an introduction to data warehousing

by vivek r. gupta, senior consultant

[email protected]
system services corporation, chicago, illinois
http://www.system-services.com

august 1997

this white paper is adapted from the forthcoming book data warehousing with ms sql server.

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data warehousing has quickly evolved into a unique and popular business application class. early builders of data
warehouses already consider their systems to be key components of their it strategy and architecture. numerous examples
can be cited of highly successful data warehouses developed and deployed for businesses of all sizes and all types. hardware
and software vendors have quickly developed products and services that specifically target the data warehousing market.
this paper will introduce key concepts surrounding the data warehousing systems.
what is a data warehouse? a simple answer could be that a data warehouse is managed data situated after and outside the
operational systems. a complete definition requires discussion of many key attributes of a data warehouse system. later in
section 2, we will identify these key attributes and discuss the definition they provide for a data warehouse. section 3 briefly
reviews the activity against a data warehouse system. initially in section 1, however, we will take a brief tour of the
traditions of managing data after it passes through the operational systems and the types of analysis generated from this
historical data.

section1:evolution of an application class

this section reviews the historical management of the analysis data and the factors that have led to the evolution of the data
warehousing application class.

1.1 traditional approaches to historical data

in reviewing the development of data warehousing, we need to begin with a review of what had been done with the data
before of evolution of data warehouses. let us first look at how the kind of data that ends up in today’s data warehouses had
been managed historically.
throughout the history of systems development, the primary emphasis had been given to the operational systems and the data
they process. it is not practical to keep data in the operational systems indefinitely; and only as an afterthought was a
structure designed for archiving the data that the operational system has processed. the fundamental requirements of the
operational and analysis systems are different: the operational systems need performance, whereas the analysis systems need
flexibility and broad scope. it has rarely been acceptable to have business analysis interfere with and degrade performance of
the operational systems.

1.1.1data from legacy systems

in the 1970’s virtually all business system development was done on the ibm mainframe computers using tools such as cobol,
cics, ims, db2, etc. the 1980’s brought in the new mini-computer platforms such as as/400 and vax/vms. the late eighties and
early nineties made unix a popular server platform with the introduction of client/server architecture.
despite all the changes in the platforms, architectures, tools, and technologies, a remarkably large number of business
applications continue to run in the mainframe environment of the 1970’s. by some estimates, more than 70 percent of
business data for large corporations still resides in the mainframe environment. there are many reasons for this. the most
important reason, and one that is particularly relevant to our topic, is that over the years these systems have grown to capture
the business knowledge and rules that are incredibly difficult to carry to a new platform or application.
these systems, generically called legacy systems, continue to be the largest source of data for analysis systems. the data that
is stored in db2, ims, vsam, etc. for the transaction systems ends up in large tape libraries in remote data centers. an institution
will generate countless reports and extracts over the years, each designed to extract requisite information out of the legacy
systems. in most instances, is/it groups assume responsibility for designing and developing programs for these reports and
extracts. the time required to generate and deploy these programs frequently turns out to be longer than the end users think
they can afford.

1.1.2extracted information on the desktop

during the past decade, the sharply increasing popularity of the personal computer on business desktops has introduced many
new options and compelling opportunities for business analysis. the gap between the programmer and end user has started to
close as business analysts now have at their fingertips many of the tools required to gain proficiency in the use of
spreadsheets for analysis and graphic representation. advanced users will frequently use desktop database programs that
allow them to store and work with the information extracted from the legacy sources. many desktop reporting and analysis

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tools are increasingly targeted towards end users and have gained considerable popularity on the desktop.
the downside of this model for business analysis is that it leaves the data fragmented and oriented towards very specific
needs. each individual user has obtained only the information that he or she requires. not being standardized, the extracts are
unable to address the requirements of multiple users and uses. the time and cost involved in addressing the requirements of
only one user prove prohibitive. this approach to data management assumes the end user has the time to expend on managing
the data in the spreadsheets, files, and databases. while many of these users may be proficient at data management, most
undertake these tasks as a necessity. and given the choice, most users would find it more efficient to focus on the actual
analysis and the tools available to them.

1.1.3decision-support and executive information systems

another category of popular analysis systems has been decision support systems and executive information systems. decision
support systems tend to focus more on detail and are targeted towards lower to mid-level managers. executive information
systems have generally provided a higher level of consolidation and a multi-dimensional view of the data, as high level
executives need more the ability to slice and dice the same data than to drill down to review the data detail.
these two similar and overlapping categories are perhaps the closest precursors to the data warehousing systems. yet the high
price of their development and the coordination required for their production made them an elite product that never entered
the mainstream. the following are some characteristics generally associated with decision support or executive information
systems:
• these systems have data in descriptive standard business terms, rather than in cryptic computer fields names. data names
and data structures in these systems are designed for use by non-technical users.
• the data is generally preprocessed with the application of standard business rules such as how to allocate revenue to
products, business units, and markets.
• consolidated views of the data such as product, customer, and market are available. although these systems will at times
have the ability to drill down to the detail data, rarely are they able to access all the detail data at the same time.
today’s data warehousing systems provide the analytical tools afforded by their precursors. but their design is no longer
derived from the specific requirements of analysts or executives; and, as we will see later, data warehousing systems are most
successful when their design aligns with the overall business structure rather than specific requirements.

1.2 emergence of key enabling technologies

many factors have influenced the quick evolution of the data warehousing discipline. the most significant set of factors has
been the enormous forward movement in the hardware and software technologies. sharply decreasing prices and the
increasing power of computer hardware, coupled with ease of use of today’s software, has made possible quick analysis of
hundreds of gigabytes of information and business knowledge.

1.2.1hardware prices plummeting according to the moore’s law

the most important factor in the evolution of data warehousing has been the sharply increasing power of computer hardware.
along with the increase in this power, their prices have fallen just as sharply. gordon moore, co-founder of intel, predicted
that the capacity of a microprocessor will double every 18 months. this has not only held true for the processor but also for
other components of the computer. while desktop computers today are more powerful than the mainframes of yesterday, an
inexpensive server possesses power that was difficult to imagine just a decade ago.
the pentium ii and alpha processors have brought incredible power to the commodity computer market. sophisticated
processor hardware architectures such as symmetric multi-processing have come to the mainstream computing with
inexpensive machines. higher capacity memory chips, a key component influencing the performance of a data warehouse
system, are now available at very low prices. now it is possible to have a moderately priced machine with 1 or 2 gigabytes of
memory. computer bus such as pci and controller interfaces such as ultra scsi have made i/o incredibly fast. last but not the
least, the disk drive has shrunk to hold amazing amounts of information. just two decades ago, it would have taken a roomful
of disk drives to store information that can now be easily stored on a single one-inch high disk drive.

