An Introduction

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Theory
AN INTRODUCTION TO
ANTENNA THEORY
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 AN INTRODUCTION TO
ANTENNA THEORY

by

H. C. WRIGHT

BERNARD BABANI (publishing) LTD

THE GRAMPIANS
SHEPHERDS BUSH ROAD
LONDON W6 7NF
ENGLAND
 PLEASE NOTE

Although every care has been taken with the production of this book to
ensure that any projects, designs, modifications and/or programs etc.
contained herein, operate in a correct and safe manner and also that
any components specified are normally available in Great Britain, the
Publishers do not accept responsibility in any way for the failure,
including fault in design, of any project, design, modification or pro-
gram to work correctly or to cause damage to any other equipment that
it may be connected to or used in conjunction with, or in respect of
any other damage or injury that may be so caused, nor do the Publishers
accept responsibility in any way for the failure to obtain specified
components.
Notice is also given that if equipment that is still under warranty is
modified in any way or used or connected with home -built equipment
then that warranty may be void.

01987 BERNARD BABANI (publishing) LTD

First Published - August 1987

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Date

Wright, H. C.
1. Antennas (Electronics)
I. Title
621.38'028'3 TK7871.6

ISBN 0 85934 173 9

Printed and Bound in Great Britain by Cox & Wyman Ltd, Reading
 DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Caroline and Alison

 Preface

The known family of electromagnetic waves ranges from the

very high-energy cosmic rays with wavelengths of 10-12cms
through X-radiation and visible light to the Extra Low
Frequency (ELF) radio waves of 109 cms.
Mathematical analysis of the behaviour of the shorter
wavelength radiations is often simplified and made more
exact by the fact that the material objects with which they
interact can be regarded as infinitely large compared with
the wavelength. In the case of radio -waves the antenna and
the wavelength are of comparable size and exact statements
of behaviour cannot always be made. This absence of a body
of precise lore governing the antenna makes the subject of
particular interest to the amateur experimenter and innovator.
Any conducting body exposed to a radio -wave will have
electric currents induced in it and, conversely, any conductor
carrying varying currents will radiate. Thus an antenna can
take any form from a bedstead to a tin -tack and, while these
particular artefacts are seldom encountered in practice, the
experimenter can test ideas and innovations with little more
than bent copper wire, particularly with television and CB
wavelengths.
This book attempts to deal with the basic concepts
relevant to receiving and transmitting antennas in a manner
which emphasises the mechanisms involved and minimises
the mathematics used.
The bibliography provided offers the next stage of reading
and understanding, while the outline set of original papers
listed should allow a particular interest to be followed up in
detail.
I would like to thank the staff of the Open University
Library for the frequent help they gave me during the prepar-
ation of this book. Again I am deeply indebted to Mr B. C.
Pope for scrupulous proof-reading.

H. C. Wright, Potterspury 1987

 CONTENTS
Page
1. Definition of the Antenna and General
Wave -Motion 1

2. Electromagnetic Waves 4

3. An Elementary Transmitting Antenna 6

4. Introducing the Half -Wave Dipole 9

5. Antenna Efficiency 111

6. Radiation Resistance 14

7. Complex Impedance of the Antenna 18

8. Directionality, Gain and Capture Cross -Section . 20

9. Matching 24

10. Noise 28

11. Quantitative Example of Local Communication . 32

12. Reciprocity 35

13. Parasitic Elements 38

14. The Yagi-Uda Array 42

15. The Ground -Plane and the Earth as an Electrode 45

16. Effect on Radiation Resistance of Current

Distribution in Antenna 48

17. Frame Antennas 51

18. Superconducting and Active Antennas 56

 Page

19. Dielectric Clad Antennas 58

20. Effect of the Human Body on Personal Radio

Antennas 61

21. The Slot Antenna 63

22. The Helical Antenna 65

23. The Log -Periodic Array 67

24. Long -Wire and Travelling Wave Antennas 69

25. Microwave Antennas 73

26. Ten Micron Antennas 75

Collected Formulae 76

Experimental Papers 79

Bibliography 82

Appendix 1. Antenna Gain 83

Appendix 2. Radiation from Travelling -Wave Antennas . 85

 1. Definition of the Antenna and Wave-Motion

The radio antenna may be defined as the interface between a

circuit in which electrical power is constrained to follow
conducting paths, and electromagnetic radiation travelling
freely through space. The antenna may convert power in
the circuit into radiated energy or vice versa, forming either
a transmitting or receiving antenna respectively. Whereas the
flow of electrical currents in a circuit is a comparatively
familiar idea, the passage of electromagnetic energy through
free space needs further thought, and, since it has the
properties of a wave -motion, we shall first consider the basic
behaviour of any wave pattern.
Consider a steady note being emitted by a loud -speaker.
The air pressure will rise and fall regularly in the form of a
sine -wave (Fig.1.1) and if we were to measure that pressure
at some fixed distance from the speaker the variation would

A (Direction
of travel

Speaker
IV V
x

Pressure Second position of

detector pressure detector

Fig. 1.1 Pressure wave from a loudspeaker

1
be observed. If p is the pressure at any time t then:

P = po sin 27rft + P (1.1)

for a note of frequency f Hertz, being sounded in an atmo-

spheric pressure P . We note that Po , the amplitude of the
note, cannot exceed P or there would be periods of negative
pressure which is not possible. If the point at which the
pressure is measured is now moved a distance x away from
the speaker then we measure a pressure that has travelled
from the original point at the velocity of sound, say v It is .

in fact the pressure that existed there a time x/v earlier.

We can express this by changing the time t in equation 1.1
to (t - x/v)
At x
p = coo sin 2fff -- +P (1.2)

Now we only need to find the wavelength of the note, that is

the distance between two consecutive maximum values of the
pressure at any given time. These maxima occur when the
sine term has the value +1, that is when:

rr 57T
2rf t- -x = ,
v 2 2

or when
1 5
x = -v (-4f -t l , -v (-4f t

The distance between these successive values of x is seen to

be v/f Writing v/f as the wavelength X , equation 1.2
.

becomes
27r
P = po sin - (vt - x) + P (1.3)
X

This rather tedious section has now provided us with the

mathematical expression for a wave -motion with the follow -

2
ing properties:

velocity of propagation v
wavelength X
frequency of variation f = v/X

As we shall in future be dealing with the variation in electric

and magnetic fields, which can assume negative values, rather
than air pressure, the atmospheric term P may be dropped
and the general wave equation written as:

2/T
P = po sin -x (vt - x) (1.4)

3
 2. Electromagnetic Waves

If the air pressure p is replaced by an electric field E we

have the beginnings of an electromagnetic wave. In fact this
will be only half the system since any changing electric field
must have a magnetic field associated with it. This magnetic
field is at right angles to the electric field but has its maximum
and minimum values at the same time and in the same place
as the electric field, see Figure 2.1. The relative amplitudes
E0 of the electric field and Bo of the magnetic flux density
are linked by the relationship:

Electric Field
= Speed of wave propagation .
Magnetic Flux

The speed of this wave in free space is 3 x 108 metres/sec,

the same as that of light, and so:

Bo/Bo = 3 x 108 metres/sec .

As an example of the magnitudes involved, if E0 were 10'

Direction
AI\ of travel

+E0-B0-4*1)
/111\ Magnetic
field B
Boer 'AO ai NI Electric
field E

Fig. 2.1 Electromagnetic wave

4
volts/metre then Bo would be:

10-6/3 x 10' = 3.3 . l0-15 Tesla

This twin magnetic and electric wave, with each component

behaving like the pressure wave shown in Figure 2.1, consti-
tutes the energy flow which is either produced by the
transmitting antenna or collected by the receiving antenna.

