Module-6 vocabulary and Grammar

Contextual vocabulary development

Contextual vocabulary acquisition is defined as the ‘active, deliberate
acquisition of word meanings from text by reasoning from contextual clues,
prior knowledge, language knowledge, and hypotheses developed from prior
encounters with the word, but without external sources of help such as
dictionaries or people. Contextual Vocabulary is the fundamental approach to
assess a reader's ability of placing words with reference to a context that
can be a synonym or an antonym..

Comprehension is an active process that involves purposeful interaction

between a reader and a text. Strategic readers think about words in context,
looking for meaning and sentences that frame an unfamiliar word. With this in
mind, students are often taught to follow a series of steps when they come
across a word or phrase they do not know:
Step 1: Reread and read ahead
Stop and reread the words that come before and after the unfamiliar word.
Step 2: Identify context clues
Think about the meaning of the words in the text that surround the
unfamiliar word.
Step 3: Decide on a meaning
Use what you know from the context to make an educated guess about
the meaning of the unfamiliar word.
Step 4: Check that meaning in the context
The meaning you decided on should make sense in the sentence and in
relation to the main idea of the text.
Rules for Contextual Vocabulary
Contextual can be both tricky and simple for a student. Just having the
knowledge of words will be of no use if one doesn’t know how to use in
what context. Hence they should follow certain rules to score points in
Contextual Vocabulary.
Contextual Vocabulary is the most common method used for learning words.
There are basically 4 rules for contextual vocabulary.

1. Associative Methods.
2. Latin keyword Methods.
3. Parent tree Methods.
4. Suffix and Prefix Methods.

Contextual Vocabulary – Rules and Examples

(1) Latin Keywords Method- 
Latin Keywords method is the easiest methods to memorize the words. Once,
you guess the base meaning of a word, you can easily recognize the meaning of
entire sentence.
For example – words like –

 Quid pro quo – something for something.

 Ad hoc – to this.
  Verbatim – In exactly the same words
 Seismic
(a) Seismology is study of earthquake.
(b) Seismologists is the person who study Earthquake.

(2) Parent Tree Method- 

This method is very useful to memorize the synonyms and antonyms of words
and use them in regular contexts.
For Example-
Take a word that you want to find more similar words for, maybe ‘Outdoor’. So
make a point that whenever you come across any other word that relates to the
meaning of ‘outdoor’, you parent word, note it down. This way you can get a
book full words only with very little study.
Some common related words to outdoor- rustic, outside, garden, alfresco,
woods etc.
Take a word that you want to find more similar words for, maybe ‘FIGHT’. So
make a point that whenever you come across any other word that relates to the
meaning of ‘FIGHT’, your parent word, note it down. This way you can get a
book full words only with very little study.
Some common related words to fight are –

 Brawl
 Struggle
 Competition
 Combat
 Dispute
 Challenge
 Wrestle
 Resist …………………………. and so on.

(3) Associative Methods- 

In Associative method try to associate or relate the words with events, picture or
image or with other different you.
For Example-
Look the word DEFILE. Let associate with POLLUTE
Now, we all know that POLLUTE meaning is contaminated or harmful
substance.
Hence, the DEFILE meaning anything that is impure or spoil.
In Associative Method there is almost a deep connection with the words.
For Example – PLETHORA
Now to associate Plethora with something you need to know its meaning which
means ‘In abundance’ or ‘Many’.
So now you know two more words that you can associate with plethora and you
can guess many more words which can be a combination of simple and complex
words, per say-

 Abundance
 Many
 Several
 Excess
 Surfeit
 Profusion ………….. and so on.

(4) Suffix/Prefix Methods- 

Many words in vocabulary don’t have keywords so its prefix can be used to
know its close meaning. Prefix means the initial letters of a word that can be
used to denote it in longer sentences.
For Example-
GEO is prefix of Geology. So, Geologist are the scientist that study the earth
and geography is the study of geology.
For Example – Let’s take a prefix as ‘PRO’ – means an expert. Now count
the number of words which can start with Pro:

 Proactive
 Profess
 Program
 Promote
 Prolong
 Provincial
 Pronoun ……………. and so now. The list is inexhaustible.