1.2.2desktop power increasing

entering the market as a novelty computer in early eighties, the personal computer has become the hotbed in innovation
during the past decade. the personal computer was initially used for word processing and other minor tasks with no links to

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primary analytical functions. with the help of innovations such as powerful personal productivity software, easy–to-use
graphical interface, and responsive business applications, the personal computer has become the focal point of all computing
today. the powerful desktop hardware and software has allowed for development of the client/server or multi-tier computing
architecture. almost all data warehouses are accessed by personal computer based tools. these tools vary from very simple
query capabilities available with most productivity packages to incredibly powerful graphical multi-dimensional analysis
tools. without the wide array of choices available for a data warehouse access, data warehousing would not have evolved so
quickly.

1.2.3ever increasing power of server software

server operating systems such as windows nt and unix have brought mission-critical stability and powerful features to the
distributed computing environment. the operating system software has become very feature-rich and powerful as the cost has
been going down steadily. with this combination, sophisticated operating system concepts such virtual memory, multi-
tasking, and symmetric multi-processing are now available on inexpensive operating platforms. operating systems such as
windows nt have made these powerful systems very easy to set up and operate reducing the total cost of ownership of these
powerful servers.

1.2.4explosion of intranets and web based applications

the most important development in computing since the advent of the personal computer is the explosion of internet and web
based applications. somewhat after the fact, the business community has quickly jumped onto the internet bandwagon.
one of the most exciting fields in computing industry today is the development of intranet applications. intranets are private
business networks that are based on the internet standards, although they are designed to be used internally. the
internet/intranet trend has very important implications for data warehousing applications. first, data warehouses can be
available world wide on public/private network at much lower cost. this availability minimizes the need to replicate data
across diverse geographical locations. second, this standard has allowed the web server to provide a middle tier where all the
heavy-duty analysis takes place before it is presented to the web-browsing client to use.

er
e m o ry pow the skyrocketing power of
M hardware and software, along
Disk, d ease
CPU, w e r a n with the availability of
op Po affordable and easy-to-use
Deskt a nd eas
e reporting and analysis tools
Po w e r
Server
have played the most important
role in evolution of data
warehouses. figure 1
Hardw
are pr highlights the technological
Softw ices revolution that has greatly
are pr impacted data warehousing.
ices

•Processors many times powerful than yesterday’s mainframes

•Inexpensive disks can store hundreds of gigabytes 1.3 change in the
•Desktop very powerful for analysis tools. nature of the
•Server software inexpensive, powerful, easy to maintain business
•Hardware and software prices sharply lower
another very significant
Figure 1. Impact of technological revolution influence on evolution of data
warehousing science is the
fundamental changes in the
business organization and
structure during late eighties and early nineties. the emergence of a vibrant global economy has profoundly changed the
information demands made by corporations in the united states and worldwide. corporations have found markets for their
products globally while competing with other companies in vastly different cultures and economic environments. the
mergers and acquisition of businesses have crossed the country boundaries.

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1.3.1economic factors of the recent years
the economic downturn of the late eighties led many global corporations through a remarkable period of consolidation.
phenomena such as “business process reengineering” and “downsizing” forced businesses to reevaluate their business
practices. many industries went through prolonged periods of consolidation and reinvention. during this period, simple
economics forced the businesses to identify their core competency areas and shed businesses that were not profitable.
these economic factors have played an important role in the evolution of data warehousing. for example, when a banking
unit that used different operational systems changed hands, the top management still needed to view the consolidated
business and manage the associated risks accordingly. the banking industry has been the leader in the use of data
warehouses. today’s data warehousing systems are extensively used for profitability and customer behavior analysis.

1.3.2global corporation
the fall of communism and liberalization of asian and south american economies has changed the business climate worldwide
forever. competition from emerging economies has forced large corporations to become lean and efficient. the emergence of
this global economy has led to the migration of manufacturing to less expensive and less restrictive countries. former
communist and south american countries present very exciting and challenging business opportunities. along with these
opportunities they present a very volatile business climate and economies that are nearly impossible to predict.
businesses have not only focused on building products worldwide, but they have also changed their organization to sell
products around the globe. trade agreements such as nafta and eec greatly impact the decisions to enter markets or build
factories. this globalization of business has increased the need not merely for more continuous analysis, but also to manage
data in a centralized location. the process of rolling up manufacturing and sales data from far-flung business units has now
started to impact much larger number of corporations. businesses now need to continuously make the “build or buy”
decisions. globalization of business has made the consolidation of data in a central data warehouse more complicated.
factors such as currency fluctuations and product customization for different markets have added complexity to data
warehousing, making the analysis much more complicated. imagine trying to assess profitability of products built and sold in
multiple countries with volatile currencies. or, attempting to hedge the risks of downturn in economies that have been
expanding rapidly for extended periods.

1.3.3emergence of standard business applications

another factor that is fast becoming an important variable in data warehousing equations is the emergence of vendors with
popular business application suites. led by wildly popular german software vendor sap ag, flexible business software suites
adapted to the particulars of a business have become a very popular way to move to a sophisticated multi-tier architecture.
other vendors such as baan, peoplesoft, and oracle have likewise come out with suites of software that provide different
strengths but have comparable functionality.
the emergence of these application suites has a direct bearing on the increased use of data warehousing in that they are
increasingly able to provide standard applications that are replacing existing custom developed legacy applications. in the
near future, almost every data warehouse is likely to derive data from one of these application sources rather than the
customized extraction from legacy systems. further, there are significant initiatives at these vendors to make transaction data
easily available to data warehousing systems. to the extent that these standard applications have extensive customization
features, data acquisition from these applications can be much simpler than from the mainframe systems.