5
 3. An Elementary Transmitting Antenna

Consider the two electrodes A and B shown in Figure 3.1a

and let an alternating voltage be applied to them. Close to A
and B an electric field would be observed to rise to a maxi-
mum in one direction, collapse to zero and then increase to
a maximum in the -opposite direction. As the field collapses
its electric energy returns to the circuit (barring some small
losses due to the inefficiency in any real circuit) and is then
used to .build up the field in the opposite direction, the
process being repeated through each cycle of the alternating
voltage.
At some point remote from A and B however (Figure 3.1b),
when the applied voltage starts to decrease the energy in the
field cannot return to the electrodes before their potential
difference has fallen to zero. As there are now no charges on
the electrodes for lines of electric force to start or end on, the
existing line is forced to form a closed loop. As the new,
opposite, field starts to build up between the electrodes it
repels the closed loop away into space. The process is
constantly repeated with the alternating voltage to give a
train of loops which yield the electric wave form shown in
Figure 2.1. Because this is a varying electric field it creates a
magnetic field at right angles to itself and so completes the
travelling electromagnetic energy, or radio wave, shown.
We have so far spoken vaguely of spaces close to, and
remote from the electrodes. To be more exact, let L be the
maximum distance from which electric energy can return to
the circuit as the electrode voltage falls. Then, to fmd L ,
observe that the time to travel a distance L is
L/c

and also that if the voltage alternates with a frequency f

then the time taken for a field reversal is

1/2(1/f) .

It is necessary for the travel time to be less than, or equal to,

6
Electrode A positive

Loop of electrical energy

freed from electrodes

Zero potential difference

Loop repelled into space

by opposing field

Electrode A negative

(a) Near field (b) Far field

Fig. 3.1 Generation of an electromagnetic wave

7
the field reversal time for the energy to return to the circuit
and so:

L < c/2f .

This, simplified, argument can then be summed:

(i) Electric energy beyond a radius c/ 2f from the electrode

assembly is returned to the circuit during each voltage
cycle and so is of no value for transmission.

(ii) Electric energy beyond a radius c/ 2f is freed from the

circuit and travels out as an electromagnetic wave -train,
to give the transmitted signal.

Knowing the wave -train has a frequency f and, of course,

travels with the velocity of light c , then the wavelength is
equal to c/f and so

L = X/2 .

8
 4. Introducing the Half -Wave Dipole

From the previous section it is clear that an important concern

for the antenna designer must be to ensure that only a small
fraction of the total field energy lies in the, ineffective, near
field zone. This may be achieved by ensuring that:

the geometry of the antenna is aimed at the creation

of a widely dispersed field;

the near field zone is made small.

The geometry of the elementary antenna just considered

was poor, with the field concentrated in a small space immedi-
ately between the two "point" electrodes. A much better
design, which is frequently used in practice, consists simply
of two rods or wires set in line as shown in Figure 4.1. The
field lines spread from all points of each rod or wire into the
surrounding space and the longer the rods the greater the

Near field zone

Fig. 4.1 Near and far field antenna zones

9
energy spread and the better the antenna. There is however
a limit to the useful length of each rod since, for lengths
greater than X/4 , the electrons cannot follow the changes of
potential from the alternating voltage source. In other words,
the more slowly the potential reverses the farther the electron
charge can travel and the greater the useful length of the
antenna.
Turning to the size of the near field zone, the only factor
affecting this is the frequency f which, for a minimum zone
size, should be large. In practice the value of f chosen for
operation may be decided by other considerations such as the
efficiency of the circuit producing the alternating voltage, the
efficiency with which radiation of that frequency is propa-
gated through the space between transmitter and receiver
and also, of course, man-made laws governing the frequency
which any particular operator may use.
Having decided on, or been forced to accept, some particu-
lar frequency, a two -rod antenna with an overall length of
X/2 will give the conventional and efficient radiating or
receiving device generally referred to as a half -wave dipole.
As an example an antenna used at 15 MHz would be 10 metres
long.
At a distance of many wavelengths from the dipole the
electric field is parallel with the antenna electrodes, its
direction being known as the direction of polarisation.
Usually the antenna is mounted to give either horizontal or
vertical polarisation although in principle any angle may be
used provided that receiving and transmitting antennas are
parallel with one another.

10
 5. Antenna Efficiency

If a transmitting antenna is connected to an AC generating

circuit and both the voltage across the antenna terminals and
the current flowing into them are measured then the apparent
resistance of the antenna may be determined as the ratio of
voltage to current amplitude in the usual way. Measuring the
total radiated power (a difficult but not impossible experi
ment) will usually reveal a discrepancy in as much as it will be
less than the product of the current and voltage. This
discrepancy is caused by the power loss which occurs in the
structure of most real antennas as a consequence of the
heating effect of the current.
It is convenient to represent the antenna by an equivalent
circuit consisting of an apparent resisitance RR , associated
with the radiated power, in series with a real resistance RL
which gives rise to the power loss, see Figure 5.1.
We shall later show that the "lossy" resistance can be
reduced to zero in principle and it will be convenient for
the moment to forget it and concentrate on RR This is a
.

unique "resistance" in as much as when a current is fed into

it, instead of heating taking place, the power appears as
radiated electromagnetic energy.It is in fact only an alge-
braic concept, being the magnitude of the real resistance

Fig. 5.1 Antenna radiation and loss resistances

11
which would affect the AC generating circuit in the same way
as the antenna does if it were to replace the antenna.
This is why it was earlier referred to as an "apparent"
resistance but it is nevertheless very important.
The efficiency of the antenna n is defined by

Radiated Power
Efficiency =
Total Power Supplied by Circuit

(Circuit current)2 x RR
=
(Circuit current)2 x (RR + RL)

RR
=
RR RL

Accurate measurement of the efficiency of a transmitting

antenna is a difficult experimental task since it requires
precise knowledge of the power accepted by the antenna from
its transmitting circuit and of the total power then radiated
from it.
The Wheeler technique for efficiency measurement is a
useful method for short wavelength antennas. Basically
the power being fed into the test antenna is measured while
it is radiating freely, see Figure 5.2. Next a metallic enclosure
is positioned to reflect the radiation back to the antenna and
the reduced power then accepted is measured.
If these two measured powers are respectively P1 and P2
then:
Power radiated from antenna = P1 x 77

Power reflected back is also = P1 x t

Reflected power = (P1 x n) x

P2 = P1 (P1 x n) x

or n= I - P2 /Pi .

12
 P1 x n

Transmitter
circuit Power
meter
Antenna
Reflecting
enclosure
Fig. 5.2 The Wheeler efficiency
measurement

This method is used mainly

because the reflecting enclosure for short wavelength work
several wavelengths from the must be at a distance of
of the near -field energy antenna or it will absorb some
false measurement.
discussed in Section 3, and give
a
Apparatus separation
distances are important in
efficiency measurements since all
wavelength or so of one anothertwo antennas placed within a
same way that primary and will affect each other in the
former do, without any secondary windings in a trans-
radiative connection at all. It is
thought that this effect may have been what
observed in early reports of long was actually
wave radio communication.

13
 F , the electromagnetic power density flowing out at A , is
then given by:

(Ee )2
F= watt/metre2 (6.3)
Zs

where Zs is the impedance of free space equal to 377 ohms.

Because of the variation in 0 this power flux varies from
zero for directions where 0 = 0 or ir , to a maximum of

( 607r 1 x 2//r L)2/

Zs
rX
iT
when 0 = - .

The average value is again 2/2r x maximum and so the

average power flow F is given by:

607T 1 x 2/2r L)2

F = -2ir x 377 watt/metre2 .

rX

The total power P passing through a sphere of radius r

centred on the antenna is

Average power flux x surface area of sphere

= F x 42rr2
2
L
= 300 (I -A) watts .

If the radiation resistance is RR then the power radiated

must be 12 RR therefore:

16
 2
L
12 RR = 300(1 -)
X
watts

and so
'2
L
RR = 300 (--) ohms.
X

17
 7. Complex Impedance of the Antenna

While the half -wave dipole discussed in a previous section

behaves as a pure resistance, any antenna shorter than half a
wavelength will have a capacitative element in its equivalent
circuit while a longer antenna will show inductive behaviour,
see Figure 7.1. The reason for the reactive behaviour of the
antenna when it is not half a wavelength long can be seen if
we consider the action of the electrons in a conducting rod
when placed in a static electric field. A current will flow in
the rod under the influence of the field until, after a time
equal to:

(rod length, 32)/(velocity of light, c)

the electron charge will have reached a new equilibrium

condition as illustrated by Figure 7.2.
If however the field direction is reversed before this equili-
brium is reached, and continues to be regularly reversed, it will
lead the current that flows in the rod in the manner character-
istic of an inductive load. If the reversal time of the field is
less than 32/c then the field will lag behind the current as in a
capacitative load.

