newer PCs, workstations and
mainframes support 32 bit integers.

To calculate the range we use the power rule. On a 16 bit system, we can have
2^16 =

65536 distinct values, half of which would be negative if we are dealing with
signed numbers. Similarly on a 32 bit system, we can have 2^32 = 4294967296
distinct values, half of which are negative if we are dealing with signed numbers.

In C, the data type integer is considered the "natural" or "usual" type for working
with integer. There are other integral types such as char, short, and long. The
data type short, for example, can be used in situations where we need to use less
number of bytes to store our integer, although it is not required to do so in
today’s advanced world as we do not have any storage issues nowadays. In a
similar fashion, the type long might be in situations where large integer values
are needed. The compiler may provide storage greater than it is required for a
natural integer. Typically, short is stored in 2 bytes and along is stored in 4
bytes. Machines with 4 byte systems have equal sized short and long data types.

3.2 Floating Point Data Types C provides the three floating types: float,
double, and long double. Floating point variables are used to store real values
like 3.14, 1.33334 etc. A suffix can be added to a floating constant to specify its
type. Any floating constant without suffix is of type double. The working
floating type for C is double rather than float.
Integers can be used as floating constants, but they must be written with a
decimal point. For example, the constants 1. 0 and 2.0 are both of type double,
whereas as integers, their value will be 1 and 2 respectively.

There is another notation to represent floating point numbers as well which

involves exponent. For example, the number 1. 234567e-3 calls for shifting the
decimal point three to the left to obtain the equivalent constant 0.001234567.
This becomes handy when you have to deal with a number of zeros to start right
after decimal point. It is easy to remember a floating type number like this.

A floating type number consists of four parts: an integer part, a decimal point, a
fractional part, and an exponential part (if any). A floating type number must
contain either a decimal point or an exponential part or both. If a decimal point is
present, either an integer part or fractional part or both must be present. If no
decimal point is present, then there must be an integer part along with an
exponential part to indicate the possible position of decimal point.

Some examples of floating constants are 3.14159, 314.15ge-2, 1333e-3 etc.

3.3 Using “typedef”

The C language provides the programmer to define a data type using existing
data types but with his own customized names. This is achieved through typedef
mechanism, which allows the programmer to use an identifier of his choice to
represent certain data types. Some examples are

typedef int numberOfStudents ;

typedef double percentage ;

typedef short int age;

In each of these type definitions, the named identifiers can be used later to
declare variables or functions in the same way ordinary types can be used.

numberOfStudents Strength;

The above statement declares the variable Strength to be of type

The above statement declares the variable Strength to be of type
numberOfStudents, which is synonymous with integer as per our definition.

The advantage of using typedef for customized data types is in abbreviating long
declarations. Another advantage is having names that reflect the intended use
like numberOfStudents.

3.4 Storage Classes Variables and functions in C have two attributes: type and
storage class. You must have gathered around the first attribute so far. Let us
now discuss the storage class attribute.

The storage classes are used for certain utilities of variables and functions. The
most common storage class is auto. There are three other storage classes defined
by these keywords:

auto

extern

register

static

3.4.1 The Storage Class auto By default, C variables declared within function
definitions are automatic. Thus, automatic is the most used of the four storage
classes. If a compound statement starts with able declarations, then these
variables can be acted on within the scope of the

enclosing compound statement. For difference between compound statements

starting with declarations and those which do not start with variable declarations,
we use block terminology. A block is a compound statement with declarations.

Declarations within a block are automatically of storage class auto. We don’t

need to explicitly state auto for these variables. The keyword auto is rarely used.
When the program control enters a block, the system allocates memory for all
the automatic variables enclosed in the block. The variables are “local” in nature
the automatic variables enclosed in the block. The variables are “local” in nature
within that block.

When the program control exits a block, the system releases the memory that
was set aside for the automatic variables. As soon as the blocks are gone, gone
are the variables.

That is why these variables are called local.

3.4.2 Storage Class extern The communication between blocks is critical. One
way of transmitting information across your scope is using methods to pass
parameters to another scope. But, this method is not applicable in certain
situations. The storage class extern provides us with another mechanism for
communication between different environments or scopes.

Declaration for a variable of extern class is very similar normal variable

declaration except that variables are declared outside any block. These variables
act as global for all the functions written after their declaration. An example
follows for better understanding:

int globalVariable = 10;

void printMe()

printf("Value of gloabalVariable = %d\n", globalVariable); }

void main(void)

printf("Value of gloabalVariable = %d\n", globalVariable);

globalVariable+=10;

printMe();

}
Note that we could have written the following statement as traditional C did not
allow it but modern ANSI compilers do not complain about this format and also
consider a variable outside any scope of extern class even if extern keyword is
not used: extern int globalVariable = 10;

Such variables cannot be of automatic or register class but they can be static if
required as explained in storage class static section. The keyword extern is used
to make compiler look for this variable anywhere in this file or in any other file
for definition and use.

Another important point to remember is that external variables are not de-
allocated entirely through the program but the may be hidden if a similar
identifier is redefined inside a scope. If this happens, the local variable is
accessed, not the global variable in that scope.

As we mentioned in the start, Information can be passed into a function two

ways: by use of external variables and use of the parameter mechanism.
Although there are exceptions, it is preferred to use the second method for this
purpose because it leads to better modularity and conciseness of code. Using
external variables carelessly may often result in surprises and magic. Global
variables cascade their change throughout the program, which clearly can be
harmful for your logic. The message or parameter passing technique is free from
these hazards since changes are localized. Programs are therefore, easier to write
and maintain. All functions have external storage class. This means that we can
use the keyword extern in function definitions and in function prototypes. For
example:

extern double sum(double a, double b); 3.4.3 Storage Class register The
register storage class makes variables to work as high speed register. Obviously,
it might have hardware based restrictions since there are a limited number of
registers in physical space. Because of physical restrictions, variables of this
class are automatically converted to auto type whenever compiler finds it
impossible to use the variable as a memory register.

Register class is used when fast execution is critical. When speed is a concern,
the programmer may choose a few variables that are frequently accessed and
declare them to be of storage class register. Registers take lesser number of clock
cycles when they are accessed for use or modification than normal memory
cycles when they are accessed for use or modification than normal memory
location. Since registers store integer values, hence extern variables are integer
by default as well. Therefore following two declarations are equivalent: extern
int variable;

extern variable;

3.4.4 Storage Class static Static means something which keeps its state
constant. Static class have two basic uses.

The primary use is similar to what the word static means: for declaring variables
which retain their state when blocks are entered and exited frequently.
Remember, normal variables are de-allocated as soon as the block is closed. The
second use is its use with external class declarations.

