CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY

Introduction
Whenever someone asks the question “Who are you?” we automatically answer with our
name, where we came from, or who our parents are. We attribute this idea of who we are to
the most obvious labels like our name, our accent, and our physical characteristics. But notice
how the perspective shifts when the question is replaced with “Who am I?” It forces us to go in
deep, to ask the question to ourselves and find the answers ourselves as well. To answer the
most essential questions (which are often the most difficult to answer), we also need to have
the courage to confront whatever daunting thoughts we have in our mind.
Understanding the Self will ask you to do that. It is in the hope that by studying the different
fields of the social sciences you will get a grasp on how you can answer the existential
questions of your being: Who am I? What is the essence of my being? What makes me, Me?

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

• Discuss how the self is represented in the philosophical perspective;
• Evaluate the applicability of the different philosopher’s view of the self in your own life; and
• Create your own philosophy of the self.

Lesson 1: What is Philosophy?

From the Greek words philos (meaning love) and sophia (meaning wisdom), Philosophy
seeks to answer the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, truth, morality, nature
of man, and other aspects of life through the use of rational or logical thinking. It provides a
platform in which you can explore the depths of your own insights. Although the ideas in
philosophy are by nature ultimate, it does not offer ultimate answers to the fundamental
questions of existence. Instead, philosophy will help you to open your mind, ask and provide
answers for your own questions, and philosophize, meaning, to think logically.
You have probably heard people say that Philosophy is the mother of all sciences. This is in
part true as most of the sciences branched out from Philosophy. However, Philosophy in itself
is not a science. It provided the foundation for the development of contemporary sources of
knowledge but it does not utilize the scientific method.
So how does Philosophy view the Self? The answer to this question will depend on which
school of thought that will be utilized as a foundation to answering that question. It can be
seen as a part of a duality between the body and soul, a part of the cosmos, a mere collection
of sensations, or a separate entity that is a product of one’s experience in the environment. In
this chapter, we will see how some of the great Philosophers viewed the self. Your part at the
end of the discussion is to identify which of the philosophies you were able to relate and create
your own philosophy of the Self.
Lesson 2: Ancient Philosophy
Ancient philosophy is philosophy in antiquity, or before the end of the Roman Empire. It
usually refers to ancient Greek philosophy. It can also encompass various other intellectual
traditions, such as Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy. Ancient
philosophies are generally deeply rooted in religious traditions. Accordingly, ancient
philosophies have a comprehensive outlook as opposed to modern or contemporary
philosophies, which tend to have more narrow methodologies and areas of focus. (“Ancient
Philosophy,” n.d.)

2.1. Socrates and Plato: The Ancient Greek Philosophers

It is said that Philosophy originated in the ancient civilization of Greece. While the earliest
philosophers were mostly concern about the composition of the cosmos, Socrates and his
student Plato were more concerned about the nature of man. Socrates was known as the
wondering philosopher who would roam around public places, asking people the most
intriguing questions. Socrates did not claim that he know the answers to all the questions but
believes that he is wiser than most people because he admits that he doesn’t know. He held
that ignorance stems from the assertion of knowing. Because of his unconventional method,
Socrates became very popular among the young generation but was detested by the
academicians. Eventually, he was accused of corrupting the minds of the youth and was
forced to drink poison. It was though his student Plato, who wrote most of Socrates’ teachings
that we are able to get to know his idea of the Self. (Morzinski, 2002).
Socrates believed that man is innately good and that evilness stems from not knowing the
Self. If you know that you are “good”, it will follow that you will do your best to avoid “evil
deed” because this is not part of your nature. But you may ask, how do we know ourselves?
Socrates proposed the method of introspection as a way to know who we really are. Through
introspection, we examine our actions, our thoughts, our perceptions. Once we get a grasp of
how we process things, this will eventually lead to the knowledge of our own strengths and
weaknesses, our capabilities and areas of improvement, as well as our way of doing things.
Simply put, Socrates believes that a person who is “self-aware” can maximize his/ her
potential and use that potential to do things that are true to his nature – which is good.
(“Socrates,” n.d.;
“Socrates,” 2018; “The Common Good,” 2018)
Known as Socrates’ greatest student, Plato believes in the dual nature of man, that is, that
man is composed of body and soul (mind). In relation to this, Plato’s Theory of Forms asserts
that everything that we see in the world of senses (physical world) existed because of their
existence in the world of ideas, where every single matter in the physical world has a perfect
form. Have you asked yourself, how did we know that a square should be called a square?
Where did the “idea” of a square come from? According to Plato, all “ideas” or knowledge
existed even before we got our physical form – in the world of ideas. When we were born,
however, and our soul entered our physical body, most of what we know was forgotten. This is
because our soul which is
“perfect, infinite, and eternal” inhabited a body that is “limited, flawed, and corruptible.” It is our
goal, therefore, is to rediscover the things that we have “forgotten” through the process of self-
awareness. (De Landazuri, 2015)
Plato believed that our soul is divided into three parts: appetite, will/ spirit, and reason.
(Meinwald, 2020) Appetite refers to physical urges such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire
while the will includes passion, aggression, and emotions that we feel. Reason gives us the
faculty to make sound judgments, make wise choices and understand eternal truths. These
three parts interact with each other either in agreement of in conflict. The will/ spirit can either
work with reason so we can arrive at self-knowledge or it can be pulled by appetite making us
slaves of the materialistic pleasures of the world. These three parts clearly play different roles
but Plato emphasized that reason should rule to restore the harmony in our mind. Therefore,
achieving harmony through reason is the only way to know ourselves.
2.2. St. Augustine: The Medieval Philosopher
The Medieval Ages is widely known as the Dark Ages. This is a period in history when there
were little advances in the field of science. When the Greek civilization flourished and made
history in the advancement of the scientific realm, the medieval period took history to an
opposite direction. When the Roman Empire fell, kingdoms went to the Church for protection
and guidance. This made the Catholic Church the most powerful element in the European
society. To unite people, the church used faith to discourage people to think for themselves
and instead told to trust the ways of the Church; literacy was limited to memorizing prayers
and the doctrines of the Church; freedom of thought and education was barred to favor those
in the pedestal. To combat free thinking and disobedience, the Church destroyed most of the
writings of the ancient civilization. The books of Plato and other Greek philosophers were
banned and anyone seen carrying forbidden books were severely punished. Indeed, the
development of society stood still during this period. With the way that the Church treated
people who displayed interest in the discourse of knowledge, it may be impossible to think that
philosophy and religion could ever be reconciled. One church leader however, proved that
philosophy can be used to understand God and religion can be integrated to the wisdom of the
ancient philosophers.
St. Augustine was a Catholic bishop who was exposed to the teachings of the ancient Greek
philosophers while he was studying to become a priest. The Catholic bishop soon realized as
he was reading that Plato’s Theory of Forms could be the “missing link” to finally reconcile the
dispute between faith and knowledge. Plato’s belief in dualism (that is, a human person has a
body and a soul which are separate but are interdependent with each other), was probably the
door that opened for St.
Augustine’s journey to reconciliation.
In his explanation, he likened the world of senses to the material or physical world
where everything is bound to perish. Just like the physical world, our body will eventually
return to dust as it is not eternal - unlike the soul. The soul, which is perfect and immutable
has existed even before the physical body existed – in the hands of God, the only one who is
infinite, perfect and the only source of truth and knowledge. As a clever man, St. Augustine
defended the ideas of Plato as something that does not discredit the teachings of the Church
but instead supports it with logical and reasonable arguments. In Plato’s philosophy, he called
the source of knowledge and truth as the “world of ideas” and that we can only achieve our
perfect form, or get to know ourselves better, if we reach this world through reason and logic.
St. Augustine used this argument to inject faith in Plato’s philosophy. St. Augustine could only
think of one entity whose characteristics are the same with the world of ideas – and that is
God: perfect, incorruptible, eternal. Plato, according to him, was not Christianized that’s why
he could not find the “correct” word to describe the world of ideas. Thus in knowing the self,
the human person can only achieve enlightenment and true knowledge of the self by seeking
God first – the one and only source of truth and genuine knowledge.

