Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

3.4. Thermodynamics Cycles

A cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state. At the conclusion of a cycle, all
properties have the same values they had at the beginning of the cycle. Thus, there is no change in the
system’s state at the end of a cycle. Mathematically,
Esys,cycle = Qinto sys, + Won sys, = Qinto sys, Wby sys, , (3.35)
| {z } cycle cycle cycle cycle
=0
or,
Qinto sys, = Won sys, or Qinto sys, = Wby sys, , (3.36)
cycle cycle cycle cycle

where the total energy change over the cycle is zero since over a cycle we start and end at the same state.
Note that Qinto sys,cycle is the net amount of heat added to the system over the cycle and Wby sys, cycle is the
net amount of work done by the system over the cycle.
Cycles are common in many engineering applications. For example, power generation, heat pumps, and
refrigeration all involve thermodynamic cycles. Let’s consider two general classes of cycles: a power cycle
and a refrigeration (or heat pump) cycle.

3.4.1. Power Cycle

In a power cycle, illustrated in Figure 3.10, heat moves from a hot reservoir (part of the surroundings) into
the system, which then makes use of the heat to do work on the surroundings, and then ejects the remaining
heat to a cold reservoir (another part of the surroundings).

Figure 3.10. Illustration of a power cycle.

Utilizing Eq. (3.36) gives,

Wby sys, = QH,cycle QC,cycle , (3.37)
cycle
where QH is the heat transfer interaction with the hot reservoir and QC is the heat transfer interaction with
the cold reservoir.
Notes:
(1) The heat added to the system (QH ) must be greater than the heat removed from the system (QC )
in order for the system to do work on the surroundings.
(2) The heat into the system is generally produced by the combustion of fuel, solar radiation, or a
nuclear reaction. The heat out of the system is generally discharged into the surrounding air or a
body of water.

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(3) The efficiency of the power cycle, ⌘, is defined as the ratio of the amount of work produced in the
cycle to the amount heat added to the system,
Wby,cycle QH,cycle QC,cycle QH,cycle
⌘ := = =1 , (3.38)
QH,cycle QH,cycle QC,cycle
where Eq. (3.37) has been used. The efficiency can never be more than one since the heat out of
the system will never be more than the heat into the system over a cycle. We’ll discuss the limits
on power cycle efficiency in greater detail when discussing the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

3.4.2. Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles

In refrigeration and heat pump cycles, illustrated in Figure 3.11, heat moves from a cold reservoir (part of
the surroundings) into the system, work is done on the system to then eject heat from the system to a hot
reservoir (another part of the surroundings). Utilizing Eq. (3.36),

Figure 3.11. Illustration of refrigeration and heat pump cycles.

Won sys, = QH,cycle QC,cycle . (3.39)

cycle

Notes:
(1) In refrigeration and heat pump cycles, work is done on the system to make the heat out of the
system larger than the heat into the system. Hence, QH,cycle > QC,cycle .
(2) The objective of a refrigeration cycle is to remove heat from the cold reservoir, e.g., a house or
refrigerator, to a hot reservoir, e.g., the surrounding environment. A heat pump does the same
thing (moves heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir), but the objective is to add heat to the
hot reservoir, e.g., remove heat from the environment to raise the temperature in a house. In many
of these applications, the power supplied to the system is electrical power.
(3) The system in a typical refrigerator or heat pump is the fluid used within the device. It is what
moves the heat (energy, actually) between the cold and hot reservoirs.
(4) Since the goal of a refrigerator is to efficiently remove heat from the cold reservoir, we can define
the coefficient of performance (COP ) of the refrigeration cycle, to be the ratio of the amount heat
added to the system from the cold reservoir to the work done on the system over the cycle,
QC,cycle QC,cycle 1
COPref := = = , (3.40)
Won sys,cycle QH,cycle QC,cycle QH,cycle /QC,cycle 1
where Eq. (3.39) has been used. Note that the heat out of the system is greater than the heat into
the system (since work is done on the system). The refrigeration coefficient of performance can
vary from zero to very large values. The larger the COPref , the larger the transfer of heat from the