1.3.4 end-user more technology savvy

one of the most important results of the massive investment in technology and movement towards the powerful personal
computer has been the evolution of a technology-savvy business analyst. even though the technology-savvy end users are not
always beneficial to all projects, this trend certainly has produced a crop of technology-leading business analysts that are
becoming essential to today’s business. these technology-savvy end users have frequently played an important role in the
development and deployment of data warehouses. they have become the core users that are first to demonstrate the initial
benefits of data warehouses. these end users are also critical to the development of the data warehouse model: as they
become experts with the data warehousing system, they play a very important role of mentoring other users.
word processing and spreadsheets were the first applications to be effectively used on the personal computers. in fact, the
spreadsheet is said to be the killer application that led to widespread deployment of personal computers. the charting
functions from a spreadsheet represent one of the most extensively used business analysis and presentation functions. the new
pivot tables available in popular spreadsheets have allowed for simple multi-dimensional analysis. the aggressive use of
inexpensive personal productivity software has led to use of more robust reporting and analysis tools along with more
powerful desktop database engines. these powerful tools are now more targeted towards the end user and often require very

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little training for simple applications.

1.3.5management more information conscience

many factors affect the heightened awareness of trends in information technology among mid and upper management levels.
unlike a decade ago, the information technology now is nearly universally accepted as a key strategic business asset. many
mid and upper level managers that have risen through the ranks over the last decade have invariably made their mark with
successful technology investments. as a result, they tend not to shy away from risking resources on new and emerging
technologies. the explosive use of internet has greatly aided in the managers’ awareness of technology trends. the internet is
now being used to conduct business transactions; but its greatest asset to this date has been dissemination of information.
today, executives can not only review various sources of industry trends, they can also readily find case studies and vendor
information.
the use of technology by mid and upper level managers has increased significantly. they have decisively moved beyond
using the personal computer for email. this hands-on use of information and technology by upper management has facilitated
the sponsorship of larger projects such as data warehousing.

alongside the availability of

key enabling technologies,
these fundamental changes in
Technology the nature of business over the
savvy user past decade have played a
and manager central role in the evolution of
data warehouse. some might
even argue that these changes
in business have led the
technology to its current state.

section2:data
•Emergence of global economy
•Economic downturns in United States, Europe, Japan
warehousing
•Liberalization of Asian, South American, former Communist economies attributes and
•Compelling standard business applications concepts
•Technology savvy business analyst and technology aware management

Figure 2. Changes in the nature of business having looked at the historical

use of the analysis data and
explored some of the factors
influencing the evolution of
data warehouses, we will now turn to identifying the key attributes of a data warehouse.
it is important to recognize that data warehousing is still an evolving science. as with any evolving technology, particular
care must be taken to discount some marketing claims driven by vendors attempting to differentiate themselves from the
competitors. for example, the size of the data warehouse should not determine if a data warehouse is really a data warehouse.
some vendor may say that a data warehouse that is only 50 gigabytes is not a full-fledged data warehouse, and they may refer
to it instead as a data mart. for a smaller company, 50 gigabytes or even much less can represent every relevant piece of
information covering last 10 years and can well represent a powerful data warehouse.
this section explores the data warehousing concepts and attributes. these concepts are grouped into four sub-sections. the
first sub-section discusses the reasons for separating the data for business analysis from the operational data. the logical
transformation of the data, including data warehouse modeling and de-normalization of the data, are introduced in the second
sub-section. sub-section three reviews the issues associated with physical transformation of the data. sub-section four
discusses the generation of summary views. a very simple and broad definition of a data warehouse follows the discussion of
the data warehousing concepts and attributes.

2.1 “warehousing” data outside the operational systems

the primary concept of data warehousing is that the data stored for business analysis can most effectively be accessed by
separating it from the data in the operational systems. many of the reasons for this separation have evolved over the years. in

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the past, legacy systems archived data onto tapes as it became inactive and many analysis reports ran from these tapes or
mirror data sources to minimize the performance impact on the operational systems.
these reasons to separate the operational data from analysis data have not significantly changed with the evolution of the data
warehousing systems, except that now they are considered more formally during the data warehouse building process.
advances in technology and changes in the nature of business have made many of the business analysis processes much more
complex and sophisticated. in addition to producing standard reports, today’s data warehousing systems support very
sophisticated online analysis including multi-dimensional analysis.

2.1.1integrating data from more than one operational system

data warehousing systems are most successful when data can be combined from more than one operational system. when the
data needs to be brought together from more than one source application, it is natural that this integration be done at a place
independent of the source applications. before the evolution of structured data warehouses, analysts in many instances would
combine data extracted from more than one operational system into a single spreadsheet or a database. the data warehouse
may very effectively combine data from multiple source applications such as sales, marketing, finance, and production. many
large data warehouse architectures allow for the source applications to be integrated into the data warehouse incrementally.
the primary reason for combining data from multiple source applications is the ability to cross-reference data from these
applications. nearly all data in a typical data warehouse is built around the time dimension. time is the primary filtering
criterion for a very large percentage of all activity against the data warehouse. an analyst may generate queries for a given
week, month, quarter, or a year. another popular query in many data warehousing applications is the review of year-on-year
activity. for example, one may compare sales for the first quarter of this year with the sales for first quarter of the prior years.
the time dimension in the data warehouse also serves as a fundamental cross-referencing attribute. for example, an analyst
may attempt to access the impact of a new marketing campaign run during selected months by reviewing the sales during the
same periods. the ability to establish and understand the correlation between activities of different organizational groups
within a company is often cited as the single biggest advanced feature of the data warehousing systems.
the data warehouse system can serve not only as an effective platform to merge data from multiple current applications; it can
also integrate multiple versions of the same application. for example, an organization may have migrated to a new standard
business application that replaces an old mainframe-based, custom-developed legacy application. the data warehouse system
can serve as a very powerful and much needed platform to combine the data from the old and the new applications. designed
properly, the data warehouse can allow for year-on-year analysis even though the base operational application has changed.