Here is an example:

void demo()

int normalVariable = 5;

static int staticVariable = 5;

normalVariable += 10;

staticVariable += 10;
staticVariable += 10;

printf("Normal: %d\n", normalVariable);

printf("Static: %d\n", staticVariable); }

void main(void)

demo();

demo();

demo();

system("pause");

As you can see in the output of above program, static variable retains its
previous value for second and third function call as well. The static declaration
of variable is executed only the first time function is called. After that, the
compiler ignores it. The next time, static variable has value 15 and 10 is added in
to it and 25 is printed. The third function call uses the retained value 25 for static
variable and adds 10 to it. On the other hand, normal variable is initialized again
and again to 5 and 10 is added. Each of the three function calls creates a normal
variable of its own while static variable is only generated the first time and then
retained for future references.

Let us now discuss the static external variables. Extern and static together
provide better privacy options to the programmer. As you know that global or
external variables are accessible only to the functions defined after their
declaration. The static variables on
declaration. The static variables on

the other hand are dependent on their blocks that can be molded for use by
programmers.

Let us use this facility to provide a variable that is global to a family of functions
but, at the same time, is private to the file.

Another use of static is as a storage class to specify function definitions and

prototypes.

This use causes the scope of the function to be restricted. Static functions are
visible only within the file in which they are defined. Unlike ordinary functions,
which can be accessed from other files, a static function is available throughout
its own file, but no other.

3.5 Default Initializations In C, both external variables and static variables that
are not assigned any values at the time of declaration are automatically
initialized with 0. This default initialization is applicable on arrays, strings,
pointers, structures and union.

In contrast to this, automatic and register variables are not automatically

initialized by the system. This means compiler either generates an error or uses a
garbage value if you access an automatic variable or register variable without
initializing it.

Chapter 4: Loops & Decisions

Loops refer to programming tools for repetitive execution. This is extremely

useful as it allows programmer to write codes that are concise. For example,
useful as it allows programmer to write codes that are concise. For example,
consider that we want to print a statement a thousand times. Instead of writing
the statement a thousand times, we can just program a loop. Such are the benefits
of using a loop.

C supports all the basic loops provided by other high level languages. These
include for loop, while loop and do while loop. We will discuss each of these
loops with example in this chapter.

Computer works on logic designed by humans and is fed to it by programmers

using programming languages. Logic is based upon decisions. Decision
statements are required for defining these decisions. We will discuss two types
of decision statements in this chapter.

4.1 If else statement The most basic and most commonly used decision
statement in any programming language is if else statement. This statement can
be used for multiple scenarios. It can be used for one or any number of
scenarios. Here’s a program only with one if statement:

void main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

int x=0;

printf("Enter a number and press enter: ");

scanf("%d", &x);

if(x==0)

printf("If executes\n");
printf("If executes\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

This program takes an integral input from user using scanf function. If the user
enters 0, then the logical operation in if statement holds true and therefore the
body of if statement is executed. If any other number is entered, the body of if
statement is not executed.

Let us now see another example which involves if else statement: void
main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

int x=0;

printf("Enter a number and press enter: ");

scanf("%d", &x);

if(x==0)

printf("If executes\n");

}
 }

else

printf("Else executes\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

This program has an alternate condition in the block covered by else statement.
Else statement is always used with if statement. In the case, when if statement
holds true, the compiler just ignores the else statement. Otherwise, when if
statement is false, the body of else block is executed.

Following is an example involving multiple if else statements: void main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

int x=0;

printf("Enter a number and press enter: ");

scanf("%d", &x);

if(x==0)
if(x==0)

printf("1st If executes\n");

else if(x<10)

printf("2nd If executes\n");

else if(x<20)

printf("3rd If executes\n");

else

printf("Else executes\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

4.2 Switch Case statement Switch case is another popular decision making
statement in C programming language.
The use is very similar to if else statements but instead of conditions which
result in Boolean values, this decision making statement has certain cases for
different values.

Let us see an example for better understanding:

void main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

char x;

printf("Enter a small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar();

switch(x)

case 'a': printf("You entered a..!\n"); break;

case 'b': printf("You entered b..!\n"); break;

case 'c': printf("You entered c..!\n"); break;

case 'd': printf("You entered d..!\n"); break;



default: printf("You entered something else..!\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

Based on input from user which is passed as an argument in switch statement,

the program executes a particular case. If it cannot find any case, the default case
is executed.

An important thing to note is the break statement at the end of each case. Break
statement is used to leave the current block in any situation. For example, if you
are in for loop, you will ignore the code inside for loop after the break statement.
Here, break statement is necessary if we do not want multiple cases to be
associated with one input.

For example, see the following program: void main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

char x;

printf("Enter a small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar();

switch(x)

case 'a': printf("You entered a..!\n"); break;

case 'b': printf("You entered b..!\n");

case 'c': printf("You entered c..!\n"); break;

case 'd': printf("You entered d..!\n"); break;

default: printf("You entered something else..!\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

In the above program, if user enters character b as input, two cases are executed.
Starting from case ‘b’, compiler executes every line of code unless it reaches a
break statement or end of switch case block.

4.3 For Loop As we described earlier, loops are used for repetitive execution of
statements. When we know the number of iterations, for loop is the ideal loop to
use in a program.

The general format is as follows: for(initialization expression; check condition;

increment/decrement){…}
increment/decrement){…}

Here is an example which uses for loop: void main(void)

printf("Program starts\n");

char x;

for(int i=0 ; i<5 ; i++)

printf("Enter a small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar();

switch(x)

case 'a': printf("You entered a..!\n"); break;

case 'b': printf("You entered b..!\n"); break;

case 'c': printf("You entered c..!\n"); break;

case 'd': printf("You entered d..!\n"); break;



default: printf("You entered something else..!\n");

printf("Program ends\n");

system("pause");

The above program executes the statements within for loop five times. When
compiler reaches for loop, it first of all initializes the variable involved. After
that, condition is checked. If condition is true, keep going else stop. So, in the
first execution cycle, I is initialized to 0 and condition is true as 0 is less than 5.
After first execution cycle, increment or decrement statement at the end of for
loop is executed and condition is checked. Now, increment operator gives I the
value of 1, which is again less than 5 so loop keeps going. Similarly, loop goes
on for three more cycles. After a total of five cycles, value of I will be 5. For 6th
possible cycle, value of I is compared with 5 and the answer will be false as 5 is
not less than 5. Hence, 6th cycle won’t be executed and loop is terminated.

4.4 While Loop This loop uses only a condition to determine how many
iterations are to be computed.

There are no (necessary) initialization and incremental change in value of a

variable.

There can be initialization and change in a while loop if it is required by

program logic.