RL RR

0--NAN"---AAC Antenna
shorter
than
A/2
RL RR

Antenna
longer
than
A/2
Fig. 7.1 Antenna equivalent circuits

18
 Conducting rod
No field

Field applied displacing

== mobile electrons to new
equilibrium position

Fig. 7.2 Charge distribution in antenna

To express this formally let the frequency of field reversal

be f , then:
If I/2f < Q/cfield leads current. Rod inductive.
If 1/2f > 2/c field lags behind current.Rod capacitative.
If 1/2f = Q/c field and current in phase. Rod resistive.
The wavelength X of e.m. radiation associated with a
field reversal frequency f can replace c/f in these three
relationships giving:

< X/2 Rod shows capacitative behaviour.

Q = X/2 Rod is purely resistive.
> X/2 Rod shows inductive behaviour.

19
 8. Directionality, Gain and Capture Cross -Section

Although it is not possible either in principle or practice to

make an antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions,
the motion of such a device will be useful when considering
the directional properties of real antennas. The polar diagram
of an antenna shows what proportion of the total emitted
power is sent in any particular direction. The diagram is

(a) Spherical polar diagram for notional uniform emitter

(b) Polar diagram for real directional Antenna

Fig. 8.1 Polar diagrams

20
formed by an imaginary surface surrounding the antenna such
that the length of a line drawn between the antenna and a
point on the surface is proportional to the power radiated
in the direction of that line. The polar diagram of the notional
uniform emitter shown in Figure 8.1a is a sphere with the
antenna at the centre so that the distance from antenna to any
point on the surface is the same. Figure 8.1b shows a more
realistic polar diagram in which most of the radiation is direc-
ted along AB and very little in the reverse direction AC.
The ratio of the power from an antenna in the direction of
maximum emission to that from a uniform emitter, when
both have equal input powers, is known as the gain of the
antenna.
For the antenna in Figure 8.1b the gain G is given by:*

Power radiated in direction AB

G=
Power which would be radiated by uniform emitter

The gain is generally expressed in decibels rather than a simple

ratio.
This concept is of obvious use in comparing the directional
properties 'of any two antennas but the term "gain" is mis-
leading since in most fields it implies an increase in power
made by the device itself, clearly not possible with a passive
piece of metal.
So far gain and directionality have been considered in terms
of transmitting antennas. If we are dealing with receiving
antennas it is more logical to think in terms of the capture
cross section. This is the effective area from which e.m. power
is collected by a receiving antenna. Suppose, for example,
that an antenna is in a field of W watts per metre2 and
produces w watts at its terminals then the capture cross
section A is given by:

A = w/W metre2

*See Appendix 1.

21
 Antenna 1

Fig. 8.2
Relation between geometric area and angle of emission

Now the gain G and the capture cross section A have a

fixed relationship for any antenna:
x2
A=G- .

47r

The proof of this relationship is complex but it is in fact a

particular case of a general concept in the collection and
direction of e.m. radiation, extending even to the very short
wavelengths of visible light.
If a source of e.m. radiation of wavelength X is placed at
the centre of a circular reflector of radius a as in Figure
8.2 then 0 , the solid angle of radiation, is related to X and
a by:

\47 x
0= radians .

22
It is seen from this that the more directional the system is, i.e.
the smaller 0 , the larger 7r a2 , the capture cross section,
must be.
By comparing the last two equations it is seen that the gain
may be related to the solid angle of emission 0 by:

G = [27r/O] 2

23
 9. Matching

from an electrical source it is

To obtain the maximum power the load should match that
necessary that the impedance of situation to consider is one
of the source. The most simpleare purely resistive as, for
where both source and load e.m.f. and R ohms
example, when a battery of V volts of RL ohms as
internal resistance is connected to a load
shown in Figure 9.1a.
by
I , the current in the circuit is given

I = V/(R + RL) .
is
The power available in the load resistance

12 RL = V2 RL/(R + RL)2 .
R that is when
This power is a maximum* when RL =
,

the same.
the source and load resistances are
with respect to RL or,
*This can be seen by differentiating the power
better by plotting out some numerical examples.

24
 In AC circuits the source of electrical power may have a
significant reactive component, as a non -resonant antenna
would have, and then the matching requirement is that the
reactive components of source and load should also be equal
in magnitude but opposite in sign, that is, a capacitive element
in the source is matched by an inductive element in the load,
see Figure 9.1b, and vice versa.

Fig. 9.2 Source -to -load matching network

If a source has an impedance Rs + jXs then impedances

Z1 and Z2 must be interposed as shown in Figure 9.2.

Zi = NARs + jXs)( [Rs + jXs] - + 1X1,1)

Rs + jXs
Z2 = iXLV(RL
+ jXL) - (Rs + jXs)

25
 It should be noted that as the reactance of a circuit element
varies with the frequency of the AC used, this network can
only match perfectly at one frequency. Also, in practice,
care must be taken that the loss in the interposed circuit does
not outweigh the improvement in power transfer.
A further consideration arises if a coaxial cable is used to
connect a symmetrical antenna, such as the dipole, directly
to its transmitter or receiver, since then one arm of the
dipole would have to be connected to the outer conductor of
the cable which is usually earthed. Thus the dipole would
become a monopole in the neighbourhood of an earthed rod.

To prevent this a balance -to -unbalance transformer, known

for short as a "balun", is connected between cable and
antenna, see Figure 9.3. The balun has a secondary benefit
in preventing the radio frequency power in the cable leaking
from the end of the cable and running back over its outer
sheath as illustrated in Figure 9.4a.
The common sleeve balun consists of a metal sleeve one
quarter of a wavelength long placed over the end of the cable
as shown in Figure 9.4b.

26
 Leaking
radiation

(a)

Coaxial Balanced
input zej
Electrical connection
between sheath and Insulator
outer conductor
of cable
(b)

Fig. 9.4 (a) Radiation leakage, (b) Sleeve balun

The sleeve balun uses the fact that a quarter wavelength of

coaxial cable, short-circuited at one end, reflects back all the
radio -frequency power fed into it and so acts as an infinitely
large impedance.

27
 10. Noise

All electrical and electronic

currents which are unrelated devices suffer from random
to any desired signal in their
circuit. These currents first became
rushing sounds they produced a problem because of the
and so they were referred to in the reception of radio signals
as "noise".
Nowadays any interference
disturbance such as sound in radio,
with a signal by a signal -like
or "snow" in a television picture needle -flicker in a meter,
Some sources of noise is classified as noise.
can be avoided, but one that
systems suffer from is that due all
of electrons in the resistive to the erratic movement
A simple resistance behavesparts of the circuit.
with an output as if it were an AC generator
and the range ofpower which depends on both its
frequencies temperature
to can accept. Consider a which the circuit it is connected
T degrees Kelvin resistance R at a temperature
connected to some load RL of
filter which passes only frequencies through a
Hertz as shown in Figure 10.1. between F1 and F2
The power W available
for

R
(At temperature
T°K)

Generator
(Voltage VR)

Fig. 10.1 Equivalent circuit

for resistance noise

28
the load RL is proportional to:

T x (F2 - F1) .

Putting in a constant of proportionality k makes this an

equation:

W = kxTx(F2 -F1).
k is known as Boltzmann's constant and is equal to
1.4 x 10-23 watt sec/°K, making the complete equation:
Noise Power = 1.4 x 10-23 x T x (F2 - F1) watt .

So far R , the magnitude of the resistance, has not appeared

in the analysis since the noise power depends only on the
temperature. The individual noise current and noise voltage
that give this power however, do contain R .
If the resistance were to be short-circuited the noise current
In passing through it would need to satisfy the equation:
Power = It? x R watt
that is:

1.4 x 10-23 x T x (F2 - F1) = In x R watt

or In = 3.7 x 10-12 N/(F2 - F1) x T/R amp.

Similarly the noise voltage Vn appearing across the open -
circuited resistance would need to obey the equation:

Power = Vn2/R watt

that is:

1.4 x 10-23 x T x (F2 - F1) = Vn2fR watt

or Vn = 3.7 x 10-12 RxTx (F2 - F1) volt.