Lesson 3: Modern Philosophy - Rene Descartes considered as the father of modern

philosophy.

The Age of Enlightenment, sometimes called the Age of Reason, refers to the time of the
guiding intellectual movement, called The Enlightenment. It advocated reason as a means to
establishing an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and even religion,
which would allow human beings to obtain objective truth about the whole of reality.
Enlightenment thinkers argued that reason could free humankind from superstition and
religious authoritarianism that had brought suffering and death to millions in religious wars.
Also, the wide availability of knowledge was made possible through the production of
encyclopedias, serving the Enlightenment cause of educating the human race. (“Age of
Enlightenment,” n.d.)

Enlightenment - a philosophical movement of the 18th century marked by a rejection of

traditional social, religious, and political ideas and an emphasis on rationalism —used with the.
- the pursuit of knowledge obtained by means of reason and the evidence of the senses, and
ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and
separation of church and state.

3.1. Rene Descartes: The Rationalist – considered as the father of modern philosophy
- He said “ I am doubting, therefore I am”
- Acc. To him, the act of thinking about self or being self-conscious – is in itself – proof that
there is self.
- He doubted the existence of his own physical body.
The ability that you question things is a proof that you exist
It is doubt that makes one person exist in the world
Before we go into the discussion of Plato’s philosophy, try to ponder on these questions: Do
you exist? What proof do you have that can say that you are truly awake and not just a part of
someone else’s dream?
The questions above ultimately pose doubts about your existence. Do you really exist? Or
are you just dreaming? Or could it be that you are just a part of someone else’s dream?
These kinds of questions have bothered Rene Descartes a very long time ago. With the shift
from the authorities to the human personhood once again, he tried to answer one of the most
intriguing questions that time: Does God exist? Like most thinkers of his time, Descartes
believe that truth can only be derived through independent rational thinking and should not be
based on decrees handed down by authority.
He started his arguments by giving the assumption that human beings are imperfect but has
an idea of perfection. For something that is flawed and imperfect, it would be incorrect to
assume that the idea of perfection could come from something imperfect. Just as how a
chicken could not possibly produce a dog as an offspring, human beings could not have been
the source of perfection. And yet, there exists in our mind that very same idea. Descartes
then concluded that the source of this idea of perfection is outside the flawed human being.
And what other idea fits to perfection but only the “idea” of God. Since the idea of perfection
exists, but human beings are not perfect, then the source of this idea is outside of the human
person – and the only thing that perfectly fits to this idea is God. Because perfection exists,
therefore, God exists. (“Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ” n.d.)
Rene Descartes came up with this valid conclusion through his method of doubting. Contrary
to the medieval period, where the things that people in authority are regarded as truth, Rene
Descartes believed that the only way that he can possibly arrive at truths is by doubting every
single idea that he has. If a particular idea cannot be proven through reasoning and logic, that
idea is incorrect or false and should be discarded. In this way, the only ideas that would
persist are those that are logical enough. As he proved that the existence of God is true, he
now turns to prove his existence. Yes, he even doubted his own existence but eventually
proved his existence. How did he do this? By asking the questions I asked above.
He cannot prove that his existence is not something that only exists in someone else’s mind.
He was also uncertain if he was really awake or was just dreaming. All the more, he doubted
that the environment that he sees is not an illusion. However, he was certain of one thing. And
that is, he was doubting. And because he was doubting, he could not possibly deny the fact
that he was thinking. And because he was thinking, he was aware that he was thinking, there
could only be one explanation for that. And that he was alive, that he exists. Meaning, the self
is a thinking thing. Descartes, like Plato, believed that man has a separate body and mind.
The mind can independently exist from the body but does not deny the association between
the two. However, the mind (which is governed by the laws of reason) surpasses the physical
self (governed by laws of nature). (“Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ”
n.d.)

3.2. John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant: The British Empiricists
In the same time that the Rationalists in Europe were emerging, a separate school of thought
was also blooming in England – empiricism. Just like the rationalist, they also condemned
ideas that are baseless and simply handed by authority. However, the empiricists were more
skeptical on the validity of claiming truth by merely thinking and logic. They believed that an
idea can only be true if it can be experienced by our senses.
John Locke believed that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate when we are born. When
the person was born you were clueless or know nothing. Ready to learn everything thru
experience.
He does not subscribe to Plato’s or Descartes’ belief of innate ideas. For him, the thoughts
and ideas we acquire are products of our experience in the environment. The self, therefore is
something that is shaped by our conscious experience of the world. We can only know our
identity when we learn from our experience. Unlike the rationalists, Locke believes that the self
is not embedded in a single entity like the mind. Instead, the self exists in space and time.
Your identity, therefore is integrated in each part of your body. Particularly, your memory of
the experiences that you have had is the reason why your identity endures.

David Hume,
- According to him, all knowledge is derived from human senses.
- an empiricist and nihilist took empiricism and the idea of the self into the extreme.
“There is no self,” according to Hume. For him, the “self” is nothing more than a bundle
of different perceptions in inconceivable rapid successions in perpetual flux and
movement. If reality or truth lies in sensations experienced by our sense organs – ear,
eyes, mouth, skin and nose – then there would be an uncountable number of “self”
from the moment of birth until a person’s last breathe. This is because, a second of
conscious experience, there would be a different experience as second after the first
experience. The previous sensations would not longer be part of the conscious
experience, but rather, only a part of our memory – which is not an authentic source of
information. If we are to consider the self as the one that exists because of conscious
experience, we would all end up having an infinite number of selves. David Hume thus
insists that there is no such thing as a self, just a collection of experiences. A one
minute video, for example is not really moving image but gives us the illusion of
movement because the images captured by the camera were arranged in very rapid
successions that we can no longer perceived the transitioning from one image to
another but instead, perceive movement.
The philosophy of the self presented by Locke and Hume were not appealing to Immanuel
Kant, another empiricist. He contests Hume’s idea as he believes that our experience with the
world is not disconnected (simple collection of experiences) but is actually continuous like a
flowing stream of consciousness. Unlike the two previous empiricists, Kant believes that we
have an innate mechanism that helps organize our experiences that makes it intelligible. This
mechanism is called the a priori concepts, the fundamental organizing rules or principles built
into the architecture of the mind, which categorize, organize and synthesize sense data into
the familiar fabric of our lives, bounded by space and time. (Vanzo, 2013) Through the a priori
concepts, we are able to organize our experience in the environment and make meaning out
of those experiences. Meaning, we are the ones who construct the self. The self actively
organizes all the sensations and thoughts into a picture that makes sense to each one of us.
Hume believes that the self is not an object located in the consciousness, but rather, it is a
subject, an organizing principle that makes a unified and intelligible experience possible. The
self is a transcendental unifying principle of consciousness.