2.1.2differences between transaction and analysis processes

the most important reason for separating data for business analysis from the operational data has always been the potential
performance degradation on the operational system that can result from the analysis processes. high performance and quick
response time is almost universally critical for operational systems. the loss of efficiency and the costs incurred with slower
responses on the predefined transactions are usually easy to calculate and measure. for example, a loss of five seconds of
processing time is perhaps negligible in and of itself; but it compounds out to considerably more time and high costs once all
the other operations it impacts are brought into the picture. on the other hand, business analysis processes in a data warehouse
are difficult to predefine and they rarely need to have rigid response time requirements.
operational systems are designed for acceptable performance for pre-defined transactions. for an operational system, it is
typically possible to identify the mix of business transaction types in a given time frame including the peak loads. it also
relatively easy to specify the maximum acceptable response time given a specific load on the system. the cost of a long
response time can then be computed by considering factors such as the cost of operators, telecommunication costs, and the
cost of any lost business. for example, an order processing system might specify the number of active order takers and the
average number of orders for each operational hour. even the query and reporting transactions against the operational system
are most likely to be predefined with predictable volume.
even though many of the queries and reports that are run against a data warehouse are predefined, it is nearly impossible to
accurately predict the activity against a data warehouse. the process of data exploration in a data warehouse takes a business
analyst through previously undefined paths. it is also common to have runaway queries in a data warehouse that are triggered
by unexpected results or by users’ lack of understanding of the data model. further, many of the analysis processes tend to be
all encompassing whereas the operational processes are well segmented. a user may decide to explore detail data while
reviewing the results of a report from the summary tables. after finding some interesting sales activity in a particular month,
the user may join the activity for this month with the marketing programs that were run during that particular month to
further understand the sales. of course, there would be instances where a user attempts to run a query that will try to build a
temporary table that is a cartesian product of two tables containing a million rows each! while an activity like this would

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unacceptably degrade an operational system’s performance, it is expected and planned for in a data warehousing system.

2.1.3data is mostly non-volatile

another key attribute of the data in a data warehouse system is that the data is brought to the warehouse after it has become
mostly non-volatile. this means that after the data is in the data warehouse, there are no modifications to be made to this
information. for example, the order status does not change, the inventory snapshot does not change, and the marketing
promotion details do not change. this attribute of the data warehouse has many very important implications for the kind of
data that is brought to the data warehouse and the timing of the data transfer.
let us further review what it means for the data to be non-volatile. in an operational system the data entities go through many
attribute changes. for example, an order may go through many statuses before it is completed. or, a product moving through
the assembly line has many processes applied to it. generally speaking, the data from an operational system is triggered to go
to the data warehouse when most of the activity on these business entity data has been completed. this may mean completion
of an order or final assembly of an accepted product. once an order is completed and shipped, it is unlikely to go back to
backorder status. or, once a product is built and accepted, it is unlikely to go back to the first assembly station. another
important example can be the constantly changing data that is transferred to the data warehouse one snapshot at a time. the
inventory module in an operational system may change with nearly every transaction; it is impossible to carry all of these
changes to the data warehouse. you may determine that a snapshot of inventory carried once every week to the data
warehouse is adequate for all analysis. such snapshot data naturally is non-volatile.
it is important to realize that once data is brought to the data warehouse, it should be modified only on rare occasions. it is
very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain dynamic data in the data warehouse. many data warehousing projects have failed
miserably when they attempted to synchronize volatile data between the operational and data warehousing systems.

2.1.4data saved for longer periods than in transaction systems

data from most operational systems is archived after the data becomes inactive. for example, an order may become inactive
after a set period from the fulfillment of the order; or a bank account may become inactive after it has been closed for a
period of time. the primary reason for archiving the inactive data has been the performance of the operational system. large
amounts of inactive data mixed with operational live data can significantly degrade the performance of a transaction that is
only processing the active data. since the data warehouses are designed to be the archives for the operational data, the data
here is saved for a very long period.
in fact, a data warehouse project may start without any specific plan to archive the data off the warehouse. the cost of
maintaining the data once it is loaded in the data warehouse is minimal. most of the significant costs are incurred in data
transfer and data scrubbing. storing data for more than five years is very common for data warehousing systems. there are
industry examples were the success of a data warehousing project has encouraged the managers to expand the time horizon of
the data stored in the data warehouse. they may start with storing the data for two or three years and then expand to five or
more years once the wealth of business knowledge in the data warehouse is discovered. the falling prices of hardware have
also encouraged the expansion of successful data warehousing projects.

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 Order processing
•2 second response time
Data
Daily cl
•Last 6 months orders
osed ord
ers Warehouse
•Last 5 years data
•Response time 2 seconds
Product Price/inventory nve ntory to 60 minutes
t pr ice/I
•10 second response time r oduc
kly p •Data is not modified
Wee
•Last 10 price changes s
m
•Last 20 inventory transactions ro gra
gp
etin
ark
ym
Marketing ekl
We
•30 second response time
•Last 2 years programs

•Different performance requirements

•Combine data from multiple applications
•Data is mostly non-volatile
•Data saved for a long time period

Figure 3. Reasons for moving data outside the operations systems

in short, the separation of operational data from the analysis data is the most fundamental data warehousing concept. not only
is the data stored in a structured manner outside the operational system, businesses today are allocating considerable
resources to build data warehouses at the same time that the operational applications are deployed. rather than archiving data
to a tape as an afterthought of implementing an operational system, data warehousing systems have become the primary
interface for operational systems. figure 3 highlights the reasons for separation discussed in this section.

2.2 logical transformation of operational data

this sub-section explores the concepts associated with the data warehouse logical model. the data is logically transformed
when it is brought to the data warehouse from the operational systems. the issues associated with the logical transformation
of data brought from the operational systems to the data warehouse may require considerable analysis and design effort. the
architecture of the data warehouse and the data warehouse model greatly impact the success of the project. this section
reviews some of the most fundamental concepts of relational database theory that do not fully apply to data warehousing
systems. even though most data warehouses are deployed on relational database platforms, some basic relational principles
are knowingly modified when developing the logical and physical model of the data warehouses.

2.2.1structured extensible data model

the data warehouse model outlines the logical and physical structure of the data warehouse. unlike the archived data of the
legacy systems, considerable effort needs to be devoted to the data warehouse modeling. this data modeling effort in the
early phases of the data warehousing project can yield significant benefits in the form of an efficient data warehouse that is
expandable to accommodate all of the business data from multiple operational applications.
the data modeling process needs to structure the data in the data warehouse independent of the relational data model that may
exist in any of the operational systems. as discussed later in this paper, the data warehouse model is likely to be less
normalized than an operational system model. further, the operational systems are likely to have large amounts of
overlapping business reference data. information about current products is likely to be used in varying forms in many of the
operational systems. the data warehouse system needs to consolidate all of the reference data. for example, the operational
order processing system may maintain the pricing and physical attributes of products whereas the manufacturing floor
application may maintain design and formula attributes for the same product. the data warehouse reference table for products
would consolidate and maintain all attributes associated with products that are relevant for the analysis processes. some
attributes that are essential to the operational system are likely to be deemed unnecessary for the data warehouse and may not
be loaded and maintained in the data warehouse.