29
 Noise power
.40- from
Circuit or device this circuit
with noise
temperature
Tn°K
Equals that -o -
from a simple
resistor at Tn°K

Fig. 10.2 Antenna noise temperature

It is usual to express the noise power generated by any

circuit as though it were a simple resistor at some fictitious
temperature Tn as illustrated by Figure 10.2. Suppose for
example a circuit produces Wn watts of noise between
frequencies F2 and F1 . The temperature Tn of the
imaginary noise -producing resistance that is equivalent to
the circuit would be given by:

Wn = 1.4 x 10-23 x Tn x (F2 - F1) watt

Tn = 7 x 102' x Wn/(F2 - Fi) °K .
The "circuit" we are most interested in is, of course, the
antenna and the noise voltage it produces. It is not necessary
to consider the current noise at this level since, in general, the
antenna is not connected to a short-circuit but a high imped-
ance circuit. Because of this, noise from the small ohmic
resistance of the metal antenna structure can be ignored.
Apart from the noise voltages and currents in circuit
components, any object at a finite temperature, that is
above absolute zero, emits electromagnetic radiation. The
wavelength of most of the emitted radiation is very short,
indeed at room temperatures the bulk of it has a wavelength
about one ten thousandth that of a TV signal, but there is
always some radiation with the working wavelength or
frequency of the antenna.

30
 Because of this, radiation from trees, ground, sky, outer
space, is all accepted by the antenna according to its
directionality and its band-pass or frequency range.
If it collects a noise power W , then, in the same way as
the noise power in the resistance, it can be given an imaginary
noise temperature TA to satisfy the equation:

W = 1.4 x 10-23 (F2 - F1) x TA watt

and so

TA = 7 x 1022 x W/(F2 - F1) K.

Antenna noise temperatures vary widely in practice,
from tens to thousands of degrees Kelvin.

31
 11. Quantitative Example of Local Communication

This section will deal with the powers, voltages and currents
involved in a base transmitter broadcasting to a local receiver,
such as a police or ambulance system.
Suppose a 100 MHz 50 watt transmitter is fed into a half -
wave dipole broadcasting antenna, and the signal is received
two miles away by a similar half -wave dipole, 200 feet above
the level of the transmitter as illustrated in Figure 11.1. We
will determine the. voltage available at the terminals of the
receiving antenna.
The length L of the antennas will be half the signal wave-
length X :

L = X/2 = 1.50 metres (Sections 1, 3)

The current I in the antenna must satisfy:

Power = Radiation Resistance x Current2

50 watts = 75 x I2 (Section 6)

Receiving
antenna

200ft. (61 m)

2 Miles (3219m)
!Transmitting
antenna
100MHz, 50 Watt

Fig. 11.1 Local radio system

32
 I = 0.82 amp.
The angle 0 between the two antennas is given by:

tan 0 = 10560/200
sin 0 -= 1

r, the 2 mile distance between the antennas, must be taken as

3219 metres.
The power flux F at the receiving antenna can now be
calculated:

F = 94 (IL sin 0/Xr)2 (Section 6)

= 1.5 micro watts/metre2 .

Note that this signal is much greater than the noise power
densities considered in Section 10 for any reasonable value of
the band-pass (F1 - F2).
The capture cross section A of the receiving antenna is
given by:

A = Gain x X2 /4r (Section 8)

Now the gain G of a half -wave dipole is FM , the power flux

radiated at right angles to the antenna axis (since this is the
direction of maximum power) divided by FA , the average
power flux (Section 8).
At a distance r :

2
IL
FM = /Zs watt/m (Section 6)
rX

where Zs is the impedance of free space = 377 ohms.

FA = Total Power/Area of sphere radius r

= 75 x I2/4rrr2 watt/m

33
 G = FM /FA
2
75 12
= Zs = 1.6
a :

47rr2

A = G x X2/47r = 1.15 m2 .

The power P collected at the receiving antenna is the

product of this capture area A and the power flux F from
the transmitting antenna.

P = F x A = 1.7 microwatt .

The voltage V at the terminals of the receiving antenna must

then satisfy:

P = V2 / Radiation Resistance

and so:

In this exercise the efficiency of each antenna has been

taken as 100%, ignoring any lossy resistance in comparison
with a 75 -ohm radiation resistance. This is a reasonable
approximation for a metal half -wave dipole operating at low
power.

34
 12. Reciprocity

It will have been noted that in dealing with radiation resis-

tances and polar diagrams we have considered either trans-
mitting or receiving antennas, according to which made the
analysis the more simple. This convenient procedure may be
justified by the Reciprocity Theorem. In essence this states
that if a voltage V is applied between two points Al and
A2 in a passive circuit (that is one without a battery or
power source) and the short circuit current I is measured
between two other points B1 and B2 then, by applying V

Fig. 12.1 Schematic of reciprocity concept

35
to B1 and B2 , I will flow between Al and A2 , see
Figure 12.1a.
The theorem is general and will hold if Al A2 and B1 B2
are the terminals of two antennas A and B , linked by their
radiative connection in place of a passive "black box" circuit,
as illustrated in Figure 12.1b.

Potential difference
produced by
radiation field

(a) (b)

Fig. 12.2 Reciprocity effect on polar diagrams

The consequences of reciprocity in the present context are:

(i) The radiation resistance of an antenna is the same when

it is used to transmit as when it is used to receive.

(ii) The polar diagram of radiated power when transmitting

is the same shape as the polar diagram of aperture size
when used for reception.

To confirm the first consequence, consider the antenna in

a receiving mode exposed to a radiation field which produces
a voltage difference V across the ends so causing a current I
to flow in the antenna. Then R,. , the radiation resistance for
reception, is V/I , see Figure 12.2a. If now a voltage V is
applied to the terminals then by the Reciprocity Theorem a
current I will flow in the antenna giving a transmitting

36
radiation resistance Rt of V/I and so

Rt = Rt
as illustrated by Figure 12.2b.
The two polar diagrams of the antenna are shown to be
similar by considering a fixed antenna with some voltage V
applied to its terminals. A second antenna in the radiation
field will receive some current I , the magnitude of which will
depend on the angle between the two antennas. By changing
this angle the varying magnitude of I may be used to plot the
polar diagram of the receiving antenna's aperture. If now V
is applied to the movable antenna and the current I received
by the fixed antenna is measured, then the radiating polar
diagram of the movable antenna can be plotted. The
Reciprocity Theorem says that V and I can always be
exchanged and so the two polar diagrams are identical.

37
 13. Parasitic Elements

A rod approximately a half -wavelength long placed in the field

of an electromagnetic wave will, as we have seen, absorb power
from that field. If the rod is continuous with no connections
to a circuit, it will re -emit some of the energy it absorbs, and
this secondary emission may combine with the direct radio
wave to increase the power collected by the antenna. In this
way the effective cross-section of a receiving antenna may be
increased and, by Section 8, an increase will be made in the
directionality of a transmitting antenna.
These isolated rods are known as parasitic elements despite
their beneficial effects.
If the parasitic element is resonant at a slightly lower
frequency than that of the antenna, that is, it is a little longer
than half a wavelength, it will act as a reflector of radiation
and is placed behind the antenna in use. If the parasitic is
shorter than half a wavelength, and so resonant at a higher
frequency than that of the radiation in use, it will direct or
concentrate the radiation. The use of both types of parasitic
together will give a very directional or large aperture antenna.
The arrangement may be compared with the use of a lens and
reflector in an optical system, see Figure 13.1.
The general principle by which the parasitic element works
may be understood by considering a transmitting antenna
accompanied by just one parasitic element. The current
flowing in the antenna depends on:

(i) The e.m.f. applied to the antenna terminals by the

transmitter.
The current excited by the secondary emission reaching
the antenna from the parasitic element.

In the parasitic element itself the current depends on that in

the antenna.
This complex inter -relationship makes it difficult to deter-
mine mathematically the magnitude and phase of the current
in the parasitic element for any given element length, and
spacing between element and antenna. It is however,

38
 Reflector
Antenna
Director

Radio wave

Fig. 13.1 Comparison between radio and optical systems

relatively simple to calculate the phase difference that we

would like to have between the currents in the antenna and
the parasitic element, for either reflecting or directing
properties.
Suppose, as shown in Figure 13.2, A is the antenna with a
current of frequency f varying as:

cos f.t

39
 A P

4-

Fig. 13.2 Positioning of parasitic element

and P is a parasitic element at a distance d in which the

induced current lags the antenna current by a time A :

cos f(t - A)
t being time.
At a point R the radiated power will be dependant on the
sum:

cos f(t - [d + x] /c) + cos f(t -A - x/c) .