3.3. Gilbert Ryle and Paul Churchland: The Physicalists

Gilbert Ryle – Denies the existence of internal, non-physical self.(He only believes in the body
but not in the existence of the soul and the self is not an entity that one can locate, do not try to
look for the self bec. You cannot locate it, it’s not in one location. BUT rather according to him
the self is just a convenient name that you use to describe all your behaviours. If you want to
understand yourself do not try to look for yourself but rather try to look from your day to day
behaviour.
While the rationalists have been busy examining the duality of human nature, the physicalists
have moved on with the unobservable, the unmeasurable, and the subjective experience. For
the physicalists, there is nothing more to be known than the physical. If you want to know
what a banana is, you have to see the actual object to know what it is. In short, there is
nothing beyond the physical.
One of the two physicalists Gilbert Ryle, asserts to deny all forms of dichotomy concerning the
nature of man. He rejected altogether the notions about the unconscious, consciousness,
souls, and inner selves because these things cannot be measured, cannot be directly
observed. If we have to explain a phenomenon, we need
to acquire information from measurable sources, for example, behavior. To know a person,
we have to observe his/ her behavior. To know yourself, you have to observe your own
behavior. The self, for Gilbert Ryle, is known through a person’s behavior presented to the
world. It is a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a
certain way in certain circumstances.
Paul Churchland (1981) - Churland believes in materialism, the idea that nothing but matter
exists.
Stands in the materialistic belief that nothing but matter exists for example, the thing you are
holding right now, the thing right beside you or in front of you. Meaning, anything that can be
seen, felt, heard, tasted or smelled exists, nothing beyond what our senses can experience.
With this in mind, can we say that the soul exists? In Churchland’s view, it doesn’t because our
senses cannot directly experience it. But how about the self? He believes that the self is the
brain itself. And our conception of the self is a product of the chemical processes inside our
brain. Our identity, therefore, is directly influenced by the how our brain works.
- The self is inseparable from the brain. He believed in the brain but not the mind.
Love or falling in love, for example is not in any way related to the heart because your heart’s
function is not to make you “feel” love but only to pump blood to your body. This may come as
a surprise or it may pop your bubble, but love is all inside your brain. The physical arousal, the
excitement, the thumping of your heart, the ecstasy that you feel when you are with your loved
ones is controlled by a part of your brain called the hypothalamus and the combination of brain
chemicals called neurotransmitters. So the next time you want to tell someone you love them,
you can say “I love you with all my hypothalamus!” I know it doesn’t sound romantic but you
got to use that new information somehow.
Lesson 4: Contemporary Philosophy
Contemporary philosophy goes beyond the mind-body problem and even finds it
unnecessary. They argue that life is more than identifying how the mind and body work but
rather, it is living through life and finding meaning as we live it. We are born without the innate
or predetermined essence (as what the ancient philosophers believe) but we are able to shape
our own destiny and make own choices. Furthermore, the contemporary philosophers
emphasize the importance of free will and our ability to make choices for ourselves. Life is
meaningless, until you give it its own meaning.

4.1. Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Phenomenologist

Merleau-Ponty is a French philosopher who believed that the mind and body should not be
subjected to a competition because both the thoughts and ideas in our mind as well as our
physical body comprise the whole person. The mind and the body are so intertwined that you
cannot separate them from one another. They are always connected to each other.
He is a firm believer of phenomenology, the field of study that emphasizes lived-experiences.
Merleau-Ponty considers the self as the sum of all your experiences in the past or in the
present, your emotions, your thoughts, and your behavior. It is having the ability to experience
the world that we live in that makes a human being a person. Without these experiences, we
become nothing but mere vessels of our organs. He asserts that your direct, lived experience
is the only source of knowledge about the world. Furthermore, he stresses that the self is a
product of our own human experience. Therefore, our identity is created based on how we
perceive our experience and how we interpret those experiences.

CHAPTER 2: SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Introduction
Most people would know who Tarzan is – either as an animated series or a movie. The
fictional character is supposed to have lived in the jungle after his parents met an unfortunate
accident. With no parents to take care of him, the gorillas in the jungle sheltered him as
treated him as their own. Until a group of explorers found him,
Tarzan didn’t know how to be a “person.”
Outside of the fictional world, Vietnam recently discovered a real-life Tarzan. Ho Van Lang,
44 and his father Ho Van Than, 85 fled to the forests of a province in Vietnam after an
American bomb killed his mother and siblings during World War II. For 41 years, Ho Van Lang
had no contact with human civilization except for his ill father. He spoke very little of the
language and didn’t know the ways of “men.” He is likened to an innocent child who is does
not have the moral awareness of what is considered right or wrong. (Pavlou, 2018) Ho Van
Lang’s case begs us the question: does being human automatically equate to being a person?

Learning outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

• Differentiate the sociological view of the self from the anthropological view of the self;

• Identify the SOGIE of an individual based on a given scenario; and

Apply the different concepts of Sikolohiyang Pilipino in your own life.

Lesson 1: What is Sociology and Anthropology?

Have you ever heard your grandparents tell you not to cut your finger nails at night?
How about avoiding taking pictures in groups of three? Were you told not to sing while
cooking or else you’ll end up #FOREVERALONE? You’ve probably heard MORE of these
funny superstitions (which most of us still probably practice until now) as you were growing up.
Some of us may think they’re ridiculous but still end up following in fear of it being true.
Now take this scenario: You are in a foreign country and you tell your foreigner friend to knock
three times whenever he/she says something bad or not to cut his/ her hair before taking an
important exam. What do you think will be your friend’s reaction? Yes, you may probably
seem crazy and might be tagged as the weird Asian friend. From the scenarios above, we
can see how our society and culture can affect our behavior and eventually develop our
identity. Sociology and Anthropology are two scientific fields of study that deals with the
elements of society and culture and how they relate to the human person. Although
interrelated, Sociology and Anthropology are not the same.
When we study what makes our species human, we study Anthropology. It looks into the
origin of our species, and the evolution of our existence around the world through time. An
anthropologist will dig fossil remains to understand human evolution; they will examine
material remains of past civilizations and compare it with the present to understand how our
society evolved through time and space.
Social organizations, societies, people’s social lives and culture are the fields of interest when
we study sociology. Sociology wants to know how people affect other people, how the culture
of a certain society affects the behavior of its members and how different societies are related
with one another.
In close examination, the common feature between the two is culture. By definition, culture is
summed up as the way of life in a certain society. The culture dictates what acceptable and
unacceptable behavior is in a society. Culture also creates social glue that bonds the people
in a community together. It is therefore important that we examine how the elements of culture
shape people’s behavior in the society. In the succeeding discussion, we will know how the
self develops according to sociology and anthropology as well as look into the important role in
our development.

Lesson 2: Development of the Self

2.1. Sociology and the Development of Self
George Herbert Mead is a sociologist who advanced the idea that the development of the self
is influence by significant persons in one’s life. For Mead, the self develops in a chronological
order or stages wherein one has to undergo the first stage before proceeding to the next
stage.
He clarified that very young children were in no way influenced by others. Instead, they create
their own world and do not have the ability to understand other people’s perspectives.
However, as children grow up, other people’s opinion about them takes a central role in the
development of the self. Here are Mead’s developmental stages.
 Preparatory Stage. The child learns to imitate others, usually the primary care givers.
There is no actual interaction since the child only mimics the doer. Important elements in this
stage include symbols such as language, gestures, and objects that form the basis of
communication. This changes when the child transitions to the Play Stage. This goes beyond
imitation as the relationship between the child and others is becomes more social which can
be observed when children start to pretend play as other people. For example you might
recall that when you were a child, you’ve probably played BahayBahayan while you and your
playmates would assume the roles of Nanay, Tatay, Ate, Kuya and Bantay (JK! But I once
played the role of Muning during a time when you were not yet born). During the play stage,
children can already assume the perspective of others making it possible for them to act like
Tatay or Nanay or Bantay (JK!). The last stage is characterized by the influence of the
generalized other, or society as a whole. Understanding how the society works is no longer
just limited to the people who are closest to them but also considers the people outside of
one’s immediate family. In the Game Stage, children start to understand that Nanay is not
only a mother but she can also assume other roles. For example, Nanay is mother at home,
but she is also Ma’am at work and Madi when she’s with her suki buyers. Children are now
capable of understanding that people have multiple roles.
As children understand the multiple roles that people have, they also start to become
aware that other people also have opinions about them. And these opinions are derived from
how they behave around them which in turn, influences their perception of their own self.
However, not all people’s opinions matter – only those with whom they have important
relationships with, or the significant other (not the boyfriend-girlfriend significant other thingy!)
Undergoing through the three stages will lead to the development of the “Me” and the “I” self.
The Me can be considered as the social self while the I is the response to the social self. The
Me is developed through the perception of the generalized others. The I then interprets these
perceptions and acts accordingly. The I is our individual responses to what society thinks. For
example, society may think that kit is necessary for you to take the program that your
significant others chose for you but the evaluation whether you should follow what they want
for you and what you want for yourself is entirely up to you.
Although the I and the Me self may sometimes be conflicting, according to Mead, the healthy
self should be a balance between these two.