The general syntax of while loop is as follows: while(condition){….}

Here is an illustration for better understanding of while loop: void main(void)

{
 {

printf("Program starts\n");

char x='a';

printf("Enter a small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar();

while(x!='e')

switch(x)

case 'a': printf("You entered a..!\n"); break;

case 'b': printf("You entered b..!\n"); break;

case 'c': printf("You entered c..!\n"); break;

case 'd': printf("You entered d..!\n"); break;



default: printf("You entered something else..!\n");

printf("Enter e to exit. Else, enter another small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar ();

printf ("Program ends\n");

system ("pause");

This program keeps repeating until user enters ‘e’. Thus, user is given the
control of how many iterations are made by using while loop. This can be done
with for loop too, but while is designed for this particular purpose. While loop is
highly recommended if the number of iterations required are unknown.

4.5 Do While Loop Do while loop is almost similar to while loop except that do
while always execute its first cycle without testing any condition. On the other
hand, while loop always checks that the condition given is true, even for the first
execution cycle.

Consider following example and compare it with the while loop example: void
main(void)

printf ("Program starts\n");

char x='a';


do

printf ("Enter a small alphabet and press enter: ");

x=getchar();

switch(x)

case 'a': printf("You entered a..!\n"); break;

case 'b': printf ("You entered b..!\n"); break;

case 'c': printf ("You entered c..!\n"); break;

case’d’: printf ("You entered d..!\n"); break;

default: printf ("You entered something else..!\n");

} while(x!='e');


printf ("Program ends\n");

system ("pause");

4.6 Nested Loops Nested loops refer to loops within loops. They are usually
useful when dealing with 2-D

arrays. Here is an example in which a 2-D array is initialized using a nested for
loop: void main (void)

int Two_D[10][10];

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

for (int j = 0; j<10; j++)

Two_D[i][j] = i+j;

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

for(int j = 0; j<10; j++)

 {

printf("%d, ", Two_D[i][j]);

system ("pause");

Similarly, we can use nested loops for a while and do while. You can nest
different loops together as well.

Decision statements and loops provide flexibility to the programmer to develop a

program according to his understanding. It leads to better development
techniques and encourages programmer to think of new solutions instead of just
following already established solutions.

Chapter 5: Functions
A function, also known as a method or routine, is simply the programming unit
which performs an operation on possible inputs and returns (if required) the
outputs.

A function is an assembly of statements to perform a particular task. C is a

function oriented language hence every C program is based on one or more
functions. There is at least one method in any C program, called main function.
Main function is the entry point into any program.

The concept of functions come from the need to divide large and complex tasks
into smaller and simpler problems. It is always easy to manage smaller tasks.
Functions are entirely up-to the will of programmer, but it is recommended that
each function has a specific and unique tasks. Assembly of every individual
function solves the basic problem. For example, in a Calculator application,
there should be a function for every operation so that coding and debugging is
easy.

The use of Functions give us many advantages such as reusability, modularity,

readability, simplicity and maintainability.

The basic structuring element of C programs is Function. The standard C library

itself, provides many built in functions such as sqrt, abs etc. We will see some of
these functions in this chapter.

In C, we have two terminologies regarding Functions. One is Function-

Declaration and the other one is Function Definition. Function Declaration
means that the function is registered with compiler while Function Definition
actually contains the body and functionality of the function.

5.1 Function Definition The function definition is the actual code which is
executed whenever that particular function is executed.

A function definition starts with the type of output a function provides. If no

value is returned, then the type should be void. The default return type is int. If
the type is other than void, then a value of that type is to be returned. If there is a
mismatch between the required type and actually returned type, some
conversions may be necessary. After that, we have a function name. The
conversions may be necessary. After that, we have a function name. The
parameters, enclosed within parenthesis, act as a list of inputs that come with a
function when it is called. The body includes the functionality core, the actual
operations on the input to generate output.

Remember, Function declaration is something different which we will discuss

later on. A function definition has the following general form:

type functionName (parameter list)

{body}

The first line represents the header of a function. Second line here represents the
body of a function enclosed in braces by convention. The parameter list refers to
a possible multiple inputs. functionName is the name of function while type
represents the output of the function.

An example of a function definition is: int sum (int a, int b)

sum = a + b;

return sum;

In the program above, there are two integer inputs whose sum is returned as an
output.

The first int represents the return type. Then “sum” is the name of function. A
list of parameters passed or inputs (both integer type) is enclosed inside
parenthesis. Then, the body is enclosed within braces. The last statement has the
keyword “return”, which is used for returning an output in specified format and
along with that, program control also returns to the point from where sum(a, b)
are called.

The following are two ways to calculate sum of two numbers. One involves use
The following are two ways to calculate sum of two numbers. One involves use
of function and the other does not. Please see the differences to understand the
utility of functions:

1. Without Function:

void main (void)

int a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

a = b = c += 2;

printf ("a= %d\n", a);

printf ("b= %d\n", b);

printf ("c= %d\n", c);

a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

a = ++b -= c = 2;

printf ("a= %d\n", a);



printf("b= %d\n",b);

printf("b= %d\n",c);

a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

printf("%d",(a=((b=b+1)=b-(c=2))));

a = 20, b = 10, c = 5;

printf("%d",((b=b+1)=b-(c=2)));

system("pause");

2. With Function:

int sumAndPrint(int a, int b)

int answer = a + b;

printf("Answer = %d\n",answer);


return answer;

void main(void)

int a=10, b=20, c=30, d=10, e=30, f=30, answer;

answer = sumAndPrint(a , b);

answer = sumAndPrint(c , d);

answer = sumAndPrint(e , f);

system("pause");

One of the differences between traditional C and ANSI C is the format of

function definition. Traditional C declares the type of input parameters after the
parenthesis end but identifiers of parameters are written inside parenthesis. An
example is

void functionANSI(a, b, c, d, e) int a, b, c; double d, e; { function body }

The order in the declaration of parameters does not matter. Since ANSI standard
allows most of the features provided by traditional C, hence C compiler
nowadays accept both formats for definition of functions.
5.1.1 The return statement When a return statement is executed, the current
program finishes its execution and returns to the environment from which it was
called. If the return statement is followed by an expression such as ++b; or a;
then a value is returned to the calling environment which can be stored and used
for further processing. Moreover, this value will be converted, if necessary, to
the type of the function as specified in the function definition.

A function can have zero or more return statements. If there are no return
statements in a function, it completes its execution at the end of braces and then
return to previous environment. An illustration is followed for better
understanding: void sumAndPrint(int a, int b)

int answer = a + b;

printf("Answer = %d\n",answer);

return;

printf("Again Answer = %d\n",answer); }

Now, the above function prints the sum only once and returns to previous
environment without executing the last statement. If there were no return
statement in the code, the answer would have been printed twice. Of course, this
example was just to illustrate the use of return statement, but you often come
across situations in practical problems that you don’t need to fully execute a
function.