Adding these two cosine functions gives a wave of amplitude

cos f(A - d/c) .

If we want the parasitic element to act as a director this

amplitude must be as large as possible, that is equal to 1, a
condition satisfied when

A = d/c .

For action as a reflector the amplitude must be zero making

40
 A = d/c + 0.25/f .
These desired relationships between the phase lag A and the
element separation d for director or reflector action are, as
has been said, difficult to calculate, especially when several
elements are in use. Generally, even after attempts to calcu-
late, the final spacing and lengths are found by trial and error.
As the values of d used in practice are only fractions of a
wavelength, the interaction between the elements is mainly
by induction rather than radiation (see Section 3). If this
were not so, then the presence of the parasitic element would
not have any effect on the antenna current and calculations
would be much simpler.
Anything that affects the antenna current must also change
its radiation resistance and, again by the principle of recipro-
city, its impedance for reception. The presence of a reflector
element and several directors may reduce the values for a half -
wave dipole from 75 to 20 or so ohms.

41
 14. The Yagi-Uda Array

small; for
The actual power received from a radio signal is very millivolt
example a good television picture is obtained with a
ohm impedance, giving
on an antenna connected to a set of 75
a power of:
(10-3)2/75 - 10-3 watt

that is, about one hundredth of a microwatt. Yagi and his

In the early 1920's the Japanese professor not
student Uda devised a system for the radio transmission,
of power. The
of information, but of substantial amounts receiving
technique used half -wave dipole transmitting and
them, a chain of parasitic -element
antennas with, between at 0.34
directors each 0.45 of a wavelength long and spaced
charge a
of a wavelength apart. Using this, Uda was able toillustrated
storage battery over a distance of some 40 feet, as
by Figure 14.1. Although an interesting experiment, the

Fig. 14.1 The Yagi-Uda experiment

42
need for directors to be set up all the way between transmitter
and receiver made it an impractical system. Despite the
disadvantages for power transmission, Yagi and Uda carried on
to develop their antenna system by adding a reflecting element
behind the dipole and eventually producing the now famous
Yagi-Uda array. Typical dimensions for such an array are
shown in units of X , the working wavelength, in Figure 14..2.
Directors may be added to an array to increase its gain, or
aperture, with a limit imposed only by the space available, and
the single rod reflector may be replaced by a sheet of metal
or metal -mesh.
Since the radiation resistance of the antenna has been
decreased to perhaps a quarter of its original 75 ohms by the
presence of the parasitic elements it is desirable to modify the
dipole to increase its resistance. This is usually done by
connecting a second conductor across, and close to, the dipole
as shown in Figure 14.3.
The whole is then known as a folded dipole and the inter-
action of the radiating currents in the two arms reduces the

Reflector Antenna
Directors
1

0.5X 0.4X

.10- 0.2 X 0.34 X -40-0- 0.34 X -41.'"411-. 0.34 X

Fig. 14.2 Dimensions of Y -U array

43
emitted power by a faCtor of 4 compared with that from a
simple dipole with a similar transmitting voltage applied. The
resistance R may be written:

R = (Applied Voltage) /(Radiated Power)

and so the reduction in emitted power increases R by 4 and,

for a half -wave dipole, it becomes - 300 ohms. This is then
reduced back to the standard working impedance of 75 ohms
by the presence of reflector and director elements.

44
15. The Ground Plane and the Earth as an Electrode

If an electric charge is brought close to a conducting metal

plane it will induce charges of an opposite sign in the metal.
These will be of a magnitude and position such that the
electric field between charge and metal takes the symmetrical
form that a single "mirror image" charge behind the metal
plane would have caused. This is shown in Figure 15.1.
If the electrical charge considered were that due to the
current flowing in one element of a dipole antenna, then the
metal sheet would produce an image of that element to form
the electrical equivalent of a complete dipole, as shown by
Figure 15.2. The metal sheet acts like a mirror as far as
electromagnetic radiation is concerned.
This dipole equivalent, formed from a 1/4 wavelength
element and a conducting sheet, is known as a "Marconi"
antenna and, as the metal sheet is often replaced by the
ground or earth, that is referred to as the ground plane. This
ground plane is usually circular and needs to have a diameter

Free charge

Metal sheet introduced, Mirror image

negative charges induced charge

Equivalent system
producing similar
field lines

Fig. 15.1 Effect of ground plane

45
 A14 Element

Field lines as
in complete dipole

Ground plane

Image

Fig. 15.2 Monopole and ground plane

E
_c
100
ua'
C

50

cc
I I

0.5 1

Height above ground (Wavelengths)

Fig. 15.3 Variation of radiation resistance with height

46
of a wavelength or more. This is why the earth, despite its
high resistivity of around 105 ohm cm is used in place of, say,
a copper sheet with a resistivity of only 10' ohm cm for low -
frequency, long -wave antennas.
While the Marconi antenna actually needs the imaging
properties of the earth in order to work properly, other
antennas, when operated close to the ground, become less
efficient because of the loss of power caused by the current -
flow induced in the resistive earth.
One of the most significant effects of the presence of a
conducting plane, like the earth, near an antenna system is the
change made in the radiation resistance. The value of this
resistance estimated in Section 6 ignored the ground effect,
assuming that the antenna was being operated at such a height
that there was no interaction. If however the antenna is only
a wavelength or so high then the radiation resistance can vary
widely as suggested in Figure 15.3.

47
 16. Effect on Radiation Resistance of Current
Distribution in Antenna

dipole antenna is
If the amplitude of the current flowing in a
measured along the length of the arms it is found to vary
Note that this is not a variation with time due
sinusoidally. variation with position.
to the frequency of the signal but a Figure 16.1
The form of the current magnitude is shown in 2X . The
varying from X/2 to
for antennas with lengths d , the
formula relating the current magnitude I with
distance along the antenna, is:

I cc sin(rr x d/[?k/2])
is zero
In each case the current flow at the end of the antennaout from
since there is nowhere for charge to flow into, or
passes through half a
there. The magnitude of the current
sine -wave of variation for every X/2 of antenna length and,
for the 2X antenna, the current at any instant is actually
different parts of the
flowing in opposite directions in amplitude along the
antenna. The variation of current dependent on the
antenna makes the radiation resistance
introduce the
point at which the antenna is broken in order to
transmitting or receiving circuit.
calcu-
The radiation resistance RR of a X/2 dipole was
about 75 ohms when the connection
lated in Section 6 to be
maximum,
was made at the centre where the current flow is a
connection is made a distance
say IM . Suppose now that the the current would be :
x from the end, see Figure 16.2, where

IM x sin(ir x x/ [X/2] ) .

Equating the radiated powers in the two cases gives :

IM x 75 = Im2 x sin2(ir x x/ [X/2]) R .

48
Fig. 16.1 Current amplitude along antenna

49
 Centre fed A/2

..-x-

11
Asymmetrically fed Al2

Fig. 16.2 Variation of radiation resistance with feed point

Hence the new radiation resistance Rx is:

75
ohms .
sin2(21r x/X)

In practice this variation in radiation resistance with the

position of the feed point can be used to match a given circuit
to its antenna.

