Chapter 4: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENT

Jim Boy C. Bumalin

Learning Outcomes:

 Identify the theories of cognition

 Explain the various theories of intelligence and learning styles
 Describe the factors affecting development
 Categorize exceptional development

PIAGET’S STAGE OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget‘s account of the processes, experiences, and structure involved in

cognition describes how people come to know about their world. The experiences we
have and the schemata we use to construct knowledge from those experiences
change as we grow.
Piaget‘s formulated stages of cognitive development identifying the type of
schemata people use and the age at which they use them to organize and interact
with their environment.
The Concept of a fixed sequences or order of stage is called ordinality. Piaget‘s
theory development starts with innate reflexes. He assumes that children are born
with certain reflexes that allow them to interact with the environment.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages
1. Sensorimotor Stage. The knowledge gained by the infant the sensorimotor
stage is obtained through physical experience with the environment.
Object Permanence- this is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists
even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
2. Pre-Operational Stage- at this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols.
Symbolic Function- this is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a
thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written or spoken word comes to
be understood as representing a real object like a real MTR train.
Egocentrism – this is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. This cannot take the
perspective of others.
Centration- this refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a
thing or event and exclude other aspects.

Centration- this refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a
thing or event and exclude other aspects.
Irreversibility- pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their
thinking.
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Animism - this is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects.
Tranductive Reasoning- this refers to the pre-operational child‘s type of reasoning
that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Stage3. Concrete- Operational Stage – this stage is characterized by the ability of
the child to think logically but not in term of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years.
Decentering- this refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situation. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspects or
dimension. This allow the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete object
and situation.
Reversibility – during the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation – this is the ability to know the certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance.
Seriation – this refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on
one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operation Stage – in the formal stage of formal operations
covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
Hypothetical Reasoning - this is the ability to come up with different hypothesis
about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or
judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individual can
now deal with ―What If‖ questions.
Analogical Reasoning – this is the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another
similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make
an analogy.
Deductive Reasoning - this is the ability think logically by applying a general rule to
a particular instance or situation.
Constructivism- is a learning theory found in psychology which explain how people
might acquire knowledge and learn. It therefore has direct application to education.
The theory suggests that humans construct knowledge and meaning, from their
experiences.

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that

culture has a major impact on a child‘s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell
believed development stemmed directly from the child, and although Vygotsky
acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the language, writings, and
concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking
(Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and more learned
peers can facilitate a child‘s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal
instruction, he believed children‘s minds would not advance very far as their
knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let‘s review some of
Vygotsky‘s key concepts.

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding: Vygotsky‘s best known concept

is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should
be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can almost perform a task, but not
quite on their own without assistance. With the right kind of teaching, however, they
can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child‘s ZPD and helps the
child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the
child can then perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of
scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way
of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a
child to do a task.

Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when
you are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very
emotional about a situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this
as Egocentric Speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see
things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to
themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in
words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and engaging in Private
Speech or inner speech.

Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and
talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn
something or remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the
speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).

Contrast with Piaget: Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction

believing that teachers who take control of the child‘s learning place the child into a
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passive role (Crain, 2005). Further, teachers may present abstract ideas without the
child‘s true understanding, and instead they just repeat back what they heard. Piaget
believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their own. As
previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive
level without instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories
certainly contribute to our understanding of how children learn.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES

Information Processing

Information processing researchers have focused on several issues in cognitive

development for this age group, including improvements in attention skills, changes
in the capacity and the emergence of executive functions in working memory.
Additionally, in early childhood memory strategies, memory accuracy, and
autobiographical memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by many researchers as a
crucial time period in memory development (Posner & Rothbart, 2007).

Attention

Changes in attention have been described by many as the key to changes in human
memory (Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, attention is
not a unified function; it is comprised of sub-processes. The ability to switch our
focus between tasks or external stimuli is called divided attention or multitasking.
This is separate from our ability to focus on a single task or stimulus, while ignoring
distracting information, called selective attention. Different from these is sustained
attention, or the ability to stay on task for long periods of time. Moreover, we also
have attention processes that influence our behavior and enable us to inhibit a
habitual or dominant response, and others that enable us to distract ourselves when
upset or frustrated.

Figure These children will experience difficulty focusing on anything except playing

Divided Attention: Young children (age 3-4) have considerable difficulties in

dividing their attention between two tasks, and often perform at levels equivalent to
our closest relative, the chimpanzee, but by age five they have surpassed the chimp
(Hermann, Misch, Hernandez-Lloreda & Tomasello, 2015; Hermann & Tomasello,
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2015). Despite these improvements, 5-year-olds continue to perform below the level
of school-age children, adolescents, and adults.