Charles Horton Cooley – Published a theory “Looking Glass Self”  It is described as our
reflection of how we think we appear to others. The looking-glass self describes the process
wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them.
Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,” people use the judgments they receive from
others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior.

2.2. Anthropology’s Conception of the Self

Clifford Geertz, a French anthropologist was one of the best anthropologists of the 20th
century. He emphasized the importance of studying the cultural context of a certain behavior
to understand it. In his famous wink example, the behavior of winking can mean different
things in different situations. At certain contexts, winking can mean an understanding between
two people or it could mean nothing but a reflex because of a tic disorder. For the first
circumstance, an observer must know the situation, the context where the behavior is
happening to understand the meaning of the wink. Through this example, Geertz wanted to
emphasize that to understand culture, it is not enough that you study culture. One must be IN
the culture.
 Geertz believed that culture serves as a control mechanism that guides behavior. Studying
culture means looking into the small details of that culture and drawing conclusion from those
details. In the study of anthropology, it is therefore important to understand culture to
understand the people. In understanding the collective, we will be able to understand our
individual behavior, to understand the Self. (Sökefeld, 1999)
. A Filipino anthropologist, Prospero Covar (2015) acknowledges the importance of knowing
the Filipino culture in understanding the Filipino identity. A person, particularly a Filipino
person has biological givenness but this
personhood is only completed through the
immersion in the Filipino culture. You are
born as a human being but becoming a
person is a process embedded in culture thus
the saying, “Madaling maging tao, mahirap
magpakatao.” It only takes approximately
Table 1. Schema of the dynamic dualism between the nine months to be born as a human being,
labas, loob, and lalim. but becoming a person takes a lifetime of
learning. Covar likened the Filipino identity to a jar – it has labas, loob, and lalim; the jar is
made of clay, man (in the Biblical sense) is also made from the earth.
Covar used the method of tambalang lapit (dynamic dualism) to dissect the Filipino identity.
When we use dynamic dualism as a method this me that is, if there is labas, there is loob; if
there is kaluluwa, there is budhi.
It is in the labas that we witness the reflection of the person’s experience of culture. The loob
is a broad concept which needs to be understood deeply. It is not merely a two-dimensional
figure but is like a container that has depth. The loob, as a container, can contain something.
When you put something inside the container, it becomes a vessel – no longer just an empty
container. It is therefore necessary to look at loob not only with labas but also has lalim which
gives the loob its profound meaning.
In the context of the person, one should not merely look into the exterior" (labas) of the
individual as this is an incomplete concept of the person. Looking at the interior (loob) the
person, his thoughts, his feelings and internal systems working inside the body is not enough
to capture the whole personhood. But if one will include depth, the person’s convictions,
beliefs, and principles (which are largely influenced by culture), we get to perceive the totality
of the human person. (Navarro, Petras, UjanoBatangan, 2013)

Lesson 3: The Self in Different Contexts

3.1. The Self as a Product of the Social World
The family plays a significant role in our acquisition of culture. It is through the family that we
first learn to socialize with people. Our family is our first experience of the social world and the
culture embedded in it making it one of the most important elements of society. Human beings
are born vulnerable and needs care and support for a relatively longer period of time than that
of other animals. The acquisition of the learning to adapt to the society is one of the crucial
roles that families play in the life of a person.
In children, the development of healthy self-esteem is largely influenced by family upbringing.
You can recall that Mead discussed the first and second stage of self-development which is
characterized by imitation and role play. Children perceive their family members as role
models and as a reflection of the society that they belong. The family is where we first learn
gender roles or the expected behaviors based on one’s biological or perceived sex. For
example, young girls are expected to take gentle personalities while young boys are
encouraged to play rough. Pink is attributed to being feminine and blue, masculine. Because
 of the rigid belief of these gender roles in our society, men and women are often limited by the
strong belief of these roles. That’s why men who cry are seen as weak (even though they are
also humans who can feel and biologically speaking, capable of crying) and women who are
outspoken are seen as dominating (but same thing would merit men as a leader).
From the discussion above, we can immediately see how expectations of the society based on
one’s gender can affect the shaping of the sex. However, gender should not be equated to
biological sex. It should be emphasized that gender is shaped by a person’s experiences in
the environment or the way that one perceives our self in relation to the environment.
In 2019, Gretchen Diaz became a sensational figure when she posted a video of a mall
security personnel calling her out for using the women’s bathroom. (Parsons, 2019) In 2018,
Barnett, Nesbit and Sorrentino investigated the relationship of allowing transgender individuals
into restrooms and the number of sexual offenses. The debate over whether transgender
individuals should be allowed to use the public restrooms (including locker rooms and
changing rooms) that correspond to their currently expressed gender rather than their
biological sex has been of recent interest. The study concluded that from a scientific and
evidence-based perspective, there is no current evidence that granting transgender individuals
access to gender corresponding restrooms results in an increase in sexual offenses. They
added, however, that the arguments for and against legislating access to public
accommodations are not simply answered by science. The basis for differing opinions includes
whether transgender individuals are mentally ill and whether there are legal and ethics-related
justifications for gender-inclusive restrooms.
The Genderbread Person shows how diverse gender is and why we should start
looking at it as a spectrum of colors instead of a binary construct. SOGIE (Sexual orientation,
Gender Identity and Gender Expression) explains the diversity of human sexuality. (Please
refer to the inforgraphs in the succeeding pages to see the different classifications and
elaboration of SOGIE.)

Gender Identity
refers to one’s inner sense of self of
being a girl/woman, boy/man, other
genders, all, or neither.

Sexual Orientation
refers to romantic and/or sexual
attraction to men, women, both, or
neither.

Gender Expression
refers to how an
individual expresses Sexual Characteristics
his or her sense of refers to the biological difference
self. that distinguishes people as
manifested by a combination of
anatomical, genetic, and hormonal
distinctions
A quick guide on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sexual Characteristics
3.2. The Self as Embedded in Culture
Culture is dynamic and always changing. The norms or standards of behavior in a society
change through time. During the Pre-colonial Philippines, men and women had a relatively
equal status in society. When we were colonized by the patriarchal culture of Spain, the role of
women in the society became less important. In today’s society however, we see how some of
the most successful people in diverse industries are women. In the same manner, we have
seen how young generations would adapt to the changes in society and evolve through the
passing of time. Time as an element of the changes in culture is a widely recognized fact. The
evolution of culture is largely dependent on what the members of the organization values. For
example, honor is highly valued in Japan, explaining why suicide following a scandal is an
acceptable option even at modern times. In the Philippines, family extends to the fourth and
even fifth degree because we place a high value in close family ties.
Language is another aspect that influences the development of the self in the context of culture.
You must know the language to participate in the culture. And to understand language also
means to understand the cultural context. Needless to say therefore, the Filipino language is a
reflection of our cultural identity. Let’s take for example the statement “Mahal kita” and the
English translation, “I love you”. In the English language, the subject and the object of love is
separate. We can easily distinguish the I, being the object and the you, being the subject of
love. The Filipino expression of love does not permit this because the object and the subject of
affection are considered as one – kita. Can you see why conservative Filipinos don’t approve
divorce here in the Philippines?