5.2 The Function Prototypes Function prototypes refer to Function

Declarations. Functions should be declared before they are used. ANSI C
provides for a new function declaration syntax called the function prototype.
Function Prototypes are usually written at the top of main program.

A function prototype declares how a function is to be used by specifying the

A function prototype declares how a function is to be used by specifying the
function name, input parameter list along with their data types and the return
type. Input parameter list may or may not contain identifiers. An example is: int
sum (int, int);

If someone understands the prototypes, he can use the function in his program.
For example, the above function prototype tells us that we need to input two
numbers and (most probably) their sum will be returned. Hence, I can write the
following statement even though I have not written the sum function myself:
Answer = sum ( a, b);

Function prototypes allow the compiler to check the code in more detail by
specifying all the functions that are used in your program. As we mentioned
earlier, the type of parameters may need conversion. Function prototypes make it
easier for the compiler to implement these conversions. For example, if we call
our sum function like this: Answer = sum (2.5, 4.3);

If we have used prototypes, compiler knows that sum function needs two
integers rather than double and therefore either converts the input parameters
into integers or generates an error of input type mismatch.

5.2.1 Function Prototypes in C++

In C++ function prototypes, the use of void in the parameter type list in both
function prototypes and function definitions is optional. This is different from
traditional C. For example:

void func (void);

void func ();

In C++, both of these prototypes represent same thing: there are no input
parameters but in traditional C, the first prototype is illegal and second function
prototype refers that there can be any number of parameters for this function.
Void is not a keyword in traditional C and hence cannot be used in function
declaration and definition.

5.3 Alternative Style for Declarations Some of you may have noticed that we
have not used function prototypes in the program of section 4.1. Instead, we
defined the functions above the main function. This is an alternative for
prototypes, acceptable by ANSI C compilers. We write the preprocessors,
followed by all the function definitions and then finally our main program. This
is recommended, if you have only one file to work with. For example, please
refer to the examples in section 4.1.

5.4 Function Invocation This section is intended to make you familiar with how
a function call works. Every C

program is structured upon one or more programs, one of which is main

function. Main function is the entry point in a program so execution starts from
main function. When a function is called or invoked, the program control is
shifted from main program to the

called function body. Once, the execution of invoked function is completed,

program control is returned to previous environment (main program in this case).

Functions must be called by providing the valid input parameters as defined by

Function declaration and definition. Compiler generates an error if a mismatch is
found between parameters passed and parameters required. The compiler
enforces type compatibility when function prototypes are used.

"Call-by-value" is a term associated with passed parameters in C. It means that

when you call a function and pass it parameters, the actual parameters are not
passed to the other function. Instead their values are copied and another variable
is created in the body of invoked function. This means that each argument is
evaluated, and its value is used locally in its own environment. Thus, if a
variable is passed to a function, the stored value of that variable in the calling
environment will not be changed because the calling environment and called
environment have their own copy of arguments.

Following is an example, demonstrating the concept of “call by value”: void

changeValue(int a)
 {

a = a + 10;

printf("Inside changeValue function: Value of a = %d\n", a); }

void main(void)

int a = 10;

printf("Inside main function, before changeValue is called: Value of a = %d\n",

a);

changeValue(a);

printf ("Inside main function, before after changeValue is called: Value of a =

%d\n", a);

system ("pause");

So, as you can see, the changeValue function adds 10 to the value of passed
parameter but the change is not visible to the variable “a” in main program. The
change is made

only to the local variable, initialized by making a copy of variable in main

function in changeValue function.

The other common technique used in C is passed by reference which uses

The other common technique used in C is passed by reference which uses
pointers. We will discuss pointers and this mechanism in detail in one of the
following chapters.

5.5 Environment

What is an ideal way to work in a group? The ideal way to work in a group is to
play an assigned ole within certain limits and boundaries. Everyone has his
privileges and certain limitations. If everyone pokes into each other’s work
without necessity, it will lead the group to a disaster. The C structure follows
these basic principles for the success of every program. As we discussed earlier,
C provides locality of variables in functions. At the same time, C gives the
programmer to choose the scope of a variable by himself. If a programmer wants
something to be shared by multiple functions, C

provides multiple options to do so. For example, use of pointers or global

variables.

The basic rule of scoping is that variables are accessible only within the block of
their declaration. They are unknown outside the boundaries of that block unless
specified otherwise using special techniques. This is an easy rule to be followed
but programmers seem to use same identifiers in different environments. For
example, see the second example in Examples section at the end of this chapter.
The programmer used the identifier ‘a’ to represent multiple variables in
different scope. If there were no rules for Scoping, the compiler could not have
differentiated between these identifiers. Let us see another example:

int globalVariable = 10;

void changeValue (int a)

a = a + 10;

printf ("Inside changeValue function: Value of localVariable = %d\n", a);

printf ("Inside changeValue function: Value of gloabalVariable = %d\n",

globalVariable); }
void main(void)

int localVariable=20;

changeValue(localVariable);

printf("Inside changeValue function: Value of loclVariable = %d\n",

localVariable);

for(int x=1; x<=5; x++)

printf ("%d,", x);

printf("\n");

printf ("%d,", x);

system ("pause");

The above program uses four scopes. The first one is global which means it can
be accessed anywhere and changes made to it in one place are visible to
everyone else. All the others are local scopes which mean they are visible only
to their scope. The identifiers “local Variable”, “a” and “x” are all variables
defined in local scope. The first two variables follow the general rules of scope
but x violates it. This program fails to compile because variable x, declared in
the “for” loop is accessed outside its scope. The compiler is unable to identify x
the “for” loop is accessed outside its scope. The compiler is unable to identify x
as an identifier outside for loop. To make this program work, just delete the
second last statement in main program.

5.6 Recursion

Recursion is a technique in which a function calls itself in order to achieve a

certain goal.

Recursion is a very important as it provides a way for more efficient and concise
code for difficult program.

