KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

STUDENT NAME: CHISHALE FRIDAY

STUDENT NUMBER: 20200011

NRC: 300768/42/1

LECTUERER NAME: MR BWALYA

DUE DATE: 17TH NOVEMBER 2022.

QUESTION ONE (1)

(i) 32-bit microprocessor, and 32-bit instructions [5marks]

32-bit is a type of CPU architecture that is capable of transferring 32 bits of data per clock cycle.
More plainly, it is the amount of information your CPU can process each time it performs an
operation. You can think this architecture as a road that's 32 lanes wide; only 32 "vehicles" (bits
of data) can go through an intersection at a time.
In more technical terms, this means processors can work with 32-bit binary numbers (decimal
number up to 4,294,967,295). Anything larger and the computer would need to break the data into
smaller pieces. Specific examples of processors with 32-bit architecture would be the 80386,
80486, and Pentium. Another Good examples of the first 32-bit operating systems are OS/2 and
Windows NT.
(ii) List and briefly discuss the QPI protocol layers.
QPI is otherwise referred to as quick path interconnect protocol layer which is a point to point
processor interconnect. The protocol layers are as follows;
Physical: Consists of the actual wires carrying the signals, as well as circuitry and logic to support
ancillary features required in the transmission and reception of the 1s and 0s.
Link: Responsible for reliable transmission and flow control.
Routing: Provides the framework for directing packets through the fabric.
Protocol: The high-level set of rules for exchanging packets of data between devices.

(iii) List and briefly explain the PCIe protocol layers.

Physical: Consists of the actual wires carrying the signals, as well as circuitry and logic to support
ancillary features required in the transmission and reception of the 1s and 0s.
Data link: responsible for reliable transmission and flow control.
Transmission: Generates and consumes data packets used to implement load/store data transfer
mechanisms and also manages the flow control of those packets between the two components on
a link.
(iii) Local data bus and local address bus
Local data bus Local address bus

 The data bus carries the data to be stored.  The address bus determines where the data
should be stored in the memory location.

 The data bus transmits the data bidirectional.  The address bus is a unidirectional (single or
Like it can send and also receives the data. one way) bus

 The data bus is used to carry data signals only.  The address bus is used to carry address signals
only.

 The data bus helps to transmit data from one  The address bus is a bus that locates memory in
device to another device. the processor.

 The rate of transferring data indicates the width  In address bus, the amount of memory a system
of the data bus. can access indicates the width of the bus

(iv) Machine cycle, processor cycle and bus cycle

Machine cycle: it is the cycle which consists of steps that a computers processor executes
whenever it receives a machine language instruction. It is the most basic CPU operation, and
modern CPUs are able to perform millions of machine cycles per second the cycle consist of three
standard steps which includes; fetch, decode and execute.

Processor cycle: The instruction cycle consists of four phases: fetching an instruction from
memory, decoding the fetched instruction, reading the address from memory, and finally,
instruction execution. This cycle begins as soon as the system is switched on and ends when it is
shut down. The CPU uses a cycle known as the Instruction cycle to process all of these instructions
and operations. The instruction cycle is the time it takes a CPU to execute and retrieve a complete
education.

Bus cycle: Bus cycle corresponds to a sequence of events that starts with an address being output
on system address bus followed by a write or read data transfer. During these operations, a series
of control signals are also produced by microprocessor to control direction and timing of bus.
QUESTION TWO (2)

(i). which errors can be handled by HDD

 Smart Hard Disk Error" Or "Smart Hard Disk Error 301"

 Hard Disk 1 (3F1)
 Boot device not found – hard disk (3F0)" or "No boot device available"

(ii) Write down the most appropriate storage device that can be used for each requirement.
[2marks]

(a). It is used in digital cameras or mobile phones to store images, videos, and music.

 SD Card or Memory card.

(b). It is a small, rewritable and portable storage device that has to be inserted into the computer’s
USB port to store or retrieve information from it.