3.4. Cultural Diversity

The concept of cultural relativism accentuates the idea that understanding the self is a process
that involves knowing one’s own culture instead of other unfamiliar cultures. It recognizes the
diversity of culture around the world and even within one’s own country. Cultural relativism
emphasizes that no culture is dominant over the other – only different. Meaning, the Filipino
culture is different from the American culture but no one can say that the American culture is
over and beyond the Filipino culture and vice versa. But we acknowledge the differences in the
two cultures. The most apparent difference between Western Culture (for example, American
Culture) and Eastern Culture (for example, Filipino Culture) is the degree to which individual
needs and goals are preferred over the needs and goals of the group. In Individualistic cultures,
people are considered "good" if they are strong, self-reliant, assertive, and independent. This
contrasts with Collectivist cultures where characteristics like being self-sacrificing, dependable,
generous, and helpful to others are of greater importance. Individualistic cultures give
importance to autonomy, independence, self-sufficiency, and uniqueness while in Collectivist
cultures, family takes the central role in shaping the person as a social being. Early on, children
in collectivist cultures are taught that one is part of a greater whole – the society.
Can you see why American youth moves out of their parent’s house when they reach 18 while
the Filipino children stay with their parents even after they have their own family?
3.5. Sikolohiyang Pilipino
Virgilio G. Enriquez, the father of Sikolohiyang Pilipino envisioned a time when the Filipino
identity is understood in the context of the Filipino culture instead of Western standards of self-
knowledge. According to Enriquez (19), unlike the individualist culture of Western countries, the
Filipino always acts in relation to “others”. The heart of Enriquez’ Sikolohiyang Pilipino is the
Filipino understanding of Kapwa, the selves outside of the self. Kapwa has two categories:
Ibang Tao and Hindi Ibang Tao. Ibang Tao are people who are considered “outsider” while
Hindi Ibang
Tao are those who are “one-of-us”. Each category merits a levels of interaction. (Pe-pua &
Protacio-Marcelino, 2000) 1960 centuries
The table below shows the different levels of interaction with Kapwa according to
Enriquez. Interaction with Ibang Tao starts with Pakikitungo, Pakikisalamuha, Pakikilahok,
Pakikibagay, and lastly Pakikisama. In the case of Hindi Ibang Tao, it is iniated through
Pakikipagpalagayang-loob, then Pakikisangkot, and lastly, Pakikipagkaisa.

Ibang Tao Hin Ibang Tao

Pakikitungo di akikipagpalagayang -loob
Pakikisalamuha P akikisangkot
Pakikilahok P akikipagkaisa
Pakikibagay P
Pakikisama

As a final note, Sikolohiyang Pilipino wants you to understand that the search for your identity
entails not only the journey towards understanding your thoughts and behavior. You also have
to
know your beliefs, and values in relation to your own culture. It is only then that you can have a
full understanding of the self.

CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
We may only have one physical body but at times, it may feel like having several selves all at
once. In our own little corner, this might not be bothersome. But to be asked in public, “Who are
you?” could be stressful. This question seems to force us to come up with an interesting answer
that we might begin to feel unsatisfied with right after saying it.
Questioning who we are or engaging in self-reflection to figure out and understand why we
behave in a certain way is normal (Weiten et al., 2014) and is actually beneficial in increasing
self-awareness.
From the previous chapter, you have probably realized that society has a big influence on the
development of the self. You have probably realized how insignificant of a figure you are in
relation to the intricate and interdependent web of connection in your society. This module, on
the other hand will let you think about you, your own thoughts, feelings and behaviour. The
theories in Psychology will help you understand why you think and behave that way.
 Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive functions but it does not discount the
context and other possible factors that affect the individual.
To help us understand ourselves a bit clearer and somehow ease the pressure of coming up
with a definite answer to who we are, let us look into some of the theories and concepts in
psychology regarding the self.

Learning outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

•
Differentiate the different Psychological theories;

•
Discuss how the self is represented by different theories in Psychology;
and

•
Identify one Psychological theory which has the most influence for you.

Lesson 1: Theories and Concepts in Psychology

Psychology is the science that deals with human behaviour and mental processes. A lot of
people misunderstand psychology as simply mind reading or stating the obvious. As you read
through the module, however, you will soon realize how these notions are misconceptions. As a
field that focuses on the human being, Psychology must be able to draw findings that are based
on empirical data.
The ‘self’ in the field of psychology pertains to how one creates a schema of his person.
Awareness therefore of the self is similar to having a conception of the self. A schema
describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the
relationships among them. Self is “the sense of personal identity and of who we are as
individuals” (Stangor, Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014)

1.1. Me-Self and I-Self: William James

James (1890) distinguished two understandings of the self, the self as “Me” and the self as “I”.
This distinction was originally based on the idea that the former (“Me”) corresponds to the self
as an object of experience (self as object), while the latter (“I”) reflects the self as a subject of
experience (self as subject).
The categorization of the Me-self and I-self can be seen though the table below:
ME-SELF I-SELF
Material Self Individual Self
(mine, “my arm, my bag”) (Individual traits, abilities and possessions)
- Tangible objects, people, or places that carry - Spiritual self and aspects of the
the designation of mine material self (body, possessions,
- Bodily self and extracorporeal self (beyond initials)
the body, e.g. emotional investment) - Example: I am shy. I am tall.
 Social Self Relational Self
(ours, e.g. our parents siblings, romantic partners) (Other people with whom we have a personal
- How we are regarded and recognized by relationship)
others - Aspects of the social self
- Relational self: interpersonal relationships - Example: I am my parents’ child.
Spiritual Self Collective Self
(Inner or psychological self, subjective being) (Social roles, social categories, and social
- Self-perceived abilities, attitudes, emotions, group membership)
interests, values, motives - Aspects of social self
- Example: I am a Filipino

1.2. Individual Self: The Biological Foundations of Behavior

The center of all our bodily activities is the brain. It is composed of billions of specialized cells
called neurons which receives and sends signal from the brain to different parts of the body.
These signals or neural impulses are the messages that are being carried for the brain to
interpret the external stimulus coming from the environment. Depending on the stimulus, a
corresponding signal will be sent which in turn will cause certain types of responses or
behaviour. Aside from the signals coming from the environment, there are also chemical in our
brain that also has an effect on our responses or behaviour. These brain chemicals are called
neurotransmitters. The discussion in this module will only be limited to the most common and
has direct influence on our behaviour. It should be noted however that this influence does not
mean that they are the direct and sole cause of such behaviour. What needs to be understood
in this section is that human behaviour can also be explained through the inner workings of the
brain. Especially in the
discussion regarding mental disorders, explaining an imbalance in brain chem icals will help
Figure 1. people
Neurotransmitters.

Image source:
https://sites.google.com
/a/cms.k12.nc.us/mskin
sersclass/_/rsrc/147610
6140721 /ap-psych/unit
3 a -3 b-and-3 c/types -of
neurotransmitters_med
3.jpeg

understand that having a mental condition does not equate to being weak or not having faith. In
some instances, vulnerability to developing mental disorders can be attributed to our genetic
disposition and the composition of these chemicals in our brain.