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics

cold reservoir for a given amount of work over the cycle. The COPref for a high efficiency consumer
refrigerator is between 1.6 – 3.1. Limits on the value for COPref will be discussed further after
examining the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
(5) The goal of a heat pump is to efficiently move heat into a hot reservoir; hence, we can define the
coefficient of performance (COP ) of the heat pump cycle, as the ratio of the amount heat added to
the hot reservoir to the work done on the system over the cycle,
QH,cycle QH,cycle 1
COPHP := = = , (3.41)
Won sys,cycle QH,cycle QC,cycle 1 QC,cycle /QH,cycle
where Eq. (3.39) has been used. The heat pump coefficient of performance can never be less than
one since the heat out of the system always be larger than the heat into the system (work is done
on the system). The larger the COPHP , the larger the transfer of heat for a given amount of work
over the cycle. A typical COPHP for a commercial heat pump is between 3 – 4. Limits on the value
for COPHP will be discussed further after examining the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
(6) In the U.S., refrigeration and heat pump COP s are often expressed as Energy Efficiency Ratios,
EERs, which are simply COP s, but with an unfortunate mix of English and SI units,
Q̇ in Btu/h
EER := . (3.42)
Ẇon sys,cycle in W
Using appropriate unit conversions,
✓ ◆
W
COP = 0.292 EEP. (3.43)
Btu/h
(7) Note that Eqs. (3.36) - (3.41) may all be written in rates of change too,
Q̇into sys, = Ẇon sys, or Q̇into sys, = Ẇby sys, (3.44)
cycle cycle cycle cycle

Ẇby sys, = Q̇H,cycle Q̇C,cycle , (3.45)

cycle

Ẇby,cycle
⌘ := , (3.46)
Q̇H,cycle
Ẇon sys, = Q̇H,cycle Q̇C,cycle , (3.47)
cycle

Q̇C,cycle
COPref := , (3.48)
Ẇon sys,cycle
Q̇H,cycle
COPHP := . (3.49)
Ẇon sys,cycle

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics COE_24

A gas within a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes in
series:

Process 1 – 2: Compression with constant internal energy (pV = constant)

Process 2 – 3: Constant volume cooling to a pressure of 140 kPa (abs) and a volume of 0.028 m3
Process 3 – 1: Constant pressure expansion with a total work of 10.5 kJ acting on the piston

For the cycle, the net amount of work done by the gas on the piston is -8.3 kJ. There are no changes in
kinetic or potential energy.
a. Sketch the processes on a p-V diagram.
b. Determine the volume at state 1, in m3.
c. Determine the work and heat transfer for process 1 – 2, each in kJ.
d. Is this a power cycle or a refrigeration/heat pump cycle? Explain.

SOLUTION:
p
2

3
140 kPa 1

V
0.028 m3

The volume at state 1 may be found by knowing that the work in going from state 3 to state 1 is 10.5 kJ,
1 V =V1

Wby gas = ∫ p dV = p ∫ dV = p (V1 − V3 ) , (since the pressure is constant from 3 to 1) (1)

on piston, 3 V =V3
3→1

Wby gas
on piston,
V1 = V3 +
3→1
. (2)
p
Using the given parameters,
V3 = 0.028 m3
Wby gas = 10.5 kJ
on piston,
3→1

p = 140 kPa (abs)

Þ V1 = 0.103 m3 (3)

The work in going from state 1 to state 2 can be found by knowing that the total work done by the gas on
the piston over the whole cycle is -8.3 kJ, because the volume remains constant in going from state 2 to
state 3, the corresponding work is zero, and the work on the piston in going from state 3 to state 1 is 10.5
kJ,
Wby gas = Wby gas + Wby gas + Wby gas , (4)
on piston, on piston, on piston, on piston,

cycle
 1→2

2→3
 
3→1 

=−8.5 kJ =0 =10.5 kJ

Wby gas = −18.8 kJ . (5)

on piston,
1→2

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics COE_24

The heat transferred in the process from state 1 to state 2 can be found using the 1st Law of
Thermodynamics and noting that the energy remains unchanged in going from 1 to 2,
ΔEgas, = Qinto gas, − Wby gas, Þ Qinto gas, = −18.8 kJ (6)
1→2
 1→2 1→2
1→2

=0 =−18.8 kJ

Since Wby gas,cycle = -8.3 kJ < 0, this is a refrigeration (or heat pump) cycle.

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 Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics Cycles_04

A refrigerator steadily receives a power input of 0.15 kW while rejecting energy by heat transfer to the surroundings
at a rate of 0.6 kW.

a. Determine the rate at which energy is removed by heat transfer from the refrigerated space.
b. Determine the refrigerator’s coefficient of performance.

SOLUTION:

hot reservoir
(atmosphere)

$̇(

system !̇!"!#$,&'

$̇)

cold reservoir
(refrigerator interior)

Apply the 1st Law to the system to determine the rate at which heat is transferred from the refrigerator interior into
the system,
!̇!"!#$,&' = $̇( − $̇) , (1)
̇ ̇ ̇
$) = $( − !!"!#$,&' . (2)
Using the given data,
$̇( = 0.6 kW,
!̇!"!#$,&' = 0.15 kW,
ð $̇) = 0.45 kW.

The coefficient of performance for a refrigeration cycle is,

,̇!
'()*$+ = .̇ . (3)
"#"$%,'(
Using the given data,
COPref = 3.0.

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