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 Orders

Enterprise Data Warehouse

Product

Future

Future

•Setup framework for Enterprise data warehouse

•Start with few a most valuable source applications
•Add additional applications as business case can be made

Figure 4. Extensible data warehouse

the data warehouse model needs to be extensible and structured such that the data from different applications can be added as
a business case can be made for the data. a data warehouse project in most cases cannot include data from all possible
applications right from the start. many of the successful data warehousing projects have taken an incremental approach to
adding data from the operational systems and aligning it with the existing data. they start with the objective of eventually
adding most if not all business data to the data warehouse. keeping this long-term objective in mind, they may begin with
one or two operational applications that provide the most fertile data for business analysis. figure 4 illustrates the extensible
architecture of the data warehouse.

2.2.2data warehouse model aligns with the business structure

a data warehouse logical model aligns with the business structure rather than the data model of any particular application. the
entities defined and maintained in the data warehouse parallel the actual business entities such as customers, products, orders,
and distributors. different parts of an organization may have a very narrow view of a business entity such as a customer. for
example, a loan service group in a bank may only know about a customer in the context of one or more loans outstanding.
another group in the same bank may know about the same customer in context of a deposit account. the data warehouse view
of the customer would transcend the view from a particular part of the business. a customer in the data warehouse would
represent a bank customer that has any kind of business with the bank.
the data warehouse would most likely build attributes of a business entity by collecting data from multiple source
applications. consider, for example, the demographic data associated with a bank customer. the retail operational system
may provide some attributes such as social security number, address, and phone number. a mortgage system or some
purchased database may provide with employment, income, and net worth information.
the structure of the data in any single source application is likely to be inadequate for the data warehouse. the structure in a
single application may be influenced by many factors, including:

•purchased applications: the application data structure may be dictated by an application that was purchased from a software
vendor and integrated into the business. the user of the application may have very little or no control over the data model.
some vendor applications have a very generic data model that is designed to accommodate a large number and types of
businesses.

•legacy application: the source application may be a very old mostly homegrown application where the data model has
evolved over the years. the database engine in this application may have been changed more than once without anyone
taking the time to fully exploit the features of the new engine. there are many legacy applications in existence today
where the data model is neither well documented nor understood by anyone currently supporting the application.

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•platform limitations: the source application data model may be restricted by the limitations of the hardware/software
platform or development tools and technologies. a database platform may not support certain logical relationship or there
may be physical limitations on the data attributes.

Order processing
Customer Product
orders price Data
Available Inventory Warehouse
Customers

Products
Product Price/inventory
Product Product Orders
price Inventory
Product Inventory
Product Price changes
Product Price

Marketing
Customer Product
Profile price

Marketing programs

•No data model restrictions of the source application

•Data warehouse model has business entities

Figure 5. Data warehouse entities align with the business structure

figure 5 illustrates the alignment of data warehouse entities with the business structure. the data warehouse model breaks
away from the limitations of the source application data models and builds a flexible model that parallels the business
structure. this extensible data model is easy to understand by the business analysts as well as the managers.

2.2.3transformation of the operational state information

it is essential to understand the implications of not being able to maintain the state information of the operational system
when the data is moved to the data warehouse. many of the attributes of entities in the operational system are very dynamic
and constantly modified. many of these dynamic operational system attributes are not carried over to the data warehouse;
others are static by the time they are moved to the data warehouse. a data warehouse generally does not contain information
about entities that are dynamic and constantly going through state changes.
to understand what it means to lose the operational state information, let us consider the example of an order fulfillment
system that tracks the inventory to fill orders. first let us look at the order entity in this operational system. an order may go
through many different statuses or states before it is fulfilled or goes to the “closed” status. other order statuses may indicate
that the order is ready to be filled, it is being filled, back ordered, ready to be shipped, etc. this order entity may go through
many states that capture the status of the order and the business processes that have been applied to it. it is nearly impossible
to carry forward all of attributes associated with these order states to the data warehousing system. the data warehousing
system is most likely to have just one final snapshot of this order. or, as the order is ready to be moved into the data
warehouse, the information may be gathered from multiple operational entities such as order and shipping to build the final
data warehouse order entity.
now let us consider the more complicated example of inventory data within this system. the inventory may change with every
single transaction. the quantity of a product in the inventory may be reduced by an order fulfillment transaction or this
quantity may be increased with receipt of a new shipment of the product. if this order processing system executes ten
thousand transactions in a given day, it is likely that the actual inventory in the database will go through just as many states or
snapshots during this day. it is impossible to capture this constant change in the database and carry it forward to the data
warehouse. this is still one of the most perplexing problems with the data warehousing systems. there are many approaches
to solving this problem. you will most likely choose to carry periodical snapshots of the inventory data to the data warehouse.
this scenario can apply to a very large portion of the data in the operational systems. the issues associated with this get much

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more complicated as extended time periods are considered.
figure 6 illustrates how most of
the operational state
Order Processing
Data information cannot be carried
System
Daily cl over the data warehouse
osed ord
ers Warehouse system.
Editor: Orders (Closed)
Order Please add Open,
Backorder, Shipped, Inventory snapshot 1 2.2.4de-normalization of data
Closed to the arrow
around the order
Inventory snapshot 2
ot before we consider data model
a psh
n tory sn de-normalization in the context
nve
kly i
Down