1.3. Individual Self: Stages of Human Development

There are several theories that explain the development of a human being throughout the life
span. The most popular among them are the Psychosexual Stages as proposed by Sigmund
Freud and Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages. Both theories believe in the influence of the
unconscious mind in the development of an individual. The two theories differ on the number of
stages that they have. As Freud believed that the adult personality is largely shaped by
childhood experiences, his stages are limited only up until the puberty stage. Erikson expanded
this belief to include the later years of life. Furthermore, while Freud emphasized the sexual
drive as the main reason for our behaviour, Erikson believed that interpersonal relationships
take the central role in the development of the individual. The following figures summarize the
Psychosexual and Psychosocial Stages of Development.
Sigmund Freud’s provinces of the mind can explain James’ spiritual self or the subjective being.
But before looking into the three provinces, it is important to know first the three levels of
consciousness according to Freud. He believed that the human mind is divided into three levels
– the conscious, subconscious and unconscious. The conscious mind comprises all those
thoughts that you are aware of. The subconscious mind on the other hand is thoughts that are
not currently in present awareness but could easily be remembered when needed. For example,
you
may not be thinking about your favourite teacher’s name while reading but when someone asks
for his/ her name, you will be able to easily give them this information. The unconscious mind
resides in the deepest and hard to access part of our mind. The unconscious mind nurses our
unwanted memories, deep-seated guilt feelings, unacceptable thoughts and desires. Freud
stressed that conscious thoughts are already filtered with the influence of society’s expectations
and are not the true representation of the
self. If we want to understand the self, we should not be looking into what we are conscious of,
 but instead look into the dark realm of our unconscious mind because it is where our most
primitive instincts lay.

Figure 2. The Psychosexual Stages of Development according to Sigmund Freud.

Image source: http://gavs -appsych -personality -cgfa.weebly.com
Individual Self: The Subjective Being 1.4 .

Just like an iceberg, only a small portion of the mind is actually exposed to reality. A
bigger portion of it is submerged and is unaware of reality. Freud further noted that the mind
has three provinces and the interaction between these three is what dictates human behaviour.
Among the three provinces are the id which follows the pleasure principle, the superego follows
the morality principle and the ego, the reality principle. The id, which is totally submerged in the
unconscious mind, only considers that it wants at the moment. The superego, although partly
aware, is not exempted from the shadows of the unconscious mind prompting it to make
unreasonable demands often in conflict with id. The ego, which is aware of the situation in the
real world is the one that make sense of the situation and often acts according to the balance
that it created from the conflicting demands of the id and the superego.
Carl Jung was a former colleague of Sigmund Freud. Just like Freud, he also believed that the
unconscious mind should be the center in the study of the self. In fact, he believed that just as
how genes are passed from one generation to another, the term he called collective
unconscious are the ideas or thoughts we have inherited from our ancestors. In the collective
unconscious we can find the archetypes.
 Anima Helps us understand feminine
Mask that is adopted in behaviour in males (moods &
( feminine )
response to the feelings)
demands of social
convention
SELF
Shadow
Persona
One’s striving (Evil side )
for unity
Unpleasant and socially
Helps us understand reprehensible thoughts,
masculine behaviour in feelings, and actions
females (thinking &
Animus
reasoning) (masculine )

Figure 4. The Four Major Archetypes of Carl Jung

Lesson 2: Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

Carl Rogers is a humanistic psychologist who stated that for a person to "grow", they need an
environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance
(being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and
understood).
Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When,
or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important
contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must
be satisfied.
According to Carl Rogers, self-concept “is an organized, consistent set of perceptions of and
beliefs about oneself” (Passer and Smith, 2007). These perceptions and beliefs that comprise
our self-concept are called self-schemas. Our self-schemas “influence not only current
behavior but also future behavior” (Weiten, Dunn and Hammer, 2014).
Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, created and re-reacted in
memory. Current researches point to the frontal love of the brain as the specific area in the brain
associated with processes concerning the self (Oyserman, et al, 2012).
In addition to Psychological conceptions of the ‘self,’ Carl Rogers (1959) asserted that self-
concept has three (3) different components:
1. Self-image – the view you have of yourself influenced by external factors such as
expectations from significant others.
2. Self-esteem or self-worth – is the value you assign to yourself.
3. Ideal-self – is what you desire or expect of the ‘self.’
2.1. Real and Ideal Selves
Rogers asserted that we have two selves: Ideal self and Actual self.

shape.

Our notion of both selves are results of our

self-schemas. Our ideal self is essential in
guiding and motivating us to behave in a
way that would led us to the best of who we
want to be. The ideal self can be a helpful
motivation in guiding the real self to strive
and continue improving.
In achieving the ideal self, numerous
studies emphasize the importance of visual
imagining exercises. It is best that we know
as accurate as possible who we want to be
become or achieve. Being as specific as
possible is beneficial in visual imagining so
we may vividly see our ideal self-taking
 At this point you already have an idea of
your ideal and real self. Looking into your
ideal
and real self, how aligned are they? According to Rogers, the congruence or incongruence
between the ideal and real self has effects in our self-esteem.

Congruence
Self -concept meshes well
with actual experience Actual
Self -concept
(some incongruence is experience
probably unavoidable)

Incongruence
Self -concept does not Self -concept ActuaRCD
mesh well with actual lexperience
experience.

When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is
a small gap between our real self and ideal self. This gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a
sense of self-actualization leading to a high self-esteem.
However, when we – are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves, it is said that there is
incongruence or misaligned or huge gap between our real and ideal self. This results to us
being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or self-worth and be defensive in our
actions. In cases where in the gap between the real and ideal self is immense, this may cause
instability to one’s psychological well-being. If the level of incongruence is too much to handle,
causing a person’s self-worth to be questionable, it is best to seek help through counseling or
seeking advice from people who can help.
Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time. In circumstances like this, we need
to reflect, evaluate our behavior, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on track.
We have to learn to separate behaviors from the totality of one’s being. We may have behaved
badly but it does not mean that we are automatically an entirely bad person.

2.2. Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy

Self-esteem refers to one’s overall assessment of one’s worth as a person (Weiten, Dunn and
Hammer, 2014). People with high self-esteem succeed more, have better relationships, and are
happier compared to those with low self-esteem (Orth, Robins, and Widaman, 2012). Our self-
esteem refers to how much we value our selves and perceive our worth as a person (Weiten,
Dunn and Hammer, 2014).
Self-efficacy is how one performs. Self-efficacy is directly correlated with self-esteem. When our
performance improves, our self-esteem improves which lead to congruence. However, and
increase in self-esteem does not always lead to increase self-efficacy most especially if no effort
was exerted to improve performance. (Frank, Plunkett and Otten, 2010) This is why we have to
continuously remind ourselves to be motivated and put that motivation into action. Rogers
presented the idea of a fully functioning person. For him, “this means that the person is in touch
with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and
changing” (McLeod, 2014).

CHAPTER 4: THE SELF IN EASTERN THOUGHT

Introduction
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and
one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern-vs-Western
dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern
America. It must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically
colored at the time aforementioned concepts were accepted and used in the social sciences.
Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically closer to each
other may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. In the
Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception regarding the “self”.

Learning outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

• Differentiate he concept of self according to western thought against

Eastern/oriental perspectives;

• Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and

• Create a representation of the Filipino self.