Selective Attention: Children‘s ability with selective attention tasks improve as they
age. However, this ability is also greatly influenced by the child‘s temperament
(Rothbart & Rueda, 2005), the complexity of the stimulus or task (Porporino, Shore,
Iarocci & Burack, 2004), and along with whether the stimuli are visual or auditory
(Guy, Rogers & Cornish, 2013). Guy et al. (2013) found that children‘s ability to
selectively attend to visual information outpaced that of auditory stimuli. This may
explain why young children are not able to hear the voice of the teacher over the
cacophony of sounds in the typical preschool classroom (Jones, Moore & Amitay,
2015). Jones and his colleagues found that 4 to 7 year-olds could not filter out
background noise, especially when its frequencies were close in sound to the target
sound. In comparison, 8 to 11 year-old older children often performed similar to
adults.

Sustained Attention: Most measures of sustained attention typically ask children to

spend several minutes focusing on one task, while waiting for an infrequent event,
while there are multiple distractors for several minutes. Berwid, Curko-Kera, Marks &
Halperin (2005) asked children between the ages of 3 and 7 to push a button
whenever a ―target‖ image was displayed, but they had to refrain from pushing the
button when a non-target image was shown. The younger the child, the more
difficulty he or she had maintaining their attention.

Memory

Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and neurological research on

memory, researchers have proposed several ―types‖ of memory (see Figure 4.14).
Sensory memory (also called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory
system, and it stores sensory input in its raw form for a very brief duration;
essentially long enough for the brain to register and start processing the information.
Studies of auditory sensory memory have found that the sensory memory trace for
the characteristics of a tone last about one second in 2 year-olds, two seconds in 3-
year-olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds and three to five seconds in 6-year-
olds (Glass, Sachse, & vob Suchodoletz, 2008). Other researchers have found that
young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do older children and adults,
and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between these age groups,
but reflect differences in the performance of the sensory memory system (Gomes et
al., 1999).

The second stage of the memory system is called short-term or working memory.
Working memory is the component of memory in which current conscious mental
activity occurs.

Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate use of attention to
function effectively. As you read earlier, children in this age group struggle with many
aspects of attention and this greatly diminishes their ability to consciously juggle
several pieces of information in memory. The capacity of working memory, that is the
amount of information someone can hold in consciousness, is smaller in young
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children than in older children and adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a
7 digit number active in their short-term memory. The typical 5 year-old can hold only
a 4 digit number active. This means that the more complex a mental task is, the less
efficient a younger child will be in paying attention to, and actively processing,
information in order to complete the task.

Changes in attention and the working memory system also involve changes in
executive function. Executive function (EF) refers to self-regulatory processes,
such as the ability to inhibit a behavior or cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive
responses to new situations or to reach a specific goal. Executive function skills
gradually emerge during early childhood and continue to develop throughout
childhood and adolescence. Like many cognitive changes, brain maturation,
especially the prefrontal cortex, along with experience influence the development of
executive function skills. A child, whose parents are more warm and responsive, use
scaffolding when the child is trying to solve a problem, and who provide cognitively
stimulating environments for the child show higher executive function skills (Fay-
Stammbach, Hawes & Meredith, 2014). For instance, scaffolding was positively
correlated with greater cognitive flexibility at age two and inhibitory control at age
four (Bibok, Carpendale & Müller, 2009).

Older children and adults use mental strategies to aid their memory performance.
For instance, simple rote rehearsal may be used to commit information to memory.
Young children often do not rehearse unless reminded to do so, and when they do
rehearse, they often fail to use clustering rehearsal. In clustering rehearsal, the
person rehearses previous material while adding in additional information. If a list of
words is read out loud to you, you are likely to rehearse each word as you hear it
along with any previous words you were given. Young children will repeat each word
they hear, but often fail to repeat the prior words in the list. In Schneider, Kron-Sperl
and Hunnerkopf‘s (2009) longitudinal study of 102 kindergarten children, the majority
of children used no strategy to remember information, a finding that was consistent
with previous research. As a result, their memory performance was poor when
compared to their abilities as they aged and started to use more effective memory
strategies.