50
 17. Frame Antennas

If a wire coil, such as that shown in Figure 17.1 is positioned

so that the magnetic field associated with an e.m. wave passes
through it, then an alternating potential will be produced at
the terminals T . The mechanism is the same as that used to
produce electrical power in a dynamo and e , the magnitude
of the e.m.f. produced, is proportional to:

The strength of the magnetic flux B

The area of the loop ..a)
The frequency of the e.m. wave f and

The number of turns in the coil N :

e = 27rB.(i)fN (17.1)

Now a straight wire antenna of length L in an electric field E

would give an e.m.f. on L x E . Thus a frame antenna of area
A and number of turns N is equivalent to a straight wire
antenna of length L if :

L x E = 27rB fN (17.2)

We have seen in Section 2 that E/B = c the velocity of light

(and radio waves) and so :

L = 27r A Nf/c = 2ir 1A NIX . (17.3)

The radiation resistance RR (Section 6) is then :

300 x (L/X)2 300 x (27r 1/) N/X2)2 . (17.4)

The capture cross-section of the frame is (Section 8)

given by :

A = Gain x X2 /4A -

51
N
The polar diagram of the frame gives a gain of approximately
4/3 making :

A X2 /3ir

It is seen from 17.4 that the radiation resistance, and

hence the efficiency, of the frame is very small unless its linear
dimensions are comparable with the operating wavelength.
The need to choose between a very low efficiency system or a
very large one was removed by the development of the Ferrite
materials having very large magnetic permeabilities but with-
out the electrical conductivity of iron or steel. This low
conductivity is essential to avoid all, or most, of the power
being lost in the induction of eddy currents. By filling the
centre of the frame with a ferrite core the magnetic field of
the e.m. wave is concentrated and increased by a factor of
some 50 times, this is illustrated in Figure 17.2.
The ferrite core normally takes the form of a rod built
into the receiver nowadays. It is seldom used in transmission
since the characteristics of the material can change in the
presence of large alternating fields.
It is seen from Figure 17.1 that if the frame is turned so
that it is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the
e.m. wave no magnetic flux will pass through it and the signal

000
/////////////// // /
///
//////
/I/ .///////.///////
/
7,, //
//// ///,/,_/////LL/L_L/ ///
1./ /7/./././////////Z/
.// //////////////// /
// ////////////////
/ // ///////////////7
0 4.

Fig. 17.2 Concentration of field by ferrite core

53
 Fig. 17.3 Source of residual signal in frame

Fig. 17.4 Elimination of residual frame signal

54
will cease. this effect was used for direction finding before
the development of radar. However, one of the failings of the
frame when used for this purpose was that its minimum -signal
position was not an absolute zero since, at that position,
although the magnetic effect on the frame had vanished, there
was a signal from the electric field in the vertical parts of the
frame.
Figure 17.3 shows how the electric field E induces equal
and opposite e.m.f.'s in the vertical members A and A' of
the frame but, because the impedance to earth through the
receiver circuit will not necessarily be the same for each side,
the opposing currents may not be equal and a small residual
signal will be present.
This effect was overcome by placing earthed conductors
in the neighbourhood of the vertical parts of the frame so that
each had a similar low impedance to earth. This may be
regarded as putting a short-circuit open only to radio -
frequencies across the circuit impedances in the receiver.
In practice these conductors often took the form of an
earthed metal tube enclosing the frame with an insulated gap
at the centre, see Figure 17.4. If the central gap is not present,
circulating eddy currents can exist and mask the effects of the
magnetic flux when the antenna is in a receiving position.

55
 18. Superconducting and Active Antennas

It is clear from Section 5 that if the ohmic or "lossy" resis-

tance of an antenna could be reduced to a negligible value
then, even with a very low radiation resistance, an efficient
antenna could be made. By using a superconducting material
for the antenna this reduction in lossy resistance has been
made experimentally. In detail, a small lead -plated frame
antenna was cooled to 4.2°K when it became superconducting
and showed near.100% efficiency, compared with the 1% of
a copper antenna of similar size used at the same 400 Hz
frequency.
This technique is not of great practical use at present
because of the complex refrigeration required to cool the
antenna down to the very low temperatures needed to induce
superconductivity. However, materials having higher and
higher superconducting transition temperatures are regularly
reported and eventually the superconducting antenna will be
a practical, as well as a laboratory, proposition.

Antenna stub

Circuit wth
power source

LiReceiver or
transmitter

Fig. 18.1 Active antenna

56
 An alternative technique for reducing the effective "lossy"
resistance is to build -in electronic circuitry to form an active
antenna, that is one containing a source of power as well as
the passive metal and dielectric parts, see Figure 18.1. On
first consideration it is difficult to see how an active antenna
differs from a normal passive antenna connected to an
amplifier. The basic difference lies in the fact that the
current distribution (Section 16) in the antenna is changed
by inserting an active circuit into its structure. This change
can make the resonant frequency of the antenna much
lower, allowing a reduction to quarter or less of the length
over a broad range of frequencies.
With a passive antenna plus an amplifier the current
distribution, and hence the antenna characteristics themselves,
are unchanged both for transmission and reception.
The active antenna is most frequently used in vehicle
radio where a full half -wave dipole would be unwieldy. It
does not obey the reciprocity laws discussed in Section 12.

57
 19. Dielectric Clad Antennas

Section 1 showed that the wavelength of a given frequency

radiation depended inversely on the speed of propagation of
the wave -motion. Because of this, a radio -wave passing
through a material in which it travels more slowly than in
free space, will have a shorter wave length and so, for use at
any given frequency, an antenna surrounded by this material
would also be smaller.
It is possible to imagine an experiment in which a trans-
mitting and a receiving antenna were immersed in a great lake
of pure water. The speed of radio -waves in a large volume of
water is about 1/10th that in free space and so in this imagin-
ary experiment both the transmitting and receiving antennas
would be 1/10th of their "free -space" size, as illustrated by
Figure 19.1.
It is difficult to keep large volumes of water pure, and any
contamination would make them electrically conducting
which would effectively stop the experiment. However, small
sealed glass containers of water have been used to surround
antenna elements and reduce the speed of radio -waves near
them, so allowing the antenna to be made smaller.

58
 -

7-
Water in Water
sealed vessel

Ceramic
sleeve

Metal
antenna I

Fig. 19.2 Dielectric cladding

In some cases antenna elements have been sealed into

ceramic sleeves which have the same effect as the water
jackets in producing a reduction in radio -wave speed, see
Figure 19.2.

100

Dielectric clad

0
1 2 3 4
Length reduction factor

Fig. 19.3 Schematic of efficiency with a dielectric cladding

59
 In practice antenna sizes have been reduced to 2/3rds or
less by coating with a dielectric such as water, TiO2 or some
more sophisticated commercial ceramic.
The reduction in antenna size is, unfortunately, accom-
panied by a loss in efficiency, as shown in Figure 19.3. This
is because some of the antenna power is wasted in heating
the dielectric cladding material. Because of this loss in
efficiency dielectric cladding is only desirable when a full
size bare -metal structure cannot be accommodated, perhaps
on an aircraft or other vehicle.

60
 20. Effect of the Human Body on Personal
Radio Antennas

The nearby presence of a human body, which may be thought

of as a crude, poorly -conducting 2 metre monopole, has,
understandably, a considerable influence on the characteristics
of an antenna, with the impedance, the efficiency and the
polar -diagram all being affected.
If the antenna -to -body distance is greater than about 5 cms
the impedance of the antenna is not greatly affected although
the total radiated power may be as much as halved. If the
antenna is brought closer, and even into contact with the body
the impedance changes greatly and the radiated power can fall
to 10%.
At high frequencies, around 900 MHz or more, the body
produces a comparatively straight -forward shadow effect on
the polar -diagram as shown in Figure 20.1, while below 500
MHz its presence has less effect on the directionality.

Antenna

IOperator
Ir
With antenna
remote from
operator

Change with operator holding

antenna below head -height

Fig. 20.1 Polar diagrams for personal radio

61
 Measurements show that the clothing worn, the hand used
to hold the apparatus and the posture of the operator using a
personal radio all effect the behaviour of the antenna to some
degree and there must be considerable room for more experi-
mental work in this field.

62
 21. The Slot Antenna

Instead of a conductor surrounded by free space, the slot

antenna uses free space surrounded by a conductor. The free
space member consists of a slot cut in a metal sheet, as illus-
trated in Figure 21.1a and, with the magnetic field of an e.m.
wave parallel to this slot, currents induced in the surrounding
metal can be led off by wires attached to each side. The
diagram shows the leads at the centre of the slot but they may
be placed at any point along its length. As the effective
impedance varies with the lead position, as shown in Figure
21.1b, this gives a simple way of matching the antenna to its
circuitry.
This design is particularly useful for vehicles where an
awkwardly protruding rod antenna can be replaced by a slot
cut in the bodywork.