A function is said to be recursive if it calls itself within its body based on a

decision statement usually. Here is an example for better illustration: void
main(void)

printf("This program is never going to end..!\n"); main ();

system ("pause");

Following is another example, which keeps calling itself unless a certain

condition (n<=1) is met.

int factorial (int n)

if (n <= 1)

return 1;

else
return (n * factorial(n - 1));

void main(void)

int f=factorial(5);

printf("Factorial = %d\n", f);

system("pause");

5.7 Examples

5.7.1 Equalizers

void printTable( int );

void printHeading();

void main(void)

printHeading();

int x = 1;

for(x=1;x<=10;x++)
 {

printTable(x);

system("pause");

void printTable(int a)

for(int x=1; x<=10; x++)

printf("%d\t",x*a);

printf("\n");

void printHeading()

printf("-----------------------------Table of Tables-----------------------------\n\n"); }

5.7.2 Multiple Files In a file header.h:

void func(int a);

void funcSquare(int a);

void funcCube(int a);

In a file Implementation1.c:
void func(int a)

printf("I am func. I have to print: a = %d\n", a); }

In a file Implementation2.c

void funcSquare(int a)

printf("I am funcSquare. I have to print: a = %d\n", a*a); }

void func(int a)

printf("I am funcCube. I have to print: a = %d\n", a*a*a); }

In a file main.c

#include "header.h"

void main(void)

printf("This is our main Program. Let's start...\n");

func(5);

funcSquare(5);

funcCube(5);
funcCube(5);

printf("This is our main Program. Let's finish...\n");

system("pause");

5.7.3 Multiple Files void demo()

int normalVariable = 5;

static int staticVariable = 5;

normalVariable += 10;

staticVariable += 10;

printf("Normal: %d\n", normalVariable);

printf("Static: %d\n", staticVariable); }

void main(void){

demo();

demo();


demo();

system("pause");

5.7.4 Pointers

void swap(int p, int q)

int tmp;

tmp = *p;

*q = tmp ;

void main(void){

int a = 10, b =20;

printf(“a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b);

swap(&a, &b);

printf(“a = %d, b = %d\n”, a, b);

system("pause");

5.7.5 BubbleSort void bubble(int a[], int n)

 {

int i, j;

for (i 0; i < n; ++i)

for (j n 1; j > i; -j)

if (a[j 1J > a[j])

swap(&a[j-1], &a[jJ);

Chapter 6: Arrays, Pointers and Strings

C provides a data structure that can store multiple values of same type in it by
associating each value to a subscript. It is extremely useful in common
programming.

For example, you need to store marks of 50 students, instead of declaring 50

separate variables, you can simply use an array with size 50. Each element can
be accessed by specifying its index or subscript.

An array is a random access data structure, where each element can be accessed
directly and in constant time. A typical illustration of random access is a book -
each page of the book can be open independently of others.

Arrays in C consist of contiguous memory locations which means that they are
placed in memory together. The lowest member of array has the lowest address
and last member of array has the highest memory address assigned to it.

In C, arrays and pointers are closely related concepts. Interestingly, an array

name itself acts as a pointer, and pointers, like arrays, can be indexed. “Call by
reference”
mechanism is based on pointers. This mechanism allows programmer to change
the value of a local variable in one scope from another scope. C uses pointers for
specifying parameters in function definitions to accomplish this. Strings are also
one-dimensional arrays of characters. They will be discussed in the next chapter.

6.1 1-D Arrays

1-D arrays refer to one dimensional arrays. Such arrays can be considered as a
single row or column containing a fixed number of elements. They have only
one index. An array is just like a normal variable except for index. Index always
start from 0 and end at (arraySize-1).

A general format for array declaration in C is as follows: Type arrayName

[arraySize]; Type refers to the data type of array, followed by identifier and in
the end array size enclosed in brackets.

Arrays may be of storage class automatic, static or extern but not register. ANSI
C

supports the initialization of all three types of arrays using an initializer but
traditional C

only allowed it for static or extern registers.

The general format for initializing 1-D arrays is as follows:

Type identifier [size] = {list of elements separated by commas}

Here is an illustration of using a 1-D array, using initializer: void main(void)

int table[10] = { 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 };

//printing elements of array

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

 {

printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,table[i]);

system("pause");

Here is an illustration of using a 1-D array, using a loop for initialization rather
than common initializer:

void main(void)

int table[10];

//initialization of array

for(int i = 1; i <= 10 ; i++)

table[i-1] = i * 5;

//printing elements of array

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,table[i]);
printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,table[i]);

system("pause");

Output: Same for both programs

6.2 Pointers

A simple variable in a program is stored in a certain number of bytes at a

memory location, or address, in the machine. Pointers are basically variables that
hold these addresses rather than actual values. These address can be accessed
and hence the actual values can also be accessed via “reference” of pointers.
Pointers are used in programs to memory and manipulate addresses. If i is a
variable, then &i is the address or memory location where value of i is stored.
This address can be stored into a pointer variable of same type. The address
operator & is unary and has the same precedence and right to left associativity as
the other unary operators.

Pointer variables can be declared in programs and then used to take addresses for
initialization. The declaration is as follows: int *p;

int x = 5;

p = &x;

The above lines declare a pointer variable p of integer type which stores address
of a memory location specified by another integer variable x. Following is a
program which uses pointers to access other variables: void main(void)
program which uses pointers to access other variables: void main(void)

int *p;

int x = 5;

p = &x;

printf("Value of x: %d\n", x);

printf("Address of x: %d\n", &x);

printf("Value of p: %d\n", p);

printf("Address of p: %d\n", &p);

printf("p points to value via reference: %d\n", *p);

system("pause");

Normal variable has two numbers associated with it: an address of variable, a
Normal variable has two numbers associated with it: an address of variable, a
value stored on this address. The variable name accesses the value while
ampersand with variable name accesses the address. A pointer variable has three
numbers associated with it: an address of pointer variable itself, a value stored in
it after initialization, a value pointed by value stored in the pointer variable. The
first two are accessed using variable name and ampersand variable name, just
like normal variables. The third value associated with pointers is accessed using
* sign with identifier.

Following is an example which uses pointers to access arrays between two

functions to clarify the “call by reference” mechanism as well: void printMe(int
*p)

int arr[10];

for(int i = 1; i <= 10 ; i++)

arr[i-1] = *(p+i-1);

//printing elements of array

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,arr[i]);

void main(void)
void main(void)

int table[10];

//initialization of array

for(int i = 1; i <= 10 ; i++)

table[i-1] = i * 5;

printMe(table);

system("pause");

So, we passed just the starting address of an array as a pointer to another method
and we were able to access the array defined in another function. Note that the
identifier representing an array, if written without an index is equivalent to the
starting address of array (&identifier[0]). *(p+i) is used for indexing. If value of
I is 1, and integer is of 4
I is 1, and integer is of 4

bytes, the program accesses the next integer rather than just next byte.

Now, we will see an example in which values of an identifier defined in our

main function are changed after calling another function by passing a pointer to
it.

void changeMe(int *p)

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

p[i]=10;

void main(void)

int table[10];
int table[10];

//initialization of array

for(int i = 1; i <= 10 ; i++)

table[i-1] = i * 5;

printf("---Before Function call---\n");

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,table[i]);

changeMe(table);

printf("---After Function call---\n");

for(int i = 0; i < 10 ; i++)

printf("5 x %d = %d\n",i+1,table[i]);

system("pause");

}
 }

So, we accessed an array defined in our main function inside another function
and changed all of its values to 10. The change was visible in our main program.
This is what “call by reference” mechanism is used for. The mechanism is
clearly possible, only due to pointers.