The third component in memory is long-term memory, which is also known as

permanent memory. A basic division of long-term memory is between declarative
and non-declarative memory. Declarative memories, sometimes referred to as
explicit memories, are memories for facts or events that we can consciously
recollect. Non-declarative memories, sometimes referred to as implicit memories,
are typically automated skills that do not require conscious recollection.
Remembering that you have an exam next week would be an example of a
declarative memory. In contrast, knowing how to walk so you can get to the
classroom or how to hold a pencil to write would be examples of non-declarative
memories.

Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. Semantic
memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a timeline,
while episodic memories are tied to specific events in time.
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A component of episodic memory is autobiographical memory, or our personal

narrative. As you may recall in Chapter 3 the concept of infantile amnesia was
introduced. Adults rarely remember events from the first few years of life. In other
words, we lack autobiographical memories from our experiences as an infant, toddler
and very young preschooler. Several factors contribute to the emergence of
autobiographical memory including brain maturation, improvements in language,
opportunities to talk about experiences with parents and others, the development of
theory of mind, and a representation of ―self‖ (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Two-year-olds
do remember fragments of personal experiences, but these are rarely coherent
accounts of past events (Nelson & Ross, 1980). Between 2 and 2 ½ years of age
children can provide more information about past experiences. However, these
recollections require considerable prodding by adults (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Over
the next few years children will form more detailed autobiographical memories and
engage in more reflection of the past.

Bio-Cultural Theories

Biocultural theory, related to the anthropological value of holism, is an

integration of both biological anthropology and social/cultural anthropology. While
acknowledging that ―the term biocultural can carry a range of meanings and
represent a variety of methods, research areas, and levels of analysis‖ (Hruschka et
al. 2005:3), one working definition of biocultural anthropology ―a critical and
productive dialogue between biological and cultural theories and methods in
answering key questions in anthropology‖ (Hruschka et al. 2005:4).

The use of a biocultural framework can be viewed as the application of a theoretical

lens through which disease and embodiment are integrated. This way of
understanding takes local, cultural views and understanding of illness and disease
and the local practices of traditional or biomedical healing. ―This integrative work
requires a significant focus on methods, and an openness to different, often
competing theoretical paradigms. Studying health and healing from a biocultural
perspective takes illness and/or disease and puts it in the context of how a culture
embodies the illness they feel as a result of the disease.

Thus, a biocultural approach can be understood as a feedback system through

which the biological and cultural interact; biology allows certain behaviors to exist
and in turn those behaviors influence biological traits. Through the understanding of
both the biological and cultural implications of disease and embodiment, healing
becomes a cultural product, something that makes sense within a particular cultural
context. Biocultural research involves integrating how cultures approach health and
healing based on gender, class, age, education, and their own traditional experience
with illness and healing.
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There are three different approaches to bio-cultural research:

1. Biological: ‗biology matters‘ this approach focuses on evolution and how it

influences disease
2. Cultural: ‗culture matters‘ this approach focuses on the interpretation and
explanations of illness
3. Critical: ‗inequality matters‘ this approach focuses on how inequality shapes
disease in society

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE THAT INFLUENCE

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg)

The triarchic theory of intelligence consists of three subtheories: (i) the

componential subtheory which outlines the structures and mechanisms that underlie
intelligent behavior categorized as metacognitive, performance, or knowlege
acquistion components , (ii) the experiential subtheory that proposes intelligent
behavior be interpreted along a continuum of experience from novel to highly familar
tasks/situations, (iii) the contextual subtheory which specifies that intelligent behavior
is defined by the sociocultural context in which it takes place and involves adaptation
to the environment, selection of better environments, and shaping of the present
environment.

According to Sternberg, a complete explanation of intelligence entails the

interaction of these three subtheories. The componential subtheory specifies the
potential set of mental processes that underlies behavior (i.e., how the behavior is
generated) while the contextual subtheory relates intelligence to the external world in
terms of what behaviors are intelligent and where. The experiential subtheory
addresses the relationship between the behavior in a given task/situation and the
amount of experience of the individual in that task/situation.
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The componential subtheory is the most developed aspect of the triarchic theory and
is based upon Sternberg (1977) which presents an information processing
perspective for abilities. One of the most fundamental components according to
Sternberg‘s research are the metacognition or ―executive‖ processes that control the
strategies and tactics used in intelligent behavior.

Application

The triarchic theory is a general theory of human intelligence. Much of Sternberg‘s

early research focused on analogies and syllogistic reasoning. Sternberg has used
the theory to explain exceptional intelligence (gifted and retardation) in children and
also to critique existing intelligence tests. Sternberg (1983) outlines the implications
of the theory for skill training. Later work examines topics such as learning
styles (Sternberg, 1997) and creativity (Sternberg, 1999).