Wee of data warehousing, let us

Up

Inventory quickly review relational

database concepts and the
normalization process. e. f.
codd developed relational
database theory in the late
•Operational state information is not carried to the data warehouse 1960s while he was a
•Data is transferred to the data warehouse after all state changes researcher at ibm. many
•Or, data is transferred with period snapshots prominent researchers have
made significant contributions
to this model since its
Figure 6. Transformation of the operational state information
introduction. today, most of
the popular database platforms
follow this model closely. a
relational database model is a collection of two-dimensional tables consisting of rows and columns. in the relational
modeling terminology, the tables, rows, and columns are respectively called relations, attributes, and tuples. the name for
relational database model is derived from the term relation for a table. the model further identifies unique keys for all tables
and describes the relationship between tables.
normalization is a relational database modeling process where the relations or tables are progressively decomposed into
smaller relations to a point where all attributes in a relation are very tightly coupled with the primary key of the relation. most
data modelers try to achieve the “third normal form” with all of the relations before they de-normalize for performance or
other reasons. the three levels of normalization are briefly described below:
• first normal form: a relation is said to be in first normal form if it describes a single entity and it contains no arrays or
repeating attributes. for example, an order table or relation with multiple line items would not be in first normal form
because it would have repeating sets of attributes for each line item. the relational theory would call for separate tables
for order and line items.
• second normal form: a relation is said to be in second normal form if in addition to the first normal form properties, all
attributes are fully dependent on the primary key for the relation.
• third normal form: a relation is in third normal form if in addition to second normal form, all non-key attributes are
completely independent of each other.
the process of normalization generally breaks a table into many independent tables. while a fully normalized database can
yield fantastically flexible model, it generally makes the data model more complex and difficult to follow. further, a fully
normalized data model can perform very inefficiently. a data modeler in an operational system would take normalized logical
data model and convert it into a physical data model that is significantly de-normalized. de-normalization reduces the need
for database table joins in the queries.
some of the reasons for de-normalizing the data warehouse model are the same as they would be for an operational system,
namely, performance and simplicity. the data normalization in relational databases provides considerable flexibility at the cost
of the performance. this performance cost is sharply increased in a data warehousing system because the amount of data
involved may be much larger. a three-way join with relatively small tables of an operational system may be acceptable in
terms of performance cost, but the join may take unacceptably long time with large tables in the data warehouse system.

2.2.5static relationships in historical data

another reason that de-normalization is an important process in data warehousing modeling is that the relationship between

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many attributes does not change in this historical data. for example, in an operational system, a product may be part of the
product group “a” this month and product group “b” starting next month. in a properly normalized data model, it would be
inappropriate to include the product group attribute with an order entity that records an order for this product; only the
product id would be included. the relational theory would call for a join on the order table and product table to determine the
product group and any other attributes of this product. this relational theory concept does not apply to a data warehousing
system because in a data warehousing system you may be capturing the group that this product belonged to when the order
was filled. even though the product moves to different groups over time, the relationship between the product and the group
in context of this particular order is static.
another important example can be the price of a product. the prices in an operational system may change constantly. some of
these price changes may be carried to the data warehouse with a periodic snapshot of the product price table. in a data
warehousing system you would carry the list price of the product when the order is placed with each order regardless of the
selling price for this order. the list price of the product may change many times in one year and your product price database
snapshot may even manage to capture all these prices. but, it is nearly impossible to determine the historical list price of the
product at the time each order is generated if it is not carried to the data warehouse with the order. the relational database
theory makes it easy to maintain dynamic relationships between business entities, whereas a data warehouse system captures
relationships between business entities at a given time.

Order processing
Customer Product
Data

Extensible data warehouse

orders price

Available Inventory Warehouse

De-normalized Customers
data Products
Product Price/inventory
Product Product Orders
price Inventory
Transform Product Inventory
Product Price changes State
Product Price

Marketing
Customer Product
Profile price

Marketing programs

•Structured extensible data model

•Data warehouse model aligns with the business structure
•Transformation of the state information
•Data is de-normalized because the relationships are static

Figure 7. Logical transformation of application data

logical transformation concepts of source application data described here require considerable effort and they are a very
important early investment towards development of a successful data warehouse. figure 7 highlights the logical
transformation concepts discussed in this section.

2.3 physical transformation of operational data

physical transformation of data homogenizes and purifies the data. these data warehousing processes are typically known as
“data scrubbing” or “data staging” processes. the “data scrubbing” processes are some of the most labor-intensive and
tedious processes in a data warehousing project. yet, without proper scrubbing, the analytical value of even the clean data
can be greatly diminished. physical transformation includes the use of easy-to-understand standard business terms, and
standard values for the data. a complete dictionary associated with the data warehouse can be a very useful tool. during these
physical transformation processes the data is sometimes “staged” before it is entered into the data warehouse. the data may be
combined from multiple applications during this “staging” step or the integrity of the data may be checked during this
process.
the concepts associated with the physical transformation of the data are introduced in this sub-section. historical data and the
current operational application data is likely to have some missing or invalid values. it is important to note that it is essential
to manage missing values or incomplete transformations while moving the data to the data warehousing system. the end user

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of the data warehouse must have a way to learn about any missing data and the default values used by the transformation
processes.

2.3.1 operational terms transformed into uniform business terms

the terms and names used in the operational systems are transformed into uniform standard business terms by the data
warehouse transformation processes. the operational application may use cryptic or difficult to understand terms for a variety
of different reasons. the platform software may impose length and format restriction on a term, or purchased application may
be using a term that is too generic for your business. the data warehouse needs to consistently use standard business terms
that are self-explanatory.
a customer identifier in the operational systems may be called cust, cust_id, or cust_no. further, different operational
applications may use different terms to refer to the same attribute. for example, a customer in the loan organization in a bank
may be referred to as a borrower. you may choose a simple standard business term such as customer id in the data
warehouse. this term would require little or no explanation even to the novice user of the data warehouse.

2.3.2single physical definition of an attribute

different systems may evolve to use different lengths and data types for the same data element. one system may have the
product id to be either 12 or 14 numeric characters, whereas another system may accommodate product ids of up to 18
alphanumeric characters. the software of an operational application may support very limited data types and it may impose
severe limitations on the names. software of another application may support a very rich set of data types, and it may be very
flexible with the naming conventions.
as an attribute is defined physically for the data warehouse, it is essential to use meaningful data types and lengths. use the
standard data length and data type for each attribute everywhere it is used. a functional data dictionary can facilitate this
consistent use of physical attributes.

2.3.3consistent use of entity attribute values

all attributes in the data warehouse need to be consistent in the use of predefined values. different source applications
invariably use different attribute values to represent the same meaning. these different values need to be converted into a
single, most sensible value as the data is loaded into the data warehouse.
a simple example for the consistent use of entity attributes is the use of a gender flag for an individual. one source
application may use flags such as “m” and “f” to store gender for an individual whereas another application may use the
detail “male” and “female” to store gender. other applications may use yet other values to store the same piece of
information. the data warehouse may choose to consistently use “m” and “f” for gender for all individuals throughout the
system.
a more complex example can be the case of dealing with complex data values in the source application. many older
applications use single data value to represent multiple attributes. an account number, for example, may not only represent a
unique account but it may also represent the account type. all accounts starting with 1 or 2 may represent one type of account
whereas all other accounts may represent something else to the business. the data warehouse would consistently use the
account id to only represent a unique account. the account type may be computed and saved as a separate attribute.