Although pointers and arrays are almost synonymous in terms of how they are
used to access memory, as is clear from above example as well, there are
differences, and these differences are subtle and important. A pointer variable
can take different addresses as values which means they can be redefined at any
point of time. This is not the case with arrays. An array name is an address, or
pointer, that is fixed.

6.3 Strings

Strings are one-dimensional arrays of type char. You may be wondering if

strings are arrays of char type, why do we need to discuss the separately. The
primary difference between Strings and character arrays is that Strings can have
variable length whereas char arrays have a fixed size.

As strings can have a variable length, we have a mechanism to identify the end
of a string. Every string, by default ends in the null character \0. The size of a
string must include the storage needed for the end-of-string character as well. It
is programmer’s job to never access a character from a string that over runs the
size of string.

In contrast to char arrays which are represented in single quotes, strings are
initialized with double quotes. For example, "abc" is a string of size 4, with the
last element being the null character \0.

Although, char constants and strings seem closely related but they are not same.
For example, "a" and 'a' are not the same. “a” has two characters one of which is
‘a’ and the other one is \0.

A string is considered by the compiler as a pointer. Its value is the base address
of the string. Consider the following code: char

*pointer

=
 =

"abc";

printf(“%s %s\n”, pointer, pointer + 1); The pointer variable is assigned the
starting value of string. The first string is printed starting from ‘a’. The second
string moves its address by one unit (char is of 1 byte, usually) and hence starts
from ‘b’. So, the output for above lines of code will be: abc bc

As strings can be considered as pointers, statements like *(“abc”+2) and “abs”

[2] are legal in compilers.

Let us now see an example which uses a char array as well as a string. You can
see the convenience in using strings:

void main(void)

char *s = "aString";

char characters[10] = { 'c', 'h', 'a', 'r', 'a', 'c', 't', 'e', 'r', 's'};

for(int i=0;i<10;i++)

printf("%c", characters[i]);

printf("\n%s\n", s);

system("pause");
 }

For technical reasons, it is better not to print null characters. Strings do not print
null character unless we use pointer to access the last character of the string.

Now, we write a program to count number of words in a string to get better

understanding of strings. The program uses a macro, isspace() which returns true
in a case when the specified character is a space. It returns false otherwise.

int numberOfWords(const char *str)

int count = 0;

while (*str!= '\0')

while (isspace(*str))

++str;

if(*str != '\0')

count++;

}
 }

return ++count;

A string or pointer to character array is passed as an argument. We consider

spaces as word separator. We increment the word count variable for all the
words separated by spaces. We increment it again at the again, so that the last
word is also counted.

ANSI C provides the programmer with pre-defined functions to handle strings.

This section demonstrates how to use some of these functions. The function
prototypes for string-handling functions are given in the standard header file
string.h. These prototypes use character pointers and strings for certain
parameters. Remember, these can be used interchangeably.

Function Name

Description

char strcat(char s1, canst char *s2); Concatenates second string to the end of
first string and returns it.

int strcmp(const char s1, const char s2); Compares two strings. It returns a value
less than 0 if first string is less than second, a value greater than 0 if first string is
greater than second and returns 0 if both are equal.

char *strcpy(char s1, const char s2); String s1 is overwritten by String s2 and s1
is returned.

size_t strlen(const char *s)

Returns number of characters in string s, excluding the ending character.

These functions can be written by programmers as well. It is recommended to

use these as they are more efficient because they use register class variables.

6.4 2-D Arrays

Even though array elements are stored contiguously one after the other, it is
usually convenient to think of a two-dimensional array as a table of elements
with rows and columns. This helps in better understanding of 2-Dimensional
arrays. For example, to declare an array of twenty elements with five rows and 4
columns, we use the following statement:

int Two_D[5][4];

Nested loops are usually used for dealing with 2-Dimensional arrays.

These elements can be represented as: Two_D[0][0] Two_D[0][1]

Two_D[0][2]

Two_D[0][3]

Two_D[1][0]

Two_D[1][1]

Two_D[1][2]

Two_D[1][3]

Two_D[2][0]

Two_D[2][1]

Two_D[2][2]

Two_D[2][3]

Two_D[3][0]

Two_D[3][1]

Two_D[3][2]

Two_D[3][3]
Two_D[3][3]

Two_D[4][0]

Two_D[4][1]

Two_D[4][2]

Two_D[4][3]

6.5 3-D Arrays

Arrays of dimension higher than two work in a similar fashion. Let us describe
how three-dimensional arrays work. If we declare Int Three_D[5][3][2];

The compiler allocates 5*3*2 memory address for integer type. The base address
is Three_D[0][0][0].

Here is a function that adds the elements of a three dimensional array and returns
the total.

int sum(int Three_D[5][3][2])

int i, j, k, sum = 0;

for (i = 0; i < 7; ++i)

for (j = 0; j < 9; ++j)

for (k = 0; k < 2; ++k)

sum += Three_D[i][j][k];
sum += Three_D[i][j][k];

return sum;

}
Chapter 7: Structures
C is an easily extensible language. It can be extended using header files and
standard libraries to use certain functions and macros. It can also be extended by
defining data types that are constructed from the fundamental types such as an
array which is a group of default data type variables.

The structure type is used to represent heterogeneous data. A structure has

components, called members. Structures are designed for programmer’s ease so
that they can define a data type of their own which may contain more than one
members. Each member can be either a default data type or another structure.
Because the components of a structure can be of various types, the programmer
can design them as per his requirements.

7.1 Declaration The structures allow programmer to integrate different type of

variables together.

Arrays are used for storing variables of same type. As a simple example, let us
define a structure that describes a student. A student has various attributes of
different types such as Name, Course, Section, CGPA and ID. A student can be
defined as a structure in C. We can declare the structure type for student using
the keyword struct as follows: struct Student

char *Name;

int Course, ID;

char Section;

double CGPA:

} ;

This declaration creates the derived data type struct student. It is a user defined
data type. The structures one defined can be used to define identifiers of this
user-defined type. The tag name or identifier along with keyword struct is used
to declare variables of type student:
to declare variables of type student:

Struct Student s1, s2, s3;

The above declarations for struct variables allocates storage for the identifiers,
which now represent a Student. An alternative way to declare these identifiers is
as follows:

struct Student

char *Name;

int Course, ID;

char Section;

double CGPA:

} s1, s2, s3;

Another way of declaration, which is highly recommended as it shortens the

declaration of identifiers of the structure, is as follows: typedef struct

char *Name;

int Course, ID;

char Section;

double CGPA:

} Student;