Example

Sternberg (1985) describes the results of various analogy experiments that support
the triarchic theory. For example, in a study that involved adults and children solving
simple analogies, he found that the youngest children solved the problems differently
and theorized that this was because they had not yet developed the ability to discern
higher order relations. In another study of analogies with children at a Jewish school,
he discovered a systematic bias towards selection of the first two answers on the
right and suggested that this could be accounted for by the right-to-left reading
pattern of Hebrew.

Principles

1. Training of intellectual performance must be socioculturally relevant to the

individual
2. A training program should provide links between the training and real-world
behavior.
3. A training program should provide explicit instruction in strategies for coping
with novel tasks/situations
4. A training program should provide expilicit instruction in both executive and
non-executive information processing and interactions between the two.
5. Training programs should actively encourage individuals to manifest their
differences in strategies and styles.

References

 Sternberg, R.J. (1977). Intelligence, Information Processing, and Analogical

Reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
 Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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 Sternberg, R.J. (1983). Criteria for intellectual skills training. Educational

Researcher,12, 6-12.
 Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Thinking styles. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
 Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1999) Handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

The Gender Schema Theory

Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981

and asserted that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in
which they live. According to the theory, children adjust their behavior to align with
the gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development.1

Bem‘s theory was influenced by the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and 1970s as
well as her desire to remedy what she believed to be shortcomings in the
psychoanalytic and social learning theories of the time.

Freudian theories, she suggested, were too focused on the influence of anatomy on
gender development. Instead, Bem proposed that a child‘s cognitive development
combined with societal influences largely influence the patterns of thought (schema)
that dictate "male" and "female" traits.1

Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981 and
asserted that children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which
they live. According to the theory, children adjust their behavior to align with the
gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development.1
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Bem‘s theory was influenced by the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and 1970s as
well as her desire to remedy what she believed to be shortcomings in the
psychoanalytic and social learning theories of the time.

Freudian theories, she suggested, were too focused on the influence of anatomy on
gender development. Instead, Bem proposed that a child‘s cognitive development
combined with societal influences largely influence the patterns of thought (schema)
that dictate "male" and "female" traits.1

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

 Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born
with all of the intelligence they will ever have.
 This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of
intelligence, sometimes known as ―g‖ for general intelligence, that only focuses on
cognitive abilities.
 To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of
intelligences consisting of : Logical/Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.
 Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed
valued in school and society.
 Gardner also suggests that there may other ―candidate‖ intelligences—such as
spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not
believe these meet his original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his
1983 book ―Frames of Mind‖, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and
outlines several distinct types of intellectual competencies.

Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each

"candidate‖ intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.
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He writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our profile of these
intelligence may differ individually based on genetics or experience.

Achievement Motivation

Achievement motivation is not a single construct but rather subsumes a variety of

different constructs like ability self-concepts, task values, goals, and achievement motives.
The few existing studies that investigated diverse motivational constructs as predictors of
school students‘ academic achievement above and beyond students‘ cognitive abilities and
prior achievement showed that most motivational constructs predicted academic
achievement beyond intelligence and that students‘ ability self-concepts and task values are
more powerful in predicting their achievement than goals and achievement motives.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT: THREE FACTORS WHICH AFFECTT

MODERN DEVELOPMENT, PSYCHOLOGISTS POINT TO AGE-RELATED
CHANGES-UNIVERSAL, GROUP SPECIFIC, AND INDIVIDUAL

Universal Changes

Universal change- Universal changes are common to every individual in a species and are
linked to specific changes. Some universal changes occur because we are genetically programmed
maturing processes while other occur due to shared experiences.

Group-specific change- Group specific changes are shared by all individuals who grow up
together in a particular group. Culture is an example of this. Individual differences- Individual
differences are changes resulting from unique, unshared events. One example of this is conception;
the combination of genes that each person receives at conception is unique.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

What is Child Development?

Child development is a process every child goes through. This process involves learning and
mastering skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes. There are 5 main
areas of development: Social and Emotional Development Cognitive Development Speech
and Language Development Fine motor skill Development Gross motor skill Development

Development Delay Development delay is where a child has not learnt the skills that are
expected at that time point. Development delay can occur in any of the 5 areas. For example,
a child would be expected to walk between 9 and 15 months, and a child that cannot walk by
20 months would be considered to have a developmental delay.
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What causes developmental delay?