Lesson 1: The Four Eastern Religions

There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyze the perspective of each culture and
country about the concept of “self”. You can see it in their literature like how one culture depicts
a villain in their stories. You can see in their social organization like hoe they see their boss or
their subordinate. Art works, dance even clothing may show you clues about the “self”. In this
lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly influenced the
mindset of each nation or culture. Since almost the theories about the self, which were
discussed in the previous lessons, also came from the Western scientific research, we will
highlight the Eastern thoughts in the lesson. Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have no
gods like Yahweh or Allah, but espoused ethical and moral principles designed to improve the
believer’s relationship with the universe. Hinduism acknowledge the existence of both male and
female gods, but they believe that the ultimate divine energy exist beyond these descriptions
and categories. The divine soul is present and active in all living things.
Confucianism is a code of ethical conduct of how one should properly act in conformity to their
relationship with other people; thus it is also focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho,
1995). Hence, the identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and
status of his community or culture. Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life. The
cultivated self is what some scholars call a ‘subdued self’ wherein personal needs are repressed
for the good of many.
Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe. Taoism adopt a free-flowing, relative,
unitary, as well as paradoxical view of almost everything hence rejecting having one definition of
Tao as one can only state clues of what it is. Taoism prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings
thus aim to describe how to attain that life. The self, as described, is not just an extension of the
family or community; it is part of the universe. The ideal self is selflessness but is not forgetting
about the self rather living a balanced life with society and nature, being open and accepting to
change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about equality as well as
complementarity among humans as well as other beings.
For Buddhism, self is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance of trying to hold and control
things, or human-centered needs; thus, self is also the source of all sufferings. Therefore, it is
our quest to forget about the self, forget the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have
with the world, and to renounce the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain
the state of Nirvana.
Hinduism is an Indian religion and Dharma, or the way of life. Hindus actually only believe in
one God, Brahman, the eternal origin who is the cause and foundation of all existence. Hindus,
believes in the doctrines of “Samsara” the continuous cycle of life, death, and reincarnation,
“Karma” the universal law of cause and effect, and “Atman” the belief in soul. Core beliefs of
Hindus:
• Truth is eternal. Hindus pursue knowledge and understanding of the Truth: the
very essence of the universe and the only reality.
• Brahman is truth and reality. (Brahma – God)
• The Vedas are the ultimate authority. (Vedas – Bible)  Everyone should strive
to achieve dharma. (Dharma – religion)  Individual souls are immortal.
• The goal of the individual soul is moksha. (Moksha – means freedom)
In another sense, Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bigger context. To
become a better person, one does not create a self above other people or nature but a self that
is beneficial to the community and is in order and in harmony with everyone else. As for
Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, I taken not just out of the center of
the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.
As discussed, Western perspective does not discount the role of environment and society in the
formation of self but the focus is always looking towa
rd the self. On the contrary, the Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as
well as the things you may create. Various studies that Americans, talk more about their
personal attributes when portraying themselves, while Asians in general talk about their social
roles or the social situations invoked certain traits that they consider positive for their selves. In
terms of evaluation of their self, American would highlight their personal achievements, while
Asians would rather keep a low profile as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that
disrupts social relationships.
CHAPTER 5: PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL SELF

Introduction
As human beings it is believed that our sexes whether male or female is defined by the sex
chromosomes. The genetic make-up of an individual influences our treatment towards others
and ourselves. It has come to our awareness that some people are not contented with their
innate sexual characteristics and tend to change their sexual organs and other body parts
through the intake of different medications or by surgery. It is not just our genes that make up
ourselves but also the society and the environment we are into. This topic will give us a wider
view and understanding of ourselves through the discussion of the development of our physical
and sexual characteristics and behaviour.

Learning outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

• Differentiate the physical self and sexual self;

• Discuss briefly the development of the reproductive system; 

Describe the human sexual behaviour and the physiology of human
sexual response;

• Identify sexual problems and sexually transmitted diseases; and 

Differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception.
Lesson 1: Physical Self and Sexual Self

According to Sanjay Singh, the physical self refers to the body, a marvellous container and
complex, finely timed machine with which we interface with our environment and fellow beings.
The physical self is the concrete dimension, the tangible aspects of a person that can be directly
observed and examined. The sexual self refers to the individual’s feelings, actions and
behaviour concerning various aspects as development of secondary sex characteristics, human
reproductive system the erogenous zones of the body, the biology of sexual behaviour,
chemistry of love, lust and attachment among many others.
The Human reproductive system is an organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live
offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally constructed, and functioning properly, the
essential features of human reproduction are liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in
the reproductive cycle, internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, implantation of the blastocyst, the early
embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, formation of a placenta and
maintenance of the unborn child during the entire period of gestation, birth of the child and
expulsion of the placenta, and suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the
maternal organs to virtually their original state.
The formation of the male or female structures depends on the presence of testosterones.
Usually once formed the embryonic testes releases testosterone and the formation of the duct
system and external genitalia follows. In the case of female embryos that form ovaries, it will
cause the development of the female ducts and external genitalia since testosterone hormone is
not produced. The abnormal separation of the chromosomes during meiosis can lead to
congenital defects of the reproductive system.
Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old when the
reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising
levels of gonadal hormones (testosterone in males, estrogen in females). After this time,
reproductive capability continues until old age in males and menopause in females.

Lesson 2: Human Sexual Behavior

Human sexual behaviour is defined as any activity solitary, between two persons or in a group
that induces sexual arousal. There are two major factors that determine human sexual
behaviour: the inherited sexual response patterns that have evolved as a means of ensuring
reproduction and that become a part of each individual’s genetic inheritance and the degree of
restraint or other types of influence exerted on the individual by society in the expression of his
sexuality.

2.1. Types of Sexual Behavior

Solitary Behavior
Self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally sexual
climax. Usually most self-gratification takes place in private and end in itself but can also be
done in a sociosexual relationship. Majority of males and females have fantasies of some
sociosexual activity while they gratify themselves. Nowadays humans are frequently exposed to
sexual stimuli through the use of social media. Some adolescents become aggressive in
responding to such stimuli causing the high rate of teenage pregnancy. The challenge is to
develop self-control of their sexual responses to lessen risk of premarital sex and acquiring
sexually transmitted disease.

Sociosexual Behavior
Heterosexual behaviour is the greatest amount of sociosexual behaviour that occurs between
one male and one female. This begins in childhood through the evidence of curiosity of one’s
genitalia by examining it. Physical contact involving necking and petting is considered as an
ingredient of the learning process and eventually of courtship and the selection of marriage
partner.
 Petting differs from hugging, kissing and generalized caresses of the clothed body to practice
involving stimulation of the genitals. It may be done as an expression of affection and a source
of pleasure, preliminary to coitus.
Coitus is the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive organ and
it is viewed by the society depending on the marital status of the individual. A behaviour may be
interpreted by the society or the individual as erotic depending on the context in which the
behaviour occurs. For instance a kiss may be interpreted as a gesture of expression or intimacy
between couples while others may interpret it as a form of respect or reverence like kissing the
hand of an elder or someone in authority.

2.2. Physiology of Human Sexual Response

Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual activity is
continued.
• Excitement Phase. It is caused by an increase in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden
rise in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature,
flushing and swelling of all distensible body parts (particularly noticeably in the male
reproductive structure and female breasts) more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital
fluids, vaginal expansion and a general increase in muscle tension. These symptoms of
arousal eventually increase to a near maximal physiological level that leads to the next
stage.
• Plateau Phase. It is generally a brief duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually
occurs.
• Sexual Climax. It is marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increase in
pulse rate and blood pressure and spasms of the pelvic muscle causing contractions of
the female reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. Sexual climax may last for a
few seconds (normally not over ten), after which the individual enters the resolution
phase.
• Resolution Phase. It is the last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal
physiologic state. Males and females are similar in their response sequence. Whereas
males return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued stimulation can
produce additional orgasms in females. Females are physically capable of repeated
orgasms without the intervening “rest period” required by males.