2.3.4issues associated with default and missing values

the data brought into the data warehouse is sometimes incomplete or contains values that cannot be transformed properly. it
is very important for the data warehouse transformation process to use intelligent default values for the missing or corrupt
data. it is also important to devise a mechanism for users of the data warehouse to be aware of these default values.
some data attributes can easily be defaulted to a reasonable value when the original is missing or corrupt. other values can be
obtained by referencing other current data. for example, a missing product attribute such as unit-of-measure on an order
entity can be obtained by accessing the current product database. some attributes cannot be filled by defaults for missing
values. in fact, it may be dangerous to attempt to assign default for certain types of missing values. a poor default may
corrupt the data and lead to invalid analysis at a later stage. in these cases, it is safest to leave the missing values as blank. in
some cases, it may make sense to pick a specific value or symbol that indicates a missing value.
the timing of the start of the period for which data is loaded into the data warehouse can be important. it is safest to load data
in the data warehouse for complete years. this would prevent any misinterpretation of analysis run on this data. imagine a
data warehouse that started loading data from the month of march for the first year in the data warehouse. it is very likely

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that a user is going to run a query for a range of whole year without realizing that the data for january and february is not
stored in the data warehouse. also, missing data for part of the year prevents any meaningful year-on-year analysis.
it is important to design a good system to log and identify data that is missing from the data warehouse. when a user runs a
query against the data warehouse, it is essential to understand the population against which the query is run.

Transformation

Operational -----------------------
Data Warehouse
System A cust, cust_id, borrower
>> customer ID System
-----------------------
Summarized Data
“1” >> “M”
“2” >> “F” Detailed
-----------------------
Operational
System B Missing >>> “……..” Data

•Uniform business terms

•Single physical definition of an attribute
•Consistent use of entity attributes
•Default and missing values

Figure 8. Physical transformation of application data

figure 8 highlights the physical transformation concepts for data warehousing systems. physical transformation of source
application data requires considerable effort and it can be difficult at times, but a well-considered set of physical data
transformations can make a data warehouse more user-friendly. further, accurate and complete transformations help maintain
the integrity of the data warehouse.

2.4 business view summarization of data

many queries and reports against most data warehouse systems are simple aggregations based on predefined parameters.
another key attribute of today’s data warehouses is the predefined and automatically generated summary views.
for example, many people in an organization may need to see product sales figures. they may have a need to summarize
these sales figures for a week, a month, or a quarter. it may not be practical to summarize the needed data every time an
analyst requires it. a data warehouse that contains summary views of the detail data around the most common queries can
sharply reduce the amount of processing needed at the time of analysis. summary views are typically created around business
entities such as customers, products, and channels.
the summary views also hide the complexities of the detail data. of course, performance gain is the most significant tangible
aspect of the summary views in the data warehouse. most relational databases provide the ability to build views for users that
hide the underlying tables. in most sql server packages, including ms sql server, the view exists only as a definition and it is
created at the time it is actually used. while the concept of summary views in data warehousing systems is similar, it
important to not confuse data warehousing summary views with the term “views” as it is used in a database system. a
summary view in a data warehouse refers to an actual table that is created and maintained independent of when it used by a
user. the key concepts around the summary views are introduced in this section.

2.4.1initial analysis in summary views

summary views often are generated not only by summarizing the detail data but also by applying business rules to the detail
data. for example, the summary views may contain a filter that applies the exact business rules for considering an order a
sale or a filter that applies the business rules for allocating a sale to a channel entity. the summary views can hide the

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complexities of the detail data from the end user for many, if not most, analysis tasks.
the business rules that are applied in generating summary views can be complex. these business rules may determine exactly
what constitutes a sale or they may determine how a sale is allocated to a sales or channel entity. large organizations often
have complex rules to charge sales to different ledger accounts. some sales may be allocated to warranty replacement and
thus not be counted as sales. or, some sales may be further discounted based on a master contract with the customer and thus
need to be reduced when calculating product sales for a period. often, a data warehouse will have more than one view based
on business entities such as customers and products. there may be multiple physical tables or the same table may contain
additional attributes that allow for easy queries.
in addition to applying the business rules while generating summary views, the data warehousing system may perform
complex database operations such as multi-table joins. product sales may be computed by joining the sales, invoice, and
product tables. the criteria to join these tables may be complex. while individuals mining data in the warehouse detail
records need to understand all the complexities of business rules, most users can retrieve effective summary business
information without fully understanding the detail data.

2.4.2significant performance gains

the single most important reason for building the summary views is the significant performance gains they facilitate. not only
are all the complexities of detail data interpreted for an end user; the summary views also perform the most time-consuming
data analysis before it is needed.
summary views allow you to run a product sales query by merely setting up a filter based on indexed fields such as date,
product codes, and other relevant criteria. further, this query will most likely run on a sharply smaller table as the summary
views would have reduced the data from multiple tables containing millions of rows to tens of thousands of rows. a query
against this smaller table would be significantly faster than a query that runs against detail tables joined for the query. in
some instances a summary view table can be as large as the detail tables. this may be caused by summarization in very small
units or combining multiple summary views into one data table. for example, you may not be able to summarize the product
sales by week. instead daily product sales figures may be required for some queries. even in these large summary views, the
performance is generally better because many of the table joins are eliminated and queries can generally use the indexes.

2.4.3many views into the same detail

the summary views in a data warehouse provide multiple views into the same detail data. these views are predefined
dimensions into the detail data. these views provide an efficient method for the analyst to link with the detail data when
necessary.
for example, for the sales order data, four different product sales summary views could be generated summarizing weekly
sales data. these views summarizing by product, customer, channel, and region all include the same detail data and they
would need to be updated or regenerated as new data is brought into the data warehouse.
even though most of the analysis is likely to be done using the summary views, there needs to be a simple and robust way for
an analyst to drill down into the detail data. many business problems require review of the detail data to fully understand a
pattern or anomaly exhibited in the summarized reports or queries. drill down from many different summary views can lead
to the same detail data. a single anomaly in detail data may manifest itself differently in different summary views.

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 Data Warehouse System

Automatically Product summary

generated and updated Customer summary Quick query
Geographic summary response

Detailed
Perform business Data
analysis on detail data

•Initial analysis in summary views

•Performance gains
•Many views into detail data

Figure 9. Summary views of detail data

summarization and predefined analysis of data in a data warehouse system is an important task. it is essential to maintain the
integrity of the summary views because a very large part of the data warehouse activity is against the summary views. figure
9 highlights the key concepts around summary views. the summary views need to be not only designed and built, they need
to be maintained as new data comes into the data warehouse.