There are two factors: Biological- such as genetic or chromosomal abnormalities (Downs
Syndrome) or illness and disease Social- such as a child’s life experiences or exposure to
harmful chemicals or parenting Nature Nurture

Factors affecting development

Draw This Mind Map!!! Culture Genotype and Maturation Approval/ interactions
Parenting/parenting styles Disability Factors affecting development SOCIAL BIOLOGICAL
Education Housing Social Class Disease and illness NATURE/NURTURE DEBATE

The Lesson Outline: Today: Look at Education and Culture

Next Lesson look at Parenting: approval, interaction, expectation, styles Before Easter:
Housing and Social Class Biological factors: illness and disease, disability, genotype and
maturation. > by the end of today’s lesson you must know how education/culture affects our
PIES.

Education Education affects children’s physical, emotional intellectual and social

development. Use the PIES table on the Education worksheet to put the following sentences
into the correct place

Children benefit from larger play spaces and better equipment

Children benefit from larger play spaces and better equipment. This improves co-ordination
and gross motor skills Children learn to mix and socialise with other children Staff are trained
to promote cognitive development, introducing concepts like numbers and shape Fine motor
skills can be developed through playing with dough, paint and by writing Can promote self-
confidence and esteem Esteem is linked to a positive education experience: where children
are unhappy because they have not made friends, been bullied or are low achieving this can
lead to low esteem Develop a sense of belonging Stimulating activities such as jigsaws,
modelling and books can improve development

Culture A child’s culture can affect their development.

Different cultures place different emphasis on different areas of development

Children who have a wider supportive network can feel more secure
These may end up in more than one box! In some cultures girls aren’t encouraged to take part
in physical play and activities while boys are encouraged to be outside more and boisterous
Family may be very important. They may spend a lot of time with family members and
friends The importance of play can vary. Some families will place great interest in education
and encourage children to do homework Children who have a wider supportive network can
feel more secure Boys may develop more gross motor skills while girls develop more fine
motor skills Education can be seen as better for boys, or as ‘girlish’. This affects attitudes to
learning, concentration and activities children engage in. Children whose culture is a minority
can face discrimination and isolation; this leads to lower self-esteem as they don't have
friends or may get bullied Families differ in the amount of emphasis they place on physical
activity and children sitting being taught

The Intellectually Gifted

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The term gifted, as preferred by some, is a more general concept to include

children who have special ability in art or music, mechanical ingenuity, or leadership
qualities. Witty (1952) has reported the definitions of a gifted child proposed by one
group of educators as a pupil ―… whose performance in a potentially valuable line of
human activity is consistently remarkable. ― to this concept might be added such
qualities as initiative, aspiration, as self- motivation.

 Talented need experiences directed towards their special abilities.

 Gifted require a broad and varied program directed towards their general
development particularly in early years.

 Superior refers to children who are markedly above average in intelligence

and have the potential ability to complete college and as adults to assume
substantial positions in their communities.

 Extremely gifted is used in reference to a small fraction of the gifted group

who have an extremely high level of ability and whose potential powers
should enable them to make original and significant contributions to the
welfare of their own and succeeding generations.

Positive Characteristics ( Cruickshank and Johnson, 1958)

As a group , gifted children tend to be strong and healthy,well-adjested, friendly,

understanding , and alert. In a congenial setting, they are likely to:

1. Be curious as indicated by the kind, depth, scope, and frequency of their

question;

2. Show interest in words and ideas as demonstrated by their use of dictionaries,

encyclopedia, and other source books;

3. Have rich vocabularies marked by originality of thought and expressions

4. Enjoy reading, usually at a mature level

5. Read rapidly and retain information.

Negative Characteristics ( Cruickshank and Johnson, 1958)

Sometimes the presence of negative or undesirable characteristics make it difficult to

recognize children of high ability .

1. Restless, inattentive, disturbing or annoying to those around them, like many

children who have unnet needs;
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2. Poor in spelling, careless in handwriting, or inaccurate in arithmetic because they

are impatient with details.

3. Lackadaisal in completing or handling in assignment, and indiffrent towards

classwork when disinteresred.

4. Outspokenly critical both of themeselves and of others, an attitude which often

alientes adults as well as children.

Teacher’s Role

The teachers for gifted children must ben flexible person who allows the
children time to make new discoveries and freedom to try their wings. The teacher
must provide inspiration, encouragement, and opportunity for them to test their
potentials, to explore and to originate.