Lesson 3: Sexual Problems

Sexual problem may be classified as physiological, psychological and social in origin.
Any given problem may involve all three categories.
• Physiological Problems are the last among the three categories. Only a small number
of people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal development of the genitalia.
Some physiologic conditions that can disturb sexual response include vaginal infections,
retroverted uteri, prostatitis, adrenal tumors, diabetes, senile changes of the vagina and
cardiovascular problems.
• Psychological Problems comprise by far the largest category. They are usually caused
by socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance and sexual myths held
 by society. An example of the latter is the belief that good mature sex involves rapid
erection, prolonged coitus, and simultaneous orgasm.
• Premature Emission of Semen is a common problem, especially for young males.
Sometimes this is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural
result of excessive tension in a male who has been sexually deprived.
• Ejaculatory Impotence which results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus, is
uncommon and is usually of psychogenic region. It appears to be associated with ideas
of contamination or with memories of traumatic experiences. Occasional ejaculatory
inability can be possibly expected in older men or in any male who has exceeded his
sexual capacity.
• Vaginismus is a s strong spasm of pelvic musculature constricting the female
reproductive organ so that penetration is painful or impossible. It can be due to an
antisexual conditioning or psychological trauma serves as an unconscious defense
against coitus. It can be treated through psychotherapy and by gradually dilating the
female reproductive organ with increasingly large cylinders.

Lesson 4: Sexually Transmitted Disease

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD’s) Are infections transmitted from an infected person to an
uninfected person through sexual contact. STD’s can be caused by bacteria, viruses and
parasites.
1. Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted disease. It is caused by bacteria called
Chlamydia trachomatis. It can infect both men and women. Women can get chlamydia in
the cervix, rectum, or throat. Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis),
rectum, or throat.
2. Gonorrhea is an infection caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium that infects both
males and females. Gonorrhea most often affects the urethra, rectum or throat. In
females, gonorrhea can also infect the cervix. It is most commonly spread during
vaginal, oral or anal sex.
3. Syphilis is a bacterial infection usually spread by sexual contact. The disease starts as a
painless sore — typically on your genitals, rectum or mouth. Syphilis spreads from
person to person via skin or mucous membrane contact with these sores.
4. Chancroid is a bacterial infection that causes open sores on or around the genitals of
men and women. It’s a type of sexually transmitted disease (STD), which means it’s
transmitted through sexual contact. It’s rarely seen in the United States. It occurs most
frequently in developing nations. The bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi causes this
infection. It attacks tissue in the genital area and produces an open sore that’s
sometimes referred to as a chancroid or ulcer.
5. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a viral infection that commonly causes skin or
mucous membrane growths (warts). There are more than 100 varieties of human
papillomavirus (HPV). Some types of HPV infection cause warts, and some can cause
different types of cancer. These infections are often transmitted sexually or through other
skin-to-skin contact.
6. Herpes Simplex Virus or Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted infection
caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Sexual contact is the primary way that the
 virus spreads. After the initial infection, the virus lies dormant in your body and can
reactivate several times a year. Genital herpes can cause pain, itching and sores in your
genital area. But you may have no signs or symptoms of genital herpes. If infected, you
can be contagious even if you have no visible sores.
7. Trichomonas Vaginalis (Vaginitis) is an inflammation of the vagina that can result in
discharge, itching and pain. The cause is usually a change in the normal balance of
vaginal bacteria or an infection. Reduced estrogen levels after menopause and some
skin disorders can also cause vaginitis.

Lesson 5: Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception

5.1. Natural Methods
Natural family planning (or "fertility awareness") is a method of contraception where a woman
monitors and records different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle to work out when she's
likely to get pregnant.
1. Abstinence is a natural method that involves refraining from sexual intercourse and is the
most effective natural birth control method with ideally 0% fail rate. It is considered as
the most effective way to avoid STDs.
2. Calendar Method is also called as the rhythm method. It entails withholding from coitus
during the days that the woman is fertile. According to the menstrual cycle, the woman is
likely to conceive three or four days before or three or four days after ovulation.
3. Basal Body Temperature indicates the woman’s temperature at rest. Before the day of
ovulation and during ovulation, BBT falls to 0.5F; it increases to a full degree because of
progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual cycle. This serves as a
basis for the method.
4. Cervical Mucus Method checks the change in the cervical mucus during ovulation as the
basis for this method. During ovulation, the cervical mucus is copious, thin and watery. It
also exhibits the property of spinnbarkeit, wherein it can be stretched up until at least 1
inch and is slippery. The woman is said to be fertile as long as the mucus is copious and
watery thus she must avoid coitus during those days to prevent conception.
5. Symptothermal Method is a combination of the BBt method and the cervical mucus
method. The woman records her temperature every morning and also takes note of
changes in her cervical mucus. She should abstain from coitus three days after a rise in
her temperature on the fourth day after the peak of a mucus change.
6. Ovulation Detection uses an over the counter kit that requires the urine sample of a
woman. The kit can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing hormone that
happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation.
7. Coitus Interruptus is one of the oldest methods that prevents conception. A couple still
goes on with coitus but the man withdraws the moment he ejaculates to emit the
 spermatozoa outside of the female reproductive organ. A disadvantage of this method is
the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.

5.2. Artificial Methods

Artificial methods include the intentional prevention of conception or impregnation through the
use of various devices, agents, drugs, sexual practices, or surgical procedures.

1. Oral Contraceptives, also known as the pill, contain synthetic estrogen and progesterone
that supresses the Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone to prevent
ovulation. It is suggested that the woman may take the pill on the first Sunday after the
beginning of the menstrual flow or as soon as it is prescribed by the doctor.
2. Transdermal Patch contains both estrogen and progesterone. The woman should apply
one patch every week for 3 weeks on the following areas: upper outer arm, upper torso,
abdomen or buttocks. At the fourth week no patch is applied because the menstrual flow
will then occur.
3. The Vaginal Ring releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and it surrounds
the cervix. The silicone ring is inserted into the female reproductive organ and remains
there for three weeks and removed on the fourth week as menstrual flow would occur.
4. Subdermal implants are two rod like implants inserted under the skin of the female
during her menses or on the seventh day of her menstruation to make sure she will not
get pregnant. The implants can be helpful for three to five years.
5. Hormonal Injections contain medroxyprogesterone, progesterone and is usually given
once every 12 weeks intramuscularly. The injection causes changes in the endometrium
and cervical mucus can help prevent ovulation.
6. Intrauterine Device (IUD) is a small T-shaped object containing progesterone that is
inserted into the uterus via the female reproductive organ. It prevents fertilization by
creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent implantation of the zygote. The
IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the woman’s menstrual flow.
7. Diaphragm is a circular rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before
coitus. This works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the female reproductive
organ and it works better when used together with a spermicide.
8. Male Condom is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the erect male
reproductive organ before penetration into the female reproductive organ to trap the
sperm during ejaculation. It can also prevent sexually transmitted disease and can be
bought over the counter.
9. Female Condoms is made of latex rubber sheaths that are pre-lubricated with
spermicide. They are usually bound by two rings. The outer ring is inserted against the
opening of the female reproductive organ and the inner ring covers the cervix. It is used
to prevent fertilization of the egg by the sperm cells.
10. In men, a procedure called vasectomy is done in which a small incision is made on each
side of the scrotum. The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut or plugged to block the
passage of the sperm while in women, tubal ligation is performed after a menstruation
and before ovulation. The procedure is done through a small incision under the woman’s
umbilicus that targets the fallopian tube for cutting, cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the
passing of the sperm or the ova.