63
 Metal sheet

(a)

a)
U
C
Cs

a
E

Lead position
End of Centre of
slot slot
(b)

Fig. 21.1 Slot antenna and impedance

64
 22. The Helical Antenna

A shortened version of a quarter wavelength monopolle

antenna may be formed by winding the conductor into a
helix. If the overall length of the helix is h , then the

A14

Monopole wound
'/4 Monopole into helix
(a)

Direction of signal

IW Large
diameter
helix

Reflector
lb)

Fig. 22.1 Helical antennas

65
 /
\
s-

1
Direction
of travel

/ /
/ I 1

/ I I
Rotating
electromagnetic
X field

Fig. 22.2 Circularly polarised radiation

radiation resistance of the monopole is reduced by the factor

[h/(X/4)] 2 with an equivalent reduction in efficiency, as
illustrated in Figure 22.1a. This antenna will have a polar
diagram similar to that of the unmodified monopole from
which it has been developed unless the diameter of the helix
is so large that it approaches one-third of the wavelength.
When this happens the system begins to act rather like a
telescope or wave -guide and the helix has to be pointed
towards the transmitter or receiver with a plane metallic
reflector positioned at one end, see Figure 22.1b. This last
form is a rather specialised antenna which is used when the
e.m. radiation has electric and magnetic fields which rotate as
the signal progresses. This is known as circularly polarised
radiation and is illustrated by Figure 22.2.

66
 23. The Log -Periodic Array

The log -periodic array is used when a response to a wide range

of wavelengths is required from one installation. It consists
of a collection of dipoles typically as shown in Figure 23.1.
The longest dipole, a, is half the length of the longest wave

max12

0.66x X max 40 '.40' 410

2

1110x (Amax;2
Fig. 23.1 Log -periodic array

67
 e d c b a
0 0

Phase difference
between signals
from d and c
prevents cancellation

Opposite and
X
almost equal
signals from
d and c cancel

Fig. 23.2 Directionality of log -periodic array

Amax , with which it is required to work. The next element,

b, is 9/10th the length of a and at a distance 1/10th the
length of a In turn, c is 9/10ths the length of b and
.

separated by a distance 1/10th the length of b . . finally.

e is 9/10 x 9/10 x 9/10 x 9/10 x a = 0.66a, this being half

the shortest working wavelength.
The elements are wired alternately in opposition as shown.
The effect of this is best understood if the array is considered
to be transmitting; adjacent elements will be sending out
almost equal and opposite signals at right angles to the array
axis thus minimising radiation to the side, such as at point
X , as illustrated in Figure 23.2. In the axial direction, as at
Y , the phase difference between signals coming from
adjacent elements prevents them from cancelling each other.
The array therefore radiates almost entirely along its axis,
making it highly directional.

68
 24. Long Wire and Travelling Wave Antennas

If a wire several wavelengths long is used as an antenna the

polar diagram or directionality of the system will depend on
whether the far end of the antenna is left free or is connected
to earth through a matching impedance.
In the case of a free end, the wave generated by the trans-
mitter will travel along the antenna and be reflected back
from the open end since there is nowhere else for it to go.
The two travelling waves, one moving forward and one
moving back towards the transmitter. add up to form a
stationary wave, see Figure 24.1. It can be seen that at any
point such as A , to the side of the antenna, the signal from
each positive peak is matched and cancelled by that from an
adjacent negative peak and so no signal is radiated to the
sides of the antenna. At points such as B , along the direction
of the antenna, the signals from adjacent peaks have travelled
distances differing by about half a wavelength and will thus be
half a cycle out of phase and will add instead of cancelling and
there will be radiation in both the forward and backward
directions along the antenna.
When the antenna is connected to earth at the far end by a
matching impedance the transmitted wave passes continuously
along the wire and down to earth and so no reflected wave is
set up and hence no stationary wave, as illustrated in Figure
24.2a.
Whereas in the free end case radiation took place in both
directions along the length of the antenna, now, because the
wave is moving, there is np radiation backwards, that is in the
direction termination -to -transmitter. The reason for this can
be seen by considering radiation from two points A and B
which are separated by a quarter -wavelength, see Figure 24.2b.
The radiation from A reaches a point C behind the antenna
at the same time as radiation from B which had started a
quarter of the period r earlier. Because, in this time, the
wave had moved a quarter of a wavelength forward 'the two
radiations are of opposite polarity and cancel.
Since the long-wire travelling -wave antenna is the basis of
several multi -element systems it warrants a more detailed

69
--1 Transmitted wave
0 -0,..

Transmitter
-46L1- Reflected wave

Resultant stationary wave

Transmitter

Path
difference
i #
'' Cancelling .".B
i radiations
ig
Additive radiations
V
A

Fig. 24.1 Signal from stationary wave

 Progressive wave

.1 Matching impedance
..ir
IMP
(a)

Time = 0

Time = T/

(b)

Fig. 24.2 Signal from progressive wave

analysis than the descriptive one above and Appendix 2 offers
this.
The discussion of long-wire antennas has used transmitting
systems as examples, but, as usual, similar concepts are valid
for reception.

72
 25. Microwave Antennas

When the frequency of the radiation in use reaches the order

of 1010 Hertz the wavelength shrinks to only a few cms and
the radiation can, to some extent, be treated as if it were a
light beam. It can be passed along tubes (wave -guides), direc-
ted and collected with mirrors (microwave dishes) and used
as a searchlight beam (radar scanning).
In addition to the use of a dish, or mirror, focussing of the
microwave radiation may be carried out using a Fresnel lens
exactly as in optical work. The Fresnel lens consists of a
number of concentric opaque rings with transparent areas in
between them. The size of these transparent rings or annuli
is calculated so that radiation passing through interferes to
produce a single bright spot or focus, see Figure 25.1.

73
 Waveguide

Flared termination
emitting or
collecting radiation

Fig. 25.2 Microwave horn antenna

The dimensions of these rings are proportional to the

wavelength of radiation in use and in microwave work they are
large enough to be cut from metal sheet.
The actual radiating or receiving element in the system may
be a half -wave dipole, small enough at microwave frequencies
to be easily made and accommodated, or it may be a horn
formed by flaring the end of the wave -guide carrying the
radiation, as illustrated in Figure 25.2.

74
 26. Ten Micron Antennas
If the radiation frequency is increased even beyond the micro-
wave region to 3 x 1013 Hertz the wavelength falls to 10-5
metres, or 10 microns, in the infrared region of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. This form of energy is naturally emitted
by any material when it is at a temperature of about 20°C
but it cannot yet be produced by electronic techniques as can
be microwaves. However, it can be detected by tiny dipole
antennas, made using the miniature techniques of the semi-
conductor industry. These dipoles take the form of a short
metal whisker in contact with an oxidised metal surface
forming an antenna with a rectifying diode attached, as
illustrated by Figure 26.1.
Work in this area between the microwave and optical
disciplines would seem to promise considerable interest for
the future as miniaturisation skills become even more
advanced.

Support
for whisker
Metal whisker
several microns
length forming
antenna
Rectifying
contact

Oxide surface
on metal block

Equivalent circuit

Fig. 26.1 10 micron antenna

75
 Collected Formulae

Parameters of Electromagnetic Waves

Speed of propagation = 3 x 108 metre sec -1

Wavelength in free space for wave of frequency

f Hz = 3 x 108/f metre

Ratio of electric field E measured in volt metre' to the

magnetic flux density B measured in Tesla is given by:
,

E/B = 3 x 108 metre sec'

Power flux radiating from short AC bearing wire
= 10-1s (IL Sin Of/r)2 watt metre -2
Here L = length of wire measured in metre
I = amplitude of current measured in amps
f = frequency of current in Hz
0 = angle between current and flux directions
r = distance from wire in metres

Antenna Parameters

The aperture A is the ratio of the power P in the antenna

to the radiation flux W incident on the antenna.

A = P/W ,

with P measured in watt metre -2 and W in watts, A is in

metre2.

A can also be expressed in terms of the effective antenna

length L and the radiation resistance RR

A = (L2/RR) x 377 metre2

with L in metres and RR in ohms.