Guiding gifted children towards effective living and learning is an important

and difficult responsibility for the teacher. The teacher must be able to capitalize on
the child‘s interest and tlaents.Teachers must direct the child to the many sources
from which he can get information for himself and encourage him to question and to
check what he sees and hears.

The teachers must guide the capable pupil towards the acceptance of
reasonable aspirations and realistics goals. Because of the restrictions set by time,
his own experience, and the immaturity of youth, the bright child must be helped to
define the scope and limits of his activities. The inspired teacher will assit the bright
boy or girl to realize the necessity of planning ahead, will motivate the child to think
carefully and critically, and will teach him to aapply knowledge and experience
already to many new situations. The teacher will want to guide bright children in the
continous development of sef-reliance, initiative , resourcefulness,and creativity.

Down’s Syndrome

Is a congenital disorder caused mainly by a cellular accident during maternal

germ-cell formation, resulting in the production of an ovum, or egg with an extra
chromosome, a conditioned called TRISOMY. The fertilization of such an ovum and
the carrying of the fetus to tem results in the birth of a child with syndrome.

Children with Down‘s syndrome have characteristics defects, including

moderate to severe mental deficiency , slow physical development, flaccid
muscles,stocky build, short hands, flattened facial features, defective hearts, and
facial features that give the child an Oriental appreance;hence, the term Mongolism
as an alternative name for Down‘s syndrome or merrely Down Syndrome.

Language and Speech in Children with Down Syndrome

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Jim Boy C. Bumalin

Communication is important for children at home, in school, and in the

community. They need it to interact, to understand and be understood.
Communication includes verbal and nonverbal expressions such as smiles, sign
language and other gestures.

(Leshin 2003) Enumerate these speech and language challenges for most children
with Down Syndrome:

1. More difficulty with expressive language than they do with understanding speech
and language , that is, receptive language skills are usually more advanced than
expressive language skill.

2. Certain linguistic areas, such as vocabulary, are usually easier for children with
Down Syndrome than other areas such as grammar.

3. Sequencing of sounds and of words may be difficult for many children.

4. Many children have difficulties with intelligibility of speech and articulation

5. some children have fluency problems. Some use short phrases while others have
long conversation.

Birth to One-Word Period

During this period, the most important intervention occurs at home. Infants
should be given focus on sensory stimulation; providing activities and experiences to
help the infant develop auditory, visual and tactile skills including sensory feedback
and memory. The child will experience what a bell sound is like, or the different
sensations while touching velvet or sandpaper.

One-Word to Three- Word Period

Once the young child begins to use single word treatment will target horizontal
as well as vertical growth in language. Treatment may address single word
vocabulary in many thematic and whole language activities such as cooking, crafts,
play and trips ( Kumin, et. Al., 1996). Treatment will also target increasing the length
of phrases, the combination of words that the child can use. Pragmatic skills such as
making requests and greetings as well conversational skills would be taught during
this period. Play would also be used to increase auditory attending and task attention
skills.

Preschool Through Kindergarten

During this stage, according to Leshin, receptive language work focus on:

1. auditory memory and or following directions, which are important skills for the
early school years.
 Chapter 4: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENT
Jim Boy C. Bumalin

2. concept development such as color, shapes, directions ( top or bottom)

preposition through practice, and paly experience;

3. expressive language therapy include semantics, expanding the mean length of

utterance, grammatical structure (word order ) and word endings ( such as plural or
possessive) .

4. pragmatics skills such as asking for help, appropriate use of greetings, requests
for information or answering requests as well as role playing different activities of
daily living.

5. play activities such as dressing and undressing a doll, crafts, activities such as
making a card, or cooking activities such as making cupcakes.

Elementary School Years

During the years in elementary school, there is a great deal of growth in

language and in speech. Speech – language pathology may involve collaboration
with the teacher and may based in the classroom. Often , the curriculum becomes
the materials used for therapy, both proactively, to prepare the child for the subject
and reactively, to help if problems occurs. The makes sense, because school is the
child‘s workplace, and success in school greatly affects self- esteem.

Whole language is a current approach in which reading, understanding,

writing, and expressive language are taught as a whole. This often is based on
children‘s literature and thematic activities accompanying the books, for example, a
book about weather might also involve weather reporting, building a weather station,
or drawing pictures or taking photographs of different weather conditions. Whole
language does not teach in discrete linguistics units, such as focusing on plurals or
verbs tenses.

Speech and language treatment is complex and can include different

approaches, a variety of goals, and many different activities. The Goals is to find
treatment approaches and methods which will enable each child to reach his
communication potential.