 Pen drive

iii. Explain USB in short. Give applications of USB [5marks]

A Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a common interface that enables communication between devices
and a host controller such as a personal computer (PC) or smartphone. It connects peripheral
devices such as digital cameras, mice, keyboards, printers, scanners, media devices, external hard
drives and flash drives.
Applications of USB.
It is mostly used on personal computers. USB is also used on other devices, such as smartphones
and video game consoles. USB connects different devices using a standard interface. Most people
use USB for computer mice, keyboards, scanners, printers, digital cameras, and USB flash drives.
(iv) Discuss the key distinguishing feature of a microprocessor [3marks]
In a microprocessor, all of the components of the CPU are on a single chip. Most modern
computing equipment has a microprocessor at its heart. The microprocessor gives a computer the
ability to calculate, sort data and perform logical comparisons. The key distinguishing feature of a
microprocessor is its integrated nature. The way it combines several different circuits into a single
package. Having the essential components in one device makes digital equipment including
cellphones, personal computers and Web servers smaller, less expensive and easier to build.

(v.) Explain what are the different functional units 8086 [5marks]
EU (Execution Unit): Execution unit gives instructions to BIU stating from where to fetch the
data and then decode and execute those instructions. Its function is to control operations on data
using the instruction decoder & ALU. EU has no direct connection with system buses as shown in
the above figure, it performs operations over data through BIU.

BIU (Bus Interface Unit): BIU takes care of all data and addresses transfers on the buses for the
EU like sending addresses, fetching instructions from the memory, reading data from the ports and
the memory as well as writing data to the ports and the memory. EU has no direction connection
with System Buses so this is possible with the BIU. EU and BIU are connected with the Internal
Bus.

(vi). Discuss the general categories of functions that are specified by computer instructions?
Processor-Memory data transfer: A data bus is used to transfer data between the memory and
the CPU
Processor-I/O data transfer: Thus, I/O data transfer is about how the three subsystems i.e. CPU,
Memory and I/O Controller, are involved in achieving the data exchange with peripherals.
Data processing: Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable
information. Usually performed by a data scientist or team of data scientists, it is important for
data processing to be done correctly as not to negatively affect the end product, or data output .
Control: Data control is management oversight of information policies for an organization's
information. Unlike data quality, which focuses on fixing problems, data control is observing and
reporting on how processes are working and managing issues.

QUESTION THREE (3)

(i). Explain the meaning of these numbers that are often seen in terms like 32-bit processor,
 64-bit operating system, 16-bit system bus?? [5marks]
32-bit processor: is a type of CPU architecture that is capable of transferring 32 bits of
data per clock cycle. More plainly, it is the amount of information your CPU can process
each time it performs an operation.
 64-bit operating system: is an operating system that is designed to work in a computer
that processes 64 bits at a time. Most personal computers today are 64-bit, and mobile
devices are expected to begin using 64-bit CPUs in the 2014-2015 time frame. A 64-bit
 operating system will not work in a 32-bit computer, but a 32-bit operating system will run
in a 64-bit computer. See 64-bit computing.
 16-bit bus: The term is often applied to the following: microprocessor: indicates the width
of the registers. A 16-bit microprocessor can process data and memory addresses that are
represented by 16 bits. Bus: indicates the number of wires in the bus. A 16-bit bus transmits
16 bits in parallel.
(ii). List and briefly discuss the possible states that define an instruction execution.[5marks]
 Instruction address calculation: Determine the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
 Instruction fetch: Read instruction from its memory location into the processor.
 Instruction operation decoding: Analyze instruction to determine the type of operation
to be performed and operands to be used.
 Operand address calculation: If the operation involves reference to an operand in
memory or available via I/O, then determine the address of the operand.
 Operand fetch: Fetch the operand from memory or read it in from I/O.
 Data operation: Perform the operation indicated in the instruction.
 Operand store: Write the result into memory or out to I/O.
(iii) List and briefly discuss two approaches to dealing with multiple interrupts [5marks]
 Disabling interrupts: the processor has the ability to and will ignore specific interrupts.
Those interrupts remain pending and will be checked after the processor has enabled
interrupts.
 Interrupt service routine (ISR): priorities assigned to the different types of interrupts. ISRs
with higher priorities can interrupt ones with lower priority, in which case the ISR with the
lower priority is put on the stack until that ISR is completed.