76
For an antenna much shorter than half a wavelength:

A -> 0.12X2

For a half -wave dipole remote from the ground:

A 0.14X2

The Antenna gain G is related to the working wavelength

A and the aperture A by:

G = 12.6 x A/X2

with A in metre2 and X in metre.

For a half -wave dipole:

G = 1.8

Antenna efficiency. For a transmitting antenna the efficiency

is the ratio of the radiated power WR to the total power
WT accepted by the antenna structure from the transmitting
circuit.

Efficiency n = WR/WT

For a receiving antenna it is the ratio of WA , the power

offered by the antenna to the receiving circuit, to WT the
total power collected by the antenna.

Efficiency 71 = WA/WT .

Barring some exceptions discussed in the text, these two

values of n are the same for a given antenna.

Radiation resistance RR of antenna

For a half -wave dipole RR = 75 ohms.

77
For a short dipole of effective length L metres operating at
a wavelength X metres RR is 800(L/X)2 ohms.

For an N turn frame antenna of geometric area A metre2

RR = 3.2 x 104 (N A /X2)2 ohms.

78
 Experimental Papers

1. Efficiency Measurements (Section 5)

Two Methods for the Measurement of Antenna Efficiency.
E.H. Newman, P. Bohley & C.H. Walter.
I.E.E.E. Trans AP 23 457 1975.

An Analysis of the Wheeler Method for Measuring the

Radiating Efficiency of Antennas.
G.S. Smith.
I.E.E.E. Trans AP 25 552 1977.

2. The Yagi-Uda Array (Section 14)

Beam Transmission of Ultra Short Waves.
H. Yagi.
Proc I.R.E. 16 715 1928.

Design of Yagi Aerials.

R.M. Fishenden & E.R. Wiblin.
Proc. I.E.E. 96 pt III 5 1949.

3. Ferrite Core & Loop Antennas (Section 17)

A Band II Ferrite Aerial Unit for Portable Receivers.
R.C.D. Thoday.
B.B.C. Report BBC RD 1977/11

Ferroxcube Aerial Rods.

H. van Suchtelen.
Electronic Application Bulletin 13 88 1952.

Ferrite Rod Aerials.

H. Sutcliffe.
Int. J. Elect. Enging. Educ. 13 35 1976.

Compact V.H.F. Aerial.

Electron, p13, November 10th 1977.

79
 Design Values for Loop -Antenna Input Circuits.
J.E. Browder & V.J. Young.
Proc. I.R.E. Waves & Electrons Sect., p519, May 1947.

The Loop Aerial Revived.

R.E. Schemel.
Wireless World, p48, July 1979.

Loop Serial Reception.

G. Bramsley.
Wireless World, p469, November 1952.

4. Superconducting & Active Antennas (Section 18)

Superconducting Antennas.
G.B. Walker & C.R. Haden.
Journal of Applied Physics 40 2035 1969.

Short Active Aerials for Transmission.

T.S.M. Maclean & P.A. Ramsdale.
Int. J. Electronics 36 261 1974.

5. Dielectric Clad Antennas (Section 19)

Dielectric Clad Discone.
K.F. Woodman.
Electronics Letters. 13 264 1977.

Dielectric Antennas.
Pennsylvania State University Report WFW 44. 1946.

6. Effect of the Human Body on Antennas (Section 20)

The Evaluation of Personal Aerials for the Police.
R.W. Smith.
Communications 74 Conference. Brighton. Paper 7.3.

Effects of a Human Body on a Dipole at 450 & 900 MHz.

H.E. King & J.L. Wong.
I.E.E.E. Trans AP 25 376 1977.

80
7. Helical Antennas (Section 22)
Characteristics of I to 8 Wavelength Uniform Helical
Antennas.
H.E. King & J.L. Wong.
I.E.E.E. Trans AP 28 291 1980.

Small Helical Antennas.

T.S.M. Maclean & F. Rahman.
Int. J. Electronics 45 381 1978.

8. Ten Micron Antennas (Section 26)

Properties of Infrared Cats -Whisker Antennas near 10.6µm.
B.L. Twu & S.E. Schwartz.
Appl. Phys. Letters. 26 672 1975.

81
 Bibliography

Antenna Theory, C.A. Balanis, Harper & Row, 1982.

Antennas, J.D. Krauss, McGraw Hill, 1950.

Antenna Engineering Handbook, H. Jasik (Ed.), McGraw Hill,

1961.

HF Antennas for All Occasions, L.A. Moxon, R.S.G.B., 1982.

25 Simple Amateur Band Aerials, E.M. Noll, Bernard Babani

(publishing) Ltd, (BPI25), 1983.

25 Simple Shortwave Broadcast Band Aerials, E.M. Noll,

Bernard Babani (publishing) Ltd, (BP132), 1984.

25 Simple Indoor and Window Aerials, E.M. Noll, Bernard

Babani (publishing) Ltd, (BP136), 1984.

25 Simple Tropical and M.W. Band Aerials, E.M. Noll, Bernard

Babani (publishing) Ltd, (BP145), 1984.

Aerial Projects, R.A. Penfold, Bernard Babani (publishing)

Ltd, 1982.

Fundamentals of Electric Waves, H.H. Skilling, John Wiley,

1948.

The Antenna, L. Thourel, Chapman & Hall, 1960.

82
 Appendix 1. Antenna Gain

Let the power radiated from the antenna A shown in Figure

A.1 in the direction 0 , Et be:

f(0, 0) watt/unit solid angle

where 0 is the angle with the horizontal and 0 is the angle

with a line drawn at right angles to the axis of the antenna.
The power passing through an elementary area
cos OdOc10 of a unit radius sphere in the direction 0, 0 will
be:
f(0, 0) x cos 0d0d0 watt

83
Total power passing through the sphere is:

f0=27Tre=n0
f(0, 0) cos Od0d0 watt
0=0 4= -*/2

The power flux from a uniform emitter of the same total

power would be:
1.0=21r re =7r/2
Rcb, cos OdOthp
Total power i0=0 ia=-n/2
watt/m2
Total area 4/r

If the maximum flux is in the direction Om, 0m then

Gain = f(5m,0m)
/ ro=2Tri.0=ir/2
je=_Iri2f(0,0) cos OclOdO

4/T x f(Om , Om)

fcb=27r (.8=n/2
ROA) cos ed0d0
j0=0 JO= -wp

84
 Appendix 2.
Radiation from Travelling -Wave Antennas

If a travelling wave originates .at A (Fig.A.2) and travels to

the right at a velocity V , then the field E in the wave can be
described by the equation:

E = E0 sin 27r/X (Vt - x)

where
E0 = amplitude of field
X = wavelength
t = time
x = distance from A .

Consider the signal at B arising from a small length of the

wave dx at x , it is proportional to:

x+d
E0 sin 27r/X [V It x] dx (A.2.1)
c

since the signal will have started from x at a time (x + d)/c

85
 with c the velocity of
before it reaches B , assuming it travels
light. complete wavelength will be
The signal at B from one
proportional to:
x+d (A.2.2)
27r/X [V tt x] dx
foxE0 sin

the antenna is equal to the

If the velocity of the wave along i.e. V = c , then A.2.2 is
velocity of radiation in free space,
contribution from every wavelength along
zero. Hence the backward radiation.
the antenna is zero and there is no of the antenna then A.2.2
If now B is moved to the front
becomes
d -x
E0 sin 2n/X [c It x] dx

= XE0 sin 2ir/X [ct - d] .

the forward signal

If the antenna is n wavelengths long then
is proportional to:
nXE0

86
 BABANI BP198

An Introduction to
Antenna Theory
Any conducting body exposed to a radio wave will have
electric currents induced into it and, conversely, any conduqor
carrying varying currents will radiate. Thus an antenna can t<e
any form from a bedstead to a tin -tack and, while these particular
artefacts are seldom encountered in practice, the experimenter
can test ideas and innovations with little more than bent copper
wire, particularly with TV and CB wavelengths.

This book deals with the basic concepts relevant to receiving

and transmitting antennas in a manner which emphasises the
mechanism involved and with strong diagramatic support
minimises the mathematics used.

The bibliography provided offers the next stage of reading

and understanding, while the outline set of original papers listed
should allow a particular interest to be followed up in detail.

ISBN 0-85934-173 9
00295

£2.95
11
9 780859 341738