7.2 Memory Allocation Although memory is allocated to these variables at the

time of declaration but these variables have been assigned nothing. No student
type variable has details saved in it.
Here’s how each component of a struct type variable is initialized:

s1.Name = “R Khan”

s1.Course = 18;

s1.ID = 786;

s1.Section = ‘A’;

s1.CGPA = 3.74;

7.3 Member Access Operators We can access a member of a struct variable in

two ways. The above example uses the member access operator “.”. We will
now give further examples of its use and introduce the other member access
operator “->”. Both operators are used for same purpose. The difference lies in
the caller. The dot operator is used by a structure variable while arrow is used by
a pointer to structure variable.

typedef struct

char *Name;

int Course, ID;

char Section;

double CGPA;

}Student;
void printUsingPointer(Student *s) {

printf("%s %d %d %c %f\n", s -> Name, s -> ID, s -> Course, s -> Section, s ->
CGPA); }

void main(void)

Student s1,s2;

s1.Name = "R Khan";

s1.Course = 18;

s1.ID = 786;

s1.Section = 'A';

s1.CGPA = 3.74;

s2.Name = "Ali Khan";

s2.Course = 18;


s2.ID = 890;

s2.Section = 'A';

s2.CGPA = 3.14;

printf("%s %d %d %c %f\n", s1.Name, s1.ID, s1.Course, s1.Section, s1.CGPA);

printUsingPointer(&s2);

system("pause");

Following are a few statements and equivalent access methods are listed as well:
struct student s, *p = &s; s.Section == 'A'; s.Name= "Khan"; s.student_id =
786;

Expression Equivalent Expression Value s.grade

p -> grade

‘A’

s.Name

p -> Name
“Khan”

(*p).ID

p -> ID

786

*p -> Name + 1

(*(p -> Name)) + 1

*(p -> Name + 2)

(p -> Name)[2]

7.4 Definition All external and static variables, including struct variables, are
initialized by the programmer are automatically initialized by the system to zero,
unless specified otherwise. In traditional C, only external and static variables can
be initialized. ANSI C

allows automatic variables, including structures, to be initialized as well. The

syntax for initializing structures is quite similar to that for initializing arrays as
structures also take values in braces.

A structure variable in a declaration can be initialized by following it with an

equal sign and a list of constants contained within braces. If not enough values
are used to assign all the members of the structure, the remaining members are
assigned with value 0.

Some examples are:

Student s1 = {“Mashal”, 18, 123, ‘A’, 3.79}; Pair a[3][3] = { {{1.0, -10}, {20.0,
0.2}, {3.5, 0.3}}, {{4.7, -0.4}, {2.0, 0.5}, {6.0, 1.6}} }; 7.5 Abstract Data
Types The term abstract data type (ADT) refers to a data structure together with
its operations, without specifying an implementation. Suppose we wanted a new
integer type, one that could hold arbitrarily larger values than the default value.
The new integer type together with its arithmetic operations will be an ADT. The
idea of ADT comes from variety of requirements that keeps growing with
innovative applications. Native types such as char, int, and double are already
implemented by the C compiler and cannot be altered.

So, we need a mechanism to define our own Data types with certain operations.

7.5.1 Stacks An ADT stack is a container of objects that follows the last-in first-
out (LIFO) principle.

It means that you can access only the latest element you have entered. A stack is
a limited access data structure - elements can be added and removed from the
stack only at the top. For accessing other elements, you need to remove the
objects on top of them.

Only two primary operations are necessary for stack implementation: push and
pop.

Push refers to adding an element to the top of stack while pop removes the item
at the top of the stack. A helpful analogy is to think of a stack of dumbbells on a
steel rod; you can remove only the top dumbbell, also you can add a new
dumbbell on the top.

Now we develop and implement the ADT stack, one of the most useful standard
data structures. The typical operations that can be implemented for a stack are
push, pop, top, empty, full, and reset. The push and pop operations are discussed
earlier. The empty operator tests if the stack is empty or not and results in a
Boolean value. The full operator tests if the stack is full, which also returns a
Boolean value. The reset operator removes all the elements of stack and
initializes it.

We will use a fixed-length char array to store the contents of the stack. The top
of the stack will be an integer-valued member named top. The various stack
operations discussed in the previous paragraph will be implemented as functions,
each of whose parameter lists includes a parameter of type pointer to stack.
Using a pointer results in better efficiency by avoiding to copy large stack
values.
values.

Here is a complete C program, which implements various functions of stack:

#define MAX_SIZE 50

int stack[MAX_SIZE];

void push();

int pop();

int is_empty();

int peek();

int TOP = -1;

int main()

int element, choice;

while(1)

printf("Stack Operations.\n"); printf("1. Insert into stack (Push operation).\n");

printf("2. Delete from stack (Pop operation).\n"); printf("3. Print top element of
stack.\n");

printf("4. Check if stack is empty.\n"); printf("5. Exit.\n");

printf("Enter your choice.\n"); scanf("%d",&choice);

switch (choice)

{
 {

case 1:

if (TOP == MAX_SIZE - 1)

printf("Error: Overflow\n\n"); else {

printf("Enter the value to insert.\n"); scanf("%d", &element);

push(element);

break;

case 2:

if (TOP == -1)

printf("Error: Underflow.\n\n"); else {

element = pop();

printf("Element removed from stack is %d.\n", element); }

break;

case 3:

if (!is_empty()) {

element = peek();

printf("Element at the top of stack is %d\n\n", element); }

else

printf("Stack is empty.\n\n"); break;

case 4:

if (is_empty())

printf("Stack is empty.\n\n"); else

printf("Stack is not empty.\n\n"); break;

case 5:

exit(0);

void push(int value)

TOP++;

stack[TOP] = value;

int pop()

int element;

if (TOP == -1)

return TOP;

element = stack[TOP];
TOP--;

return element;

int is_empty()

if (TOP == - 1)

return 1;

else

return 0;

int peek()

return stack[TOP];

7.5.2 Queues A queue is a container of objects (a linear collection) that follows

the first-in first-out (FIFO) principle. An example of queues is any real life
queue like in a Bank, or ATM or Airport. A new element or object is added to
the back of the queue, while removal (or serving) happens from the front. In the
queue only two operations are allowed. These are enqueuer and dequeuer
functions. First one means to insert an item into the back of the queue and
dequeue refers to removing an item from the front.

The difference between stacks and queues is in removing. In a stack we remove

the last item that was added whereas in a queue, we remove the item that has
been in the queue more than anyone else.