Example – Let’s try the same thing with a suffix now. Say, ‘NESS’ – A state
or quality.  So our list goes like –

 Coolness
 Darkness
 Dryness
 Boldness
 Fitness
 Kindness ………………. and so one. Inexhaustible once again.
Example Rules for Contextual Vocabulary

Question 1
The children in the orphanage might have starved had it not been for the
benevolence of the nuns, who sacrificed their own small salaries to provide
food for the children. Benevolence means…
Options
(A) Favor
(B) Affection
(C) Charity
(D) Gifts

Correct Option (C)

Explanations – Benevolence means good nature or charity

Question 2
One might think that the child would be afraid of such a large animal, but
the intrepid young girl ran up to the beast and began scratching it behind
the ears. Intrepid means
Options
(A) Thoughtless
(B) Adventurous
(C) Daring
(C) Exciting
Correct Option (C)
Explanation – Intrepid means daring or fearless.

 Passage-based questions.
 Sentence based questions.
 Antonym/Synonym based question
1. EXAMPLES:  
1. To cheer up the hallway, Rachel embellished her children’s bedroom doors. 
She painted colorful circus pictures on her son’s door and pasted seashells on
her daughter’s.  Embellished means 
    a. replaced                           c. decorated
    b. erased                             d. recognized
2. People in sedentary occupations, such as driving a taxi or writing books, need
to make a special effort to exercise.  Sedentary means
    a. low-stress                        c. involving much sitting
    b. very well-paid                   d. artistic
3. Our neighbor has an abrasive personality.  He can’t seem to get along with
people without frequent outbursts and quarrels.  Abrasive means 
    a. quiet and sweet                       c.  analytical
    b. cool                                       d. harsh and rough
2.   SYNONYMS:

1. Some actors are just asadroit in business as they are skilled in

performing. 
2. Marie is a meticulous worker, but it’s no surprise—her mother is also
extremely careful and precise. 
3. The mayor and the governor feel the same about each other—he deplores
her as much as she disapproves of him. 

3.  ANTONYMS:

1. Jo left her term paper till the last minute and was able to do only cursory
research.  In contrast, Ian started his paper in plenty of time; his
painstaking, thorough research earned him an A.  
Cursory means 

    a. hasty                    c. careful

    b. rude                     d. indirect
2.  Nina makes a big fuss about every little thing her children do, whether it’s
harmful or innocuous.
    Innocuous means 
    a. loud                                 c. dangerous
    b. stubborn                          d. harmless
3.  Brianna is not self-praising, like her brother; in fact, she’s self-disparaging.
    a. encouraging                           c. knowing
    b. to put oneself down                d. appealing
4.  The General Sense of the Passage:

1. My old dented car looks incongruous among my neighbour’s fancy new

cars.
Incongruous means 

    a. useful               c. better

    b. appropriate         d. out of place
    2.  It isn't feasible for me to attend the 12:30 meeting because I’ve got another
meeting that begins at noon. 
    a. correct                 c. noticeable
    b. possible                d. difficult
3.  It is usually obvious when someone has an egocentric personality.  Ms. A,
for instance, can talk of nothing but herself, and Mr. B has no interest in
anything that doesn’t affect him directly.  
Egocentric means 
    a. careless               c. caring
    b. violent                 d. self-centred
A WORD ABOUT DEFINITION AND EXAMPLE:
    No matter what course you take, you will most likely have to learn new terms
or vocabulary.  For example, if you are in a nursing course, you will need to
learn medical words or terminology.  If you are in a political science class, you
will learn political terms.  Fortunately, textbook authors usually introduce terms
by bold-facing the term, following it with the definition, and offering one or two
examples.  The following would be seen in a psychology text.
Claustrophobia is a fear of being in confined or enclosed places, such as
elevators, classrooms, closets, or small planes. 
When studying terms, you should mark up your book as follows:  highlight the
term, underline the definition, and circle or box at least one example.  Then
when you return to the chapter to study before an exam, the important points
will be marked.
 Answers:
Examples:  1) c decorated  2) c involving much sitting  3) d harsh and rough
Synonyms: highlighted above
Antonyms:  1) a hasty   2) d harmless  3) b to put oneself down
General sense of the passage:  1) d out of place  2) possible
Most Common Grammar Mistakes 
1. Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice
Incorrect sentence: “Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was
three years old.”
·  Solution 1: Separate the clauses into two sentences. “Rachel is very smart.
She began reading when she was three years old.”
·  Solution 2: Replace the comma with a semicolon. “Rachel is very smart; she
began reading when she was three years old.”
·  Solution 3: Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction. “Rachel is
very smart, for she began reading when she was three years old.”
·  Solution 4: Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction. “Rachel is
very smart because she began reading when she was three years old.”
·  Solution 5: Replace the comma with a semicolon and transitional word or
phrase. “Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three
years old.”
2. Pronoun Disagreement

 Incorrect: “Every girl must bring their own lunch.”