iv. Discuss the types of transfers that must a computer's interconnection structure (e.g. bus)
support? [5marks]
 Memory to processor: The processor reads an instruction or a unit of data from memory.
 Processor to memory: The processor writes a unit of data to memory.
 I/O to processor: The processor reads data from an I/O device via an I/O module.
 Processor to I/O: The processor sends data to the I/O device.
  I/O to or from memory: For these two cases, an I/O module is allowed to exchange data
directly with memory, without going through the processor, using direct memory access.

(v) Discuss the benefit of using a multiple-bus architecture compared to a single-bus

architecture [5marks
The single-bus architecture has two problems:
1. The more devices attached to the bus, the greater the bus length and hence the greater the
propagation delay.
2. The bus may become a bottleneck as the aggregate data transfer demand approaches the
capacity of the bus.
QUESTION FOUR (4)
(i) Discuss characteristics of multiprogramming and uniprogramming? [10 marks]

Uniprogamming implies that only a single task or program is in the main memory at a particular
time. It was more common in the initial computers and mobiles where one can run only a single
application at a time. Multiprogramming is where several programs can be run at the same time.
The programs reside in the main memory or the RAM of the system at a time, and the operating
system that handles multiple programs is known as a multiprogramming operating system.

Characteristics of Uniprogamming Characteristics Uniprogamming

It allows only one program to sit in the memory at one The memory can hold several programs at a time.
time.

The size is small as only one program is present. The resources are allocated to different programs.

The resources are allocated to the program that is in the The size of the memory is larger as compared to
memory at that time. uniprogramming.

(ii). Explain BCD counter with examples. [5marks]

A binary coded decimal (BCD) is a serial digital counter that counts ten digits .And it resets for
every new clock input. As it can go through 10 unique combinations of output, it is also called as
“Decade counter”. A BCD counter can count 0000, 0001, 0010, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1110,
1111, 0000, and 0001 and so on. Example of BCD counter is calculators.
(iii). State the difference between DDR 1, 2 and 3
DDR1 RAM
Launched in 2000, it did not start to be used until almost 2002. It operated at 2.5V and 2.6V, and
its maximum density was 128 Mb (so there were no modules with more than 1 GB) with a speed
of 266 MT/s (100-200 MHz).
DDR2 RAM
Released around 2004, it ran at 1.8 volts, 28% less than DDR1. Its maximum density was doubled
to 256 Mb (2 GB per module). Logically, the maximum speed also multiplied, reaching 533 MHz
DDR3 RAM
This release occurred in 2007, and it was a revolution because XMP profiles were implemented
here. To begin with, the memory modules operated at 1.5V and 1.65V, with base speeds of 1066
MHz, but that went much further, and the density reached up to 8 GB per module.
(iv). What is an ISA Bus? [2marks]
An Industry Standard Architecture bus (ISA bus) is a computer bus that allows additional
expansion cards to be connected to a computer's motherboard. It is a standard bus architecture for
IBM compatibles. Introduced in 1981, the ISA bus was designed to support the Intel 8088
microprocessor for IBM’s first-generation PC.
(v). Discuss the distinction between spatial locality and temporal locality [3marks]

Spatial Locality Temporal Locality

 In Temporal Locality, a recently

 In Spatial Locality, nearby
instructions to recently executed executed instruction is likely to be
instruction are likely to be executed
executed again very soon.
soon.

 It refers to the tendency of execution  It refers to the tendency of execution

which involve a number of memory where memory location that have
locations. been used recently have an access.
 It is also known as locality in space.  It is also known as locality in time.

 It only refers to data item which are  It repeatedly refers to same data in
closed together in memory. short time span.

 Each time new data comes into  Each time same useful data comes
execution. into execution.

 Example:  Example:
Data elements accessed in array Data elements accessed in loops
(where each time different (or just (where same data elements are
next) element is being accessing ). accessed multiple times).
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