2.5 definition
after considering the various attributes and concepts of data warehousing systems, a broad definition of a data warehouse can
be the following:
a data warehouse is a structured extensible environment designed for the analysis of non-volatile data, logically and
physically transformed from multiple source applications to align with business structure, updated and maintained
for a long time period, expressed in simple business terms, and summarized for quick analysis.

section3:business use of a data warehouse

no discussion of the data warehousing systems is complete without review of the type of activity supported by a data
warehouse. some of the activity against today’s data warehouses is predefined and not much different from traditional
analysis activity. other processes such as multi-dimensional analysis and information visualization were not available with
traditional analysis tools and methods.
there is a very interesting phenomenon that is observed with many data warehousing projects. the users of a new data
warehouse only wish to get the information that they were able to get using the old tools and methods. they wish to replicate
their queries and reports with the data warehouse and make sure that all the numbers match. often there is as much
apprehension of the new tools and the data warehouse as there is excitement. it is only after using the new data warehouse
for a period of time that they start to explore and discover the new capabilities that are available to them. soon after, they
start to have significant input into the data warehouse enhancement process and they happily become the mentors for the new
users.

3.1 tools to be used against the data warehouse

one of the objectives of the data warehouse is to make it as flexible and as open as possible. it is not desirable to set a steep
entry price in terms of software and training for using the data warehouse. the data warehouse should be accessible by as

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many end-user tools and platforms as possible. yet, it is not possible to make every feature of the data warehouse available
from every end user tool.
low-end tools such as simple query capability built into most spreadsheets may be adequate for a user that only needs to
quickly reference the data warehouse. other users may require the use of the most powerful multi-dimensional analysis tools.
the data warehouse administrators need to identify the tools that are supported for access to the data warehouse and the
capabilities that are available using these different tools. there can be a progression path to the higher level tools for the data
warehouse users. a user can start with a low-level tool that is already familiar to him or her. after becoming familiar with the
data warehouse he or she may be able to justify the cost and effort involved with using a more complex tool.
in most data warehousing projects, there is a need to select a preferred data warehouse access tool for the most active users. a
small number of users generate most of the analysis activity against the data warehouse. the data warehouse performance can
be tuned to the requirements of the tool appropriate for these active users. this tool can be used for training and
demonstration of the data warehouse.

3.2 standard reports and queries

many users of the data warehouse need to access a set of standard reports and queries. it is desirable to periodically
automatically produce a set of standard reports that are required by many different users. when these users need a particular
report, they can just view the report that has already been run by the data warehouse system rather than running it themselves.
this facility can be particularly useful for reports that take a long time to run.
such a facility would require report server software. it is likely that these reports can be accessed only using the client
program for that system. this facility would need to work with or be part of the preferred data warehouse access tool
previously mentioned. many end user query and analysis tools now include server software that can be run with the data
warehouse to serve reports and query results. these tools are now providing a web interface to the reports. in many data
warehouse systems, this report and query server becomes an essential facility. the data warehouse users and administrators
constantly need to consider any reports that are candidates to become standard reports for the data warehouse. frequently,
individual users may develop reports that can be used by other users.
in addition to standard reports and queries, sometimes it is useful to share some of the advanced work done by other users. a
user may produce advanced analysis that can be parameterized or otherwise adapted by other users in different parts of the
same organization or even in organizations.

3.3 queries against summary tables

as introduced earlier, the summary views in the data warehouse can be the object of a large majority of analysis in a data
warehouse. simple filtering and summation from the summary views accounts for most of the analysis activity against many
data warehouses. these summary views contain predefined standard business analysis.
for example, in a typical data warehouse, the product summary view may account for a very large number of queries where
different users select different products and the time periods for product sales and profit margin queries. these queries
provide quick response and they are very simple to build. advanced users typically attach a pivot table in their analysis tool
to data warehouse summary tables for simple multi-dimensional analysis.

3.4 data mining in the detail data

even though data mining in the detail data may account for a very small percentage of the data warehouse activity, the most
useful data analysis might be done on the detail data. the reports and queries off the summary tables are adequate to answer
many “what” questions in the business. the drill down into the detail data provides answers to “why” and “how” questions.
data mining is an evolving science. a data-mining user starts with summary data and drills down into the detail data looking
for arguments to prove or disprove a hypothesis. the tools for data mining are evolving rapidly to satisfy the need to
understand the behavior of business units such as customers and products.

3.5 interface with other data warehouses

the data warehouse system is likely to be interfaced with other applications that use it as the source of operational system
data. a data warehouse may feed data to other data warehouses or smaller data warehouses called data marts.
the operational system interfaces with the data warehouse often become increasingly stable and powerful. as the data
warehouse becomes a reliable source of data that has been consistently moved from the operational systems, many

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downstream applications find that a single interface with the data warehouse is much easier and more functional than
multiple interfaces with the operational applications. the data warehouse can be a better single and consistent source for many
kinds of data than the operational systems. it is however, important to remember that the much of the operational state
information is not carried over to the data warehouse. thus, data warehouse cannot be source of all operation system
interfaces.

Data Warehouse
System
Predefined Queries against
reports and Summarized Data summary data
queries Detailed
Data
Data mining in
detail data

Other
Applications

•Standard reports and queries

•Queries against summary tables
•Data mining in the detail data
•Interface with other applications

Figure 10. Data warehouse analysis processes

figure 10 illustrates the analysis processes that run against a data warehouse. although a majority of the activity against
today’s data warehouses is simple reporting and analysis, the sophistication of analysis at the high end continues to increase
rapidly. of course, all analysis run at data warehouse is simpler and cheaper to run than through the old methods. this
simplicity continues to be a main attraction of data warehousing systems.

summary
this paper introduced the fundamental concepts of data warehousing. it is important to note that data warehousing is a
science that continues to evolve. many of the design and development concepts introduced here greatly influence the quality
of the analysis that is possible with data in the data warehouse. if invalid or corrupt data is allowed to get into the data
warehouse, the analysis done with this data is likely to be invalid.
after the rapid acceptance of data warehousing systems during past three years, there will continue to be many more
enhancements and adjustments to the data warehousing system model. further evolution of the hardware and software
technology will also continue to greatly influence the capabilities that are built into data warehouses.
data warehousing systems have become a key component of information technology architecture. a flexible enterprise data
warehouse strategy can yield significant benefits for a long period.

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