 Correct: “Every girl must bring her own lunch.”

3. Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage

 Incorrect: “Its a cold day for October.”

 Correct: “It's a cold day for October.”
4. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

 Incorrect: “These recipes is good for beginning chefs.”

 Correct: “These recipes are good for beginning chefs.”

5. Misplaced Modifiers

 Incorrect: “At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”
 Correct: “When I was eight years old, my father gave me a pony for
Christmas.”

6. Sentence Fragments

 Incorrect: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day. Because she
was sick.”
 Correct: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day because she was
sick.”

7. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

 Incorrect: “Jim went to the store and Ella went with him.”
 Correct: “Jim went to the store, and Ella went with him.”

8. No Clear Antecedent

 Incorrect: “The dad found the boy, and he was happy.”

 Correct: “The dad was happy when he found the boy.”

9. Ending a Sentence in a Preposition

 Incorrect: “What reason did he come here for?”

 Correct: “For what reason did he come here?”

10. Mixing Up Spellings

 Incorrect: “There father went to school there.”

 Correct: “Their father went to school there.”

11. Mixing Up Similar Words

 Incorrect: “The rain had a good affect on the farmer’s field.”

 Correct: “The rain had a good effect on the farmer’s field.”

12. Unnecessary Commas

  Incorrect: “She had a stomach ache, because she ate too much ice cream.”
 Correct: “She had a stomach ache because she ate too much ice cream.”

13. Mixing Up Possessives and Plurals

 Incorrect: “The dogs dish was full of bone’s.”

 Correct: “The dog’s dish was full of bones.”

14. Mistakes With Well and Good

 Incorrect: “I am doing good in math.”

 Correct: “I am doing well in math.”

15. Comparisons That Are Incomplete

 Incorrect: “My hair is smoother and softer.”

 Correct: “My hair is smoother and softer than it was a month ago.”

16. Mixing Up Adverbs and Adjectives

 Incorrect: “Susan gave me a real nice bouquet of flowers.”

 Correct: “Susan gave me a really nice bouquet of flowers.”

17. Confusion Between Fewer and Less

 Incorrect: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were less cans on
the shelves than there were yesterday.”
 Correct: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were fewer cans
on the shelves than there were yesterday.”

18. Title Capitalization Problems

 Incorrect: “Around the world in 80 days”

 Correct: “Around the World in 80 Days”

Identifying Sentence Errors Practice Questions

Each consecutive underlined section corresponds with an answer choice. Select
the choice that has an error, or select choice E for no error.
1. Because of the Internet, working at jobs at home have become much more
A B C D

common. No error.
E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
 5. E

2. “Pull it out by its plug, not by the cord,” said dad. No error.
A B C D E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

3. Symptoms of this illness that warrant a doctor visit includes fever,

A B C

vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as the loss of appetite. No error.

D E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

4. Either Lisa or Karen will always volunteer their valuable time to serve on
A B C D

our board. No error.

E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

5. The conversation with her mother had a more profound affect on her than
A B C

Dshe expected. No error. E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

6. The President and the Speaker of the House found the Congressional
A B C

Republicans’ filibusters to be all together specious. No error.

D E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
 5. E

7. Professor Lane, our Computer Science teacher, was excited when he had
A B

the opportunity to meet Bill Gates, the president of Microsoft, Inc. No error.
C D E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

8. Do you think they will except our plan without an argument? No error.
A B C D E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

9. “They had went to the lake without me by the time I got there,” said
A B C D

Jacques. No error.
E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E

10. Work as quick as you can but as carefully as possible when you take the
A B C D

test. No error.
E

1. A
2. B
3. C
4. D
5. E