Here is a complete program illustrating the use of Queues: #define MAX_SIZE

50
50

int queue_array[MAX_SIZE];

int rear = - 1;

int front = - 1;

void main(void)

int choice;

while (1)

printf("1.Insert element to queue \n"); printf("2.Delete element from queue \n");

printf("3.Display all elements of queue \n"); printf("4.Quit \n");

printf("Enter your choice : "); scanf("%d", &choice);

switch (choice)

case 1:

insert();

break;

case 2:

delete();

break;

case 3:

display();
display();

break;

case 4:

exit(1);

default:

printf("Wrong choice \n");

void insert()

int add_item;

if (rear == MAX - 1)

printf("Queue Overflow \n");

else

if (front == - 1)

front = 0;

printf("Inset the element in queue : "); scanf("%d", &add_item);

rear = rear + 1;
queue_array[rear] = add_item; }

void delete()

if (front == - 1 || front > rear) {

printf("Queue Underflow \n"); return ;

else

printf("Element deleted from queue is : %d\n", queue_array[front]); front = front

+ 1;

void display()

int i;

if (front == - 1)

printf("Queue is empty \n");

else

{
printf("Queue is : \n");

for (i = front; i <= rear; i++) printf("%d ", queue_array[i]); printf("\n");

7.5.3 Linked Lists A linked list is a sequential access data structure, where each
element can be accessed only in particular order. A typical illustration of
sequential access finding a particular file from an unorganized pile of files. It is
like a clothes line on which the data structures hang sequentially. A head pointer
addresses the first element of the list, and each element points at a successor
element, with the last element having a NULL value.

Here’s a code that implements a linked list. Linked list consists of adjacent
nodes with each having the address of next node. Starting from head, we can
traverse through the whole list by using the pointer next in each node. We can
take another pointer in node which can hold address for previous node as well.

struct Node

int val;

struct Node * next;

};

typedef struct Node element;

void main()

element curr, head;

int i;


head = NULL;

for(i=1;i<=10;i++)

curr = (element *)malloc(sizeof(element)); curr->val = i;

curr->next = head;

head = curr;

curr = head;

while(curr) {

printf("%d\n", curr->val); curr = curr->next ;

}
Chapter 8: Binary Trees
A tree is a finite set of elements, often known as nodes. Every tree has a unique
starting node, called the root node, whereas the remaining nodes are a disjoint
collection of subtrees of this root node. Each node keeps track of its parents
or/and children so that traversal can be made possible. A node with no children
is called a leaf node or a terminal node.

A binary tree is a tree whose nodes can have a maximum of two children. A
binary tree is a data structure which comprises of two possible sub-elements of
every node, called left child and right child. If a node does not have a left or
right child, they are assigned NULL values. Each link must point at a new object
not pointed at or be NULL.

The general form a node in a binary tree is as follows: struct node

Char value;

Node left, right ;

};

The binary tree is a useful data structure for rapidly storing sorted data and
rapidly retrieving stored data. This results in an immense increase in efficiency
of searching and sorting.

8.1 Composition A binary tree is composed of parent nodes, or leaves, each of

which stores data and also links to up to at most two child nodes. It is the
relationship between the leaves linked to and the linking leaf, also known as the
parent node, which makes the binary tree such an efficient data structure.

Generally, the left node has a lesser value than parent while right child has a
greater key value than its parents. Due to these two simple rules, the efficiency
of trees is enormous.
As a result, the leaves on the farthest left of the tree have the lowest values and
we already know that so if we want to get the lowest value, we only need to
traverse to the lowermost leaf node to the left instead of going through every
element of the tree.

Similarly, the leaves on the right of the tree have the greatest values and
therefore if we need to find the highest number, we just need to traverse to one
side of the tree and we

can reach the destination much quicker than a program which used sorting and
searching algorithms to accomplish this task.

More importantly, as each leaf connects to two other leaves, it is the beginning
of a new, smaller, binary tree. Due to this reason, it is possible to easily access
and insert any type data in a binary tree at any point of time, using search and
insert functions recursively called on successive leaves and maintaining the
order of tree as well. The newly inserted node always goes to the right place.

8.2 Insert Function The following insert function inserts elements in a tree. If
tree is not created, the element creates it as well. It uses pointers to pointers in
order to handle the case of a tree that might not exist. By taking a pointer to a
pointer, it is possible to allocate memory if the root pointer is NULL.

void insert(int key, struct node **terminal) {

if( *terminal == 0 )

*terminal = (struct node*) malloc( sizeof( struct node ) ); (*terminal)-

>key_value = key; (*terminal)->left = 0;

(*terminal)->right = 0;

else if(key < (*terminal)->key_value) {

insert( key, &(*terminal)->left ); }

insert( key, &(*terminal)->left ); }

else if(key > (*terminal)->key_value) {

insert( key, &(*terminal)->right ); }

The insert function follows the two basic rules of a binary tree. For any current
node, move left if you have a lower value to enter and move right for a greater
value, until it reaches a NULL node, which it allocates memory for and
initializes with the new key value. The pointers to the second last node are
updated and pointers for newly initialized node are set to NULL. Once, the
element has been added, the insert function will stop calling itself and return
program control to normal environment for execution.

8.3 Search Function Here is a search function for a binary tree. It takes a key
value and a starting node and searches the key value in the tree recursively. If
leaf node is found, it is returned elsewise 0 is returned.

struct node search(int key, struct node terminal) {

if( terminal != 0 )

if(key==terminal->key_value) {

return terminal;

else if(key<terminal->key_value) {

return search(key, terminal->left); }

else

return search(key, terminal->right); }

}
 }

else return 0;

The search function shown above recursively moves down the tree until it either
reaches a node with a key value equal to the value for which the function is
searching. The value being searched for may not be stored in the binary tree and
hence we and hence we maintain a condition when search reaches a node with
NULL value, it is concluded that the key value leaf is not there in the binary tree.
It returns a pointer to the node to the previous instance of the function which
called it.

Conclusion

The book is a simple, complete and quick reference for programming in C. The
book presents the general purpose language, step by step. It is written following
a programmer’s approach and is therefore ideal for using as a quick guide and
reference for people who aim to code in C.

The book covers all the basic concepts of programming in detail like Operators,
Functions, Pointers, Arrays, Strings, and decision making statements. The book
has the flexibility to help the readers if they are interested in selective study. The
chapters are written with minimum possible inter-dependency.

At the end of the book, the reader must be an efficient programmer in C and will
be familiar with following concepts of C: • An overview of the language
be familiar with following concepts of C: • An overview of the language

• Lexical elements of C

• Loops

• Decision Making statements

• Arrays ()

• Strings

• Pointers

• Functions

• Abstract data types

• Stacks

• Queues

• Linked lists

• Binary Tree

If you’ve found the book helpful, please leave a review for it now. Also check
out my other books on Kindle.

R.J. Khan

Check Out My Other Books:

C Programming Language Quick Start Guide: Simplified Guide For

Beginners

SCRUM: The Fast and Simplified Guide Scrum – Agile Project

Management (coming soon)